Study Material of Fe &WL

PBPE- 104 FORMATION EVALUATION & WELL LOGGING
Study Material
PBPE 104
Formation
Evaluation
&
Well Logging
Prepared by
Govind.S
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UNIT I
Definition of a Formation
 A formation is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A formation consists of a certain
number of rock strata that have a comparable lithology, facies or other similar properties.
 Formations were initially described to be the essential geologic time markers based on
relative ages and the law of superposition.
Formations must be able to be delineated at the scale of geologic mapping practiced in the
region. The thickness of formations may range from less than a meter to several thousand meters.
• Strictly, formations cannot be defined on any other criteria except primary lithology.
However, it is often useful to define biostratigraphic units based on
paleontological criteria, chronostratigraphic units based on the age of the rocks,
and chemostratigraphic units based on geochemical criteria.
• The term "formation" is often used informally to refer to a specific grouping of rocks,
such as those encountered within a certain depth range in an oil well.
Geo Technical Order

 The first step before spudding any well is well programming. An effective well
programming before undertaking drilling of an exploratory well is must.This
programming of the well which covers all geological and other technical data and serves
as guide during the course of drilling is termed as Geotechnicalorder.
 Blue print of well execution Contain data likely to be encountered during drilling &
precautions to be taken.
 Guidance to Geologists, Drillers, Chemists & other Service Groups, (Jointly prepared by
Geology, Drilling, Mud services, Logging, Well Services).
GTO Contains.
 General Data:Company Name, Well Number, Location-Lat&Long,Area,
State,ProjectedDepth,Water depth, Type of well (vertical/Inclined),Category and
Objective.
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 Geological Data: Lithology, Formation Name &Depth, Coring depth/ Intervals of

collection of samples,Oil& Gas indication logging intervals, Types of logs and Probable
number of testing zones.
 Drilling Data: Stages of Drilling, Casing Depth, Cementation Programme and Bit size &
numbers.
 Mud Parameters: Viscosity, PH, Mud Density & Sand Content.
Cutting and coring

 Drill cuttings are the broken bits of solid material removed from a borehole drilled
by rotary, percussion, or auger methods. Boreholes drilled in this way include oil or gas
wells, water wells, and holes drilled for geotechnical investigations or mineral
exploration.
 The drill cuttings are commonly examined to make a record (a well log) of the subsurface
materials penetrated at various depths. In the oil industry, this is often called a mud log.
 Drill cuttings are produced as the rock is broken by the drill bit advancing through the
rock or soil; the cuttings are usually carried to the surface by drilling fluid circulating up
from the drill bit. Drill cuttings are separated from the drilling fluid by shale shakers (for
liquid drilling fluid), or by cyclone separators (for air drilling). In cable-tool drilling, the
drill cuttings are periodically bailed out of the bottom of the hole.
Lag time: The lag time between drilling and the time required for the mud and cuttings to
return to the surface.
Cycle time: In a drilling operation, the time needed for the pump to move the drilling fluid in
a bore hole.
Coring:
 This is the term applied to the technique whereby relatively large samples (by
comparison with the normal size of the drilling cuttings) of reservoir material are
removed from their native state and brought to the surface for physical examination.
Coring there are two types. 1) Rotary coring .2) Sidewall coring.
Rotary coring:
 Rotary coring was probably first introduced by the French Engineer Leschat in 1863;
however it did not come in to general use in the oil industry until the early 1920’s.
 In order to obtain a core with rotary drilling tools, provision must be made for cutting the
formation in the desired shape and retaining the core. The rotary coring bit is used to cut
the core and a core barrel is used to retain the core after it has been cut.
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 Rotary coring equipment has continued to keep abreast of technological developments in

the drilling industry. At the present time there are basically three types of rotary coring
equipment:
1) Conventional coring. 2) Wire-line retrievable coring and 3) Diamond coring.
1) Conventional coring
 Conventional coring is a continued development of the original rotary coring methods.
Special equipment required in conventional coring includes a core bit, which is located
on the extreme lower end of the drill stem, and a core barrel, for retaining the core after it
has been cut, which is located immediately above the core bit.
 The basic requirements for a good rotary core-cutting head are essentially same as for a
good drilling bit, because both are performing essentially the same function. The problem
of design a good coring bit is somewhat more complicated, however, because only the
outer rim of the formation is cut, leaving a maximum amount of the formation intact.
 Therefore the cutting and bearing surfaces of a core bit are considerably smaller than the
same surfaces on a drilling bit.
 The additional requirements of (1) cutting an optimum size core in such a manner that
(2) the maximum amount of the core can be retained and brought to the surface for
examination. The major item of such equipment is core barrel. A conventional core barrel
consists essentially of
1) an inner barrel 2) an outer barrel 3) a core catcher and 4) a vent or pressure-relief valve for
venting pressure on the inside of the core barrel to the outside of the drill stem.
 Drilling fluid circulates between the inner and outer barrels but cannot pass through the
inner barrel, with the result that there is increased core recovery and less flushing of the
formation by the drilling fluid.
 The advantages of conventional coring are that a large diameter core ,as much as five
inches or more, can be obtained in one operation.
2) Wireline coring
 This wire-line coring decreased the cost of obtaining cores and thus many more cores
may be obtained than would otherwise be possible.
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 As the average depth of wells continues to increase, the time and money saved by not
having to remove the drill pipe in order to obtain a core is substantial. The only special
equipment required on the lower end of the drill stem is a core bit.
 To obtain a core after the core bit is in place, the core-barrel assembly is forced down the
inside of the drill pipe using drilling mud pressure. When the core barrel assembly
reaches the lower end of the drill stem, a locking device holds the barrel in place.
 The core barrel assembly consists of a cutter head, core catcher, core barrel, and vent or
inside pressure relief, locking device and a retrieving head. During coring operations, the
circulating fluid passes between the core barrel assembly and the drill collar.
 The use of wire-line coring technique is especially suitable for wildcat drilling operations
where coring depths are not known in advance, because a program of alternate drilling
and coring can be used without removing the drill pipe to change bits.
3) Diamond Core Drilling

 In order to increase both core recovery and penetration rate, use has been made of a
diamond faced coring bit. Diamond bits may be used to advantage in coring hard, dense
formations where the cost of the coring with roller cutter bits is high.
 Although the cost of a diamond core bit may be as much as fifteen to twenty times the
cost of a conventional core bit, the reduction in the number of round trips and the
increased penetration rate in many cases make the diamond bit more economical.
ii) Side-wall Coring

 Side-wall coring is a supplementary coring tool. It can be used in zones where core
recovery by conventional or wire-line methods is, or in zones where the latter cores were
not obtained as drilling processed.
 Side-wall cores can be obtained at any time after the formation from which a core is
desired has been penetrated. The side-wall coring device is lowered in to the hole, usually
on a logging cable and a sample of the formation at the desired depth is obtained.
 Coring should begin at light bit weight and low rotary speed; these may be increased as
soon as cutting action is established. Normally the applied bit weights and table speeds
should be held within the limits calculated, unless specific experience in the area dictates
otherwise. Circulating volumes for conventional core bits approach those of regular bits
of the same size.
 A sudden pump pressure increase not alleviated by raising the bit off bottom, may mean
that the core barrel is plugged by trash in the mud; if this happens, it should be pulled for
inspection
Core Handling Process
 Prepare adequate number of boxes, have rags.
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 Set up “rig floor” boxes to receive core.

 Supervise core layout to ensure correct orientation and order.
 Wipe core clean with clean dry rags.
 Fit core. Space rubble between ends of core. Put rubble in sample bag and mark
depths.
 Strap core, uncovered interval understood to be at bottom unless known otherwise.
 Mark core with reference lines and depths, using marker pens.
 Describe the core and shows.
 Box core and mark boxes.
Sampling and testing
 Samples should be collected from borings at all suspected changes in lithology. A

sufficient number of boreholes drilled at the site should be continuously sampled. The
locations of the continuously-sampled bore holes should be adequate to represent the
lithologic variation over the entire study area.
 For boreholes that will be completed as monitoring wells, at least one sample should be
collected from the interval that will be the monitoring well intake interval (i.e., screened
interval or open (uncased) interval).
 Once the sampling requirements have been ascertained, they should be passed on to the
mud-logging contractor. Sufficient sample boxes, sample bags, sample envelopes, and
sample vials should be present at the wellsite. If they are not, it is essential that the
geologist be aware of the lead time required for their acquisition.
 A sample is useless if the test/drilling conditions and depth data are not indicated on the
sample container. Sampling method there are two types. 1) Surface sampling 2) Sub
surface sampling.
Surface sampling
 The surface sampling method consists of taking samples of separator oil and gas with
concurrent and accurate measurements of the rates of separator oil and gas flow.
 The reservoir fluid is reconstituted in the laboratory by recombining the oil and gas
samples in proper proportion as determined from the producing gas-oil ratio. Large
volumes of both oil and gas samples can be easily obtained with this method.
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 Before samples are taken, fluid flow into the wellbore, in the flow string, in the
separators, and through the points where the oil and gas rates are measured must be
stabilized. Also, the oil and gas flow rate determinations must be accurate
Subsurface sampling
 The conventional subsurface method consists of lowering a sampling device, usually
called a “bottomhole sampler,” down the well to a pre-selected depth. The bottomhole
samplers can be used in either open-hole or cased-hole wells, and can be run in tubing
 The subsurface sampling method is often used when the flowing bottomhole pressure is
greater than the reservoir oil saturation pressure.
Testing methods
There exists more than one test to indicate hydrocarbon existence in the drilling samples:
Smelling
It is the easiest way to detect the hydrocarbon, provided that the oil amount on the cuttings of
core samples is high. Intensity of the smell serves as an indication of the amount of hydrocarbon
present in the core sample.
Staining
The technique has a base of observation of the color and distributions only on the cores. If the oil
has higher API gravity, the observation is easier and more reliable.
Bleeding
The oil, if exists, can be removed by the help of a centrifuge. Removed oil can be inspected for
its composition.
Oil on Mud stream
If floating oil droplets are observed in the mud tanks, it is a very high chance that an oil zone has
been reached.
Solvent Cut Test
By the use of Solvent Cut Test, Heavier Hydrocarbons can be detected. Chlorethene is mixed
with the rock and after a short duration color is observed.
Acetone test
Colourless light oil or condensate will often not fluoresce under ultraviolet light, but detected as
follows, provided the sample does not contain carbonaceous or lignitic matter.
Acid test
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The presence of oil in calcareous cuttings can often be detected by dropping them into weak acid
(10 % HCl). Te reaction of the acid on a cutting, stained even faintly, may form relatively large
bubbles, which adhere to the cuttings and cause it to rise on the surface.
Fluorescence
The Wellsite Geologist should have access to an ultraviolet light box at all times when
examining samples (cuttings and cores). The 3600 Å wave length is standard for UV inspection.
All porous intervals should be thoroughly checked for hydrocarbons with the fluoroscope. An
organic solvent should be used to distinguish between hydrocarbon and mineral fluorescence
Gas chromatographer test
 GC analysis is a common confirmation test. Among its uses are drug testing and
environmental contaminant identification. GC analysis separates all of the components in
a sample and provides a representative spectral output.
 The technician injects the sample into the injection port of the GC device. The GC
instrument vaporizes the sample and then separates and analyzes the various
components. Each component ideally produces a specific spectral peak that may be
recorded on a paper chart or electronically.
 The time elapsed between injection and elution is called the "retention time." The
retention time can help to differentiate between some compounds. The size of the peaks
is proportional to the quantity of the corresponding substances in the specimen analyzed.
The peak is measured from the baseline to the tip of the peak.
Retention time
 The amount of time that a compound is retained in the GC column is known as the
retention time.
Mud logging unit
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 Mud logging, also known as hydrocarbon well logging, is the creation of a detailed
record (well log) of a borehole by examining the bits of rock or sediment brought to the
surface by the circulating drilling medium (most commonly mud).
 In hydrocarbon exploration, hydrocarbon surface gas detectors record the level of natural
gas brought up in the mud. A mobile laboratory is situated by the mud logging company
near the drilling rig or on deck of an offshore drilling rig, or on a drill ship.
 Mud loggers connect various sensors to the drilling apparatus and install specialized
equipment to monitor or "log" drill activity. This can be physically and mentally
challenging, especially when having to be done during drilling activity.
Geologging unit
 The selection of the particular type of geologging unit depends on primarily geologic
condition and the environment where the logging unit is required to work.
 It is, therefore, recommended that for an area, where the geology is very well known and
is under development, a simple standard geologging unit, as per details discussed before,
be used, for monitoring various parameters during the course of drilling.
 However, in the case of lesser known area, where the geology is not understood, and only
one or two wells in that particular structure have been drilled and the delineation of the
structure is required to be done, offline unit is recommended .
 So, an online geologging system is recommended for such an area. The geologging unit
has been found to be equally useful and beneficial for the well –site geologist/engineers,
while during such wells.
In order to carry out multiple services required for geological , drilling , gas logging control ,
over pressures studies , various types of equipments , as discussed in the preceding chapter , have
been devised for monitoring the various parameters , are broadly divided into three categories.
A. Standard Geologging unit.
B. Offline Geologging unit.
C. Online geologging unit.
A brief description of various types of units is given below:
1. Standard Geo logging unit
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The standard Geo logging unit comprises the following basic equipments and is used for drilling
in a known area for development drilling.
1. A normal zoom microscope with polarising equipment for lithological description.

