1.

Complex projective Space

The n-dimensional complex projective space Pn over C is the space Cn+1 \ {0} modulo the
relation ∼ defined below. Two elements x and y in Cn+1 \ {0} are said to be equivalent if there
exists λ ∈ C \ {0} so that x = λy. If x and y are equivalent, we write x ∼ y. The equivalent class of
an element x = (x0 , · · · , xn ) of Cn+1 \{0} is denoted by [x] = (x0 : · · · : xn ). Let π : Cn+1 \{0} → Pn
be the quotient map. We equip Pn with the quotient topology, i.e. U ⊆ Pn is open if and only if
π −1 (U ) is open in Cn+1 \ {0}. Since π is continuous and Cn+1 \ {0} is connected (it is path connected
and hence connected), Pn = π(Cn+1 \ {0}) is connected. (Continuous functions send connected sets
to connected sets).
The unit sphere
n
X
S2n+1 = {(x0 , · · · , xn ) ∈ Cn : |xi |2 = 1}
i=0
is contained in C n+1
\ {0}. Let π be the restriction of π to S2n+1 . Then π 0 : S2n+1 → Pn is a
0

surjective continuous map. Since S2n+1 is closed and bounded in Cn , it is compact by Heine-Borel
Theorem. Since continuous functions map compact sets to compact sets and S2n+1 is compact,
Pn = π 0 (S2n+1 ) is compact. We conclude that
Proposition 1.1. The n-dimensional complex projective space Pn is a compact and connected
space.
For each 0 ≤ i ≤ n, let Ui be the set of all points (x0 : · · · : xn ) in Pn with the property that
there exists a representative (x0 , · · · , xn ) of (x0 : · · · : xn ) such that xi 6= 0. Let us check that this
set is well-defined. Let (x00 , · · · , x0n ) be another representative of (x0 : · · · : xn ). Then there exists a
nonzero complex number λ in C so that x0j = λxi for 0 ≤ j ≤ n. Since xi 6= 0 and λ 6= 0, x0i 6= 0. (C
is a field.) Therefore Ui is well-defined. Let us show that Ui is open.
Let 0 ≤ i ≤ n. We define πi : Cn+1 → C by (x0 , · · · , xn ) to xi . Then πi is smooth for any
0 ≤ i ≤ n. Let Ui0 be the subset of Cn+1 consisting of vectors (x0 , · · · , xn ) so that xi 6= 0. Then
Ui0 = πi−1 (C \ {0}) and hence Ui0 is open by the continuity of πi and the openess of C \ {0}. Since
π −1 (Ui ) = Ui0 ∩ (Cn+1 \ {0}),
Sn
Ui is open in Pn . One can easily see that i=0 Ui = Pnk . Hence {U0 , · · · , Un } forms an open cover
for Pn .
For each 0 ≤ i ≤ n, we define
 
n x0 xn
ϕi : Ui → C , (x0 : · · · : xn ) = ,··· , .
xi xi
This map is well-defined (left to the reader) and is a bijection. Let us prove that ϕi is a homeomor-
phism.
To show that ϕi is continuous, we show that ϕ−1 n
i (V ) is open in Ui for any open set V of C . Since
n −1 −1
Ui is open in P , to show that ϕi (V ) is open in Ui , we only need to show that ϕi (V ) is open in
Pn . To show that ϕ−1 n
i (V ) is open in P , we show that π
−1
(ϕ−1
i (V )) is open in C
n+1
\ {0}. Let Ui0
0 n
be as above. The composition ϕi ◦ π : Ui → C is given by
 
x0 xn
(ϕi ◦ π)(x0 , · · · , xn ) = ,··· , .
xi xi
It is easy for us to see that ϕi ◦π : Ui0 → Cn is continuous. Hence (ϕi ◦π)−1 (V ) is open in Ui0 and hence
open in Cn+1 \{0} (we use the fact that Ui0 is open in Cn+1 \{0}.) Since π −1 (ϕ−1 i (V )) = (ϕi ◦π)
−1
(V )
n+1 −1 n
is open in C \ {0}, ϕi (V ) is open in P .
Let us prove that ϕi is an open mapping, i.e. ϕi (W ) is open in Cn for any open set W of Ui . Since
W is open in Ui and Ui is an open subset of Pn , W is also open in Pn . Therefore W 0 = π −1 (W ) is
open in Cn+1 \ {0} and hence open in Cn+1 . We only need to show that ϕi (π(W 0 )) is open. In fact,
we can show that ϕi ◦ π : Ui0 → Cn is an open mapping.
1
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Since open sets of the form I0 × I1 × · · · × In generates the topology on Cn+1 , where I0 , · · · , In
are open subsets of C, open sets of the form I0 × I1 × · · · × In ∩ Ui0 generates the topology of Ui0 .
Hence open sets of the form I0 × I1 × · · · × In with Ii open in C \ {0} generates the topology of Ui0 .
More precisely, W 0 is a union of open sets of the form I0 × I1 × · · · × In where Ii is open in C \ {0}.
Lemma 1.1. Let f : X → Y be any function. Suppose {Aα : α ∈ Λ} is a family of subsets of X.
Then !
[ [
f Aα = f (Aα ).
α∈Λ α∈Λ

