Cape Notes Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12

Syllabus Focus: Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B
Specific Objective 12_B: construct a database;
Content: Including forms; reports, queries, tables, tuples, relationship links, enforcing referential integrity,
updates or deletions, use of foreign keys, use of macros, SQL, data validation and verification strategies; used to
analyze data and provide multiple viewing and reporting of data.
Explain how normal for relations Including improve performance, data consistency, data
impact databases; integrity.
Before the widespread use of computers, student information was kept on index cards in boxes or filing
cabinets. If you and a small group of friends each put your personal details such as name, addresses and date of
birth, on a record card, then it might not take too long to find those of you whose birthday is in April. However,
if everyone in your school filled out a card, then it would take very much longer! Furthermore, changing
information, such as addresses, could also take a long time. Other common “paper database” include telephone
books, dictionaries, recipe cards and television guides. Nowadays, computerized databases are in widespread
use, as they help people quickly to find information that they want. They also vary in size and use depending on
what is required. Small databases, such as one that keeps information about a CD collection, can be run on a
personal computer at home. Larger databases now play an important part in how our society works. Industrial,
commercial and public organizations use databases to maintain their businesses and services.
Other computerized databases include flight information systems and database systems in public libraries.
Examples of how we use these large databases included:
 Booking holidays and airline tickets
 Using directory enquiries to search a database of millions of customers for a telephone number in
a few seconds
 Accessing a police computer database, with requests from a police officers who want
information about criminal suspects or stolen cars.
What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?
A DBMS is the term for programs that handle the storage, modification and retrieval of data, as well as
controlling who has access to the information. E.g. Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach, FileMaker Pro and
Corel Paradox.
Functions of a DBMS:
 Data storage, retrieval and updates. The DBMS must allow its users to store, retrieve and update data.
 Backup and recovery. The DBMS should allow you to recover the most recent contents of the database
in the event of system failure.
CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 1

 Security. The DBMS must handle password allocation and checking, and allow access to the data that a
user is authorized to use.
 Managing facilities for sharing a database. The DBMS has to ensure that no two users can access the
same record at the time in order to modify it.
What is a Database?
A database is a part of a DBMS that is used for organizing and storing data in a useful and efficient manner on
the computer.
Terms Associated with a Database:
Table (File or relation): Collection of records that belong together
Field (Column or attribute): the smallest piece of data that can be stored.
Record (row or tuple): a row of data in a table that contains information about a particular individual item or
entity.
Entity: anything or person that has characteristics.

e.g. A ball may be big, red and soft; A car has a make , model, colour and number of doors; A student
has a Christian name, surname, gender and date of birth. Ball, Car and student are examples of an entity.
Attribute: Characteristic of an entity.

e.g. Make, sale price, colour are all examples of attributes.
Primary key: A field whose values are unique so can be used be used to access each record individually.
Candidate key: A field that is considered a possibility for becoming the primary key. However, only one field
must be chosen as the primary key. Candidate keys are entirely optional, so a table may contain none, one, or
several of them.
Alternate key: Any candidate field that was not used as the primary key.
Foreign key: a field in one table, but it is a primary key in another table. (Appears in a table where it doesn’t
really belong but it enables two tables to be linked.)
Composite key: a primary key that is made up of two or more fields.
Advantages and disadvantages of a computerized database
Advantages Disadvantages
Can save enormous amounts of paper as well as filing The computer(s) and peripherals required can cost a