2. Fluoroscope (ultra-violet studies)
3. Total gas Detector
4. Chromatograph with recorder
5. Vacuum mud still with vacuum pump (quantitative gas analysis)
6. Drill rate and depth recorder
7. Pump stroke counter
8. Individual pit level and pit volume totalizer
9. Dual mud Flow rate recorder, Flow rate in/out
10. Dual Mud temperature in and out
11. Densi mud Gamma/Densimeter
12. Calcimetry equipment
13. Shale density equipment
14. Graph paper
15. Copying Machine/ Typewriter
16. Built in sample drying cabinet
17. Air-conditioner, flame and explosion proof
18. Miscellaneous chemical and glass ware for oil detection and geological examination of
drill returns, such as set of sieves, scoop trays, probes, needles, tweezers, geological
hammer, hand leds, measuring tape.
Standard Geologging Unit can be further modified with the following instruments:
(a) H2S detector, (b) Mud Conductivity /Resistivity (in and out), (c) CO2 and Nitrogen
detector and (d) Shale factor kit.
Computation:
 It is observed that often measurements and recording of raw parameters are insufficient.
Most parameters must be processed and combined to obtain information for direct use.
As lot of drilling data is generated during drilling, heavy load of computation is involved
which time is consuming and subject to human error, if done by hand.
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 It, therefore , becomes necessary that in order to systematically keep the data and for
greater efficiency and safety at well-site to have a computer which is an invaluable tool
to help the geologists, petroleum engineers and all decision making executives to get the
right information fast and trigger immediate corrective action.
Offline Geo logging unit
 The purpose of an offline unit is getting the manual input and computation of data
acquired during the course of drilling. The equipment may be used for compiling up- to –
data-well data and computing exponents and pore pressures.
 The Offline unit is normally utilized in conjunction with the standard Geologging unit,
as discussed earlier, and in combination of drilling or mud parameters can be recorded,
displayed, plotted and stored, provided the basic sensors are installed on the rig. The idea
of the system is to bring the computer facilities into the logging unit and the alarm
associated with the records, gives early warnings and signals, when abnormal situations
are encountered.
 The sensors collect the drilling, gas and hydraulic data at various measurements points on
the rig (drill floor, mud pits, etc.). The raw data is routed to the geologging unit, where it
is processed in the Electronic racks to provide drilling parameters for display and/or
recording in Usable engineering units. The heart of an offline system is a programmable
table top computer, using magnetic tape catridges for programming and data storage.
 The logging engineer enters the selected measured parameters and other information on a
computer key-board and runs the appropriate programme. A typical offline system has a
high speed impact printer to list tables and reports and XY precision plotter for drawing
graphs and logs and other peripherals may be used such as Floppy disc unit, whenever,
mass storage with random access is required or a Digitizer for automatic conversion of
curves, diagram and plots into digital data ready for processing by the computer.
Online Geo logging unit
 The Online unit provides real time automatic monitoring, printing, plotting and storing
(on magnetic tapes), of any combination of mud drilling or calculated parameters, on the
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time of depth basis. The object of the online system is thus to get dependent results at a
minimum cost.
 The heart of online unit is a real time multi-programming computer, directly connected to
measuring equipment. It is possible with the online services, to have the following
information, which can be monitored continuously.
1. Printing,storing,Plotting of data,mud,parameters,during drilling and tripping.
2. Monitoring and data evaluation of any drilling, geological or mud parameters
3. Automatic calculation and recording of the various parameters required for over
pressured detectors.
4. Quantitative interpretation of electric logs and directional survey data.
5. Advice on utilization of mud weights,bit types with recommendations of optimum
times to alter mud weights, change bits, and cost factor can be obtained.
6. It is possible with this unit to have an extensive data transmission capability. Remote
monitors are linked to the well-site, using standard telephone lines, (the rig radio.)
7. Upto three monitored sections can be connected to display data,texts,messages output
by the online system. The video screen outlines the comprehensive data on various
parameters for the driller, geologists and mud chemist.
8. Any number of video repeaters can be located at any convenient location of the rig,
regardless of distance.
9. An X-Y plotter is available for drawing upto 48 data curves on 10x15” sheet of
paper. Scales are adjustable and parameters can be plotted as a function of time or
depth with lag correction. This very efficient recorder can also plot graphs, figures
with a combination of colours for easier interpretation if required.
10. All measured and computed data are automatically stored on tapes as drilling progresses.
Borehole condition:
• A borehole is the generalized term for any narrow shaft bored in the ground, either
vertically or horizontally. This is high pressure and temperature.
• A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of
water or other liquid (such as petroleum) or gases (such as natural gas).
• 1) Pressure and temperature, 2) chemical conditions and 3) geophysical conditions
Overburden Pressures
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 The formations in the sub-surface are at raised pressure, and are occupied by fluids
which are also at high pressure. The pressure that a rock is subjected to at a given
depth is determined by the weight of the rock above it, and hence the density of that
rock. This is called the overburden pressure or sometimes the lithostatic pressure.
Poverrock g h ……. (1)
Where, Pover= the overburden pressure at depth h
rock = the mean rock density above the depth in question
Pover =  (i g hi)….. (2)
g= the acceleration due to gravity
i h = the depth to the measurement point
 The overburden pressure/depth curve is called the geobar or lithostate. It should be
noted that in actuality this pressure is not isotropic but operates vertically.
 The pressures horizontally depend upon the overburden pressure, but are modified by
additional large scale sub horizontal tectonic forces (in tension and compression), and
are affected by local in homogeneities in the crust.
Fluid Pressures
 The pressure in a fluid occupying a formation depends upon many forces. If there is a
continuously connected pathway of fluid from the surface to the depth in question, the
fluid pressure depends primarily upon the weight of the fluid above it, in a direct
analogy to the situation for rocks.
Effective pressure
 The effective pressure is the overburden pressure minus the fluid pressure. (Note there
is increasing evidence that it is better to define effective pressure as the overburden
pressure minus about 80% of the fluid pressure.)
Capillary pressure
Capillary pressures are generated where interfaces between two immiscible fluids exist in the
pores (capillaries) of the reservoir rock.
Cp= 2γcosθ/a * A
Where,
Cp = capillary pressure (psi)g = interfacial tension (dynes/cm)
q = contact angle (degrees)a = pore radius (microns)
A = 145 x 10-3 (constant to convert to psi)
Depth measurements in a borehole
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• Driller depth, Mud sample depth, Cuttings depth, Core depth and Logging depth.
Fundamental of borehole geophysics:
Borehole geophysics is, and will continue to be, a highly effective tool for water resource/water
supply applications and is frequently applied in environmental investigations where, for
example, sites must be evaluated to determine the distribution of contaminants. It will provide
the basic applications of borehole geophysics for designing and completing water production
wells, assessing environmental concerns, conducting basin and hydrostratigraphic analysis, and
rehabilitating or abandoning water production wells. It will provide basic principles of log
quality control.
In addition, this will demonstrate some of these important applications of borehole geophysics
which include identifying water producing zones in well boreholes; evaluating the thickness,
distribution, and transmissive quality of granular, fractured, and karst aquifers; identifying
fractures; evaluating relative water yield and water quality; planning well systems; and planning
and evaluating well workovers/rehabilitation and abandonment.
Furthermore, this will also provide basic information on the various types of borehole
geophysical logs (including new developments) and their uses, log quality/validation issues, and
what sort of work products to expect from a logging program and contractor (logging company).
It will utilize interesting examples of geophysical logs relative to the listed applications and
topics covered.
Reservoir rock properties and Formation parameters:
Porosity:
The porosity of a rock is the percentage of rock gross rock volume that is not made up of matrix
material. Porosity can however be subdivided into primary and secondary porosity.
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1) Primary porosity: Porosity formed at the time sediment was deposited. The sedimentary
rocks, which typically exhibit primary porosity, are the clastic (fragmental) rocks which are
composed of erosional fragments from older beds. These are normally classified by grain size,
although much looseness of terminology exists. Typical clastic rocks, which are common
reservoir rocks are sandstones, conglomerates and oolitic limestones.
2) Secondary porosity: Voids formed after the sediment was deposited. The magnitude, shape,
size and interconnection of the voids bear no relation to the form of the original sedimentary
particles.
Porosity of this type has been divided into three classes based on the mechanisms of formation.
Porosity= void volume / bulk volume * 100
Porosity =bulk volume – grain volume / bulk volume * 100
One may distinguish between two types of porosity, namely absolute and effective.
Absolute and effective are distinguished by their access capabilities to reservoir fluids.
Absolute porosity:
Total or absolute porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid
flow.
Φa = Vpa / Vb Where, Φa = Absolute porosity
Vpa = Total volume of voids
Vb = Bulk volume
Effective porosity:
Effective porosity implies the ratio of the total volume of interconnected voids Vp to the bulk
volume Vb of the rock.
Effective porosity is the percentage of interconnected void space with respect to the bulk
volume.
Φ = Vp / Vb Where, Φ = Effective porosity
Vp = Total volume of interconnected voids
Vb = Bulk volume
Permeability:
The permeability of rock is a measure how easily a fluid may flow through the pore channels in a
rock. It depends on the size, shape, tortousity and number of pore channels in the porous
medium. Permeability can however be subdivided into absolute, effective and relative
permeability.
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Absolute permeability:
 Absolute permeability is constant for a particular medium and independent of the fluid
type.
 A single fluid or phase present in the medium.
 In principle, the absolute permeability only depends on the geometry of the pore channel.
Effective permeability:
 More than one fluid is present
 Each fluid is mutually reduce the pore channels open to flow for the other fluid, and the
effective permeability may be much lower than absolute permeability.
Relative permeability:
 Relative permeability is ratio of effective permeability of particular fluid to its absolute
permeability.
 If a single fluid present in a rock, its relative permeability 1, 0.
 Relative permeability is dimensionless ratio devised to adopt darcy’s law to multiphase
flow conditions.
 The relative permeability of a fluid is a function of its saturation.
Darcy carried out simple experiments on packs of sand, and hence developed an empirical
formula that remains the main permeability formula in use in the oil industry today.
Q= kA (Pi-Po) / µL
Where:
Q = the flow rate (cm3/s or m3/s) Po= the outlet fluid pressure (dynes/cm2 or Pa)
Pi = the inlet fluid pressure (dynes/cm2 or Pa)
m = the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (poise or Pa)
L = the length of the tube (cm or m).A = the area of the sample (cm2 or m2).
k = the permeability of the sample (darcy or m2)
For Liquids (oil and water):
K=1000 L / A*µ Q 1/ (Po-Pi) =1000 L/A* µ ∆V/∆T (Po-Pi)………..1
Where, DV = the volume of liquid flowed in time DT (cm3)
DT = the time period over which flow is measured (s)
Q = the flow rate = DV/DT (cm3/s),

Po = the outlet fluid pressure
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For gasses (hydrocarbon):
K=2000 L / A*µ Q Patm/ (Po2-Pi2) =2000 L/A* µ ∆VPatm/∆T(Po2-Pi2)…….2
Where,
Pi = the inlet fluid pressure (atmospheres absolute, atma)
m = the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (centipoise, cP),
L = the length of the sample (cm)
k = the permeability of the sample (millidarcy, mD),
A = the area of the sample (cm2).
Patm= The atmospheric pressure (atmospheres absolute, atms, =1)
Resistivity:
This is inversely proportional to ion volumes present in water. The water depends on
concentration, temperature and ion species. The units are ohm-m2. The archies first law relates to
Rw and second law relates to Sw to Rt
Resistivity = 1/ conductivity
Fluid Saturation:
In most oil-bearing formations, it is believed that the rock was completely saturated with water
prior to the invasion and trapping of petroleum. The less dense hydrocarbons are considered to
migrate to positions of hydrostatic and dynamic equilibrium. Thus displacing water from the
interstices of the structurally high part of the rock. The oil will not displace all the water, which
originally occupied these pores. To determine the quantity of hydrocarbons accumulated in a
porous rock formation, it is necessary to determine the fluid saturation (oil, water and gas) of the
rock material.
Water saturation:
Water saturation (Sw) determination is the most challenging of petrophysical calculations and is
used to quantify it’s more important complement, the hydrocarbon saturation (1 – Sw).
Sw = 1-Sh and water saturation estimate by archies law.
Sw= a× Rw /Φm× Rt}1/2 Where,

Sw = water saturationRw= Resistivity of water, n= saturation exponent
Rt= True resistivity, Φ= porosity, m=Tortuousity factor, a= constant
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Hydrocarbon saturation:
 The hydrocarbon saturation cannot be measured directly but inferred from determination
of water saturation (Sw) from resistivity and porosity logs.
Sw – Fraction of pore space occupied by water.
Sh – Fraction of pore space occupied by hydrocarbon.

Sw+Sh=1 (or) Sh=1-Sw
Movable oil saturation:
 Moveable oil is indicated when Sor from core is less than (1 - Sw) from log analysis.
Unfortunately residual gas in a core is meaningless, so this test cannot be made in gas
zones.
Smo = Sh – Shr (or) Smo = Sxo – Sw
Where,
Smo= movable oil saturation.
Sxo= Flushed zone saturation.
Sh=Hydrocarbon saturation.
Shr= residual hydrocarbon saturation.
Archie’s equation
First Equation for porosity:
Relates rock resistivity to Rw.
Ro= F Rw. Ro= Resistivity of a rock that is 100% saturated with formation water.
Rw= Resistivity of formation water Ω meter. F= Formation factor.
 As the salt water content increases the formation resistivity will decreases.
 As the shale content increases, the rock matrix will become more conductive.
Second equation (for saturation):
 Archie (1942) proposed two equations that described the resistivity behavior of reservoir
rocks, based on his measurements on core data. The first equation governs the resistivity
18
of rocks that are completely saturated with formation water. He defined a “formation
factor”, F, as the ratio of the rock resistivity to that of its water content, Rw, and found
that the ratio was closely predicted by the reciprocal of the fractional rock porosity (a)
powered by an exponent, he denoted as “m”.
 The value of m increased in more consolidated sandstones and so was named the
“cementation exponent”, but seemed to reflect increased tortuosity in the pore network.
For generalized descriptors of a set of rocks with a range of m values, workers after
Archie introduced another constant, “a”. In a second equation, Archie described
resistivity changes caused by hydrocarbon saturation.
 Archie defined a “resistivity index”, I, as the ratio of the measured resistivity of the rock,
Rt, to its expected resistivity if completely saturated with water, Ro. He proposed that I
was controlled by the reciprocal of the fractional water saturation, SW, to a power, “n”,
which he named the “saturation exponent. The two equations may be combined into a
single equation, which is generally known as “the Archie equation”. Written in this form,
the desired, but unknown, water saturation (SW) may be solved.
Relates Rw to Rt
If Rt= Ro then the formation is 100 percent saturated with formation water. Howver if
Rt> Ro the formation contain oil or gas.
General formula:
Swn= Ro/ Rt=F Rw/Rt= a/Φm* Rw/Rt
For clean sands, n=2 is common Like a and m, n is measured in the lab.
Humble equation:
This is derived from archie’s equation
F= a/Φm
 Formation factor and porosity are usually related via F=1/ m
where is porosity (a value between 0 and 1)
m is the cementation exponent and is usually 1.5-1.8 in sandstones and 2.0 in limestones,
dolomites and tight consolidated sandstones.
 Alternative relations are:

o F = 0.62/ 2.15 (Humble)
19
UNIT II
The Spontaneous Potential Log(SP):

 The spontaneous potential log (SP) measures the natural or spontaneous potential
difference (sometimes called self-potential) that exists between the borehole and the
surface in the absence of anyartificially applied current.
Principle
There are three requirements for the existence of an SP current:
· A conductive borehole fluid (i.e., a water based mud).
· A sandwich of a porous and permeable bed between low porosity and impermeable formations.
The SP log there two types .1) Electrochemical components. 2) Electrokinetic components.
20
Fig:2.1
1) Electrochemical components:
 These components arise from the electrochemical interaction of ions in the mud filtrate
and formation fluids. The electrochemical contribution, itself, consists of two effects:
a) Diffusion potential:
 This potential exists at the junction between the invaded and the non-invaded zone, and is
the direct result of the difference in salinity between the mud filtrate and the formation
fluid.
 Assume that the formation fluid is more saline than the mud filtrate for a moment, and
that the only dissolved ions in the system are Na+ and Cl-, as NaCl. The chloride ions
have a higher mobilitythan the sodium ions.
21
 When the two fluids come into contact across the interface between the invaded and non-
invaded zones, diffusion will occur.
 For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the diffusion potential, Ed, is given byEd =-11.81
´log(R1/R2), where,R1is the resistivity of the diluter solution, and R2 is the resistivity of
the more saline solution.
Fig:2.2
Fig:2.3
b) The membrane potential (sometimes called the shale potential).

 This potential exists at the junction between the non-invaded zone and the shale (or
other impermeable rock) sandwiching the permeable bed.
22
 Shales have the property that they can preferentially retard the passage of anions. This
is called anionic permselectivityor electronegative permselectivityand is a property of
membranes.
 It is due to an electrical double layer that exists at the rock-fluid interface, and that
has the ability to exclude anions from the smaller pores in the rock (sometimes called
anion exclusion).
 For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the membrane potential, Em, is given by; Ed = 59.15
´log(R1/R2) where R1 is the resistivity of the diluter solution, and R2 is the resistivity
of the more saline solution.
Fig:2.4
Fig:2.5
23
2) ElectrokineticComponents:
These components arise from the movement of fluids containing conducting ions. The
electrokinetic contribution, itself, consists of two effects:
i) The mudcake potential.

 This potential is produced by the movement of charged ions through the mudcake and
invaded zone in a permeable formation.
 Its size depends upon the hydraulic pressure drop, and since most of this is across the low
permeability mudcake, the great majority of electrokinetic potential is also generated
across the mudcake, with an insignificant amount in the invaded zone.
ii) The shale wall potential:
 This potential is the same in origin to the mudcake potential, but applies to the flow of
fluids from the borehole into shale formations. It is usually very small because the flow
into impermeable shale is small.
 The total electrokinetic potential is Ek= Emc+ Esw, and because Emc and Esw have the
same polarity, the value of Ekis the difference between their absolute values, i.e., Ek=
Emc + Esw
Applications:
· The detection of permeable beds and determination of Rw.
· The indication of the shaliness of a formation and correlation.
The log has a low vertical resolution, is rarely useful in offshoreenvironments, and is always
recorded in the leftmost track of thelog suite, together with the GR log.
Electrical logging
These first measurements were continuous recordings using 2 or 3 electrodes and a direct
current. It was discovered that high quality recordings of apparent resistivity could be obtained
under favourable conditions of small diameter boreholes, high mud resistivity’s and shallow
invasion in thick reservoirs.
These early tools are called electric logging tools. Electrical log there are two types .1)
Resistivity and 2) SP log
Resistivity log
Principle and applications:

 The electrical tools also have a number of qualitative uses, principle of which are (i)
indications of lithology, (ii) facies and electro-facies analysis, (iii) correlation, (iv)
determination of overpressure,(iv) determination of shale porosity, (v) indications of
compaction, and the investigation of source rocks.
24
 The typical response of an electrical tool in a sand/shale sequence. Note the lower
resistivity in shales, which is due to the presence of bound water in clays that undergo
surface conduction.
Electrode Arrangement:
Fig:2.6
 Although the theory is developed for 3 electrodes, and this is how the first measurements
were made, a four electrode arrangement soon became standard. This allows the current
flow circuit (the generator circuit in Fig. 2) to be separated from the potential sensing
circuit (the meter circuit in Fig 2), which provides better quality results.
 In this arrangement a constant known current is flowed from A to B (or B to A), and the
potential is measured between M and N. Electrode B and N are kept at a long.
 Another arrangement is possible, where electrodes A and B are placed close together with
respect to the distance between A and M and was called the lateral configuration.
Modern Resistivity Logs (Laterologs)

 Figure 4 shows two of the earlier laterologs. Each has a number of electrodes. The LL3
has 3 current emitting electrodes.
 The middle one, which is 1 foot long, emits the main current, while the 5 foot long
electrodes either side of it emit a current that is designed to help keep the central current
more focussed.
25
 The LL7 has 7 electrodes. A constant current is emitted from the centre electrode. A
bucking current is emitted from the two far electrodes (80 inches apart), and is
automatically adjusted such that the two pairs of monitoring electrodes are brought to the
same potential difference.
 This potential difference and the known current from the central electrode are used to
calculate the formation resistivity, using a known geometrical factor for the arrangement.
The vertical resolution of the LL3 is 1 ft.
Fig:2.7
 The LL7 has 7 electrodes. A constant current is emitted from the centre electrode. A
bucking current is emitted from the two far electrodes (80 inches apart), and is
automatically adjusted such that the two pairs of monitoring electrodes are brought to the
same potential difference.
 Then the current from the central electrode is focussed in a thin disk far out into the
formation. The potential between one of the monitoring electrodes and the potential at
infinity is then measured, and knowing the current from the central electrode allows the
formation resistivity to be calculated providing the geometrical factor of the arrangement
is known (calculated theoretically and tested in the calibration of the device).
 This electrode arrangement produces a thin disk of current that is confined between the
two sets of measuring electrodes (32 inches apart). The strongly focussed beam is little
affected by hole size, penetrates the invaded zone, and measures the resistivity of the
virgin formation, Rt. The vertical resolution of the LL7 is 3 ft. and the sensitivity is 0.2 to
20,000 Wm.
26
 The LL8 is similar to the LL7, but has the current return electrode (which is not shown in
Fig. 19.4 for the LL7 and LL3 because it is too far away) closer to the current emitting
electrodes.
 This gives a current disk that does not penetrate as far into the formation before returning
to the return electrode, and consequently the tool measures RXO rather that Rt. The
vertical resolution of the LL8 is about 1 ft and the sensitivity is 0.2 to 20,000 Wm...
Dual Laterolog:
 The dual laterolog(DLL) is the latest version of the laterolog. As its name implies, it is a
combination of two tools, and can be run in a deep penetration (LLd) and shallow
penetration (LLs) mode.
 In the LLd mode, the tool operates just like a LL7 tool but with the same bucking
currents that are emitted from the A1 electrodes also being emitted from the additional
farthest electrodes, A2. The result of this is to focus the current from the central electrode
even more than was the case for the LL7.
 In the LLs mode, the A1 electrodes emit a bucking current as they did in the LL7 device,
but the A2 electrodes are set to sink this current (i.e., the bucking current comes out of
A1 and into A2 electrodes).
 This means that the bucking current must veer away from the pathway into the formation,
and back towards the tool A2 electrodes, and hence cannot constrain (focus) the current
being emitted from the central electrode as much.
 The overall result is that the central electrode current penetrates less far into the
formation before it dies away. Both modes of the dual laterolog have a bed resolution of
2 feet, and a sensitivity of 0.2 to 20,000 Wm. To achieve this sensitivity both the current
and voltage are varied during the measurement, keeping their product (the power)
constant.
27
Fig:2.8
The Spherically focussed log:
 The spherically focussed log (SFL) has an electrode arrangement that ensures the current
is focussed quasi-spherically. It is useful as it is sensitive only to the resistivity of the
invaded zone.
Fig:2.9
The micro log:

