FIRE

the heat and light that comes from burning substances,

produced by the combustion of substances

the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring

between a combustible matter and an oxidizer

This rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of

heat and light.

When a substance burns, heat and light are produced.

Burning is also called combustion.

FIRE (conflagration)

the common term of the burning process

-the combustion of a fuel.

Combustion involves rapid oxidation.

s/2

OXIDATION (slow & rapid)

the chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically

combines with the organic elements (fuel) of a

combustible substance

Example:

CH4+ 202 CO2+2Hz0

Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. Rapid oxidation

of material is chemically termed as combustion.

In some fuels, if the heat during oxidation is not easily

dissipated, the temperature gradually rises until the material

automatically ignites. When this situation occurs, the

material has undergone spontaneous combustion. Rags or

papers saturated or soaked with animal fat (or vegetable oil),

if stored in confined space where heat of oxidation is not

dissipated fast enough, tend to undergo spontaneous combustion.

Elements of Fire

1.Heat (ignition temperature)

2.Fuel (combustible matter such as organic materials,

hydrocarbons, etc.)

3.Oxidizing agent

The most common oxidizing agent is oxygen Others are

bromates, iodine, nitric acid, peroxides cblbrates, etc.

The composition of AIR at normal conditions:

1. 21% Oxygen

2. 78% nitrogen

3. 1% inert (inactive but are stiltcombustible) gases

NC

Oxygen levels:

21%-normal xgen

.12% Oxygen finsufficient to produce fire

14%-15% Oxygen- Can support flash point

.16%-21% can support fire point

FIRE TRIANGLE

a geometrical figure that diagrams the relationship of the

three elements of fire

Each side of the triangle represents an element, such that if

one side is missing then there is no triangle; meaning fire

cannot be produced.

If any of the elements are not available, the combustion does

not take place. Normally, oxygen is supplied by air, ignition

temperature can be provided by the ignition device (like

flame), and any combustible material (usually organic

matter) burns when heated by the ignition device. Most

combustible materials burn in gaseous state only.

If there is sufficient supply of oxygen, there is rapid oxidation

resulting to complete combustion. If the supply of oxygen

and vaporization of a matter is sufficient combustion is

accompanied by heat and light. If there is insufficient supply

of oxygen, there is smoldering fire. In smoldering fire, no

flames are manifested.

To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised (increased)

until ignition point is reached. Thus, before a combustible

material starts to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be

exposed to a certain degree of temperature. When the

temperature of a substance is very high, it releases highly

combustible vapors knowt

as free radicals.

FIRE TETRAHEDRON

a more complex model used in exptainjng the components

needed to ignite and sustain e ire

a 4-sided geometric representation of the four factors

necessary for fire

The fire tetrahedron inclucias the three components covered

in the fire triangle, with the addition of a chemical chain

reaction.

LN

This model is simphy adding another dimension onto the

traditional fire (riangle model by treating the chemical

reaction as its own separate component. Some fire

extinguishers work by applying extinguishing agents to the

fire to inhibit the chemical reaction on a molecular level.

Basic Concepts on the technology of fire

To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised until ignition

point. Before a combustible matter starts to burn, it has to be

exposed to a certain degree of temperature.

Flash Point

the lowest/ minimum temperature at which a substance

gives off vapor that burns momentarily (when a flame or

spark is applied)

.If a fuel's temperature has reached its flash point, then it can

be instantly ignited thus producing a momentary fire. If ts

temperature still increases, such that it continuously releases

combustible vapors, the condition results to sustained

burning (combustion). Hence, the fuel is deemed to have

reached its fire point.

o Fire Point

the temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after it

has been ignited - that even if the source of ignition has

been removed, the fuel continues to burm

.If a substance automatically burns without any human or

mechanical intervention, the temperature o the substance

has been spontaneously increased untilit réaches the

auto-ignition point.

Auto-ignition (self-ignition) Point

the lowest/ minimum températùre at which a substance

be heated to release vápors that will ignite without

the application of a flame or spark

Auto-ignition point refers to the temperature at which

spontaneous conabustion take place. It is usually much

higher (in temperature than the fire point).