Since any union of open sets is open, if we can show that (ϕi ◦π)(I0 ×I1 ×· · ·×In ) is open in Cn for
any open set of the form I0 ×I1 ×· · ·×In with Ii open in C\{0}, Lemma 1.1 implies that (ϕi ◦π)(W 0 )
is open for any open subset W of Ui so that W 0 = π −1 (W ). Let Jk = {xk /xi : xi ∈ Ii , xk ∈ Ik } for
any k 6= i. Then
(ϕi ◦ π)(I0 × · · · × In ) = J1 × · · · × Ji−1 × Ji+1 × · · · × Jn .
If we can show that all Jk are open in C for any k 6= i, by the fact that the product of open sets is
open, J1 × · · · × Ji−1 × Ji+1 × · · · × Jn is open in Cn and hence (ϕi ◦ π)(I0 × · · · × In ) is open in Cn .
For each µ ∈ Ii , we see that
[ [
Jk = {xk /µ : xk ∈ Ik } = µ−1 Ik .
µ∈Ii µ∈Ii
−1
Since Ik is open in C, µ Ik is open for any µ ∈ Ii . Since any union of open sets is open, Jk is open
in C. We complete the proof of our assertion. We conclude that ϕi : Ui → Cn is a homeomorphism
for all 0 ≤ i ≤ n.
Let 0 ≤ j < i ≤ n. Then
ϕi (Ui ∩ Uj ) = {(z1 , · · · , zn ) ∈ Cn : zj 6= 0}.
Hence ϕi (Ui ∩ Uj ) is open. The transition functions are given by
(ϕj ◦ ϕ−1 i ) : ϕi (Ui ∩ Uj ) → C
n
 