 These are devices that often share the same sort of electrode arrangements as their larger
brothers, but have electrode spacing of a few inches at most.
 Therefore, they penetrate the formation to a very small degree and most often do not
penetrate the mudcake. The ML tool is so good at this that it is used in making sand
counts.
The micro latero log:
The micro laterolog (MLL) is the micro-scale version of the laterolog, and hence incorporates a
current focussing system. The tool is pad mounted, and has a central button electrode that emits a
known measurement current surrounded coaxially by two ringshaped monitoring electrodes, and
a ring-shaped guard electrode that produces a bucking current as in the DLL . The spacing
28
between electrodes is about 1 inch.
Fig:2.10
The micro spherically Focussed log:

 The micro spherically focussed log (MSFL) is commonly run with the DLL on one of its
stabilizing pads for the purpose of measuring Rxo.
 It is based on the premise that the best resistivity data is obtained when the current flow is
spherical around the current emitting electrode (isotropic conditions). The tool consists of
coaxial oblong electrodes around a central current emitting button electrode.
29
Fig:2.11
Induction Log
 These logs were originally designed for use in boreholes where the drilling fluid was very
resistive (oil-based muds or even gas). It can, however, be used reasonably also in water-
based muds of high salinity, but has found its greatest use in wells drilled with fresh
water-based muds.
 The sonde consists of 2 wire coils, a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). High frequency
alternating current (20 kHz) of constant amplitude is applied to the transmitter coil. This
gives rise to an alternating magnetic field around the sonde that induces secondary
currentsin the formation.
 These currents flow in coaxial loops around the sonde, and in turn create their own
alternating magnetic field, which induces currents in the receiver coil of the sonde. The
received signal is measured, and its size is proportional to the conductivity of the
formation.
 Clearly there will be direct coupling of the transmitter coil and the receiver coil signals. This is
removed by additional coils, which also serve to improve the vertical and depth of penetration
focussing of the tool.
30
Fig:2.12
Nuclear Logging:
 Nuclear tools measure the interactions between radiation emitted from logging tools and
the formation, as well as naturally occurring radiation.
 Nuclear logging includes all techniques that either detects the presence of unstable
isotopes, or that create such isotopes in the vicinity of a borehole.
 Nuclear logs are unique because the penetrating capability of the particles and photons
permits their detection through casing and annular materials, and they can be used
regardless of the type of fluid in the borehole.
 Nuclear-logging techniques described in this manual include gamma, gamma
spectrometry, gamma-gamma, and several different kinds of neutron logs.
 The detection of radiation is based on ionization that is directly or indirectly produced in
the medium through which it passes. Three types of detectors presently are used for
nuclear logging: scintillation crystals, Geiger-Mueller tubes, and proportional counters.
Sonic Log:
Measure the elastic or (sound) wave properties of the formation.
31
 It is measurement of time (Δt) taken by compressional sound wave to travel 1 foot in the
formation. The basic configuration of the tool consist of one transmitter (emits
compressional sound wave) & two receivers.
 Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in subsurface formations. While the
acoustic log can be used to determine porosity in consolidated formations, it is also
valuable in other applications, such as:
 Indicating lithology (using the ratio of compressional velocity over shear velocity),
 Determining integrated travel time (an important tool for seismic/wellbore correlation),
 Correlation with other wells.
 Caliper Logs record the diameter of the bore hole. It is veryuseful in relaying information
about the quality of the hole and hence reliability of the other logs.
 An example includes a large hole where dissolution, caving or falling of the rock wall
occurred, leading to errors in other log responses. Most caliper logs are run with GR
logs and typically will remain constant throughout.(Fig refer material).
 Measures the roughness or the rugosity of the borehole wall.One to four arm calipers
are available. Multi arm calipers give an impression of the shape of the wellbore.
Fig:2.13
Multi-sensor caliper (cased hole):

 Multi-arm feeler –gauges the shape and smoothness of the casing id.
- Corrosion and pit detection
- Pipe collapse and deformation and pipe wear.
Applications:
32
 High-resolution lithology discrimination.

 Depth calibration of different log suites.
 Fracture identification and measurement of borehole rugosity.
Fig:2.14
Natural gamma ray Spectrometry log.
 The spectral gamma ray log measures the natural gamma radiation emanating from a
formation split into contributions from each of the major radio-isotopic sources. Analysis
of the sources of the natural gamma radiation gives us added information concerning the
composition and likely lithology of the formation. The spectral gamma ray log is
commonly given the symbol SGR.
 The spectral gamma ray tool uses the same sensor as the total gamma ray tool. The output
from the sensor is fed into a multi-channel analyzer that calculates the amount of
radiation coming from the energies associated with each of the major peaks.
 This is done by measuring the gamma ray count rate for 3 energy windows centred
around the energies 1.46 MeV for potassium-40, 1.76 MeV for the uranium-radium
series, and 2.62 MeV for the thorium series. These readings represent the gamma ray
radioactivity from each of these sources.
33
Fig: 2.15
Fig: 2.16
Principles
 The amplitude of the output from the gamma ray sensor is proportional to the energy of
the incident gamma ray. We can use this information to measure the proportion of the
total gamma radiation coming from each of potassium-40, the uranium-radium series, and
the thorium series for a particular formation.
 Their sum should be the same as the total gamma ray value measured by the total gamma
ray tool, and is coded SGR if measured with a spectral gamma ray tool. Any combination
of the three components can be summed and analyzed. However, the most important is
the sum of the potassium-40 and thorium radiation, which is called the computed gamma
ray response (CGR).
34
Calibration
 The spectral gamma ray tool is calibrated using 4 sources of accurately known
composition, one each containing only K40, U238, and Th232, and one containing a
mixture. Each of the sources is placed next to the detector and the tool is used to make a
measurement. The calibration is designed such that the calibrated readings of the tool
accurately report difference in the amount of radiation from each of the radiation sources,
and the total count rate is calibrated to the Houston test pit.
Log Presentation
 The format for reporting the spectral gamma ray data is more complex than for the total
gamma ray log because it contains much more detailed information. Track 1 is used to
record the derived total gamma ray log (SGR), which is a sum of all the radiation
contributions, as well as the computed gamma ray log (CGR), which is the sum of the
potassium and thorium responses, leaving out the contribution from uranium.
 Tracks 2 and 3 are used to record the calculated abundances associated with the radiation
from the individual contributions from each of K40, U238, and Th232. It should be noted
that potassium is reported as a percentage, while U238 and Th232 are reported in parts
per million (ppm).
Fig: 2.17
Depth of Investigation
 The depth of investigation is controlled by the same fundamental physics as for the total
gamma ray tool, and is identical to the total gamma ray tool (i.e., about 1 ft).
35
Logging Speed
 While all the arguments concerning logging speed for the total gamma ray tool are also
appropriate for the spectral tool, the statistical fluctuations must now be applied to
proportions of the total gamma count rate. If good quality data for each of K40, U238 and
Th232 are to be obtained, the logging speed must consequently be lower. In practice, the
log is usually run 2 to 3 time more slowly that the total gamma ray log. However, this
results in very high quality SGR logs.
Vertical Resolution
 The vertical resolution is often better than the total gamma ray tool as a consequence of
the slower logging speeds. Resolutions as low as 1 foot have been obtained with some
tools.
Uses of the Spectral Gamma Ray Log

 The spectral gamma ray log is an extremely useful log, especially for subtle lithological
and compositional analysis, which benefits from its high vertical resolution. In the
analysis of spectral gamma ray data, use is commonly made of the ratios of the
abundances of the main radioactive sources. For example the Th/K ratio. It should be
noted, however, that this is not a dimensionless ratio as the Th is measured in ppm and
the K is measured in percent. Thus Th=12 ppm and K=4%, gives Th/K=3, where the
units are usually not mentioned, but are actually parts per ten thousand (ppm/%).
Temperature log
 The Temperature Log is a tool for measuring the borehole temperature. Temperature
sensors are attached to every tool combination that is run in a well for the measurement
of the maximum temperature (assumed to be at the bottom of the well
 Readings from a number of the maximum thermometers attached to different tool
combinations and run at different times are analyzed to give the corrected temperature at
the bottom of the borehole (bottom hole temperature, BHT).
Borehole Temperature Measurement

 Each tool combination is equipped with a temperature sensor. Temperature
measurements are always made at the bottom of the well (highest temperature) and
sometimes at intervals up the well.
Applications:
36
 Correction of other tools, Correction of measurements, Hydrocarbon maturation,

Correlation and Overpressured zones.
Dip and Direction log:

 The determination of dip angle and direction of a planar surface requires the elevation
and geographical position of at least three points. Dipmeter tools achieve this result by
measuring some sensitive formation parameter by means of three or more identical
sensors mounted on caliper arms so as to scan in detail different sides of the borehole
wall.
 A bedding plane crossing the borehole at an angle would generate anomalies at each
sensor, and these anomalies would be recorded at slightly different depths on the surface
recording. The relative displacements and the radial and azimuthal positions of each
sensor are then used to compute dip relative to the tool.
 Microresistivity has been the traditional formation parameter logged. Modern dipmeter
tools usually carry more than three sensor arms, the latest version being a device with six
arms. More measure points provide the advantage of systematic redundancy, which
allows the application of statistical error minimization techniques.
 For the results to be geographically significant, it is necessary to define the orientation of
the tool in space. This involves continuous measurements of the orientation of the
electrode array relative to north, its rotation relative to the high side of the hole, and the
inclination of the tool axis from vertical.
 Such navigation data are produced from the output of an assembly of three orthogonally
mounted magnetometers and a similar array of accelerometers. Figure 1 is a sketch of a
four-arm tool illustrating the orientation measurements. Figure 2 is an expanded scale
recording of the raw dipmeter data showing the orientation curves, calipers, gamma ray,
and correlation curves from a six-arm tool. Note that the curves are responding to
apparent bedding features less than 1 in. thick.
37
Fig: 2.18
The litho density log:
 The litho-density log is a new form of the formation density log with added features.
These tools have a caesium-137 source emitting gamma rays at 0.662 MeV, a short-
spaced and a long-spaced detector in the same way as the basic formation density tool.
 However, the detectors are more efficient, and have the ability to recognize and to count
separately gamma rays which have high energies (hard gamma rays: 0.25 to 0.662 MeV)
and gamma rays which have low energies (soft gamma rays: 0.04 to 0.0 MeV).
Tool Operation
 The tool is physically very similar to the formation density tool. It has enhanced
detectors, and the distance between the long spacing and the short spacing detectors has
been decreased.
 This decrease has increased the vertical resolution of the tool and improved its overall
counting accuracy.
38
Fig: 2.19
Neutron Logging
• The Neutron Log is primarily used to evaluate formation porosity, but the fact that it is
really just a hydrogen detector should always be kept in mind
• It is used to detect gas in certain situations, exploiting the lower hydrogen density, or
hydrogen index
• The Neutron Log can be summarized as the continuous measurement of the induced
radiation produced by the bombardment of that formation with a neutron source
contained in the logging tool which sources emit fast neutrons that are eventually slowed
by collisions with hydrogen atoms until they are captured (think of a billiard ball
metaphor where the similar size of the particles is a factor).
• The capture results in the emission of a secondary gamma ray; some tools, especially
older ones, detect the capture gamma ray (neutron-gamma log). Other tools detect
intermediate (epithermal) neutrons or slow (thermal) neutrons (both referred to as
neutron-neutron logs). Modern neutron tools most commonly count thermal neutrons
with an He-3 type detector.
39
Fig: 2.20
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging

 The physical principles involved in clinical imaging also apply to imaging any fluid-
saturated porous media, including reservoir rocks.
 The petroleum industry quickly adapted this technology to petrophysical laboratory
research and subsequently developed downhole logging tools for in-situ reservoir
evaluation.
Purpose of NMR logging
 NMR logging, a subcategory of electromagnetic logging, measures the induced magnet

moment of hydrogen nuclei (protons) contained within the fluid-filled pore space of
porous media (reservoir rocks).
 NMR effectively responds to the volume, composition, viscosity, and distribution of
these fluids, for example gas, oil and water.
Applications:
 The volume (porosity) and distribution (permeability) of the rock pore space, Rock
composition, type and quantity of fluid hydrocarbons and Hydrocarbon producibility.
40
Thermal neutron decay time log:

• The Thermal Neutron Decay Time (TDT) log provides a determination of the time
constant for provides a determination of the time constant for the decay of thermal
neutrons in the formation. Hence, it reflects primarily the neutron absorptive properties of
the formation.
• These properties are useful information evaluation. The most important area of
application is in logging cased hole. Because chlorine is by far the strongest thermal
neutron absorber of the common earth elements, the TDT log responds largely to the
amount of NaCl present in the formation water. As a result, this present in the formation
water. As a result, this log resembles the usual open-hole resistivity logs and is easily
correlate able with them.
• When information on lithology and porosity is known or is provided by open-hole logs, a
log of neutron provided by open-hole logs, a log of neutron absorption properties permits
the solution of a wide variety of problems: saturation determination, oil-water contact
location, detection of gas behind casing, etc..
• Thermal Neutron Decay Time (TDT) logging tools in 3-3/8 and 1-11/16-in. diameters
have been developed for detection and evaluation of water saturation in cased holes.
These tools utilize a system of movable and expandable detection time-gates which are
automatically adjusted as the log is being run.
• The two principal detection gates are positioned in time after the neutron burst according
to an optimization criterion. An additional gate, delayed until most of the decay has taken
place, permits correction for background.
• This place, permits correction for background. This Scale Factor gating method provides,
in each bed, a thermal-decay-time measurement of maximum statistical precision
consistent with removal of borehole effects present in the early part of the decay period
Increased reliability is afforded by use of digital techniques. Thermal neutron decay time
tools employ capture-gamma-ray detection
Application:
 TDT log for the evaluation of oil wells, for diagnosing production problems, and for
monitoring reservoir performance.
Neutron Activation Technique:

• Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) is a sensitive, non-destructive method for
determining the elemental composition of a sample. NAA is predicated on the fact that
stable, naturally occurring isotopes of many chemical elements have the ability to absorb
or “capture” slow-moving thermal neutrons into their atomic nuclei.
• To conduct a Neutron Activation Analysis experiment, the sample is exposed to neutrons
in a nuclear reactor, causing a portion of the atoms to undergo neutron capture: this
41
produces high energy compound nuclei which rapidly transform to radioactive forms of
the original chemical element(s).
• As the short-lived radioactive isotopes undergo decay to reach stable ground state
configurations, the sample is placed on a high purity germanium detector which records
the intensities and energies of the gamma rays that are emitted. Because a given
radioactive isotope always emits gamma rays at certain specific energies and intensities,
the radioisotopes present, and hence the parent chemical element(s) present in the sample
can be determined quantitatively.
• This “Short-Lived Neutron Activation Analysis” (SLNAA) technique can be used to
quantify dozens of chemical elements including metals, non-metals and metalloids at the
parts per million level.
Fig: 2.21
• Variations on the SLNAA technique include Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation

Analysis, which uses the “prompt” gamma rays emitted during neutron capture, rather
than the gamma rays that are emitted as the resulting radioisotope undergoes decay, in
order to determine elemental composition; PGNAA is particularly useful for quantifying
boron, cadmium, and certain lanthanoids (Eu, Gd, Sm).
• A third permutation is Delayed Neutron Counting NAA, which is used primarily for the
quantification of uranium. Unlike of the lighter elements in the Periodic Table, when
uranium absorbs a neutron, the neutron capture event is followed immediately by nuclear
fission. At the uranium atom splits, it ejects an average of 2.8 neutrons per fission; by
quantifying (counting) the ejected neutrons, the amount of uranium initially present in the
sample can be determined.
• NAA is a highly sensitive analytical technique, particularly with the high neutron fluxes
available at the McMaster Nuclear Reactor, and can be applied to any element that
possesses a suitable activation product (radioisotope). With appropriate experimental
parameters, excellent sensitivity is possible for some 70 elements; depending on sample
42
composition, multi-element analysis at the ppm level for up to 30 elements can be

accomplished with a single 1 gram sample.
• Typical analytical applications of SLNAA and PGNAA include determining major and
trace elements in a wide variety of materials, including rocks and other geological
samples, as well as ceramics, oils, plastics, metals, water, biological and botanical
materials. DNC NAA is most commonly used for determining uranium content in soil
samples for the uranium mining industry.
• A significant advantage of NAA over other analytical techniques such as ICP-MS is the
simplicity of sample treatment before analysis: in most cases, the only requirement is that
the sample be reduced to a size suitable for encapsulation (< 2 mL). Activation analysis is
also non-destructive, and can therefore be used for expensive or irreplaceable samples
such as archaeological artifacts.
Chlorine log
 Radiating formations with isotopes neutron source (Am-Be), and using chlorine element
contained in the formation water as a tracer indicator.
 The chlorine spectrum well logging tool has been regarded as the important and useful
tool in the determination of water flooding intensity of formation intervals, especially in
the oilfield development stages with high salinity formation water.
 A new chlorine spectrum logging tool with two detectors has been developed. The short
(near) detector uses a He-3 counter tube to measure formation epithermal neutron
intensity.
 The long (far) detector uses a BGO crystal detector to replace traditional Nal detector for
measuring the captured X gamma ray spectrum produced by the thermal neutron capture
process in the formation.
 This advantage helps to detect captured chlorine gamma rays, which increases the ability
of chlorine element detection. The effect of statistical errors is also reduced.
 The spectrum autostabilization function in the downhole tool improves the reliability of the whole
system. The new chlorine spectrum logging tool can give three log curves simultaneously, these
curves are formation porosity, chlorine content, and the ratio of chlorine content and
thermal neutron intensity.
 When formation porosity is larger than 10 p.u, formation water salinity is greater than
40,000 ppm, the resolution to the oil/water-bearings is increased to about 10% compared
with the old version tool. Field tests show that the accuracy of water flooding intensity
evaluation has been upgraded considerably with the use of new chlorine spectrum
logging tool, which contributes greatly to the oilfield development with high salinity
formation water.
Oxygen Log
43
 Many existing carbon/oxygen oil well logging devices used for determining whether oil
or water is present in rock have a very low signal-to-noise ratio and, therefore, are not as
sensitive as desired. This limitation is particularly true for oil wells that are cased or for
“measurement while drilling” logging devices because both of these cases require a
longer path for the signal, which reduces it significantly.
 These devices also often require the use of NaI or other scintillation detectors that have a
relatively small diameter (e.g., 1 7/8 inches) so that they will fit in a normal logging
sonde. This gives less of the spectral response in the full energy peaks of carbon and
oxygen than detectors with much larger diameters.
How carbon/oxygen logs work
 In fields with connate water salinity > 20,000 ppm chlorides, Pulsed-neutron-lifetime

(PNL) logs provide a convenient measurement of water saturation through tubing and
casing. If the salinity is low, the neutron lifetime is not determined by the chlorine
concentration in the formation.
 If the salinity is variable, the chlorine concentration does not track the water saturation. In
both cases, a PNL log fails to give useful fluid saturations. C/O logging was developed
for these situations.
 The tools exploit inelastic scattering of high-energy neutrons off carbon and oxygen to
induce gamma rays. Spectral analysis of the resulting gamma rays yields the amounts of
oxygen and carbon in the volume of investigation. Unfortunately, the carbon sensitivity
of the measurement is low.
 The depth of investigation is extremely shallow (only a few inches into the formation).
Such a small volume necessarily includes a large percentage of borehole compared to the
amount of formation. It is also true that although carbon is present in oil but not in water,
and oxygen is present in water but not in oil, the rock matrix (particularly carbonates)
may contain significant amounts of both. Together, these result in substantial borehole
and formation effects that must be accounted for in the C/O log-interpretation process.
UNIT III
Recording and transmission of log data

There are three methods of recording log data:
Mud Logging, Wireline LoggingandMeasurement While Drilling (MWD, LWD, FEWD)
44
 Mud Logging requires a surface acquisition system and is manned by a team of 2 to 4

persons. During drilling operations, sensors are placed to record various drilling data and
samples of the cuttings are caught and analyzed. The information recorded includes:
 The display device is at a first location separate from a facility controlled by a well
logging operator. The well identifier is transmitted to a first database having ancillary
data therein.
 The first database is controlled by the well logging operator. The ancillary data are sent to
the first location, and the ancillary data and data recorded from a well logging instrument
disposed in a wellbore are presented on the display device.
Regardless of the acquisition method involved or the deliverable format received some process
of identity resolution and data indexing is generally necessary to accurately catalog well log data.
Identity resolution involves verifying the identification of the particular well log making sure
that the location information on the log matches a standard such as PI/D Well Information, the
5010 Borehole file from the Minerals Management Service (MMS), existing data in an internal
database or any other suitable resource.
Once the well header information has been verified, the well log may be further indexed
capturing additional attributes that will aid in classification. Examples of attributes are as
follows:
• Service Company
• Service Name
• Log Scale
• Reference
– Measured Depth
– Total Vertical Depth
– Time
• Top and Bottom logged interval
• Logging dates
• Log quality
• Source of the log
Job
 A Job encompasses all of the activities performed by a Business Entity (generally a

Service Company), while it is engaged by the Operator of the Well to perform services.
The scope of services for the Job is generally specified under the terms of a contract or
service order. The Job begins when the Service Company arrives at the Well and ends
45
when it leaves. As an example, for a land based well, a Job begins when the Logging
Crew arrives in the truck at the well site and it ends when they drive away.
Run
 The definition of Run is nearly the same as for a Job with the exception of its scope. The
designation of a Run number attempts to track and differentiate between the types of
services performed in a Job. An example might be the best way to illustrate the
differences between Job and Run. Let's say that a service company is called to a well and
performs an induction/sonic from 1000 to 3000 ft.
 The logging crew leaves and the Job is complete. Then, a week later, the service
company comes back and runs another induction/sonic from 3000 to 5000 ft AND runs
an FDC/CNL from 4000 to 5000 ft. The FIRST induction/sonic would be RUN 1 and the
second induction/sonic would be RUN 2. However, the FDC/CNL, even though it was
run during the same JOB as Run 2 of the induction/sonic would be RUN 1. In summary,
there were two Jobs and two Runs, but they don't necessarily match up
Trip:
 The Trip begins when the tool is inserted into the hole and end when it is pulled out.
Trips exist within the context of a Run and there may be 0, 1, or more Trips per Run.
Pass:
 A Pass is any continuous recording of sensor readings for the logging instruments within
a Trip. A Pass begins when data recording is started and ends when data recording is
stopped. For depth based data acquisition, the Tool String is generally moving up or
down the Well borehole during a Pass, whereas it may be stationary for time based data
acquisition. Passes exist within the context of a Trip and there may be 0, 1, or more
Passes per Trip.
Log:
 A log is a group of one or more curves. These curves, when taken together, are often
assigned a name, such as Induction/Sonic, or FDC/CNL. When dealing with digitally
delivered well log data, a log is generally synonymous with Pass or File.
File:
 A File is the basic unit of digital well log data interchange. DLIS, LIS, and BIT are multi-
file tape formats, which can be encapsulated and created on, or copied to disk as a single
physical File.
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 Each logical File within this physical disk File is roughly comparable to the information
contained in one LAS File. The basic semantically relevant package of information is the
file for ASCII formats or the logical file for DLIS, LIS, or BIT. The File contains all of
the information related to an acquisition Pass.
Parameter:
 Each file may contain one or more sets of mnemonic/value pairs. Regardless of how this
information is semantically related, it is organized in a simple table structure. There are
over 13,000 recognized mnemonics which may appear in these tables. Some are easily
recognizable and are commonly used, however there are no enforced standard for these
mnemonics or their meanings.
 It is very common to find more than one mnemonic for the same item of information. For
example, if one was looking for the temperature at the surface when the well was logged,
one would have to search for the mnemonics SHT, ST, STEM,
SURFACE_TEMPERATURE, or TSUR. New mnemonics may be added at any time by
anyone, and put into use without any prior authorization or warning to the industry.
 Further complicating matters, some values are intended to be identified as one of a set of
possible values. For example, the value for the permanent datum of the well (identified
by the mnemonic PDAT), may be found to contain 'GL', 'G.L.', 'GROUND LEVEL' or
some other variation (generally in English), all meaning ground level. Standardization for
these sets of values is even less formal than the parameter mnemonics themselves.
Frame:
 The term Frame has two closely related meanings depending on its context. A "Frame of
Data" contains one sample of each curve associated with a specific primary index value
(e.g. depth or time). In this case, a sample may be a single value, or a complex multi-
dimensional array. The primary index is most commonly depth or time, but may be
anything. The "Frame Specification" specifies which curves are to be grouped together,
the type of the common index (depth, time, etc.), and the sampling characteristics
(regular, irregular, spacing between sampling if regular etc...).
 The only digital log data format that specifically exposes frames is DLIS. The other
formats (LIS, LAS, BIT, etc.) all use frames, but since there is only ever one Frame
Specification per File, it is often lumped in with the information about the File. DLIS, on
the other hand, provides for multiple Frame Specifications (and consequently instances of
each type of frame specified).
 This information is important, and must be retained in any system that tracks information
about DLIS tapes or files. (Technically, LIS provides a mechanism for recording multiple
frame types per File, but this has never been utilized and has therefore been ignored.)
47
Curve:
 Also known as a Channel, a Curve is a set of values with a corresponding index (e.g.
depth or time) for each value. In digital well log interchange formats, a Curve may be
associated with only one Frame.
 The simplest of curves contains one value for each index value of depth or time. Curves
can, however, be very complex entities containing multi-dimensional arrays of data
values in each Frame.
Well log data Processing.

 Integrated interpretation of any geological model requires cautious grounding and
judicious use of petrophysical logs and other well-derived data.
 The main purpose of well log processing is to prepare the well data for interpretation.
Processing steps varies according to Company/Client and availability/Quality of data.
Data Check:
 1. Review how many Logs and its digital are provided by client.2.If digital is missing
then these logs/curves need to be digitized and 3.Read header information.
Data Loading
 Load digital data in provided software for processing
Depth Shifting:
 Depth shifting enables to shift curve data relative to a reference curve (GR or Deep
Resistivity e.g. LLD, LN).
1. Bulk Depth Shift - Single shift to an off-depth curve and graphically tie it to your reference
curve. This single shift is applied to all curve depths.
48
Fig: 3.1
2. Multiple tie lines Depth Shift - Multiple points on an off-depth curve and graphically tie
them to points on your reference curve.Stretch or compress a portion of an off-depth curve using
this method
Fig: 3.2
Removal of End Effect.
 The curve response other then the response of lithology. Such as response of curve in
casing or tool response at the start and at the end of logging
49
Fig: 3.3
Baseline Shifting:
 Baseline shift is primarily designed for correcting SP curve drift.Removal of SP baseline

drift aids the automatic computation of water resistivity and shale volume over long
depth interval. -ve SP and +ve SP.
 -ve SP.When ions of NaCl moves from formation water to mud filtrates then generated
SP called –ve SP.
 +ve SP.When ions of NaCl moves from mud filtrates to formation water then generated
SP called +ve SP.
50
Fig: 3.4
Baseline shift Procedure(-ve & +ve SP)
SP baseline Shift
for –ve SP
Fig: 3.5
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Baseline
Fig: 3.6
Rescaling:
 Rescale allows for correction of improper calibration and missed scale changes of
digitized logs.
 It also allows for conversion of linear scale to logarithmic scale (and vice versa).
Fig: 3.7
52
Patching curves:
 Patching curves allows you to interactively digitize points on the screen.

 Patch curves use to remove unwanted data points, such as noise spikes, and to reshape
curves.
 Editing of sonic for cycle skipping and density for any borehole washout.
Fig: 3.8
Block Editing:
 Block editing enables to “square” or visually average curve intervals. It is typically used
to block sonic and density logs for generating synthetic seismograms and determining
acoustic impedance.
53
Fig: 3.9
Splicing or Construct composite:
 Splicing curves merges segments together at one time. This is useful for merging curves
from different logging runs into a single composite curve.
Fig: 3.10
Value Editing:
 Value editing enables you to change the value at a data point on the selected curves by
typing a new value.
54
Fig: 3.11
Fig: 3.12
Tabular Editing:
 Tabular editing provides a graphical interface for digitally changing individual curve
value at selected depth. This is useful when only a limited number of values need
adjusting.
55
Fig: 3.13
Fill Gaps:
 Fill Gap is used to replace nulls with values interpolated between valid data points.
Fig: 3.14
Data Quality Check:
 QC job perform to ensure the quality of processing.QC person check the processed data
thoroughly before delivering to client.If there is any flaw in processed data then need to
be reprocessed.
Final Report:
 After the data quality assurance, write the final report. A final report expresses or defines
all processing steps, curve details & comments regarding data.
Formation evaluation for hydrocarbons.

The quantitative method isto evaluate the hydrocarbon in formation. The most probable structure
is based on the structure identified with
1. A mature source rock. 2. A suitable reservoir rock (porous & permeable)
4. A trap and5. An impermeable seal
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 After the identification of the structure, location is released for drilling Determination of
porosity, permeability, resistivity and water saturation.
Reservoir evaluation:
The following are the essential objectives of reservoir evaluation by using well log.
 The location of a reservoir vertically within drilled section & if possible, spatially.
 Determination of fluid type- gas, oil, water, bitumen etc.
 Calculations of reserves, both movable &inplace.
Lithology identification:
 Porosity determination using different logging devices relies on the knowledge of the
rock type. In the case of the density tool, the density of the rock matrix must be known.
Qualitative and quantitative interpretation well log data

Introduction:
Today, logging is most often performed using digital data acquisition platforms. The data
stored in a data file may have extensive statistical computation applied to it. Intelligent
systems apply the same and sometimes better algorithms than their human counterparts
once did. The result is faster and often times “smarter” interpretation. Taking the
additional steps required to apply corrections to raw data and perform ‘salinity’ checks on
results adds confidence to any interpretation.
Qualitative assessment Quantitative assessment
Assessment of reservoir properties, Numerical estimation of
Fluid type form log pattern. Reservoir properties viz. % of oil, water etc.
The basic logs, which are required for the adequate interpretation, are:
1. Permeable zone logs (SP, GR, and Caliper)
2. Resistivity logs (MFSL, Shallow and Deep resistivity logs)
3. Porosity logs (Density, Neutron and Sonic).
Generally, the permeable zone logs are presented in track one, the resistivity logs are run in
Track two and porosity logs on track three.
First step:
 The first step in the log interpretation is to locate the permeable zones. Scanning the log
in track one and it has a base line on the right, which is called the shale base line.
Second step:
 To scan the resistivity logs in track 2 to see which of the zones of interest gives high
resistivity readings. High resistivities reflect either hydrocarbons in the pores or low
porosity.
Third step:
57
 Scan the porosity logs on the track 3 to see which of the zones have good porosity against
the high resistivity zones. Discard the tight formations. Select the interesting zones for
the formation evaluation.
Conclusion: Well logs contain key information about the formation drilled in different petro-
physical measurements. i.e.
 Prospective zones of hydrocarbon.
 Reservoir type and thickness.
 Estimation of Porosity, permeability.

Electric log (E-log) interpretation:

Possibly the most important log that can be obtained is an E-log. A properly calibrated E-log will
provide important information about formation Electrical Resistivity. In addition to resistivity,

Spontaneous Potential (SP) is obtained. SP shows lithology and type of lithology in terms of
sand/carbonate or shale/clay and relative proportion of each.

Electric Log operation is based on ohms law.

Ohms law states: Resistance = V/I

Apparent Resistivity (ra) takes into account the electrode geometry as follows:

a = V/I x G

Where:

G = Geometric Factor (4pAM) AM is the distance measured (in meters) from A to M electrodes.
V = Measured Voltage
I = Applied Current

Resistivity is usually measured in units of ohms – meter2 / meter or; “ohm-meters”.

Conductivity ( C, in micro-mhos/cm) = 10,000/ Resistivity (in ohm-meters)

In the SI system of units, Siemens are used to replace mhos. 1 Siemens = 1 Mho. Learn more
about [Siemens and Mhos].

F = Ro/Rw (Referred to as Archie’s Equation)

Given Rw = .05,
58

If Ro = 5.0 then F = 100

If Ro = 1.25 then F = 25

If Ro = .55 then F = 11

Porosity from resistivity:

Archie found a relation of Formation Resistivity Factor (F) to Porosity () as follows:

F = a /  m

The constants (a) and (m) are related to lithology.

Cementation factor (m) in a consolidated sandstone or a porous limestone is 1.8 to 2.0. In a clean
unconsolidated sandstone values for (m) may be as low as 1.3 and the constant (a) is equal to 1.0.

An empirical formula based on studies of core data from numerous localities has resulted in the
equation:


F = 1 / 

Porosity of 10 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 100



Notice these three Formation Resistivity factors are the same as previously calculated with F =
Ro/Rw above.

Therefore:

Ro/Rw = F = 1 / 

Rearranging:

 (1/Ro/Rw)1/2

Requirements for this method are 100 percent water saturation, Rw is known and mineral
conduction is not present.

Using Shallow Resistivity from a pad mounted measurement:
59

Given Resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo and Resistivity of the mud filtrate, Rmf, porosity may
be obtained a follows:

 a Rmf/Rxo)1/m

where a = .62, m = 2.15 (From Winsauer et al., 1952)

Permeability from resistivity:

 A conclusion may be made that if deep and shallow measurements are the same, that no
invasion has taken place. If deep and shallow measurements are different, then invasion
has taken place. Invasion is an indication that a rock matrix is permeable.
 It is because of the ability of the E-log to measure fluid content, fluid quality, lithology,
and indirectly permeability, porosity and formation factor that make an E-log potentially
the most useful logging tool.