THE THEORY OF FIRE

Temperature of Fuel

Chemical Reaction

Normal

OXIDATION

FLASH POINT

cOMBUSTION

FIRE POINT

Flammable/Explosive Range ofa Fuel

the volume range needed to burn or explode a fuel when

it is ignited

Combustion may be in the form of:

Glowing combustion (condense-phased combustion)

manifested by embers

.Gas-phased combustion manifested by flame (blue

yellow/orange)

Combustion Products

022

.Fire gases: chemical composition of the fuel, percent of

oxygen present, and the tempetature of the fire

Flame: the luminous bodyof abúrning gas, the

manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased

combustion

Heat: a form of ernergy generated by the transmission of

some other form of energy

.Smoke: a visible product of incomplete combustion, a

mixture oDxYgen, nitrogen, co, CO%and finely divided

particles released from the burning material

Common Sources of Heat

Chemical Energy is the most common source of heat in

combustion reactions. An energy released as a result of a

chemical reaction such as combustion.

.Electrical Energy is the energy developed when electrons

flow through a conductor. Electrical energy can generate

temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible

materials near the heated gases.

Nuclear Energy is an energy generated when atoms either

split apart (fission) or combine (fusion).

Mechanical Energy is an energy created by friction and

compression.

Physical Properties of Fire

Thermal inertia of a material characterizes the rate at which

the surface temperature of that material will rise when it

is exposed to heat.

o Vapor density the weight of a volume of pure gas

composed to the volume of dry air at

the same temperature and pressure

o Vapor Pressure the force exerted by the molecules on the

surface of a liquid

o Temperature- the measure of the degree of thermal

agitation of molecules

lgnition/Kindling temperaturethe minimum temperature

at which the substance must be heated in order to

initiate combustion

Chemical Properties of Fire

o Endothermic Reaction-a chemical change wnereby

energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the

reaction takes place

o Exothermic Reaction-a chemical reaction that releases or

give off energy (heat) thus they produce substances with

less energy than the reactants

o Oxidation-a chemical change that is exothermic; a change

in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing

agent (air), react

Example of oxidation is combustion which is the same

as actual burning (rapid oxidation)

o Flame-a matter produced by fire which is composed of

incandescent gases;a combustion product and a

manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased

combustion

Requirements to Produce Flamne

High temperature

Reactants (fuel and oxidizer / gases / vapors)

Concentration of short-lived intermediate chemical reaction

between reactants

Iypes of Flames

o According to color and completeness of combustion

1. Luminous flame

.reddish-orange in color

it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete

combustion

.has lower temperature compared to non-luminous

2. Non-luminous flame

bluish in color

does not deposit soot because it is a product of

complete combustion

.has higher temperature than luminous flame

o According to burning fuel and air mixture

1. Premixed flame -e.g. flame of a Bunsen burner or LPG

2. Diffused flame- e.g. flame of the oxyacetylene torch

(ethyl alcohol lamp)

o Based on smoothness

1. Laminar flame smooth flame (ex. from candle)

2.Turbulent flame rough flame (ex. building/ forest fire)

Hydrocarbon -any substance containing primarily carbon and

hydrogen (water)

Pyrolysis

.the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid

part of the fuel

thermal decomposition of combustible matter

the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action

of heat

Pyrolysis Process

1.The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point.

2. Decomposition takes place moisture in the fuel is

converted to vapor.

3. Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the

surface of the fuel. Combustible vapors are technically

termed as free radicals.

4. Free radicals undergo combustion.

Free radicals - combustible vapors such as:

hydrogen gas

carbon dioxide

carbon monoxide (most hazardous) - can cause asphyxia

nitrogen

Two Basic Modes of Fire

1. Flaming mode

2022

represented by the fire tetrahedron - a 4-sided figure

with the sides representing fuel, temperature, oxygen,

and the uninhibited chemical chain reaction.

2. Surface/Smoldering Mode

represented by the fire triangle with the three sides

representing fuel, temperature and oxygen

STAGES OF BURNING3

A. Incipient Phase

- beginning stage of fire

Characteristics:

1.Normal room temperature

2.Oxygen plentiful

3.Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.