space lot
Data can easily be entered by keyboard or scanners If the computer, or computer network, is not working,
then the database cannot be used
Speed- data can be found, calculated and sorted very Security is very important as some people may
quickly attempt to get access to confidential information.
Sometimes this may involve illegally hacking into the
program or data
Data can easily be changed and updated The database file can become corrupted or infected
by a computer virus. This can lead to file not working
properly. In some cases, the database may not work
at all. Making a back-up copy of the database is
therefore essential
Data needs to be entered only once, yet can be There is often a limit to the size of a database file
represented in many different ways. A whole range of
different queries and reports can be produced
Data can be checked on entry Some databases can be complicated to use
Passwords can be set to allow access only to those Data stored about people may be incorrect
with permission to use the database
The data structure of a database can be changed, with Some databases require much time to be spent on
new fields added, even after the database has been staff training, which can be costly
created. A paper-based system would have to be
restarted from scratch
Data can be imported and exported to other programs
A database file can be automatically linked to others
Databases can be shared with other users if the
computer is a part of a local or wide area network.
This includes the internet.
Panning and designing a database
Planning a database is one of the most important steps in database management. It is critical that you plan
before creating the files in which data will be stored.
Each database should be set up for a specific purpose. Ask yourself the following questions when designing a
database:
 What data do you want to store and what should it do?
 What questions will you ask of the data?
 What reports will you need to produce?
 How should the data be sorted and grouped?

All of the information of an entity should be closely related. For example, in a videotape rental system, you
might have one table for the name of tape, type of tape and its rating, one for customers which stores the
customer name, address and telephone number, and another which stores data about the rentals. In this example
there are three entities: the tape entity, the customer entity and the rental entity
Reference
Skeete, Kelvin, skeete, Kyle (2007). Information Technology for CSEC. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University press
Gay, Glenda, Blades, Ronald (2009). Oxford Information Technology for CSEC. Great Clarendon
street, Oxford OX2 6DP: Oxford University press
Campbell, Howard, Wood, Alan (2010). Information Technology for CSEC examinations. Between
towns road, Oxford, Ox4 3PP: Macmillan Publishers Limited

SQL is a standard language for accessing databases.
Our SQL tutorial will teach you how to use SQL to access and manipulate data in:
MySQL, SQL Server, Access, Oracle, Sybase, DB2, and other database systems.
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.
What is SQL?
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language

 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
 SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard
What Can SQL do?
 SQL can execute queries against a database

 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are many different versions of the SQL language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE)
in a similar manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard!
Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows some data from a database, you will need the following:
 An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

 A server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
 SQL
 HTML / CSS
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.
A table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Database Tables

A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows)
with data.
Below is an example of a table called "Persons":

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City).
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax

CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE DATABASE Example
Now we want to create a database called "my_db".
We use the following CREATE DATABASE statement:

CREATE DATABASE my_db
Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL
Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
CREATE TABLE Example
Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City.
We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:

CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
The P_Id column is of type int and will hold a number. The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar with a maximum length
of 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:


The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary key.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created:
MySQL:
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)
)
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

(
P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
City varchar(255)
)
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)
)
Note: In the example above there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY (pk_PersonID). However, the value of the pk_PersonID is made up of two columns (P_Id
and LastName).
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id)

To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName)
Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary key column(s) must already have been declared to not contain NULL
values (when the table was first created).
To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP PRIMARY KEY

ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables:
The "Persons" table:

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data form being inserted into the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values
contained in the table it points to.

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE
The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)

CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int NOT NULL,
P_Id int,
PRIMARY KEY (O_Id),
CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE
To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is already created, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
FOREIGN KEY (P_Id)
To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders

ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the "Persons" table:
SELECT * FROM Persons
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.
Keep in Mind That...
 SQL is not case sensitive
Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the
same call to the server.
We are using MS Access and SQL Server 2000 and we do not have to put a semicolon after each SQL statement, but some database programs force you
to use it.
SQL DML and DDL

SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language (DDL).
The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
 SELECT - extracts data from a database

 UPDATE - updates data in a database
 DELETE - deletes data from a database
 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also defines indexes (keys), specifies links between tables, and imposes
constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
 CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

 ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
 CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
 ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
 DROP TABLE - deletes a table
 CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
 DROP INDEX - deletes an index
SQL SELECT Statement
This chapter will explain the SELECT and the SELECT * statements.
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

and
SELECT * FROM table_name
Note: SQL is not case sensitive. SELECT is the same as select.
An SQL SELECT Example

Now we want to select the content of the columns named "LastName" and "FirstName" from the table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
The result-set will look like this:

LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola
Svendson Tove
Pettersen Kari
SELECT * Example
Now we want to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.

