Allegory ['æləgəri]

Representation of ideas through a certain form (character, event, etc.). Allegory can convey hidden
meanings through symbolic figures, actions, and imagery. Difference Between Allegory and
Symbolism Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is a
complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event. A
symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object, giving it a particular meaning.
Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story.

Example

Orwell's Animal Farm - animals in the story and their interactions stand for political figures and
events Milton's Paradise Lost is another allegorical text relating to Christianity, good versus evil, God
versus Satan. The Hunger Games series can be read as a political allegory that makes a statement
about our modern society (e.g. The Capitol is like Hollywood).

Alliteration [a, Iztə'rerfən]

repetition of initial consonant sound The initial consonant sound is usually repeated in two
neighbouring words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). Alliteration draws
attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis.

for the greater good of ... safety and security share a continent but not a country

Repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not the
consonants themselves

. killer command
fantastic philosophy
A neat knot need not be re-knotted
. If neighbouring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words
are not alliterated
. a Canadian child honoured and humbled (the 'h' in honoured is silent)

Examples
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. Carries cat clawed her couch, creating chaos. She
shouted and shooed the sheep to the shelter. The pleasant prince pleaded for peace. See Sally sell
seashells by the seashore. Ralph's reindeer rose rapidly and ran round the room. Sara's seven sisters
slept soundly in sand. Tim's took tons of tools to make toys for tots

Allusion [a'lu:zən]

indirect reference to a person, event or piece of literature Allusion is used to explain or clarify a
complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the
reader / audience is familiar with, e.g.: famous people history (Greek) mythology literature the bible

Examples:
the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles
Dicken's "Christmas Carol") The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from
Greek mythology) Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion
on the biblical Ark of Noah) Many allusions on historic events, mythology or the bible have become
famous idioms

. Examples:

to meet one's Waterloo (allusion on Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo) to wash one's
hands of it. (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands
afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.)

Anaphora [a'næfərə]

successive clauses or sentences start with the same word(s) The same word or phrase is used to
begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus, the reader's / listener's attention is drawn directly to
the message of the sentence.

Example:
Every child must be taught these principles. Every citizen must uphold them. And every immigrant,
by embracing these ideals, makes our country more, not less, American.

If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity,
prosperity would not be so welcome. (Anne Bradstreet)

Tintern Abbey by William Wordsworth Five years have passed; Five summers, with the length of
Five long winters! and again I hear these waters...

Opposite: Epiphora.

Antithesis [æn'trOəsis]

contrasting relationship between two ideas Antithesis emphasises the contrast between two ideas.
The structure of the phrases / clauses is usually similar in order to draw the reader's / listener's
attention directly to the contrast

Examples:

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. It is easier for a father to have children
than for children to have a real father. Many are called, but few are chosen. Money is the root of all
evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness. The strong master gives his judgment and goes home; the
weak servant collects his key and goes to jail.

Assonance ['æsənəns]

Repetition of vowels in order to create internal rhyming.

Examples

Hear the mellow wedding bells. Edgar Allan Poe Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn. William
Wordsworth And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. Edgar Allan Poe

Related: Consonance. Repetition of consonants.

Consonance ['konsənəns]

Repetition of consonants

Examples

Creep and weep Bring and spring Bull and pull Creep and sleep Borrow and sorrow Howl and bowl
"Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me
stopping here, To watch his woods fill up with snow."

Cataphora [kə'tæfərə]

Mentioning of the person or object further in the discourse.

Examples: I met him yesterday, your boyfriend who was wearing the cool hat. If you want some,
here's some cheese. After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks. He's the biggest
slob I know. He's really stupid. He's so cruel. He's my boyfriend Nick. If you want them, there are
cookies in the kitchen.

Ellipsis [I'lrpsis]

Ellipsis (or elliptical construction ) is the omission of a word or words. It refers to constructions in
which words are left out of a sentence but the sentence can still be understood. Ellipsis helps us
avoid a lot of redundancy.

Some examples of ellipsis are listed below:

Lacy can do something about the problem, but I don't know what (she can do.) She can help with
the housework; Nancy can (help with the housework), too. John can speak seven languages, but Ron
can speak only two (languages.)

Epithet ['epr0et] (Greek - "addition")

is a stylistic device emphasizing some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. Its function is
to reveal the evaluating subjective attitude of the writer towards the thing described.

"The earth is crying-sweet, And scattering-bright the air, Eddying, dizzying, closing round, With soft
and drunken laughter.." In this excerpt, the description of the air and earth is enhanced by the usage
of epithets: "crying-sweet," "scattering-bright," and "soft and drunken laughter."

Euphemism ['ju:fəmızəm]

Euphemism is used to express a mild, indirect, or vague term to substitute for a harsh, blunt, or
offensive term
.
These are examples of euphemism

: Passed away for die. On the streets for homeless. Between jobs for unemployed. Fat - chubby, full-
figured, big boned Poor - underprivileged, unable to make ends meet, financially embarrassed
Homeless - displaced, dispossessed Unemployed - between the jobs Bankrupt - in reduced
circumstances Lover - gentleman friend Drunk - tired and over-emotional

Hyperbole [har'p3:bəli]

deliberate exaggeration Used sparingly, hyperbole effectively draws the attention to a message that
you want to emphasize
Examples
. I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant. I have told you a thousand times. Her brain is the size of a
pea. You snore louder than a freight train. That joke is so old, the last time I heard it I was riding on a
dinosaur. I will die if she asks me to sing in front of everyone.

Opposite: Litotes. Understatement.

Understatement [,andə'stertmənt]

weaken or soften a statement A statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened to

sound more polite. Note that understatement is a common feature of the English language
(especially British English) used in everyday-life situations.

Examples:

I know a little about running a company. (a successful businessman might modestly say.) I think we
have slightly different opinions on this topic. (instead of: I don't agree with you at all.) "It was ok" -
when a top ranker was asked about his exam results. "I wouldn't say he was thin" - describing a very
obese person. "He is a little on the old side" - describing a very old person. "I wouldn't say it tasted
great" - on terrible food.

Litotes [lar'təuti:z]
form of understatement Litotes is a form of understatement which uses the denied opposite of a
word to weaken or soften a message.

Examples:

That's not bad. (instead of: That's good/great.) Boats aren't easy to find in the dark. (instead of:
Boats are hard/difficult to find in the dark.) They aren't the happiest couple around. He's not the
ugliest fellow around! She's not the brightest girl in the class. The food is not bad. It is no ordinary
city.

Irony ['airəni]

Irony is a figure of speech in which there is a contradiction of expectation between what is said what
is really meant. It is characterized by an incongruity, a contrast, between reality and appearance.

Examples of irony

His argument was as clear as mud. The two identical twins were arguing. One of them told the other:
"You're ugly“. The thieves robbed the police station. I saw a fish drowning. Britain's biggest dog was
named Tiny. Two marriage therapists got divorced from each other. Most tobacco company
executives don't smoke. He is a pilot but, is afraid of heights.
Metaphor ['metəfɔ:r]
figurative expression Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a simile
(A is like B.), "like" is not used in metaphor (A is B.).

Examples:

Time is a thief. He has a heart of gold. He swam in the sea of diamonds. You are my sunshine. A light
in a sea of darkness My father is a rock. I'm not an angel, but I wouldn't behave like that. How could
she marry a snake like that! "Language is a road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come
from and where they are going." - (Rita Mae Brown)

Metonymy [met'pnəmi]

figurative expression, closely associated with the subject Metonomy (unlike metaphor) uses
figurative expressions that are closely associated with the subject in terms of place, time or
background.

Examples:

The White House declared.. (White House = US government / President) The land belongs to the
crown. (crown = king / queen / royal family / monarchy) Empty pockets never held anyone back.
Only empty heads and empty hearts can do that. (Norman Vincent Peale) (empty pockets = poverty;
empty heads = ignorance / dullness / density; empty hearts = unkindness / coldness) the spit-and-
polish command post (meaning: shiny clean)

Onomatopoeia [e:1d ejeu'eua'] word imitating a sound The pronounciation of the word imitates a
sound. Onomatopoeia is used because it's often difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story
becomes more lively and interesting by the use of onomatopoeia.

Examples

: The lion roared. The steaks sizzled in the pan. The bomb went off with a bang. The door creaked
open in the old mansion. The tires of the sports car halted with a loud screech. The birds like to
tweet outside my window. Drip, drip, drip, went the faucet all day long.

Oxymoron [,oksr'mɔ:ron]

An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines incongruous or contradictory terms. The plural is
oxymorons or oxymora. An oximoron can be made of an adjective and a noun:

Dark light Deafening silence Living dead Open secret Virtual reality Angry relief Awfully nice All alone
Born dead Bad luck Big baby Clearly confused Clearly misunderstood Current history Controlled
chaos

Oximorons can also be a combination of a noun and a verb. The silence whistles.

Personification [p3:5ɔnrfr'kerfn]
attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or abstractions Animals,
inanimate objects or abstractions are represented as having human characteristics (behaviour,
feelings, character etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively.

Examples:

Why these two countries would remain at each other's throat for so long. I closed the door, and my
stubborn car refused to open it again. The flowers nodded their heads as if to greet us. The frogs
began their concert. Every morning my alarm clock springs to life; I hate it when that happens. Time
has this annoying habit of creeping up on you. The wind howled and howled, its objection was in the
air.

Pun [pan] kanambyp, rpa cniB

A pun, also called paronomasia, involves a word play which suggests two or more meanings, by
exploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar- sounding words, for an intended humorous or
rhetorical effect. Puns are constructions used in jokes and idioms whose usage and meaning are
entirely local to a particular language and its culture. To be understood, puns require a large
vocabulary.

"You can tune a guitar, but you can't tuna fish." (The phrase uses the homophonic qualities of "tune
a" and "tuna") She had a photographic memory but never developed it. I was struggling to figure out
how lightning works then it struck me. Always trust a glue salesman. They tend to stick to their word

. Repetition

repeating words or phrases Words or phrases are repeated throughout the text to emphasise certain
facts or ideas.

Examples:

Down, down, down. Would the fall never come to an end! »l wonder how many miles l've fallen by
this time?« she said aloud. Down, down, down. There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began
talking again. The boy was a good footballer, because his father was a footballer, and his grandfather
was a footballer.

Types of Repetition Anaphora: Repetition of words at the start of clauses or verses. Epiphora:
Repetition of the same word at the end of each clause.

Rhetorical Question [n'torikəl]

question without a direct answer The author / speaker raises a question, but doesn't answer it
directly he/she sees the answer (usually Yes or No) as obvious. Rhetorical questions are used to
provoke, emphasise or argue

Examples

. "..O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" "Who knows?" "Are you stupid?" "Did you
hear me?" "Ok?" "Why not?" "How much longer must our people endure this injustice?" "Can you
do anything right?" "Is the sky blue?" "Is the Pope Catholic?" "Yeah, why not?" "What the hell?"
Simile ['sımıli]

direct comparison Two things are compared directly by using 'like' (A is like B.).

Other possibilities are for example:

A is (not) like B A is more/less than B A is as A is similar to B A is .., so is B A does .., so does B ... as B
The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel. Personality is to a man what perfume is to a flower.
My friend is as good as gold. As clear as mud As cold as ice As cool as a cucumber As deaf as a post
As free as a bird As fat as a pig As fit as a fiddle As flat as a pancake

Simile and Metaphor-What's the Difference?

While both similes and metaphors are used to make comparisons, the difference between similes
and metaphors comes down to a word. Similes use the words like or as to compare things-“Life is
like a box of chocolates." In contrast, metaphors directly state a comparison-"Love is a battlefield."
Life is like box of chocolates. (Simile) My life is an open book. (Metaphor) That baby is as cute as a
button!(Simile) Baby, you're a firework.(Metaphor) simile and comparison simile is a figure of
speech in which one thing is compared to another, in the case of english generally using like" or "as
while comparison is the act of comparing or the state or process of being compared.

Synecdoche [sI'nekdəki]

using a part instead of the whole or vice versa Synechdoche is some kind of generalization or
specification that uses a part, a member or a characteristic of what is meant.

Examples

Turning our long boat round on the last morning required all hands on deck ... (hands = people)
Troops halt the drivers (troops = soldiers) She wore gold around her neck. (gold = chain) The ship
was lost with all hands. (sailors) His parents bought him a new set of wheels. (new car) He has many
mouths to feed. (to look after many)

Tautology [tɔ:'tplədzi]

Tautology is a statement that says the same thing twice in different ways, or a statement that is
unconditionally true by the way it is phrased

. Examples of tautology

Forward planning. It's a free gift. These are necessary essentials. It is new innovation. Today's
modern technology. She ate a salmon fish sandwich. To return again. Frozen Ice. I have heard this
with my own ears. I never make predictions, especially about the future. Me myself personally
cordially invite you to the party. This is a short summary of...

Zeugma |'zju:gmə|

Zeugma is a construction where a single word is used with two other parts of a sentence but must
be understood differently in relation to each.
Examples

He took his hat and his leave. She broke his car and his heart. The above structures are
grammatically correct: "took" collocates with both "hat" and "leave" and "broke" collocates with
both "car" and "heart". She opened the door and her heart to the orphan. The addict kicked the
habit and then the bucket. He lost his coat and his temper. She killed time and the mailman. His boat
and his dreams sank. On his fishing trip, he caught eight trout and a cold. She lowered her standards
by raising her glass, her courage, her eyes and his hopes. He bought her story and a beer.