4. Flame Temperature of 1000 degree F.

5.The temperature at the base of the fire is 400-8000F

6.Ceiling temperature is about 2000F

7.Producing pyrolysis products: (CO2, Co, S02. Water

Vapor and other gases)

B. Free Burning Phase

- burning stage whereby materials or structures are burning

in the presence of adequate oxygen supply.

Characteristics:

1.Fire has involved more fuel.

2.Oxygen supply is depleted.

3.Heat accumulates at upper area.

4.Temperature:

a) 800-10000F@the base of fire

b) 1200-16000F@the ceiling

5. Accelerated pyrolytic processes take place.

6. Development of convection curent; formation of thermal

column as heat rises.

7. Pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls

Crawling of the flame) leaving burnt pattern (fire

fingerprints).

8. Occurrence of FLASHOVER.

9. Area is fully involved.

2022

C. Smoldering Phase

- burning stage wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and

heat completely fill the confined room.

Characteristics:

1. Oxygen drops to 13% or below causing the flame to

vanish and the heat to develop ln layers.

2. Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or

superheated fuel under pressure with little oxygen.

3. Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components such

as hydrogen, methane, increasing the hazard.

4. Products of incomplete combustion increase,

particularly carbon monoxide with an ignition

temperature of about 11250F

5. Temperature throughout the building is very high and

normal breathing is not possible.

6. Oxygen deficiency may cause back draft.

Chapter 1
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS OF FIRE

INTRODUCTION

Fire is a complex chemical process, and fire investigators must understand the basic

chemistry and physics involved to enable them to formulate opinions based on these

scientifie principles rather than on "old fire investigators' tales." Not being able to explain

the technical aspects of fire behavior may prevent an investigator being able to accurately

analyze the cause, origin, and progress of a fire.

The diffusion flame process (fire) consists of three basic elements: fuel, oxygen, and

heat. These basic components have been recognized in the science of fire protection for

over 100 years. The diffusion flame process Is defined by Richard Tuve in the Principles

of Fire Protection Chemistry as "a rapid self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied

by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensities."

LIFE CYCLE OF FIRE

The six elements of the life cycle of fire are described by Dawson Powell in The

Mechanics of Fire. These elements are input heat, fuel, oxygen. proportioning, mixing.

and ignition continuity. All of these elements are essential for both the initiation and

continuation of the diffusion flame combustion process. The first three elements--input

heat, fuel, and oxygenare represented by the fire triangle.

The combustion reaction can be depicted more accurately by a four-sided solid geometric

form called a tetraheron. The four sides represent heat, fuel, oxygen, and uninhibited

chain reactions.

Heat

Oxygen

The Fire Tetrahedron

Chain Reaction

Element #1: Input Heat

Solid or liquid materials do not burn. For combustion to take place, these materials must

be heated sufficiently to produce vapors. It is these vapors which actually burn. The

lowest temperature at which a solid or liquid material produces sufficient vapors to burn
under laboratory conditions is known as the flashpoint. A few degrees above the

flashpoint is the flame point, the temperature at which the fuel will continue to produce

suflicient vapors to sustain a continuous flame. The temperature at which the vapors will

ignite is the ignition temperature, sometimes referred to as the auto ignition temperature.

If the source of the heat is an open flame or spark, it is referred to as piloted ignition.

For example, gasoline has a flashpoint of 45°F(42.8° C) and an ignition temperature

of 536" F (280° C). This means that at any temperature at or above -45 F (-42.8 C),

the gasoline will be producing sufficient vapors to be ignited if exposed to an open flame,

spark, or any heat source of 536" F (280° C) or greater.

Element #2: Fuel

Initially the fuel may be in the form of a gas, liquid, or solid at the ambient temperature.

As discussed previously, liquid and solid fuels must be heated sufficiently to produce

vapors. In general terms, combustible means capable of burning. generally in air under

normal conditions of ambient temperature and pressure, while flammable is defined as

capable of burning with a flame. This should not be confused with the terms flammable

and combustible liquids.

Flammable Liquids are those which have a flashpoint below 100° F (37.8 ° C), such as

gasoline, acetone, and ethyl alcohol. Combustible liquids are those which have a

flashpoint at or above 100 F (37.8° C), such as kerosene and fuel oil.