Tip: The asterisk (*) is a quick way of selecting all columns!

Navigation in a Result-set
Most database software systems allow navigation in the result-set with programming functions, like: Move-To-First-Record, Get-Record-Content, Move-
To-Next-Record, etc.
Programming functions like these are not a part of this tutorial. To learn about accessing data with function calls, please visit our ADO tutorial or our
PHP tutorial.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
This chapter will explain the SELECT DISTINCT statement.
The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem, however, sometimes you will want to list only the different
(distinct) values in a table.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT Example

Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named "City" from the table above.

SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons

City
Sandnes
Stavanger
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
The WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
WHERE Clause Example

Now we want to select only the persons living in the city "Sandnes" from the table above.

WHERE City='Sandnes'


Quotes Around Text Fields
SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double quotes).
Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes.
For text values:

This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Tove'
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=Tove
For numeric values:

This is correct:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
This is wrong:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year='1965'
Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause
With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:

Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns
Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=
SQL AND & OR Operators
The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.
The AND & OR Operators
The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
AND Operator Example


Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" AND the last name equal to "Svendson":

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'

OR Operator Example
Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to "Tove" OR the first name equal to "Ola":

WHERE FirstName='Tove'
OR FirstName='Ola'

Combining AND & OR
You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions).
Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to "Svendson" AND the first name equal to "Tove" OR to "Ola":

SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE
LastName='Svendson'
AND (FirstName='Tove' OR FirstName='Ola')

SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.
The ORDER BY Keyword
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column.
The ORDER BY keyword sort the records in ascending order by default.
If you want to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC

ORDER BY Example

4 Nilsen Tom Vingvn 23 Stavanger
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons by their last name.

ORDER BY LastName

ORDER BY DESC Example
Now we want to select all the persons from the table above, however, we want to sort the persons descending by their last name.

ORDER BY LastName DESC

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

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The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
The INSERT INTO Statement
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
SQL INSERT INTO Example
We have the following "Persons" table:

Now we want to insert a new row in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:

INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES (4,'Nilsen', 'Johan', 'Bakken 2', 'Stavanger')
The "Persons" table will now look like this:

4 Nilsen Johan Bakken 2 Stavanger
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will add a new row, but only add data in the "P_Id", "LastName" and the "FirstName" columns:
INSERT INTO Persons (P_Id, LastName, FirstName)
VALUES (5, 'Tjessem', 'Jakob')

5 Tjessem Jakob
SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.
The UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value

Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that
should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
SQL UPDATE Example

5 Tjessem Jakob
Now we want to update the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.

UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

5 Tjessem Jakob Nissestien 67 Sandnes
SQL UPDATE Warning

Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the example above, like this:
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
The "Persons" table would have looked like this:

1 Hansen Ola Nissestien 67 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Nissestien 67 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Nissestien 67 Sandnes
4 Nilsen Johan Nissestien 67 Sandnes
SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.
The DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name
Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be deleted. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
SQL DELETE Example

Now we want to delete the person "Tjessem, Jakob" in the "Persons" table.

DELETE FROM Persons
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='Jakob'

Delete All Rows
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
or
DELETE * FROM table_name
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
Try it Yourself
To see how SQL works, you can copy the SQL statements below and paste them into the textarea, or you can make your own SQL statements.
SELECT * FROM customers
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName FROM customers
SELECT * FROM customers WHERE companyname LIKE 'a%'
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName

FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'a'
When using SQL on text data, "alfred" is greater than "a" (like in a dictionary).
SELECT CompanyName, ContactName
FROM customers
WHERE CompanyName > 'g'
AND ContactName > 'g'

SELECT * FROM customers
See the Result
SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
The LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.
SQL LIKE Syntax

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
LIKE Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "s" from the table above.