Inversion methods:

 Recently, software has been developed for improving resistivity log interpretation. Old
logs and new are being subjected to inversion processing that removes the effect of
surrounding formations. These techniques will make electrical resistivity a more accurate
viable logging method well into the future.

Acoustic log interpretation:

 An Acoustic Log (sometimes referred to as a sonic log) when properly calibrated, will
provide important information about the physical structure of a rock matrix. The ability
of sound to travel within and through rock or sand and gravel depends on the physical
structure of the matrix.
 The amplitude, speed and phase relationships of a transmitted sound wave that returns to
an acoustic receiver is a function of all of the combined matrix densities,
interconnections, cementation, fracturing, and porosities within the matrix.

 Because the total transit time from the transmitter to the receiver includes the path thru
the borehole fluid + formation + borehole fluid, Borehole compensated (two or four
receiver) logging tools are used. Borehole compensation is accomplished mathematically
by subtracting the borehole transit time.

 Acoustic waveforms provide information related to transit time (density)
and amplitude (interconnection) of the material comprising the rock matrix. Surface
Geophysics has for many years used seismic reflection and refraction for determination
of subsurface structure.
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 Transit time (t) through sandstone, limestone, water, and other materials have been
determined in the laboratory. Relationships between porosity and transit time are
known. It is possible to determine porosity of a given matrix if the transit time is
known. Beginning with velocity;

The bulk velocity is the sum of the fluid velocity and the matrix velocity.

The relationship between bulk velocity (vb) and fluid velocity (Vf) combined with matrix
velocity (Vma) becomes:

Given an equation referred to as the Wyllie “time average equation”:

1/vb = /vf + 1-/vma

Transit time (t) is the reciprocal of velocity.

The equation for porosity (ϕ) obtained from transit time (t) is:

 = (tlog – tma) / (tf – tma)

Where tlog = Measured t, tf = fluid t, tma = assumed matrix t.

Fluid t is usually considered 200 microseconds per ft. (Note some sources use 188 microseconds per ft.)

Areas having fractures including unconsolidated matrix can be inferred from an Acoustic Log.

Cement bond log interpretation:

 Acoustic logging is also used for determination of cement bond in cased wells. This type
of log is most often referred to as a Cement Bond Log (CBL).

 The thin plate velocity of sound in steel is approximately 5300 meters per second (188
microseconds per meter).

 A receiver having 3 feet spacing will receive the casing signal (first arrival) at 177
microseconds plus a short additional period allowing for transit time thru the borehole
fluid.

 A receiver signal “time gate” is set at the time of the expected casing signal. The casing
signal will be the first arrival at the receiver in free casing. The signal amplitude is
recorded. A high signal amplitude indicates poor cement bond. Relatively low signal
amplitude indicates good cement bond.
61
 Amplitude is normally presented on a scale of 0 to 100 percent amplitude. An area having

no cement bond is represented by 100 percent amplitude. Due to the fact that well
cemented pipe can never reduce the signal to “zero”, a good reference for zero signal is
the best cemented portion of the cased hole. Using information obtained from a Variable
Density (waveform) display referred to as a VDL display, it is possible to observe the
entire receiver wave train.
 When cementation is complete (good bond) from casing to cement to formation, it is

possible to observe waveform shift in delta- time in the later arrivals that can be
correlated to open-hole acoustic delta-time logs.

Cbl attenuation:

The measurement of attenuation measured in decibels (dB) is obtained from the amplitude as
follows:

Attenuation = 20/D x Log10(A/Ao)

Where:

Attenuation is measured in decibels.

Ao is the transmitter amplitude measured in millivolts.

A is the receiver amplitude measured in millivolts.

D is the distance from the transmitter to receiver (spacing) meters or feet as specified.

Note: Attenuation refers to the reduction of amplitude. Therefore, attenuation is measured
in terms of - dB.

Other cbl tools:

 Sector bond tools (SBT), Radial bond tools (RBT), and Ultrasonic Imager Tools (USIT)
are other options available for Cement bond applications including casing inspection.

Gamma log interpretation:

 Natural gamma radiation occurs in rock formations in varying amounts. Uranium,
Thorium, Potassium, and other radioactive minerals are associated with different
depositional environments. Sedimentary sandstone and Carbonate environments are low
in gamma radiation.
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 Clay and Shale formations exhibit greater amounts of gamma radiation. A log of gamma
radiation in “counts” or API units will give a positive indication of the type of lithology.
Interpretation of gamma log data is done based on the relative low and high count rates
associated with respective “clean” and “dirty” environments. Composition of formations
having more clay or shale as indicated by higher gamma count rates generally are more
tightly compacted with fine particles and therefore have less porosity and permeability.
Formations having high gamma count rates even though they may exhibit low water
saturation are generally unfavorable for production in oil and water well environments.

 It is important to be aware that certain areas are known to have sandstone formations with
higher than normal levels of radiation. These formations are sometimes erroneously
interpreted. Information from an SP log can be used for correlation.

 Coal formations normally have very low (almost zero) gamma radiation and contrast
quite well with surrounding formations. Knowledge of local “exceptions” is an important
aspect of accurate interpretation.

Neutron log interpretation:

 Neutron Logging tools are designed to respond to slow Thermal Neutrons or Gamma
Rays of Capture.Since hydrocarbons and water (H 20) contain hydrogen a neutron log will
provide knowledge of the hydrogen in the pore spaces of the matrix. When more
hydrogen is present, more neutrons are captured, and fewer neutrons reach the neutron
detector.
 Conversely, lower porosity, neutrons travel farther and reach the detector, increasing
neutrons counted at the detector. In other words, increased fluid filled porosity is
indicated by lower neutron count.

 Neutron porosity is calculated based on neutron tool response in known lithologies
having known porosity.Tool response is specified in terms of American Petroleum
Institute (API) units. The standard unit for neutron logging tools is the “API Neutron
Unit”. 1000 API units is assigned to any neutron tool in a water filled hole having 7 - 7/8
inch diameter in Indiana Limestone of 19 percent porosity. One API Neutron Unit is
1/1000 of the difference between tool instrument zero and the log deflection in
the Indiana Limestone section.

The general equation is: Porosity (ϕ) = natural log (API Log counts * constant + constant)

Neutron Porosity is based on a Limestone matrix (Indiana Limestone).

A correction to obtain porosity for a sandstone matrix is: Porosity (ϕ ss) = 0.95 (ϕ (n)) + .035
63
Density log interpretation:

 A Density Log when properly calibrated will provide reliable information about matrix
bulk density. When density is known and a specific matrix is assumed then porosity of
the matrix may be determined.
 A mathematical relationship exists between measured density, assumed matrix density
with no porosity and the density of the material filling the pore space. Water has a
density of 1 gram per cubic centimeter.
 Sandstone with no porosity has a density of 2.65 grams per cubic centimeter. If a
sandstone matrix is assumed for example, then a given density of 2.00 grams per cubic
centimeter allows calculation of 40 percent porosity.

The equation for porosity (ϕ) obtained from bulk density is: ϕ = (ρma – ρb) / (ρma – ρf)

Where ρb = Measured bulk density, ρf = fluid density, ρma = assumed matrix density.

For reference, Sandstone has a density of 2.65 gm/cc, Limestone is 2.71 gm/cc, Dolomite 2.87
gm/cc.

Shale volume correction:

 Porosity data should be corrected for shale content in the zone of interest. Porosity
values are optimistic when shale is present.Depending on the value of Rmf/Rw, either the
natural gamma data or SP data is used to determine shale volume.

Water saturation:

 One objective in Log Interpretation is the evaluation of a petroleum formation for water
saturation (Sw). If it assumed that only two types of fluid occur in the formation, for
example oil and water.

The calculation for water saturation is as follows: Sw = (F * Rw / Rt)1/n

Where n is the saturation exponent (usually a value of 2).

The oil saturation as a percent of the pore space is simply: So = (1 – Sw)
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Gas bearing zone
Oil bearing zone
Water bearing zone
Fig: 3.15
Overlays and Cross plot

Overlays
 The technique is called the resistivity-porosity overlay. The overlay is created by tracing
or "overlaying" the deep resistivity curve (on a logarithmic scale) on top of a porosity log
(sonic, density, or neutron), and shifting the resistivity log sideways until it lines up with
the porosity curve in an "obvious" water zone.
 If there is no obvious water zone, we do the overlay using a nearby (non-source rock)
shale bed instead - less accurate but it works often enough. The concept is widely used to
identify source rocks
 Most people working in the oil industry just want to "look" at a log and understand what
the reservoir is all about. Even after years of experience, this is difficult, especially when
working on new or unfamiliar areas. That's why specialists use fancy software and take
hours or days to generate results for the rest of the team.
65
 However, there are things you can do using your eyes and your logical brain power to
gain some understanding without the calculator or the chartbook.
 Let’s start with just 3 curves - the gamma ray (GR), resistivity, and a porosity indicating
log (a sonic log in this case) as shown in the image below. The GR is at the far left and
the sonic is the left edge of the red shading. The resistivity and sonic have been overlaid
to make it easier to see the shape
of the two curves relative to each
other.
Fig: 3.16
Basic Rule "A": When GR (or SP) deflects to the left the zone is clean and might be a reservoir quality
rock. When GR deflects to the right, the zone is usually shale (not a reservoir quality rock). There are
exceptions to this rule, of course.

Basic Rule "B": Porosity logs are scaled to show higher porosity to the left and lower porosity to the right.
Clean and porous is good, so compare the GR to the porosity log and mark clean+porous zones.

Basic Rule "C": Resistivity logs are scaled to show higher resistivity toward the right. Higher resistivities
mean hydrocarbons or low porosity. Low resistivity means shale or water zones. So clean+porous+high
resistivity are good. There are exceptions to this rule too.
Cross plot
 Density, acoustic and neutron logs all respond to lithology as well as porosity. If the true
lithological composition of a rock was known, it would be little or no problem to use the
66
information with the density, acoustic travel time or neutron response to obtain a good
porosity value. Often, lithology changes from foot to foot and the interpreter does not
know anything but the general lithology at any particular level. In these cases, it is a
common practice to run two or three porosity logs, and by direct comparison obtain a
good indication of the lithological content of the rock.
 The utility of this approach depends on the complexity of the rock as well as the number
of porosity logs run. Two porosity logs can define two lithological components: three can
define three. In both cases, it is sometimes possible to deduce an additional component
with some regional expertise.
 More reliable information can be derived from two porosity logs used together than from
two logs analyzed separately. In the situation where there are two known minerals, with
two porosity logs" good proportions of the minerals can be obtained plus a better porosity
than if only one log is used. If the rock is more complex, (e.g. consisting of quartz,
limestone, dolomite and anhydrite, but excluding shale and gypsum), the proportions are
not as accurate or as reliable, but the porosity is still accurate.
Dual-Porosity Interpretations
The use of two porosity measuring devices means that a two-mineral reservoir model can be
assumed when solving for the bulk volume percentages of each mineral and the porosity. This is
usually done by solving the following system of equations
Each of equations (1) through (3) represents the actual separation of the total logging instrument
response into its respective fluid and matrix components. The assumption is made that the
porosity devices have been corrected for the effects due to shale, light hydrocarbons, secondary
porosity and borehole rugosity. Only two of the equations (1), (2) or (3) are required in addition
to equation (4) to solve this system. The solution of this system is based upon the assumption
that the response of each porosity measuring device to the porosity and varying lithology is a
linear function. Due to the non-linearity of the Neutron Log response in a dolomite, it is
necessary to construct a set of linear straight line functions for the neutron device when dolomite
is involved in order to use the above equations. The graphical solution of this set of equations is
illustrated in Figure 3.17. A solution is also possible
Density-Neutron Crossplot
The density-neutron crossplot is probably the most widely used dual-mineral model for the
calculation of porosity. As with any dual-porosity technique, a two mineral lithology model must
be assumed. This means that the presence of shale should be accounted for and eliminated from
the tool response before this method is applied. Figure 3.17 shows the tentative location of
several clean matrix points. Figure3.18 shows the location of the most common reservoir
67
minerals with the matrix-fluid lines scaled in porosity units. Points falling between two matrix-
fluid lines are assumed to be mixtures of the two clean minerals at the source of the lines. Charts
such as this arc used to solve for porosity in clean or shale corrected intervals where the logs
have been corrected for the presence of hydrocarbons.
Fig: 3.17
68
Fig: 3.18
Neutron-Acoustic Crossplot
The neutron-acoustic crossplot, like the density neutron crossplot, is often used in the
determination of porosity. The good lithology line separation and porosity resolution accuracy
make this crossplot useful in clean reservoirs with predominantly primary porosity. (Fig.3.19)
One initial drawback to this crossplot is that the neutron and acoustic devices may both exhibit
large shale effects. This means that a slight error in the calculation of the effect of shale on either
device can cause the calculated porosity to be in error. The other problem with this crossplot is
that the acoustic device does not see vugular porosity. The neutron-acoustic crossplot will
calculate porosities which are pessimistic in formations containing secondary vugular-type
porosity..
69
Fig: 3.19
DENSITY-ACOUSTIC CROSSPLOT
The density-acoustic crossplot is the least useful combination of any two porosity devices for the
determination of porosity. The relative displacement of the clean matrix points and the closeness
of the porosity lines make this crossplot erroneous, at best, for porosity determination. A cross-
plot of sonic travel time and formation Density can be used to identify lithology. View a cross-
plot.Given a sonic travel time of 45 microseconds/ft. and bulk density of 2.82 gm./cc.; probable
lithology is a limey dolomite.
Fig: 3.20
Determination of reservoir parameters:
Determination of porosity: Porosity determined using some porosities logs
1) Using Density Where, ΦD= Density porosity, ρb = Bulk Density
70
ΦD= ρma-ρb/ρma- ρfρma= Density matrix, ρf= Fluid density
2) Using density and neutron
For hydrocarbon and water zone, Where, Φ= porosity
Φ= ΦD +ΦN / 2 ΦN= Neutron Density
For Gas Zone,
Φ= 2ΦD+ΦN / 3
Even the porosity has to be determined by Archie’s equation.
Determination of Resistivity:
Resistivity (Ohm-meters) = V/I *A / L
Water resistivity can be obtained from water bearing zone Where, Rw= Water Resistivity
Rw= Rmf*Rt / Rxo……1Rmf=Resistivity of mudfilterate, Rt= True Resistivity
Rt= a * Rw/Φm*Snw…….2Rxo= Resistivity of flushed zone
Sw= Saturation of water, m= cementing factor
Determination of permeability:
 In some cases there may exist rough relationship between the values of porosity and
permeability, but such correlation usually isempherically derived for a given formation in
a given area.
K=(C Φ3/(Sw)irr)2 where, K=permeability, The value of C hydrocarbon gravity
(Sw)irr= Irreducible water saturation
Relationship between permeability, porosity & irreducible water saturation:
K= PΦQ/SwiR
Calibration is required for log derived Swi and computed K with core measurements to
effectively use such equation. P, Q, R = constants to be calibrated from core measurements.
Water Saturation:
 Whether the pores of the formation are completely saturated with formation water or the
pore space is partially saturated with oil/gas. Water saturation can be expressed as a
function of Rw, Ro, Rt and porosity.
71
Sw= {a* Rw/ Φm *Rt}1/2
Rw determination from resistivity log
Archie’s equation solve for Rw.