Element #3: Oxygen

The primary source of oxygen normally is the atmosphere, which contains approximately

20.8 percent oxygen. A concentration of at least 15 to 16 percent is needed for the

continuation of flaming combustion, while charring or smoldering (pyrolysis) can occur

with as little as 8 percent. Pyrolysis is defined as the transtormation of a compound into

one or more other substances by heat alone. While the atmosphere is usually the primary

source of oxygen, certain chemicals, called "oxidizers," can be either the primary or

secondary source. Examples are chlorine and ammonium nitrate.

Elements #4 and #5: Mixing and Proportioning

Mixing and proportioning are reactions that must be continuous in order for fire to
continue to propagate. The fuel vapors and oxygen must be mixed in the correct

proportions. Such mixture of fuel vapors and oxygen is said to be within the explosive

limits or flammable limits. Explosive or flammable limits are expressed in the

concentration (percentage) of fuel vapors in air. A mixture which contains fuel vapors in

an amount less than necessary for ignition to occur is too lean, while a mixture which has

too high a concentration of fuel vapors is too rich. The lowest concentration that will

burn is known as the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL), while the highest level is known as

the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL),

For example, the explosive or flammable limits for propane are 2.15 (LEL) to 9.6 (UEL).

This means that any mixture of propane and air between 2.15 percent and 9.6 percent will

ignite if exposed to an open flame, spark, or other heat source equal to or greater

than its ignition temperature, which is between 920 F (493.3 C) and 1,120 F (604.4

C).

Another important characteristic of gases is vapor density the weight of a volume of a

given gas to an equal volume of dry air, where air is given a value of 1.0. A vapor density

of less than 1.0 means that the gas is lighter than air and will tend to rise in a

relatively calm atmosphere, while a vapor density of more than 1.0 means that the gas is

heavier than air and will tend to sink to ground/tloor level.

NFPA 325-41, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile

Solids, contains an extensive listing of the flashpoints, ignition temperatures, flammable

limits, vapor densities, and specifie gravities of various materials.

Element #6: Ignition Continuity

Ignition continuity is the thermal feedback from the fire to the fuel. Heat is transferred

by conduction, convection, radiation, and direct flame contact. Conduction is the transfer

of heat by direct contact through a solid body. For example, on a hot stove, heat is

conducted through the pot to its contents. Wood is ordinarily a poor conductor of heat,

but metals are good conductors. Since most ships are constructed of metal, heat transfer

by conduction is a potential hazard. Fire can move from one hold to another, one deck to

another, and one compartment to another via heat conduction.

Convection is the transfer of heat caused by changes in density of liquids and gases. It is

the most common method of heat transfer; when liquids or gases are heated they become

less dense and will expand and rise.

cONVECTION

Convection is the transfer of heat through the motion of heated matter, i.e., through the

motion of smoke, hot air, heated gases produced by the fire, and flying embers.

When it is confined (as within a ship), convected heat moves in predictable patterns. The

fire produces lighter-than-air gases that rise toward high parts of the ship. Heated air,

which is lighter than cool air, also rises, as does the smoke produced by combustion. As

these heated combustion products rise, cool air takes their place; the cool air is heated in

turn and then also rises to the highest point it can reach. As the hot air and gases rise from

the fire, they begin to cool; as they do, they drop down to be reheated and rise again. This

is the comvection cycle

Heat originating at a fire on a lower deck will travel horizontally along passageways, and

then upward via ladder and hatch openings. It will ignite flammable materials in its path.

To prevent fire spread, the heat, smoke and gases should be released into the atmosphere.

However, the structural design of a ship makes it next to impossible to rapidly cut

openings through decks, bulkheads or the ship's hull for ventilation. Thus, it is imperative

that the fire be confined to the smallest possible area.

Transfer of heat by radiation is less commonly understood or appreciated than conduction

or convection. Radiation is the transfer of heat by infrared radiation (heat waves, e.g., the

Sun) which generally is not visible to the naked eye.

RADIATION

Heat radiation is the transfer of heat from a source across an intervening space; no

material substance is involved. The heat travels outward from the fire in the same

manner as light, that is, in straight lines. When it contacts a body, it is absorbed,

reflected or transmitted. Absorbed heat increases the temperature of the absorbing body.

For example, radiant heat that is absorbed by an overhead will increase the temperature

of that overhead, perhaps enough to ignite its paint.

Heat radiates in all directions unless it is blocked. Radiant heat extends fire by heating

combustible substances in its path, causing them to produce vapor, and then igniting the

vapor. Within a ship, radiant heat will raise the temperature of combustible materials near

the fire or, depending on the ship's design, at quite some distance from the fire.

Direct flame contact is a combination of two of the basic methods of heat transfer. As

hot gases from the flame rise into contact with additional fuel, the heat is transferred to

the fuel by convection and radiation until the additional fuel begins to vaporize. The

flames then will ignite these additional vapors.

The amount of heat generated is measured in British thermal units or BTUs. One BTU is

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of I pound of water 1° F (when the

measurement is performed at 60 ° F (15.5 ° C).

Fires are classified by the types of materials that are burning. Class A fires involve

ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and many plastics.

Class B fires involve flammable/ combustible liquids, greases, and gases. Class C fires

involve energized electrical equipment. Class D fires involve combustible metals, such

as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium.

All fires produce combustion products. Combustion products fall into four categories:

heat, gases, flame, and smoke. Heat is defined as a form of energy characterized by

vibration of molecules and capable of initiating and supporting chemical changes

and changes of state. Gases are substances that have no shape or volume of their own and

will expand to take the shape and volume of the space they occupy. Fire gases include

carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride, and acrolein. (See

box below for the effects of several typical fire gases.) Flame is the luminous portion of

burning gases or vapors. Smoke is the airborne particulate products of incomplete

combustion, suspended in gases, vapors, or solid or liquid aerosols. Soot, black particles

of carbon, is contained in smoke.

and changes of state. Gases are substances that have no shape or volume of their own and

will expand to take the shape and volume of the space they occupy. Fire gases include

carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, hydrogen chloride, and acrolein. (See
box below for the effects of several typical fire gases.) Flame is the luminous portion of

burning gases or vapors. Smoke is the airborne particulate products of incomplete

combustion, suspended in gases, vapors, or solid or liquid aerosols. Soot, black particles

of carbon, is contained in smoke.

EFFECTS OF VARIOUS FIRE GASES

Ammonia (NHS)

1000 ppm tatal within 10 minutes

Hydrogen Chloride (HC1)

1500 ppm fatal within several minutes

Phosgene (COC12)

25 ppm fatal within 30 minutes

Acrolein (CH2CHCHO)

30-100 ppm fatal within 10 minutes

Oxides of Nitrogen (NO)

200 ppm fatal within 10 minutes

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

10,000 ppm exposure fatal within I minute

Carbon Dioxide (C02)

70% concentration fatal within several

minutes

Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

450 ppm causes death in 9 to 13 minutes

Hydrogen Sulfide (H5)

400-700 ppm dangerous in 30 minutes

Sulfur Dioxide (S02)

S00 ppm fatal within 10 minutes

ROOM FIRE SEQUENCE

A fire in a room or defined space generally will progress through three predictable

developmental stages. In order to determine the origin and cause of a fire properly, the
investigator must be able to interpret the effects of these stages properly during the

examination of the fire scene.

The first stage of fire development is the incipient stage (growth). This begins at the

moment of ignition, and at this time the flames are localized. At this stage the fire is fuel

regulated. That is, the fire propagation is regulated not by the available oxygen but by the

configuration, mass, and geometry of the fuel itself. The oxygen content is within the

normal range and normal ambient temperatures still exist. A plume of hot fire gases will

begin to rise to the upper portions of the room. As convection causes the plume to rise it

will draw additional oxygen into the bottom of the flames. Fire gases such as sulfur

dioxide, carbon monoxide, and others will begin to accumulate in the room. If there is

any solid fuel above the flame, both convection and direct flame contact will cause

upward and

outward fire spread, producing the characteristic "V" pattern charTing on vertical

surfaces.

Second is the free-burning stage (development). In this stage more fuel is being

consumed, and the fire is intensifying. Flames have spread upward and outward from the

initial point

of origin by convection, conduction, and direct flame impingement. A hot, dense layer of

smoke and fire gases is collecting at the upper levels of the room and is beginning to

radiate heat downward. This upper layer of smoke and fire gases contains not only soot

but also toxIC gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride,

arcolein, and others. Unless the compartment of origin is sealed tightly, the smoke and

fire gases will be spread throughout the vessel. The temperature near the overhead level

has begun to rise rapidly while the temperature near the deck is still relatively cool. It is

still possible to survive in the compartment at the cooler lower level.

The fire continues to grow in intensity and the layer of soot and fire gases drops lower

and lower. The soot and combustible gases continue to accumulate until one (or more) of

the fuels reaches its ignition temperature. Rollover occurs when ignition of the upper
layer results in fire extending across the compartment at its upper levels. This rollover

causes the overhead temperature to increase at an even greater rate and also inereases the

heat being radiated downward into the compartment. Secondary fires can and do result

from the heat being generated. The fire is still fuel regulated at this time.

When the upper layer reaches a temperature of approximately 1,100" F (593.3 C),

sufficient heat is generated to cause simultaneous ignition of all fuels in the room. This

Is called flashover. Once tlashover has occurred, survival for more than a few seconds is

impossible. Temperatures in the space will reach 2,000° F (1,093.3° C) or more at the

overhead level down to over 1,000 F (593.3° C) at the deck. At the point of flashover the

fire is still fuel regulated; however, if the fire stays confined to the compartment of origin

it quickly becomes oxygen regulated. If the fire conditions provide free communication

with the atmosphere outside the compartment, the unlimited supply of oxygen causes the

fire to remain in the fuel regulated phase. As a general rule, once flashover has occurred

full involvement of the vessel quickly follows.

Flashover results in intense burning of the entire compartment and its contents. Flashover

will produce heavy deck-level burning and can even result in burning on the underside of

objects in the compartment.

The length of time necessary for a fire to go from the incipient stage to flashover depends

upon the fuel package, the compartment geometry, and ventilation. [For comparison, in

the typical residential accidental fire setting, this time may be as quick as two to three

minutes.

Eventually the fuel is consumed and open burning becomes less and less prevalent. If the

fire has been contained to a compartment or space, and the oxygen level drops below 15

to 16 percent, open flaming combustion will stop even if unburned fuel is still present. At

this point glowing combustion will take place; this is known as the smoldering stage

(decay). High temperature and considerable quantities of soot and combustible fire gases

have accumulated, and at this point the fire is oxygen regulated. The temperatures may

exceed the ignition temperatures of the accumulated gases. If a source of oxygen is

introduced in the area, the accumulated soot and fire gases may ignite with explosive

force. This smoke explosion is known as a backdraft. The pressures generated by a

backdraft are enough to cause significant structural damage and endanger the lives of

firefighting personnel and bystanders.

Backdrafts can take place in any enclosed space; they are not limited to berthing or store

rooms.

The behavior of a fire in a corridor is affected by the same conditions as a room fire. The

physical configuration of a corTIdor can cause the fire to spread rapidly, since the corridor

will function as a horizontal chimney or tlue. Rapid fire spread in a corridor can occur

with normal materials providing the fuel load.

sUMMARY

Fire is a very complex process influenced by many factors that affecet its growth, spread,

and development. The physical shape and state of the fuel, the available oxygen, and the

transmission of heat all play vital roles in fire development. While each fire is different,

all fires follow certain predictable patterns which, when understood by the investigator,

provide a scientific basis for determination of origin and cause.

Early humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food, and

frighten away predators. Sitting around a fire may have helped

unite and strengthen family groups and speed the evolution of

early society. Fire enabled our human ancestors to travel-óutof

warm, equatorial regions and, eventually spread throughout the

world. But fire also posed great risks and challenges to early

people, including the threat of burns, the challenge of

controlling fire, the greater challenge of starting a fire, and the

threat of wildfires.

As early civilizations developed, people discovered more uses of

fire. They used fire to provide light, to máke better tools, and as

a weapon in times of war. Early religions often included fire as a

part of their rituals, reflecting jts importance to society. Early

myths focused on fire's power.

In ancient Greece, the fire was considered one of the four basic

elements, a substance from which all things were composed. Its

great importance tohumans, the mystery of its powers, and its

seeming capriciousneśs, has made fire divine or sacred to many

people. Fire as a godis a characteristic feature of

Zoroastrianism in which, as in many sun-worshiping religions,

fire is considered the earthly representative or type of the sun.

In Greek mythology, Hephaestus (or Hephaistos) is the god of

fire. His Roman counterpart is Vulcan. According to myth,

Hephaestus was born lame and was cast from heaven in disgust

by his mother, Hera, and again by his father, Zeus, after a family

quarrel. He was brought back to Olympus by Dionysus and was

one of the only gods to have returned after exile. A blacksmith

and craftsman, Hephaestus made weapons and military

equipment for the gods and certain mortals, including a winged

helmet and sandals for Hermes and armor for Achilles.

As god of fire, Hephaestus became the divine smith and patron

of craftsmen; the natural volcanic or gaseous fires already

connected with him were often considered to be his workshops.

In art, Hephaestus was generally represented as a middle-aged

bearded man, although occasionally a younger, beardless type

is found. He usually wore a short sleeveless tunic and a round

close-fitting cap on his unkempt hair.

Another notable person in Greek mythology is Prometheus - the

fire bearer He was bestowed with godlike powers when he

stole the gods' fire to give it to humanity. In this context, some

historians mention him as the Greek god of fire instead of

Hephaestus
Humans have always worshiped fire for its awesome power in

nature and its beneficence when controlled. (Fire has played a

central role in religion. It has been personified as a god (for

example, the Indo-Iranian Agni) and recognized as a symbol of

home and family in many cultures. C

In many ancient and medieval religions, fire was considered

sacred because it was so essential to the welfare of people. The

Temple of Vesta was an outstanding example of the importance

of fire to the Romans. Vesta was originally the goddess of the

hearth (fire place) and her shrine was in every home. When

religion became an affair ofthe state, a temple named after

Vesta was built Rome in which the sacred fire was kept burning

at all times. To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman

religion periodically chose six priestesses called Vestal Virgins

who were responsible to keep the holy fire going in a

community hearth.

In Persian litérature, there is a story of the discovery of fire in a

fight with a dragon. One of the stones that the hero used as a

weapon missed the monster and struck a rock. Light shone forth

and human beings saw fire for the first time. The mythology of

nearly all-early people contains some account of accidental or

supernatural happenings that first revealed fire to human

beings. Early people regarded fire as a true gift of the gods.

Knowing who are the fire gods and goddesses can help us

understand the roots of fire technology. Although the stories of

the gods/goddesses of fire are myths, somehow, these folklores

provide basic ideas how early people used fire.

The ability of primitive people to use fire was crucial to their

development. Every human culture of the recent past is known to

have had endless experience with fire; a site near Nice, France, has

yielded evidence that hominids used fire even half a million years ago.

Although the first sources of fire were assumed to be the results of the

natural effects (lightning, or volcano), the methods originally used for

deliberate fire making are not clearly known. It is likely, thought that

some means of generating heat by friction was first used; many

variations of these principles have been used.

The earliest use person made of fire was to keep warm. As civilization

advanced, people learned to use fire in many.other ways. People

learned to use fire to cook food, to shape weapons and tools, to

change clay into pottery, and to furnish light. But early people had

extremely slow and quite unsatisfactory ways of kindling fires.

Today, we have not only improved the methods of kindling fires, but

we also use fire in many more ways. Fire furnishes the energy to drive

machines and keeps industry running. It supplies the power to drive

trains, ships, and planes; and it generates electricity. Fire also

sometimes used to remove and destroy waste materials. In addition,

fire is used in separating most metals from their ores, as well as in

forging and shaping metals into useful things.

There are mapy versfons of how early people produced fire. Primitive

methods of igniting wood chips enable Neolithic man to produce fire.

The following are the early means of producing fire:

A. Frictionmethod

Friction faises the temperature of a combustible material (kindling)

to ignition temperature.

sticks drill (aka fire plough): One of the oldest methods of

starting fires consists of rubbing two sticks together. The rubbing

creates friction between the sticks, and the friction generates

heat. This heat eventually causes the wood to ignite. This

method often times takes a lot of time and energ8Y.

Hand drill: The hand drill is a more efficient method of rubbing

two pieces of wood together. Rapidly spinning a stick of wood

against another piece of wood can generate enough friction and

heat to cause the wood to ignite.

A hand drill is a bush-craft technique that is simpler to build than

the bow drill, but it will require greater energy, patience, and skill

to implement. All that is required is a drill and a fire. The stick

being used for the drill is spun between two hands (instead' of

using a bow to spin the drill) to generate enough friction to create

embers.

.Bow drill: Drawing the bow back and forth spins the stick rapidly

against the piece of wood, producing a large amount of friction.

This friction between the stick and the piece of wood can heat the

wood until it ignites.

This method is more complicated to build than either of the

previously mentioned methods. However, once a bow drill is built

t requires less exertion to create a usablé ember

Weighted bow drill: The weighted bow drill generates more

friction than the bow drill by weighing down the wooden stick,

making it push with more force against the other piece of wood.

Moving the bow back and forth creates frictional heat between

the stick and piece of wood which can ignite the wood.

Pump fire drill: This is the most difficult to construct of all the

primitive fire-starting tools. This is due to its more mechanically

complicated nature This is compensated however by requiring

nearly no effort to generate embers and a fire once the pump fire

drill is constrücted

A hand drillis a bush-craft technique that is simpler to build than

the bow drill, but it will require greater energy, patience, and skill

to implement. All that is required isa drill and a fire. The stick

being used for the drill is spun between two hands (instead pf

using a bow to spin the drill) to generate enough friction to create

embers.

Bow drill: Drawing the bow back and forth spins the stick rapidly

against the piece of wood, producing a large amount of friction.

This friction between the stick and the piece bf wood can heat the

wood until it ignites.

This method is more complicated to build than either of the

previously mentioned methods. However, once a bow drill is built

it requires less exertion to create a usablé ember.

.Weighted bow drill: The weightedbow drill generates more

friction than the bow drill by weighing down the wooden stick,

making it push with more force against the other piece of wood.

Moving the bow back and forth creates frictional heat between

the stick and piece of woad which can ignite the wood.

.Pump fire drill: This is the most difficult to construct of all the

primitive fire-starting tools. This is due to its more mechanically

complicated nature This is compensated however by requiring

nearly no effort to generate embers and a fire once the pump fire

drill is constructed

B. Percussion Method

Producing a spark is alternative of friction method to set a

kindliog fire.

Striking Flint: Another primitive method of starting fires consists

of striking flint against another piece of flint to produce sparks.

.Flint and Steel: Later, people used flint and metal to produce

sparks. The sparks can ignite tinder to start a fire. The tinder
usually consists of a substance that burns readily, such as wood or

metal shavings.

Eventually, people discovered the use of glass and sunlight to start

fires. When lenses were invented, the magnifying glass became a

more efficient tool in focusing the sunlight on tinder - and the energy

of the sunlight heats the tinder until it ignites.

Prehistoric Uses of Fire

Perhaps, the earliest use of fire by prehistoric people was to keep

their bodies warm and to light their surroundings. Hunter

gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gatheringwild food)

made use of fire so that they can remain active after thé sunset

and protect themselves from predators. As civilization advanced,

people learned to use fire in many other ways. People developed

many ways to use fire in cooking, shaping tools and weapons,

changing clay into pottery, and furnishing lght,

People eventually learned to control fire by blowing at it through

reed pipes. Later, they used this technique to burn hollows in logs

to create cradles, bowls, and canoes.

Fires in Early Civilizations

Artisans first used fire to make pottery and bricks.

Ancient people developedimproved devices for using fire to

provide light.

The use of candles, made of yarn or dry brushes dipped in animal

fat.

Used as a weapon in times of war.

Modern Usesof Fire

.Used in appliances that rely on fire to operate

Used to supplement the main heating system in their homes

Used over campfires

.Used to manufacture products and dispose of waste

.Used in incinerators to destroy garbage

Fire also heat large boilers to generate steam which then powers

large turbines.

.Used in power plants to generate electricity