WHERE City LIKE 's%'
The "%" sign can be used to define wildcards (missing letters in the pattern) both before and after the pattern.

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that ends with an "s" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE '%s'

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "tav" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE '%tav%'

It is also possible to select the persons living in a city that does NOT contain the pattern "tav" from the "Persons" table, by using the NOT keyword.

WHERE City NOT LIKE '%tav%'

SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can be used when searching for data in a database.
SQL Wildcards
SQL wildcards can substitute for one or more characters when searching for data in a database.
SQL wildcards must be used with the SQL LIKE operator.
With SQL, the following wildcards can be used:

Wildcard Description
% A substitute for zero or more characters
_ A substitute for exactly one character
[charlist] Any single character in charlist
[^charlist] Any single character not in charlist
or
[!charlist]

SQL Wildcard Examples
We have the following "Persons" table:
Using the % Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons living in a city that starts with "sa" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE 'sa%'

Next, we want to select the persons living in a city that contains the pattern "nes" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE City LIKE '%nes%'

Using the _ Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a first name that starts with any character, followed by "la" from the
"Persons" table.

WHERE FirstName LIKE '_la'

Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "S", followed by any character, followed by
"end", followed by any character, followed by "on" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE LastName LIKE 'S_end_on'

Using the [charlist] Wildcard

Now we want to select the persons with a last name that starts with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE LastName LIKE '[bsp]%'

Next, we want to select the persons with a last name that do not start with "b" or "s" or "p" from the "Persons" table.

WHERE LastName LIKE '[!bsp]%'

SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
IN Operator Example


Now we want to select the persons with a last name equal to "Hansen" or "Pettersen" from the table above.

WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Pettersen')

SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator is used in a WHERE clause to select a range of data between two values.
The BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects a range of data between two values. The values can be numbers, text, or dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
BETWEEN Operator Example

Now we want to select the persons with a last name alphabetically between "Hansen" and "Pettersen" from the table above.

WHERE LastName
BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

Note: The BETWEEN operator is treated differently in different databases!
In some databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will not be listed, because the BETWEEN operator only selects fields that are
between and excluding the test values.
In other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" or "Pettersen" will be listed, because the BETWEEN operator selects fields that are between
and including the test values.
And in other databases, persons with the LastName of "Hansen" will be listed, but "Pettersen" will not be listed (like the example above), because the
BETWEEN operator selects fields between the test values, including the first test value and excluding the last test value.
Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator.
Example 2
To display the persons outside the range in the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:
WHERE LastName
NOT BETWEEN 'Hansen' AND 'Pettersen'

SQL Joins
SQL joins are used to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship between
certain columns in these tables.
SQL JOIN
The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a relationship
between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique value for each row. Each primary key value
must be unique within the table. The purpose is to bind data together, across tables, without repeating all of the data
in every table.
Look at the "Persons" table:

Note that the "P_Id" column is the primary key in the "Persons" table. This means that no two rows can have the
same P_Id. The P_Id distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.
Next, we have the "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Note that the "O_Id" column is the primary key in the "Orders" table and that the "P_Id" column refers to the persons
in the "Persons" table without using their names.
Notice that the relationship between the two tables above is the "P_Id" column.

Different SQL JOINs
Before we continue with examples, we will list the types of JOIN you can use, and the differences between them.
 JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
 LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table
 RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table
 FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

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SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PS: INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
SQL INNER JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons with any orders.

SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName

LastName FirstName OrderNo
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Pettersen Kari 77895

The INNER JOIN keyword return rows when there is at least one match in both tables. If there are rows in "Persons" that do not have matches in
"Orders", those rows will NOT be listed.
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there are no matches in the right table (table_name2).
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
SQL LEFT JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders - if any, from the tables above.