Rw= (Rt x Sw2)/ Φ2
For clean water bearing sand:
Sw=1
Hence, Rw = Rt x Φ2
Hydrocarbon saturation: This iscannot be determined directly but inferred from determination
of water saturation (Sw) from resistivity and porosity logs.
•Sw – Fraction of pore space occupied by water.
•Sh – Fraction of pore space occupied by hydrocarbon.
Sw+Sh=1 or Sh=1-Sw
Determination of movable oil:
Smo–Movable oil saturation

Total hydrocarbon saturation:Residual hydrocarbon saturation
1: Sh = 1–Sw2: Shr = 1- Sxo
Compare Sor from core to Shr from logs and adjust Sxo parameters to obtain a good match. In
depleted oil zones, Sor from core should match (1 - SW) from logs.
Moveable oil saturation:

3: Smo = Sh–Shr (or)Smo = Sxo - Sw
Moveable oil is indicated when Sor from core is less than (1 - SW) from log analysis.
Unfortunately residual gas in a core is meaningless, so this test cannot be made in gas zones.
Dual mineral method

 The use of two porosity measuring devices means that a two-mineral reservoir model can
be assumed when solving for the bulk volume percentages of each mineral and the
porosity. This is usually done by solving the following system of equations.
72
Fig: 3.21
ρB= Ø  mf+ V m1  m1+ V m2 m2
Ø N = Ø Ø N mf + V m1 Ø m1 + V m2 Ø m2
1 = Ø + V m 1 + V m2
Dual Mineral plot
Fig: 3.22
The plot now has two lines, one from each matrix point.The equi-porosity lines join the lines,
any point falling between can be assigned its porosity the zero porosity line is scaled in ratio (or
percent) of the two minerals. This can be extended to the water point. Points falling inside the
lines can be subdivided in mineral percent
73
Triporosity Method:
 Generally, the maximum number of porosity devices run in a logging operation on a
single well is three. The three devices are usually composed of some form of the acoustic,
density and neutron devices.
 The availability of all three porosity devices makes several tri-porosity cross plots
available for interpretive use.
 The Sonic-Density-Neutron logging suite and the use of the computer for log data processing
have opened a whole new branch in the field of well log evaluation. Computations of solutions to
the simultaneous equations describing responses of the three porosity logs began in the Permian
Basin in 1962. This work provided the first accurate porosity values to be routinely computed
from logs in the porosity values to be routinely computed from logs in the complex San Andres
carbonate-evaporite section. A by-product of these "Tri-Porosity" calculations was fractional
mineral percentages presented as a lithology log. Subsequent technical developments have
provided equipment to record log data digitally on magnetic tape at the wellsite and transmit it
via dataphone to the computer for rapid analysis.
 Today, variations of the tri-porosity calculations are being used worldwide to compute rock
characteristics which include:
 (1) Porosity computation in complex carbonates and shaly sands, including the detection of
secondary porosity and unflushed gas.
 (2) Lithology determination for stratigraphic and environmental studies.
 (3) Detection and evaluation of mineral deposits such as sulfur, potash, coal, oil shale, and certain
metallic minerals.
 1-Mono-porosity crossplots of resistivity logs (deep and shallow) and porosity tools (sonic,
density and neutron) are used to determine the matrix parameters ( pbma and Nma), waters
saturation (Sw and Sxo) and water resistivity (Rw). A number of frequency crossplots relating
Rxo vs. Rt. are used for the determination of water resistivity.
 2-Dia-porosity crossplots (sonic-density, neutron-density and neutron-sonic) are applied to
determine the shale volume (Vsh) and effective porosity of the studied formations.
 3- Tri-porosity crossplots, on the other hand, are used to identify the lithologic constituents of the
studied rock units. These plots show that the interpreted lithology like calcite and dolomite with
considerable amounts of silica and shale.
Litho porosity cross-plot (M-N plot):

 A common practice in log interpretation is to cross plot various porosity log readings in
order to determine formation lithology and accurate porosity. Cross plots of sonic vs.
density logs are widely used in the interpretation of shaly sands. For carbonates, density
vs. neutron cross plots are employed. While these plots and the calculations based on
74
them are extremely useful, when the lithology is a complex mixture of minerals an
accurate interpretation of the data becomes ambiguous.
 The "Litho Porosity" cross plot is introduced for interpretation in formations of complex
lithology. The Litho Porosity cross plot presents simultaneously the data from all three of
the standard porosity tools: the Sidewall Neutron Porosity log, or the GNT; the Formation
Density Compensated log; and the Borehole Compensated Sonic log.
 This is done by eliminating porosity from the sonic density relationship and defining this
new parameter as "M". Similarly, porosity is also eliminated from the neutron density
relationship and the result parameter defined as "N". Similarly, porosity is also eliminated
from the neutron density relationship and the resulting parameter defined as "N". In the
plot of M vs. N, each rock mineral is represented by a unique point regardless of its
porosity.
 Thus, for formations of complex lithologies, the position of the logging data on the M vs.
N grid in relation to the pure mineral points allows the various minerals in the formation
to be identified. This information is then used to calculate an accurate value of porosity.
The computer can be programmed to produce cross plots of M vs. N from logging data
recorded on magnetic tape, or from punched cards. The method allows detailed studies of
individual formations and comparison with other wells in a fraction of the time required
using manual methods. The Lithology Porosity cross plot technique has many
applications in formation evaluation and interpretation.
 Cross-plots of sonic versus density logs are widely used to interpret shaly sands, and
density versus neutron cross-plots for carbonates, but when lithology is complex the data
often become ambiguous. The litho-porosity cross-plot introduced here presents
simultaneously the data from all three of the standard tools, from readings of which two
porosity independent parameters are derived -- M from the sonic and density, and N from
the neutron and density logs.
 In the plot of M versus N, each pure mineral has a unique point, regardless of porosity;
relative position of the log-data points aids in identifying various minerals in the complex
formation; from lithologic information so derived accurate values of porosity can be
calculated. Computer programmed, the method allows detailed studies and correlations in
a fraction of time required with manual methods.
Clean sand and shaly sand interpretations

 The electrical effect of clays in shaly sand is not uniform. Different type of clays display
different surface area hence they display a different value of CEC. Figure 3.23 shows the
relationship between the formation resistivity factor (F or Cw/Co) to the conductivity of
formation water, Cw and the conductivity of rock fully saturated by water, Co.
 This figure indicates the effect of clay is not uniform especially at lower salinity where
the relationship has deviated significantly from clean sand line7. This also means at lower
75
salinity the formation resistivity is more reduced. Without reliable evaluation methods,
the chance of over-looking hydrocarbon zones is greatly increased.
Fig: 3.23
 In all worldwide petroleum basins, shaly sand analysis has always challenged geologists,
engineers and petrophysicist. The main challenge is to identify from cores or logs the
degree to which the clay minerals affect the reservoir quality. This quality is an important
factor in determining the reservoir pay zones. Various approaches have been proposed by
researcher to predict how the clay minerals would affect the reservoir performance.
However, a general and reliable shaly sand interpretation model is still being sought.
 Fig.3.24 through Fig 3.25 showed the log layout of different well respectively. Track one
contain the gamma-ray log, track two is the depth scale in feet, track three is the lateralog
deep log (red curve) and lateralog shallow log (blue curve), track four contains density
log (solid red curve) and neutron log (dashed blue curve), and track five contains the
calculation result of Qv (Brown curve), total porosity (solid red curve), effective porosity
log (solid blue curve) and core porosity (points). From core gamma-ray diffraction and
scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis, the primary clay type in the Y and Z
formation is Kaolinite. Therefore, in applying the effective porosity methods the clay
properties of Kaolinite were used (e.g., ρcl*= 2.52 g/cc and HIcl*= 0.37). The volume of
dry clay (Vcl*) was computed using the transformation equation of shale index (Ish).
76
Fig: 3.24
Fig: 3.25
77
UNIT IV
Sub-surface correlation and mapping from log data.

 Subsurface correlation lends itself to the study of facies relationships on a scale larger
than can be accomplished on most outcrops.
 Consequently, many relatively new ideas concerning allostratigraphy, sequence
stratigraphy, base-level changes, and global stratigraphic correlations have emerged from
subsurface geology, and are based on both geological and geophysical data.
 Drill holes and cores are concentrated in localities and zones of economic interest
whereas outcrops preferentially expose rocks which are harder and more resistant to
weathering.
 Because drill holes and geophysical logs normally sample a continuous, uninterrupted
section, subsurface correlation is based on more complete data.
Correlation of Logs:
 Correct correlation of stratigraphic units is absolutely necessary to makereliable cross
sections and maps, and to conduct regional faciesanalysis.Complex numerical procedures
for matching and correlation of logs, may be the primary tools in the future.
 At present, most geologists match log patterns by eye (or by tracing and overlaying logs),
allowing for variations in lithologies, thicknesses, and completeness of section. Three
major correlations, 1) marker beds, 2) pattern matching, and 3) slice techniques.
Marker beds I
 The log response ("kick") of a distinctive bed or series of beds can be used as a
Distinctive, laterally extensive groups of beds commonly result from transgressions or
regressions or erosional episodes which redistribute proximal sediment far across the
basin.
 Markers that can be mapped regionally may therefore be related to, or include, important
allostratigraphic surfaces.
Pattern matching:
 This technique involves recognition of distinctive log patterns any origin. Tie correlated
patterns may represent vertical facies successions, or unconformity-bounded units.
 The surfaces of the units chosen may be transgressive and separate individual facies
successions.
Subsurface Maps:
 Subsurface geological maps are either compilations of data, or interpretation summaries,
the maps of many different quantities have been made, but for stratigraphic and sediment
logical purposes.
 There are three main types, 1) structure maps that. Show the elevation of a 2) isopach
maps that show the thickness and 3) lithological maps that show the composition of a unit
in one of several.
78
Delineation of fractures from log data and production logging
 Fracture zones in hard rock terrane play an important and critical role in fluid flow within the
sub-surface, such as the movement and accumulation of groundwater as well as transport of
contaminants. Many a time the minor fractures present in the bedrock, if well-connected, can give
copious supply of groundwater. In potential bedrock aquifers, individual boreholes must be
targeted to intercept fracture zone or even a fracture that could be from 5-10 ft to less than 1 ft
wide. The water resource professionals need additional, site-specific information to precisely
locate boreholes to intercept specific bedrock-fracture zones.
 Delineation of fracture zones in such low permeability rocks is thus a challenging task. Of all the
geophysical methods, resistivity method is the most suitable method for investigations of fracture
aquifers because localization of fracture zones is based on the fact that they exhibit lower
resistivity compared with the un-disturbed rocks.
 But in most of the cases, the resistivity technique, particularly sounding, alone cannot identify the
fractured aquifer, because the layer gets masked on a sounding curve as its thickness becomes
less compared to its depth of occurrence. Hence, an additional technique along with the resistivity
technique will help in identifying such zones.
 The use of geophysical techniques is well documented for groundwater investigations. Several
workers used various geophysical methods to study high yielding crystalline bedrock aquifers.
 Among the additional techniques that support VES interpretation, self-potential (SP) method is
one. Though SP surveys are mainly used for mineral exploration, these are also being used for
knowing the movement of water or the delineation of potential fracture zones.
 In a porous or fractured media, the relative movement between solid matrix and electrolyte
(groundwater) causes an electrical potential at the interface. If the water movement was brought
by a hydraulic gradient, a difference of electric potential called streaming potential/self-potential
(SP) would result between any two points in the direction of motion.
 The presence of a pressure gradient in the sub-surface, however, is not a sufficient condition to
ensure the existence of an electric potential on the surface. As defined by F it is necessary to have
a pres-sure gradient parallel to a boundary that separates regions of different streaming potential
coefficients. In such cases, an electric field equivalent to that by a surface distribution of current
dipole along the boundary is developed.
 Borehole wall imaging is currently the most reliable means of mapping discontinuities within
boreholes. Several types of discontinuities that have been identified in borehole logging are
bedding, cleavage, veins, joints, fractures and faults. As these imaging techniques are ex-pensive
and thus not always included in a logging run, a method of predicting fracture frequency directly
from traditional logging tool response would be very useful and cost effective.
 The resistivity value will decrease where fractures are present. However, these trends can be
difficult to see on a single plot of log response, but a cumulative sum plot of the various logs
provides a clearer picture of anomalous zones in the borehole. In order to ascertain the presence
of these fractures and to study the response of electrical self-potential method in delineating these
fracture zones sub-surface, well logging and surface electrical self-potential investigations were
carried out at some of the wells.
79
 The present paper analyses in detail the results of SP and VES interpretation in the presence of
geophysical well logging and litho logs. Thus the actual fracture zones encountered are correlated
with the output of the SP and VES.
.Production logging.
Production Logging Tools (PLT)

Flowmeters
Gradiomanometer
Manometer
Thermometer
Casing Collar, Gamma Ray and Caliper
 Through-tubing Production Logging refers to logs run after the production string casing
has been cemented and the well placed on production. Measurements are made under
dynamic as well as static conditions. Surface fluid measurements are usually not adequate
to determine the efficiency of the downhole production or injection system. In many
wells downhole malfunctions, related to mechanical problems or communication
problems, may be reducing ultimate recovery in the reservoir.
 For effective management of the reservoir, measurement of fluid saturations is needed
periodically at various points in the reservoir. Production logs have application in three
major areas: diagnosis of mechanical problems, analysis of individual well performance
in relation to the reservoir, and perhaps most important from the standpoint of recovery,
management of reservoir fluids.
 Confident answers to these questions require careful design and application of Production
Logging techniques. Usually more than one logging device or measurement is required.
For producing wells, the combination of radioactive devices to evaluate fluid type and
saturations behind casing, and flow devices and fluid differentiation devices to evaluate
fluids and movements inside casing, can provide most of the clues needed to effectively
deplete all hydrocarbon zones penetrated by the well.
 For flow behind the casing, the combination of temperature and noise measurements
usually provides optimum definition. Data from all available sources must be considered
to provide most effective diagnosis.
Downhole Measurements
There is no lack of measurements that can be made downhole, each providing clues aiding
problem diagnosis.
These measurements are outlined as follows. Temperature is a simple economical measurement
and is affected by many factors associated with problems both inside and outside the
casing .Measurements can be recorded in various manners:
-Temperature at a particular level,
80
-Temperature at various points around the casing circumference at a particular level.

-Temperature change with time at a particular level,
-Temperature change with depth, and
-Rate of temperature change with depth.
Temperature inside the tubing or casing is a result of heat flow and/or fluid expansion. Heat is
transferred through materials and liquids by conduction influenced by temperature difference.
Heat is also transferred by convection due to fluid movement influenced by flow rate and fluid
type.
Pressure:
 Pressure measurements are simple and can also be recorded in several manners. With the
well flowing, pressure change with time at a particular level indicates stability of flow
conditions. Pressure change with depth (pressure gradient) indicates fluid density.
Transient pressure analysis is not considered a production logging technique but
obviously can add to the store of clues available for problem diagnosis.
Fluid density:
 Fluid density can also be measured by a radioactive device through gamma ray
absorption. Density can distinguish between the amount of water, oil, and gas at a
particular level in the wellbore at a given Instant. With low gravity crudes, however,
there may not be much difference in density between oil and water. Also, it must be
recognized that the relative proportion of oil, water, and gas at a point is often
 Not equivalent to the relative rate of movement of the individual fluids passing that
point. Unless average Flow velocity is quite high, lighter fluids move faster than heavier
fluids.
Fluid velocity:
 Fluid velosity within the wellbore is often an interesting measurement related to flow
entering or leaving the casing. Velocity can be measured with a spinner-if a meaningful
relation between spinner speed and flow velocity can be established. This relation
depends on downhole fluid density and viscosity and fluid slippage around the spinner, as
well as friction in the spinner. For precision, downhole calibration, sometimes at several
depths, is required.
 For multi-phase flow, particularly in deviated holes, additionalProblems are created
because lighter fluids tend to move up the high side of the pipe. Heavier fluidsMay move
up and also back down in lower segments of the cross-section.
 Diverters, which force a highPercentage of the total fluid through the spinner, minimize
these problems. Turbulence due to fluid movement into the wellbore, perpendicular to the
average flow, make measurements within a perforated zone suspect.
 Fluid velocitycan also be measured by injecting a radioactive tracer in the flow stream
and recording the time to move a particular distance. Problems involve knowing when the
81
tracer actually passes the detector and that it actually moves with the liquid. However, at
low flow rates, tracer measurements of velocity may be better than spinner
measurements. Increased radioactivity at a particular depth compared with a base log
indicates movement of radioactive fluid or solids into the zone.
 The rate of decline of the induced radioactivity is related to the rate of movement of the
tracer away from the wellbore. Radioactive cement or sand grains can show the position
of the cement or fracture sand after a treatment; however, it should be recognized that a
small amount of radioactive material near the gamma ray detector may give the same
reading as a large amount of material several inches further back in the formation.
 Since chlorine is usually associated with formation water, the time required for the
thermal neutron population to decay by a certain percentage can be related to water and
hydrocarbon saturation in the porous rock near the wellbore. However, for this
measurement to be meaningful, other factors must be favorable. Formation porosity and
water salinity must be reasonably high, and formation shale content must be reasonably
low. Also, fluid saturations in the rock near the well bore may not be the same as those
further away due to invasion.
Pulsed neutron bombardment
 Pulsed neutron bombardment of elements such'as carbon, oxygen, chlorine, silicon, hydrogen,
calcium, sulphur, and iron in the rock near the wellbore permits the measurement of the relative
amounts of these elements and calculation of the relative saturation of the fluids with which they
are associated.
 Many factors enter into calculation of fluid saturation by pulsed neutron techniques; thus these
de-vices are most effective when used to compare changes fluid saturation over a relatively long
period of time due to production, or a short period of time due to injection.
 Audible noise level and frequency patterns in the wellbore caused by movement of fluid inside or
out-, side the casing can be used to establish the presence of flow, the path of the flow, what fluid
phases are involved, and to a degree, the flow rate. Sound transmission characteristics from a
well-bore transmitter to a nearby receiver provide information as to acoustic coupling between
the cement and the casing, and the cement and the formation.
 Under favorable conditions, these characteristics may be related to the possibility of fluid
movement be-tween zones outside the casing. Electrical properties (i.e., conductivity or dielectric
constant) usually differ significantly between hydrocarbons and water. Thus they may be used to
determine relative amounts of these fluids at a particular level in the wellbore. These
measurements are more definitive at low water percentages, and where the fluids are intimately
mixed. Again, the relative amounts of fluids residing at a particular level are not necessarily the
same as the relative amounts of the fluids passing that level.
Application of production Logging tools
 Production logging tools are designed to operate downhole under dynamic producing
conditions to provide the data necessary to determine the physical condition of the well,
82
to evaluate the performance of the well completion scheme, to diagnose well problems, to
evaluate the results of well work over operations, and, in some cases, to provide the best
obtainable information concerning basic reservoir parameters.
 Although costs must be justified in individual cases, it is often advisable to run
appropriate production logging tools in key wells early in their life , to confirm that the
well is operating as desired, and subsequently, when changes in producing or injection
characteristics are noted. When several zones are open to the wellbore, periodic surveys
provide the data needed for control of reservoir fluids.
 To run downhole surveys, the well hookup must allow movement of logging devices to
the desired point in the well. Major application is in flowing oil or gas wells, or in
injection Wells. However, gas lift wells normally do not present difficult problems, and
occasionally tools are operated through the annulus of pumping wells.
Field examples of production Logging techniques
 The following examples illustrate use of production logging techniques in diagnosing

well problems, defining flow in producing or injection situations, and in monitoring
reservoir fluid saturations. Location of Tubing Leaks A program of measuring pressures
at the production casing head of oil and gas wells is followed by most operators.
 If pressure on the production string cannot be bled off readily, then a temperature survey
can often be used to locate the leak. In a gas well, the temperature survey should be run
with the tubing shut in while gas is bled from the casing. Cooling, caused by gas
expansion, should exist at the depth of a small leak.
 Cooling usually extends upward (assuming most of the cooled stream moves upward) ,
but since the mass rate of flow is usually low, rapidly returns to the normal temperature
gradient. Localized cooling from a few degrees to as much as 50°F has been observed.
 In an oil well, a temperature survey may not pinpoint the tubing leak with a "cold spot,"
since there may not be sufficient gas expansion to significantly reduce the temperature. A
shut-in temperature survey, however, may show an anomaly from the geothermal
temperature due to extraneous flow. At high rates, a flow meter survey, run under various
flow and shut-in conditions, may help pinpoint the leak. Sometimes a fluid density
survey, with the tubing shut in at the surface, producing through the tubing leak, may
show a gas gradient down to the point of the leak, and an oil gradient below the leak.
Casing Leak in Pumping Well:

 In a pumping well, production logging requires that tools be run in the Tubing-casing
annulus. This can usually be done utilizing an offset wellhead, assuming there is no
packer or tubing anchor.
83
Flow Behind Casing
 Flow behind casing (where no perforations are open) can sometimes be detected with the
temperature survey. However, the noise log may be more effective particularly at low
flow rates. A gamma ray log run opposite zones where prolonged fluid movement has
occurred will sometimes record a greatly increased radiation count.
 Thus, behind-the-casing water movement, leaving a radioactive crust, may show up
dramatically. Experience in an area is needed to verify that this increased radiation occurs
with specific formation water. Producing Zone Evaluation-Reservoir Management
Measurement of fluid type, flow rate, and pressure at various points through the
producing zone should provide data needed to deplete the reservoir in an optimum
manner.
 In multi-zone producing wells, locating entry of water or gas may permit undesired fluids
to be shut off effectively. Identification of cross flow between zones may indicate needed
revisions in reservoir development schemes.
 Evaluation of the rate of flow from various zones open may indicate need for selective
stimulation. The combination of flow rate from a particular zone and the well intake
pressure opposite that zone should provide reservoir engineering data to prepare a
permeability thickness profile
 Measurement of fluid saturations and changes in fluid saturations in various zones open
to the wellbore,or sealed off behind the casing , should improve ability to optimize
reservoir depletion.
 Formation damage effects in multiple zones maybe more easily detected by production
logging techniques than by transient pressure testing. If conditions are favorable, work
overs to correct certain situations can be accomplished.
Well logging for metallic and non-metallic minerals:
 Because well logging is so intimately related to petroleum prospecting, it is easy to

overlook advantages offered in other industries. In the search for oil, logs provide a fast,
detailed, and economical reconnaissance of the entire length of drilled hole.
 The available variety of logs enables measurement of many parameters useful in mineral
identification, such as electrical, density, acoustic, radioactive, and certain nuclear
characteristics of formations.
 Appropriate combinations of these measurements can be used to describe not only the
type minerals in the formation but also the amounts or concentrations.
 To locate and evaluate mineral deposits with logs, several requirements must. First, the
mineral of interest must have characterizing properties measurable by logs. Second, the
mineral must represent a significant fraction of the formation bulk volume.
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 The purpose is to show how logs have been used to find anti evaluate deposits of
commercially important minerals: sulfur, potash, coal and oil shale.
 Nearly all of the well logging devices currently used in the petroleum industry have
found some limited application in metallic mineral exploration and mining.
 However, due to differing problems, the emphasis in the mineral industries has been on
those devices regarded as 'exotic' or 'specialty' by the petroleum industry.
 These include devices to measure or determine induced polarization, magnetic
susceptibility, and, hopefully, nuclear activation and the use of spectral analysis.
 Problems which the mining industry believes are solvable with well logging methods
include bulk assay and recognition of minerals adjacent to and retired from a borehole,
delineation of joint and fracture systems, leaching problems which involve porosity,
permeability and groundwater movement.
Well logging for Radioactive and non-radioactive evaporates:
 Logging techniques are well suited to locating and identifying commercial evaporate
deposits. Bedded evaporate minerals are essentially nonporous and electrically
nonconductive.
 Because some evaporates quite soluble in water-base drilling fluids and lead to enlarged
holes, the caliper log is an important adjunct in the logging program. While resistivity
and caliper measurements locate evaporate deposits, they do not identify.
 The evaporate mineral. However since evaporate beds have little or no porosity, a single
porosity log-sonic, density or neutron-will usually provide identification.
 When evaporate beds contain mixtures of minerals, or are intercalated in sedimentary
rocks several logs are required for mineral identification.
For Nonradioactive evaporates:

 An example of the discrimination between halite and anhydrite is shown Gammaray,
Caliper, and density curves were recorded through a section of inter bedded shale, halite
and anhydrite in a well drilled with a brackish water drilling mud.
 Thus, the caliper shows whole enlargement in the salt beds and in the shale zones.
However pure halite has a log density of 2.03 gm/cma, and many zones approach this
value.
 Anhydrite, with a log density of 2.98 gm/cm3, is readily identified where the density
curve approaches that value. Shale intercalations are signaled by departures from these
characteristic densities, and are confirmed by the gammaray curve.
85
For Radioactive Evaporates:

 Potash minerals are among the radioactive evaporates most extensively sought and
mined. The radioactivity stems from all isotopes (K40) which comprises a constant
fraction of the total amount of naturally occurring potassium.
 Thus the gamma-ray log is an important part of the logging program used in potash
prospecting.
 However it is necessary to relate the gamma ray log response to variations in potassium
content.
 The study was made for an eccentered,scintillation type (scintillation gamma ray-
detector-model) gamma-ray. Detector, and effects of hole size and mud weight were
considered.
Coal:
 The high resistivity of coal beds causes distinctive anomalies on resistivity curves. In
fact, early logs through coal seam anomalies helped define the characteristic response of
resistivity curves for thin, highly resistive beds.
 Thin coal beds cause high lateral curve readings opposite the beds and very low readings
in the “blind zones” immediately below the coal.
 The long normal curve gives sharp “reversal” readings opposite coal beds thinner than
the electrode spacing. Occasionally an SP anomaly develops in a coal bed so that it
resembles a good oil or gas pay zone.
 When coal or lignite beds are encountered in oil or gas explorations, the problem is often
resolved by sidewall sampling.
 However, modern porosity logs readily identify coal beds, because sonic, neutron, and
density logs all indicate unusually- high values of apparent porosity in such zones.
 The sonic log exhibits ∆t values approaching l-10 psec,‘ft opposite coal beds, a Value
appreciably higher than that recorded through the shale sections. Most of the coal beds in
this figure are also identified by anomalies on the caliper curve.
 We have observed that coal beds frequently tend to cave, particularly toward the base of
the coal seam.
 Experience shows that the ∆t recorded in coal is usually greater than in adjacent shales,
and as with shales, the ∆t of coal varies inversely with compaction, i.e., the greater the
compaction, the lower is the sonic value of ∆t, other factors being equal. (Fig Refer
material).
Sulfur:
 Sulfur, like oil, has long been commercially valuable. Also like oil, the demand or sulfur
continues to grow. There are other similarities. Most domestic sulfur is produced from
wells.
86
 Further, native sulfur usually occurs in the interstices of other rock minerals, rarely
representing as much as one-half the bulk volume of the formation.
 To adapt the principles of mineral definition by logs to sulfur prospecting, it is necessary
to cow sider the appropriate properties of sulfur and the minerals which commonly occur
with it.
 The properties measured by sonic and density logs are presented in Table 1(Refer
material), which indicates two properties of sulfur to be particularly useful: the sonic
interval transit time is exceptionally large; the density is low.
 Thus, either sonic or density measurements offer a means of evaluating sulfur
deposits.and sulfur are present, the values recorded by either a sonic or density log are
simple function of the relative quantities of each and can be expressed as.
ρb = Sρsulfer + (1 – S)ρ limestone
∆t=S∆tsulfer + (1 - S) ∆t limestone
Borehole geophysics for groundwater exploration
Subsurface exploration
1. Test drilling
Geologic log
Drilling time log
Water level measurement
2. Geophysical logging/borehole geophysics
Resistivity logging
Spontaneous potential logging
Radiation logging
Temperature logging
Caliper Logging
Fluid Conductivity logging
Fluid velocity logging
3. Tracer tests and others
 In relatively porous formations, resistivity is controlled more by water content and

quality within the formation than by the rock resistivity.
 For aquifers composed of unconsolidated materials, the resistivity decreases with the
degree of saturation and the salinity of the groundwater.
 Clay minerals conduct electric current through their matrix, therefore, clayey formations
tend to display lower resistivities than do permeable alluvial aquifers.
Geophysical logging/ Borehole geophysics
87
 The application of geophysical logging to groundwater hydrology lags far behind its
comparable use in petroleum exploration.
 The primary reason for this is cost. Most water wells are shallow, small-diameter holes
for domestic water supply; logging costs would be relatively large and unnecessary.
 But for deeper and more expensive wells, such as municipal, irrigation or injection
purposes, logging can be economically justified in terms of improved well construction
and performance.
 Interpretation of many geophysical logs is more of an art than a science
Factors important in choosing the type of wells

 Quantity of water required
 Economic consideration
 Hydro-geologic consideration
 Depth of water table
Effective pay thickness of an aquifer:

 Water-bearing layers are classified according to their water-transmitting properties into
aquifers, aquitards or aquicludes. With regard to the flow to pumped wells the following
definitions are commonly used.
 An aquifer is a water-bearing layer in which the vertical flow component is so small with
respect to the horizontal flow component that it can be neglected. The groundwater flow
in an aquifer is assumed to be predominantly horizontal.
 An aquitard is a water-bearing layer in which the horizontal flow component is so small
with respect to the vertical flow component that it can be neglected. The groundwater
flow in an aquitard is assumed to be predominantly vertical.
 An aquiclude is a water-bearing layer in which both the horizontal and vertical flow
components are so small that they can be neglected. The groundwater flow in an
aquiclude is assumed to be zero.
 Common aquifers are geological formations of unconsolidated sand and gravel,
sandstone, limestone, and severely fractured volcanic and crystalline rocks.
Hydraulic Conductivity:
 The hydraulic conductivity of a water-bearing layer is affected by the density and
viscosity of the groundwater. The density of the water may vary with pressure,
temperature and concentration of dissolved solids.
Saturated thickness (H, D)
 For confined aquifers, the saturated thickness is equal to the physical thickness of the
aquifer between the aquicludes above and below it (Fig refers material). The same is true
for the confined parts of a leaky aquifer bounded by an aquitard and an aquiclude.
Transmissivity (KH or T):
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 The transmissivity is the product of the average hydraulic conductivity (K)and the
saturated thickness of the aquifer (H).
Specific storage (S)and storativity(S):
 The specific storage S, of a saturated confined aquifer is the volume of water that a unit
volume of aquifer releases from storage under a unit decline in head.
S = SsH
The storativity of a saturated aquifer is a function of its thickness.
Specific yield (S,):
 The specific yield is the volume of water that an unconfined aquifer releases from storage
per unit surface area of aquifer per unit decline of the water table. In unconfined aquifers,
the effects of the elasticity of the aquifer material and the water are negligible, except for
a short time after pumping starts.
Hydraulic resistance (c):
 The hydraulic resistance characterizes the resistance of an aquitard to vertical flow, either
upward or downward. It is the ratio of the saturated thickness of the aquitard D' to its
hydraulic conductivity for vertical flow K and is thus defined as
c = D'K
Saline water-fresh water interface from log data

 Locating and characterizing the interface between overlying fresh water and saline was
one of the most important objectives of the formation. Single-point, nuclear, fluid-
resistivity, and temperature tools were used in an attempt to locate the position of the
interface in the rock surrounding the hole and in the fluid column in the hole.
 One of the basic problems in extracting data from a drill hole is that drilling operations
disturb the hydrologic and lithologic parameters for which measurements are needed.
 The position of the interface in the finished hole may be higher or lower than it was in the
formation before drilling commenced.
 It was not possible to locate the interface accurately by sampling the mud returns during
the drilling of most holes, for the time lag for mud return from a depth of several hundred
feet makes the depth inaccurate.
 It can be seen that the most accurate information on the depth and character of the
interface will be derived from a hole where the casing is relatively well sealed against the
wall of the hole and where the rock is not penetrated by drilling mud.
.
Ground water flow direction by logs
 The measurement of flow within and between wells is one of the most useful well-
logging methods available to interpret the movement of groundwater and contaminants.
 Flow measurement with logging probes includes mechanical methods, such as impellers,
chemical and radioactive tracer methods, and thermal methods.
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 Their primary application is to measure vertical flow within a single well, but lateral flow
through a single well or flow between wells also may be recorded by
borehole-geophysical methods.
Impeller Flowmeter:
 The most common logging probe used at the present time for measuring vertical fluid
movement in water wells is the impeller flowmeter, which is a relatively inexpensive and
reliable instrument.
 Continuous logs of flow rate may be made at a constant logging speed and supplemented
by more accurate stationary measurements at selected depths.
Tracer Techniques:
 Tracer methods have been used in groundwater for many years, but only those that
employ logging equipment are described here.
 Tracer techniques are useful at much lower velocities than impeller flowmeters; rates of
about 1 m/day may be detected.
Heat-Pulse Flowmeters:
 The wire heat grid, located between two thermistors, is heated by a 1-ms pulse of
electric current, which is triggered from the surface.
 The heated sheet of water moves toward one of the thermistors under the influence of
the vertical component of flow in the well.
 A deflection of the recorder trace to the right indicates upward flow, and to the left,
downward flow.
UNIT V
Theoretical computations of normal and lateral log responses:
Normal Responses:
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 Figure 5.1 depicts a well bore penetrating a thin (40-inch) coal seam between two shale
beds. Two normal devices are being drawn up the well bore in the process of recording
the two log traces. Electrode A is conducting current through the mud filling the well
bore and into the surrounding rock. The short-normal (or AMN) device is measuring
continuously the potential differences between electrode M and the uphole electrode N.
The AM spacing is 16 inches; the measure point O (a reference point only and not an
electrode) is midway between A and M, 8 inches from both.
 The long-normal (AM'N') device is identical to the short-normal device, except that the
spacings between its electrodes are larger: its N' electrode is farther uphole than the N
electrode, its AM' spacing is 64 inches, and its measure point O' is 32 inches from the A
and M' electrodes. Other AM' spacings—56, 72, and 86 inches—have been used in
Illinois. Most long-normal logs of this sort were made in the 1930s and 1940s and are
identified on logs as third-curve traces. (It is of no consequence that the measure points of
the normal and lateral devices are at different places along a given sonde because the
mechanical recorder that draws the several resistivity traces on a log registers all of them
to the same vertical log scale.)
 Figure 5.1 visualizes an idealized combination of stratigraphy, well bore conditions, and
normal device responses. It reasonably exemplifies curves from logs of oil and gas wells
penetrating coals in Illinois (Swann 1952). Assumptions made in figure5.1 are: the well
bore is filled with a freshwater mud, the bore is not caved and oversized, and the coal
seam and clay shale bed have uniform composition and structure. The coal seam is highly
resistive (i.e., less conductive than the adjacent beds), and the clay shale beds are
conductive (more conductive than the adjacent coal).
 The electrode configurations in figure 5.1 represent devices used on a Schlumberger

sonde in the 1950s .Different well service companies used sondes with various
combinations and spacings of normal and lateral devices. To measure and interpret a
particular log, one always must take care to identify the kinds of devices and device
spacings that produced its traces. Normal devices produce symmetrical curves that ideally
are centered on the center planes of the beds that form them. The peak deflection of a
normal curve—whether regular or reversed—occurs when the measure point O’ of the
device is opposite the center plane of a bed (or of several thin beds that the device senses
as a single unit).
 Note that normal devices do not make distinct curve features right at bed bases and tops.
The inflection points and shoulder peaks indicating the base and top of a bed occur at
one-half of a device's spacing inside the bed boundaries if the curve is regular and one-
half spacing outside the bed boundaries if the curve is reversed. Figure5.1 illustrates the
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relationship of device spacing and bed thickness to the kind of curve formed. If the
resistive bed is thicker than the spacing of the normal device, its curve deflects rightward,
forming a single regular peak, as does the 16-inch short normal in the 40-inch bed. If the
bed is thinner than the device's spacing, the middle of its curve deflects leftward, forming
a curve resembling a W with the reversed peak between two shoulder peaks, as does the
64-inch long normal.
 Certain features of normal curves can be used to locate the tops, bases, and centerlines of
thin resistive beds, but seldom are all of these features present or well formed. On a
reversed normal curve, the base and top of a resistive bed are indicated by the positions
of its two shoulder peaks (fig.5. 1). The point of each shoulder peak is one-half the
device's AM spacing outside the bed—one-half AM', 32 inches (fig. 5.1).
 The shoulder peak associated with the base of a resistive bed is formed as the M'
electrode of the ascending device enters the bed. The shoulder peak associated with the
top of a bed is formed as the A electrode leaves the bed. On a regular normal curve (16-
inch short-normal curve, fig. 5.1), the base and top of a resistive bed are indicated by the
position of the inflection point on each curve limb.
 The inflection point is the point on a curve limb where the slope changes sign (where the
curve goes from concave to convex). Each inflection point is one-half the device's AM
spacing (8 inches for short normal, fig. 5.1) inside a bed's top or base. The inflection
point that is one-half AM spacing above the bed's base is formed as the A electrode enters
the bed. The inflection point that is one-half AM spacing below the top of the bed is
formed as the M electrode leaves the bed. The inflect points are subtle features, often
difficult to locate closely.
 They show up best on the less common large-scale normal logs (5-inch scale and larger)
that record moderate deflections (midscale peaks) for resistive beds. Usually, inflection
points are not visible on the more common, small-scale, 2-inch logs, especially if the
resistive beds produce strong deflections (full-scale peaks) having limbs that are straight
over much of their length. In any case, inflection points cannot be found on misshaped
limbs of regular curves.
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Fig- 5.1: Idealized 16-inch and 64-inch normal curves for a thin coal seam between thick
shale beds.
Lateral Responses:
 Figure 5.2 represents a lateral device ascending a well bore and displays the electrical log
trace recorded as it passes through a thin (40-inch) coal seam lying between thick shale
beds. As the sonde bearing the device is pulled up the hole, electrode A, part of current-
generating circuit AB, is conducting current through the mud filling the well bore and
into the surrounding rock.
 The potential difference between electrodes M and N is measured and the values
recorded continuously as a lateral trace. The part of the lateral trace that is formed as the
device's AMN electrodes pass through the coal seam is the lateral "curve" of the seam
(fig. 5.2). Any given point on a lateral trace records the apparent resistivity measured by
the device as its O measure point passed through the well depth shown on the log's scale
for the point. (But keep in mind that the value measured does not represent a point or
93
plane in the well bore and surrounding rock: it is the value obtained by measuring a not
very definite volume of rock and well mud surrounding the device's electrodes.)
 The measuring electrodes M and N of the lateral device in figure 2 are 32 inches apart
and the O measure point is midway between them—16 inches from the N (or bottom)
electrode of the device. These measurements are typical of the Schlumberger lateral
devices (Hilchie 1979, Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation 1949 -1958). The
spacing of a lateral device is the distance between the O’ measure point and the second
electrode uphole from it. In figure 5.2, the spacing is 19 feet—the distance between the A
electrode and O measure point. In other patterns of the lateral device, the second
electrode uphole from the O point is either the M or the N electrode, but in all cases, the
spacing of a lateral device is noted on an electrical log as the AO spacing.
 Several "short" and "long" lateral spacings have been used by the petroleum industry.
Long spacings are the rule in Illinois, 18 feet 8 inches and 19 feet being common and 24
feet being older and occasional. Literature of Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation
(1949 1955 1958), Dresser Industries, Inc. (1982), and other well service companies and
articles by Chombart (ca. 1950) and Guyod (1952a) describe the various lateral curve
configurations that are produced by resistive and conductive beds ranging in thickness
from several times AO spacing to fractions of it.
 Figure 5.2 illustrates a curve that can be produced under Illinois conditions by a thin
resistive bed or coal seam 40 inches thick, or about one-fifth AO spacing. The curve
generated by the lateral device is drawn as a solid line up to the point where the bottom
(N) electrode is shown entering the coal seam. A dashed line represents the curve that
will be formed as the device ascends farther uphole.
 A lateral curve is not in itself symmetrical, nor is it symmetrical to the resistive bed that
produces it. When the resistive bed is thin (by our term, less than one-half AO spacing),
its lateral curve consists of three features: reflection peak, blind zone, and bed base peak.
The resistivity values indicated by these features are always false: consistently low in the
blind zone and high at the bed base peak and reflection peak.
 A reflection peak is recorded on a log at the indicated depth of the sonde's O point as the
uphole A electrode, 19 feet above the O point, enters the base of a resistive bed (coal
seam, fig. 5.2). The resistivity of the reflection peak in figure 5.2 is not the resistivity of
the shale, but a high, false reading. Similarly, a false depressed resistivity for the shale is
recorded in the blind zone (or dead zone, as some writers call it).
 The blind zone is recorded on the log while the resistive bed is between the A and O
electrodes. The more distinct blind zones and reflection peaks are recorded in shale
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sections (conductive beds) thicker than the AO spacing. Where resistive beds occur in the
AO interval below a particular thin resistive bed, their blind zones and bed base peaks
will be combined additively with the reflection peak and blind zone features generated by
the high bed.
 The bed base peak is formed at the O point as the N (or bottom) electrode enters the base
of the bed. The bed base peak records the highest apparent resistivity of the bed. In ideal
conditions, the apex of the bed base peak is 16 inches above the bed base—the ON
distance—for the device configuration shown in figure5.2. Several common conditions
will shift a bed base peak up or down about 1 foot. Resistive beds within AO distance
above the target bed can deflect the point of the bed base peak upward or create a
compound curve with a displaced point.
 Borehole diameter, resistive bed resistivity, and mud resistivity affect the shape and
location of a bed base peak slightly (Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation
1955,Hilchie 1979). A few old Illinois lateral logs were made with inverted lateral
devices, which produced upside-down curves with bed peaks related to the tops rather
than the bases of resistive beds.
 Lateral devices are better suited than normals to detect thin resistive beds (Schlumberger
Well Surveying Corporation 1949 1958). They typically produce strong bed base peaks
for thin resistive beds, even for beds less than 1 foot thick for which the normal curves
are absent, weak, or reversed. Although lateral curves do not mark the tops and
centerlines of thin resistive beds in any obvious way and are asymmetric in relation to the
beds, their bed base peaks and reflection peaks can yield close locations of bed bases.
95
Fig- 5.2: Idealized 19-foot lateral curve for a thin coal seam between thick shale beds.
Identification and delineation of sub-surface formations from well log data.
 The purpose of geophysical investigations is to define and delineate the contaminants

present and the general extent and location of contamination.
 Geophysical methods are used to identify the "hot spots" at a site and act as siting tools to
optimize the locations of wells and boreholes over large study areas.
 Geophysical investigations mainly comprise measurement and interpretation of signals
from natural or induced physical phenomena generated as a result of spatial changes in
subsurface lateral and depth wise in homogenity.
 These signals, measured repetitively at several points in space and time, are interpreted,
considering geological information, in terms of subsurface structures/features.
 Among all the surface geophysical techniques for shallow subsurface prospecting,
Electrical Resistivity Method is the most widely applied method. The electrical resistivity
96
method can be classified in two categories viz. 1) vertical electric sounding (VES) and 2)
electrical resistivity profiling (ERP).
 The VES is used for delineating vertical variations of the subsurface, whereas ERP is
used to detect lateral variations (anomalies).
 Since the depth-locations of these formations are irregular and without any order,
conventional signal processing tools, such as Periodogram Analysis, Fourier
transformation, etc. fail to identify their spatial location in well data.
 They can only provide the frequency information of the signal and fail to provide any
further information about where in space (depth) these frequencies occur.
Calculation of reservoir parameters:
Formation factor: The formation factor (F) depends on:
 Porosity of the formation and pore geometry.

 Lithology of the formation, Degree of cementation and
 Type and amount of clay in the rock.
Archie found a relation of Formation Resistivity Factor (F) to Porosity (Φ) as follows:
F = a / Φm
The constants (a) and (m) are related to lithology.
 Cementation factor (m) in consolidated sandstone or a porous limestone is 1.8 to 2.0. In a

clean unconsolidated sandstone values for (m) may be as low as 1.3 and the constant (a)
is equal to 1.0.
 An empirical formula based on studies of core data from numerous localities has resulted
in the equation:
F = 1 / Φm
 Porosity of 10 percent results in a Formation resistivity Factor of 100

Notice these three Formation Resistivity factors are the same as previously calculated with F =
Ro/Rw above.
Therefore:Ro/Rw = F = 1 / Φm
97
Calculation of porosity: Porosity determined using some porosities logs
 Using Density Where, ΦD= Density porosity, ρb = Bulk

Density
ΦD= ρma-ρb/ρma- ρfρma= Density matrix, ρf= Fluid density
 Using density and neutron
For hydrocarbon and waterzone ,Where, Φ= porosity
Φ= ΦD +ΦN / 2 ΦN= Neutron Density
For Gas Zone,
Φ= 2ΦD+ΦN / 3
Even the porosity has to be determined by Archie’s equation.
Determination of Resistivity:
Resistivity (Ohm-meters) = V/I * A / L
Water resistivity can be obtained from water bearing zone Where, Rw= Water Resistivity
Rw= Rmf*Rt / Rxo……1 Rmf=Resistivity of mudfilterate, Rt= True Resistivity
Rt= a * Rw/ Φm * Snw…….2 Rxo= Resistivity of flushed zone
Sw= Saturation of water, m= cementing factor.
Determination of permeability:
Permeability estimates from Φ and Sw
In some cases there may exist rough relationship between the values of porosity and
permeability, but such correlation usually is empherically derived for a given formation in a
given area.
K=(C Φ3/(Sw)irr)2 where, K=permeability, The value of C hydrocarbon gravity
(Sw)irr= Irreducible water saturation
Relationship between permeability, porosity & irreducible water saturation:
K= PΦQ/SwiR
Calibration is required for log derived Swi and computed K with core measurements to
effectively use such equation
98
P, Q, R = constants to be calibrated from core measurements.
Water Saturation:
 Whether the pores of the formation are completely saturated with formation water or the
pore space is partially saturated with oil/gas. Water saturation can be expressed as a
function of Rw, Ro, Rt and porosity.
Sw= {a* Rw / Φm * Rt}1/2
Rw determination from resistivity log
Archie’s equation solve for Rw.

Rw= (Rt x Sw2)/ Φ2
For clean water bearing sand:
Sw=1
Hence, Rw = Rt x Φ2
Hydrocarbon saturation:
 This isCannot be determined directly but inferred from determination of water saturation
(Sw) from resistivity and porosity logs.
•Sw – Fraction of pore space occupied by water.
•Sh – Fraction of pore space occupied by hydrocarbon.
Sw+Sh=1 or Sh=1-Sw
Calculation of movable oil:
Smo – Movable oil saturation

Total hydrocarbon saturation:
1: Sh = 1 – Sw
Residual hydrocarbon saturation:

2: Shr = 1- Sxo
Compare Sor from core to Shr from logs and adjust Sxo parameters to obtain a good match. In
depleted oil zones, Sor from core should match (1 - SW) from logs.
Moveable oil saturation
3: Smo = Sh – Shr(or)Smo = Sxo – Sw
99
Sub-surface correlation of formations and interpretation of field data.

 Subsurface data provide a differently biased sample of a rock unit than outcrop data. Drill
holes and cores are concentrated in localities and zones of economic interest whereas
outcrops preferentially expose rocks which are harder and more resistant to weathering.
 Because drill holes and geophysical logs normally sample a continuous, uninterrupted
section (whereas outcrops rarely do), subsurface correlation is based on more complete
data.
 Seismic-reflection data may provide a coherent three-dimensional picture of a basin,
along with information on the relationships between the sediments and structural features
of a basin.
 Subsurface correlation lends itself to the study of facies relationships on a scale larger
than can be accomplished on most outcrops.
 Consequently, many relatively new ideas concerning allostratigraphy, sequence
stratigraphy, base-level changes, and global stratigraphic correlations have emerged from
subsurface geology, and are based on both geological and geophysical data.
 Subsurface data provide a differently biased sample of a rock unit than outcrop data.
 Drill holes and cores are concentrated in localities and zones of economic interest
whereas outcrops preferentially expose rocks which are harder and more resistant to
weathering. Because drill holes and geophysical logs normally sample a continuous,
uninterrupted section (whereas outcrops rarely do), subsurface correlation is based on
more complete data.
Log curve shapes:

 The shapes of well-log curves have long been interpreted in terms of depositional facies
because of their resemblance to grain size successions.
Correlation of Logs:
 Correct correlation of stratigraphic units is absolutely necessary to make reliable cross
sections and maps, and to conduct regional facies analysis.
 Complex numerical procedures for matching and correlation of logs (such as a method
adapted from gene-typing techniques may be the primary tools in the future.
 At present, most geologists match log patterns by eye (or by tracing and overlaying logs),
allowing for variations in lithologies, thicknesses, and completeness of section.
 Three major correlation methods will be discussed, 1) marker beds, 2) pattern matching,
and 3) slice techniques.
Marker beds:
100
 The log response (kick) of a distinctive bed or series of beds can be used as a Distinctive,
laterally extensive groups of beds commonly result from transgressions or regressions or
erosional episodes which redistribute proximal sediment far across the basin.
 Markers that can be mapped regionally may therefore be related to, or include, important
allostratigraphic surfaces.
Pattern matching:
 This technique involves recognition of distinctive log patterns any origin. Tie correlated
patterns may represent vertical facies successions, or unconformity-bounded units.
 The surfaces of the units chosen may be transgressive and separate individual facies
successions.
Subsurface Maps:
 Mapping in the subsurface differs little from surface work except for the huge volume of
data which can be collected from a large number of wells.
 Subsurface geological maps are either compilations of data, or interpretation summaries,
the maps of many different quantities have been made, but for stratigraphic and sediment
logical purposes, there are three main types, 1) structure maps that. Show the elevation of
a 2) Isopach maps that show the thickness and 3) lithological maps that show the
composition of a unit in one of several.
Seismic Stratigraphy:
 Seismic stratigraphy involves the application of seismic data to the study of regional and
global sedimentary sequences and their bounding unconformities.
Unconformities:
 Surfaces of erosion or bypass are generally identified where underlying markers or facies
successions are truncated.
Interpretation
 Interpretation of data from well logs is many times subjective. Depending on the
accuracy of the log data and the experience, proficiency, and care taken by the observer
in the process of interpreting that data, the possibility for error is very great.
 Different approaches to log interpretation many times produce different conclusions
based on the use of more data or less data including more or less “good” data. The
following information is for informational purposes only.
 Any application of the following information including equations is the sole
responsibility of the user. No representation is made to the accuracy and/or completeness
of this information. If errors are found, the reader is encouraged to contact
The basic logs, which are required for the adequate interpretation, are:
1. Permeable zone logs (SP, GR, and Caliper)
2. Resistivity logs (MFSL, Shallow and Deep resistivity logs)
3. Porosity logs (Density, Neutron and Sonic).
101
Generally, the permeable zone logs are presented in track one, the resistivity logs are run intrack
two and porosity logs on track three.
Using such a set of logs, a log interpreter has to solve the following problems,
 The first step in the log interpretation is to locate the permeable zones. Scanning the log
in track one and it has a base line on the right, which is called the shale base line.
 This base line indicates shale i.e., impermeable zones and swings to the left indicate clean
zones- e.g., sand, limestone etc. The interpreter focuses his attention immediately on
these permeable zones.
 To scan the resistivity logs in track 2 to see which of the zones of interest gives high
resistivity readings. High resistivity’s reflect either hydrocarbons in the pores or low
porosity.
 Scan the porosity logs on the track 3 to see which of the zones have good porosity against
the high resistivity zones. Discard the tight formations. Select the interesting zones for
the formation evaluation.
****************** **********************
102
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PBPE- 104 FORMATION EVALUATION & WELL LOGGING

Geo Technical Order

 Geological Data: Lithology, Formation Name &Depth, Coring depth/ Intervals of

Cutting and coring

 Rotary coring equipment has continued to keep abreast of technological developments in

3) Diamond Core Drilling

ii) Side-wall Coring

 Set up “rig floor” boxes to receive core.

Sampling and testing

 Samples should be collected from borings at all suspected changes in lithology. A

Gas chromatographer test

Mud logging unit

A. Standard Geologging unit.

B. Offline Geologging unit.

C. Online geologging unit.

A brief description of various types of units is given below:

1. Standard Geo logging unit

1. A normal zoom microscope with polarising equipment for lithological description.

Offline Geo logging unit

Depth measurements in a borehole

Fundamental of borehole geophysics:

Reservoir rock properties and Formation parameters:

For Liquids (oil and water):

K=1000 L / A*µ Q 1/ (Po-Pi) =1000 L/A* µ ∆V/∆T (Po-Pi)………..1

Where, DV = the volume of liquid flowed in time DT (cm3)

DT = the time period over which flow is measured (s)

Q = the flow rate = DV/DT (cm3/s),

For gasses (hydrocarbon):

K=2000 L / A*µ Q Patm/ (Po2-Pi2) =2000 L/A* µ ∆VPatm/∆T(Po2-Pi2)…….2

Sw = 1-Sh and water saturation estimate by archies law.

Sw= a× Rw /Φm× Rt}1/2 Where,

Sh – Fraction of pore space occupied by hydrocarbon.

Movable oil saturation:

Smo = Sh – Shr (or) Smo = Sxo – Sw

Smo= movable oil saturation.

Sxo= Flushed zone saturation.

Shr= residual hydrocarbon saturation.

First Equation for porosity:

Relates rock resistivity to Rw.

Rw= Resistivity of formation water Ω meter. F= Formation factor.

Second equation (for saturation):

Swn= Ro/ Rt=F Rw/Rt= a/Φm* Rw/Rt

This is derived from archie’s equation

 Formation factor and porosity are usually related via F=1/ m

where is porosity (a value between 0 and 1)

 Alternative relations are:

The Spontaneous Potential Log(SP):

b) The membrane potential (sometimes called the shale potential).

i) The mudcake potential.

Principle and applications:

Modern Resistivity Logs (Laterologs)

The Spherically focussed log:

The micro log:

The micro latero log:

between electrodes is about 1 inch.

The micro spherically Focussed log:

Multi-sensor caliper (cased hole):

 High-resolution lithology discrimination.

Natural gamma ray Spectrometry log.

Uses of the Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Borehole Temperature Measurement

 Correction of other tools, Correction of measurements, Hydrocarbon maturation,

Dip and Direction log:

K=1000 L / Aµ Q 1/ (Po-Pi) =1000 L/A µ ∆V/∆T (Po-Pi)………..1

K=2000 L / Aµ Q Patm/ (Po2-Pi2) =2000 L/A µ ∆VPatm/∆T(Po2-Pi2)…….2