z1 zj−1 zj+1 zi 1 zi+1 zn
(ϕj ◦ ϕ−1
i )(z1 , · · · , zn ) = , · · · , , , · · · , , , , · · · ,
zj zj zj zj zj zj zj
Hence ϕj ◦ ϕ−1
i is biholomorphic on ϕi (Ui ∩ Uj ).
Before proving Pn is Hausdorff, let us recall some basic facts from topology.
Lemma 1.2. Let X be a Hausdorff space and K be a compact subset of X. Then K is closed.
Proof. To show that Y is closed, we show that X \ K is open. Let us prove that every point of
X \ K is an interior point of X \ K. Let x ∈ X \ K. For any y ∈ K, x 6= y. Since X is Hausdorff, we
can find an open neighborhood Uy of x and an open neighborhood Vy of y such that Uy ∩ Vy = ∅.
Then {Vy : y ∈ K} forms an open cover for K. Since K is compact, we can find y1 , · · · , yk so that
Tk
{Vyi : 1 ≤ i ≤ k} covers K. Take U = i=1 Uyk . Then U is an open neighorhood of x. Let us show
that U is contained in X \ K.
Let z ∈ U. If z ∈ K, then z ∈ Vyi for some 1 ≤ i ≤ k. Then z ∈ Vyi ∩ U ⊆ Vyi ∩ Uyi = ∅ which is
impossible. Therefore z 6∈ K and hence z ∈ X \ K. We see that U ⊆ X \ K. We find that x is an
interior point of X \ K. 
Corollary 1.1. Let X be a compact space and Y be a Hausdorff space. Suppose f : X → Y is a
bijective continuous function. Then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof. To show that f is a homeomorphism, we only need to prove that f is a closed mapping. Let
A be any closed subset of X. Since X is compact and A is a closed subset of X, A is compact. Since
f is continuous and A is compact, f (A) is compact. Since Y is closed and f (A) is compact, f (A) is
a closed subset of Y. 
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Definition 1.1. A topological space X is normal if given any disjoint closed subsets E and F, there
exist open neighborhood U of E and V of F such that U ∩ V = ∅.
Proposition 1.2. Any compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof. Let X be a compact Hausdorff space. Let B and K be disjoint closed subset of X. Since
X is compact, both B and K are also compact. Let b ∈ B. By the proof of Lemma 1.2 and the
Sk
compactness of K, we can choose an open neighborhood V = i=1 Vyi of K for some y1 , · · · , yk ∈ K
and an open neighborhood Ub of b such that Ub ∩ V = ∅. Since B is compact and {Ub : b ∈ B} forms
an open cover for B, there exist b1 , · · · , bl ∈ B so that {Ubi : 1 ≤ i ≤ l} forms an open cover for B.
Sl
Let U = i=1 Ubi . Then U is an open neighborhood of B. Claim U ∩ V = ∅. Let z ∈ U ∩ V. Then
z ∈ V and z ∈ Ubi for some i. Hence z ∈ V ∩ Ubi = ∅ which is not possible. 
Proposition 1.3. Let X and Y be compact spaces. Then the product space X × Y is also compact.
To prove that Pn is Hausdorff, we show that Pn is homeomorphic to S2n+1 /S1 . We will show that
2n+1
S /S1 is a Hausdorff space.
Define an action of S1 on S2n+1 by
S1 × S2n+1 → S2n+1 , (λ, x) 7→ λx.
Let us show that this action is continuous. Let α : C × Cn → Cn be the function (λ, x) 7→ λx.
Then α is continuous. The action of S1 on S2n+1 is the restriction of α to S1 × S2n+1 ; hence it is
continuous. Two points x and y of S2n+1 are equivalent if there exists λ ∈ S1 so that x = λy.
The quotient space of S2n+1 modulo this relation is denoted by S2n+1 /S1 . The equivalent class of
x ∈ S2n+1 modulo this relation is denoted by [x]S1 . The quotient map S2n+1 → S2n+1 /S1 is denoted
by q.
Definition 1.2. A group with a topology is called a topological group if the function
G × G → G, (a, b) → ab−1
is continuous. Here G × G is equipped with the product topology.
Example 1.1. C∗ = {z ∈ C : z 6= 0} with the subspace topology induced from C is a commutative
topological group called a noncompact (one dimensional) complex torus. The subset S1 of C∗
consisting of complex numbers z so that |z| = 1 forms a compact subgroup of C.
To show that S2n+1 /S1 is Hausdorff, we need the following Lemma.
Lemma 1.3. Let X be a compact Hausdorff space and G be a compact topological group. Suppose
G acts on X continuously, i.e. the function
m : G × X → X, (g, x) 7→ gx
is continuous. Then
(1) the quotient map π : X → X/G is an open mapping.
(2) the quotient map π : X → X/G is a closed mapping.
(3) the orbit space X/G is Haudorff.
Proof. At first, let us prove that the quotient map π : X → X/G is an open mapping. To show that
π is an open mapping, we need to show that π(U ) is open in X/G for any open set U of X. To show
that π(U ) is open in X/G, we need to show that π −1 (π(U )) is open in X. Claim that
[
(1.1) π −1 (π(U )) = g(U ).
g∈G

Since g : X → X is a homeomorphism for any g ∈ G, g(U ) is open in X for any open subset U of X.
If the above equation is true, then π −1 (π(U )) is open (any union of open subsets of X is open). Let
y ∈ π −1 (π(U )), then π(y)S∈ π(U ) and hence π(y) = π(z) for
S some z ∈ U. Therefore y = gzS∈ g(U ) for
some g ∈ G. Hence y ∈ g∈G g(U ). Hence π −1 (π(U )) ⊆ g∈G g(U ). Conversely, if y ∈ g∈G g(U ),
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then y ∈ g(U ) for some g ∈ G. Hence S y = gz for some z ∈ U. Therefore π(y) = π(z) ∈ π(U ) which
implies that y ∈ π −1 (π(U )). Hence g∈G g(U ) ⊆ π −1 (π(U )). We conclude that (1.1) holds.
Since X is compact, any closed subset of X is also compact. Let A be a closed subset of X.
Then A is compact. Since any product of compact S spaces is compact, G × A is compact. Since
G(A) = m(G, A) and m is continuous, G(A) = g∈G g(A) is compact. To show that π is a closed
mapping, we show that π −1 (π(A)) is closed in X. In fact, π −1 (π(A)) = G(A) is a compact subset
of a Hausdorff space X, it is closed.
The equivalence class of a point x ∈ X is the orbit [x] = Gx = {y ∈ X : y = gx, g ∈ G}. Since
G × X → X is continuous and G is compact, the orbit Gx is compact. If [x] 6= [y], then Gx and
Gy are disjoint compact subsets of X. Since X is Hausdorff, we can find disjoint open sets U and
V of X so that Gx ⊆ U and Gy ⊆ V. Since V is a closed subset of X and π is a closed mapping,
π(V ) is closed in X/G. Let U 0 = (X/G) \ π(V ). Then U 0 is an open subset of X/G. Since π is an
open mapping, V 0 = π(V ) is open in X/G. We obtain disjoint open sets {U 0 , V 0 }. Since Gy ⊆ V,
[y] ∈ π(V ) = V 0 . Let us show that [x] ∈ U 0 .
Since X is compact and V is a closed subset of X, V is compact. Since Gx is compact and V is
compact, we may choose disjoint open sets U and W so that Gx ⊆ U and V ⊆ W. Since U ∩ W = ∅,
Gx ∩ W = ∅. Hence [x] 6∈ π(W ) which implies that [x] 6∈ π(V ), i.e. [x] ∈ U 0 = (X/G) \ π(V ).
We find {U 0 , V 0 } disjoint open subsets of X/G so that [x] ∈ U 0 and [y] ∈ V 0 for any [x], [y] in
X/G with [x] 6= [y]. Therefore X/G is a Hausdorff space.


This lemma implies that S2n+1 /S1 is a (compact) Hausdorff space.

Lemma 1.4. The complex projective space Pn is homeomorphic to S2n+1 /S1 .
z
Proof. Let r : Cn+1 \ {0} → S 2n+1 be the function r(z) = for z ∈ Cn+1 \ {0}. Then r is
kzk
continuous. Define f : Pn → S2n+1 /S1 by
f ([z]) = [r(z)]S1
where z is a representative of [z]. Let us check that this map is well-defined. Suppose z and z0 are
equivalent. Then z = µz0 for some nonzero complex number µ. Then
z µz0
r(z) = = = λr(z0 )
kzk |µ|kz0 k
for λ = µ/|µ|. In other words, [r(z)]S1 = [r(z0 )]S1 .
If [r(z)]S1 = [r(z0 )]S1 , then
z z0 λkzk 0
= λ 0 =⇒ z = z.
kzk kz k kz0 k
Hence [z] = [z0 ]. This shows that f is injective. Let [x]S1 be a point in S2n+1 /S1 . Choose a repre-
sentative x of [x]S1 . Then x ∈ S 2n+1 ⊆ Cn+1 \ {0} and r(x) = x. Then f ([x]) = [r(x)]S1 = [x]S1 . We
prove that f is surjective.
By definition, we have the following commutative diagram:
r
Cn+1 \ {0} −−−−→ S 2n+1
 

πy
q
y
f
Pn −−−−→ S2n+1 /S1 .
To show that f is continuous, we show that f −1 (V ) is open in Pn for any open subset V of S2n+1 /S1 .
To show that f −1 (V ) is open in Pn , we show that π −1 (f −1 (V )) is open in Cn+1 \ {0}. By the above
commutative diagram,
π −1 (f −1 (V )) = (f ◦ π)−1 (V ) = (q ◦ r)−1 (V ) = r−1 (q −1 (V )).
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Since V is open in S2n+1 /S1 , q −1 (V ) is open in S 2n+1 . Since r is continuous and q −1 (V ) is open
in S 2n+1 , r−1 (q −1 (V )) is open in Cn+1 \ {0}. This proves that π −1 (f −1 (V )) is open in Cn+1 \ {0}.
Hence f −1 (V ) is open in Pn . We conclude that f is continuous.
Since f is a bijective continuous map and Pn is compact and S2n+1 /S1 is Hausdorff, f is a
homeomorphism. 
Lemma 1.5. Let X and Y be two spaces. Suppose f : X → Y is a homeomorphism. Then X is
Hausdorff if and only if Y is Hausdorff.
Proof. Let us assume that X is Hausdorff. Suppose y1 and y2 are two points of Y such that y1 6= y2 .
Since f is surjective, there exist x1 and x2 in X so that f (xi ) = yi for i = 1, 2. Since f is a function,
x1 6= x2 . (If x1 = x2 , y1 = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = y2 .) Since X is Hausdorff, there exist open neighborhoods
Ui of xi so that U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. Let Vi = f (Ui ) for i = 1, 2. Then Vi are open neighborhood of yi for
i = 1, 2. Claim V1 ∩ V2 = ∅. Suppose not. Take z ∈ V1 ∩ V2 . By surjectivity of f, we can find x ∈ X
so that z = f (x). Then x ∈ f −1 (V1 ∩ V2 ) ⊆ U1 ∩ U2 = ∅ which is impossible. 
Since Pn is homeomorphic to S2n+1 /S1 and S2n+1 /S1 is Hausdorff, Pn is also Hausdorff.