FROM Persons
LEFT JOIN Orders

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Svendson Tove
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (table_name2), even if there are no matches in the left table (table_name1).
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
PS: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the orders with containing persons - if any, from the tables above.

FROM Persons
RIGHT JOIN Orders

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
34764
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there are no matches in the left table (Persons).

SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
SQL FULL JOIN Keyword
The FULL JOIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SQL FULL JOIN Syntax

FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
SQL FULL JOIN Example

The "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderNo P_Id
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 1
4 24562 1
5 34764 15
Now we want to list all the persons and their orders, and all the orders with their persons.

FROM Persons
FULL JOIN Orders

Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Svendson Tove
34764
The FULL JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Persons), and all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Persons"
that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Persons", those rows will be listed as well.
SQL UNION Operator
The SQL UNION operator combines two or more SELECT statements.
The SQL UNION Operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The columns must also have similar data types. Also,
the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.
SQL UNION Syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax

UNION ALL
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are always equal to the column names in the first SELECT statement in the UNION.
SQL UNION Example
Look at the following tables:
"Employees_Norway":
E_ID E_Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari
"Employees_USA":
E_ID E_Name
01 Turner, Sally
02 Kent, Clark
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Scott, Stephen
Now we want to list all the different employees in Norway and USA.

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA

E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen
Note: This command cannot be used to list all employees in Norway and USA. In the example above we have two employees with equal names, and
only one of them will be listed. The UNION command selects only distinct values.
SQL UNION ALL Example
Now we want to list all employees in Norway and USA:

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION ALL
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_USA
Result
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Svendson, Stephen
Scott, Stephen
SQL Functions
SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
 AVG() - Returns the average value

 COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
 FIRST() - Returns the first value
 LAST() - Returns the last value
 MAX() - Returns the largest value
 MIN() - Returns the smallest value
 SUM() - Returns the sum
SQL Scalar functions
SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Useful scalar functions:
 UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case

 LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
 MID() - Extract characters from a text field
 LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
 ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
 NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
 FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next chapters.
SQL AVG() Function
The AVG() Function
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

SQL AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL AVG() Example
We have the following "Orders" table:

O_Id OrderDate OrderPrice Customer
1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the average value of the "OrderPrice" fields.

SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders

OrderAverage
950
Now we want to find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher than the average OrderPrice value.

SELECT Customer FROM Orders
WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)

Customer
Hansen
Nilsen
Jensen
SQL COUNT() Function
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name
Note:COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access.

SQL COUNT(column_name) Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to count the number of orders from "Customer Nilsen".

SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders
WHERE Customer='Nilsen'
The result of the SQL statement above will be 2, because the customer Nilsen has made 2 orders in total:
CustomerNilsen
2
SQL COUNT(*) Example
If we omit the WHERE clause, like this:

SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders

NumberOfOrders
6
which is the total number of rows in the table.
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example
Now we want to count the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table.

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders

NumberOfCustomers
3
which is the number of unique customers (Hansen, Nilsen, and Jensen) in the "Orders" table.
SQL FIRST() Function
The FIRST() Function
The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column.
SQL FIRST() Syntax

SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL FIRST() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the first value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT FIRST(OrderPrice) AS FirstOrderPrice FROM Orders
Tip: Workaround if FIRST() function is not supported:

SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders ORDER BY O_Id LIMIT 1

FirstOrderPrice
1000
SQL LAST() Function
The LAST() Function
The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.
SQL LAST() Syntax

SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL LAST() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the last value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT LAST(OrderPrice) AS LastOrderPrice FROM Orders
Tip: Workaround if LAST() function is not supported:

SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders ORDER BY O_Id DESC LIMIT 1

LastOrderPrice
100

SQL MAX() Function
The MAX() Function
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SQL MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MAX() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the largest value of the "OrderPrice" column.

SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders

LargestOrderPrice
2000
SQL MIN() Function
The MIN() Function
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SQL MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL MIN() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the smallest value of the "OrderPrice" column.We use the following SQL statement:
SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders

SmallestOrderPrice
100
SQL SUM() Function
The SUM() Function
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SQL SUM() Syntax

SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name
SQL SUM() Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen
2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the sum of all "OrderPrice" fields".

SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders

OrderTotal
5700
SQL GROUP BY Statement
Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.
The GROUP BY Statement
The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or more columns.
SQL GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
SQL GROUP BY Example

1 2008/11/12 1000 Hansen

2 2008/10/23 1600 Nilsen
3 2008/09/02 700 Hansen
4 2008/09/03 300 Hansen
5 2008/08/30 2000 Jensen
6 2008/10/04 100 Nilsen
Now we want to find the total sum (total order) of each customer.
We will have to use the GROUP BY statement to group the customers.

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer

Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 2000
Nilsen 1700
Jensen 2000
Nice! Isn't it? :)
Let's see what happens if we omit the GROUP BY statement:

SELECT Customer,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders

Customer SUM(OrderPrice)
Hansen 5700
Nilsen 5700
Hansen 5700
Hansen 5700
Jensen 5700
Nilsen 5700
The result-set above is not what we wanted.
Explanation of why the above SELECT statement cannot be used: The SELECT statement above has two columns specified (Customer and
SUM(OrderPrice). The "SUM(OrderPrice)" returns a single value (that is the total sum of the "OrderPrice" column), while "Customer" returns 6 values
(one value for each row in the "Orders" table). This will therefore not give us the correct result. However, you have seen that the GROUP BY statement
solves this problem.
GROUP BY More Than One Column
We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this:
SELECT Customer,OrderDate,SUM(OrderPrice) FROM Orders
GROUP BY Customer,OrderDate
SQL Quick ReferenceFrom W3Schools

SQL Statement Syntax
AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
or
ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name
AS (alias) SELECT column_name AS column_alias
FROM table_name
or
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name
(
...
)
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
or
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)
CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE DELETE FROM table_name
or

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DELETE * FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DROP DATABASE DROP DATABASE database_name
DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)
DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name
GROUP BY SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
HAVING SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value
IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
or
INSERT INTO table_name

(column1, column2, column3,...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
LEFT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
RIGHT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
FULL JOIN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
LIKE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
SELECT INTO SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
or
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION ALL
UPDATE UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
Source : http://www.w3schools.com/sql/sql_quickref.asp
SQL Summary
This SQL tutorial has taught you the standard computer language for accessing and manipulating database systems.
You have learned how to execute queries, retrieve data, insert new records, delete records and update records in a database with SQL.
You have also learned how to create databases, tables, and indexes with SQL, and how to drop them.
You have learned the most important aggregate functions in SQL.

You now know that SQL is the standard language that works with all the well-known database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL,
and MS Access.
Taken from: http://www.w3schools.com/sql/

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Syllabus Focus: Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B

Specific Objective 12_B: construct a database;

What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 1

Terms Associated with a Database:

Table (File or relation): Collection of records that belong together

Entity: anything or person that has characteristics.

Attribute: Characteristic of an entity.

Composite key: a primary key that is made up of two or more fields.

Advantages and disadvantages of a computerized database

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 2

Panning and designing a database

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 3

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 4

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

 SQL stands for Structured Query Language

What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Using SQL in Your Web Site

 An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables.

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 5

Below is an example of a table called "Persons":

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.

SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax

CREATE DATABASE Example

Now we want to create a database called "my_db".

We use the following CREATE DATABASE statement:

Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.

SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax

CREATE TABLE Example

We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:

The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

Primary keys must contain unique values.

A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 7

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.

The "Persons" table:

The "Orders" table:

CAPE NOTES Unit 2 Module 1 Content 12_B 8

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: