Biological Molecules

Organic Molecules

• are chemical compounds that contain both

carbon and hydrogen.
 Dehydration Synthesis
• "to put together while losing water"
• is a type of reaction in which monomers release water
molecules as byproducts, thus forming larger
molecules known as polymers.
• the hydrogen of one monomer combines with the
hydroxyl group of another monomer, releasing water
molecule.
– Monomer - a simple molecule of relatively low molecular
weight, which is capable of reacting chemically with other
molecules to form a dimer, trimer, or polymer.
– Polymer - a chain of small molecular sub-units (monomers).
Monomer & Polymer
Dehydration Synthesis
 Hydrolysis

• process in which
polymers are broken
down into monomers by
breaking its covalent
bonds.
 Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic Acids
 Carbohydrates
• organic molecules that
consist of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
• (CH2O)n : often in the
proportion 1:2:1
• Types:
– Monosaccharides
– Disaccharides
– Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides
• simple sugars
• number of carbon ranges from 3-7.
• mostly end its name with the suffix -ose.
– with aldehyde group (aldose)
– with ketone group (ketose)
– with different numbers of carbon (triose, pentose,
etc.)
• Examples:
– glucose, galactose, fructose ( C6H12O6)
 Disaccharides

• are formed when two monosaccharides

undergo dehydration synthesis.
• hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide
combines with the hydrogen of another
monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water
and forming a covalent bond (glycosidic bond).
 Disaccharides

• Common Disaccharides:
– Lactose
– Maltose
– Sucrose
Disaccharides: Hydrolysis
 Polysaccharides

• is a long chain of monosaccharides linked by

glycosidic bonds.
• examples:
– starch
– glycogen
– cellulose
– chitin
 Lipids

• are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up

the building blocks of the structure and function of
living cells.
• examples:
– fats
– oils
– waxes
– certain vitamins
– hormones
 Fats and Oils
• Fat molecule
– consists of 2 main components:
– glycerol - is an organic compound (alcohol)
with 3 carbons, 5 hydrogens, & 3 hydroxyl
(OH) groups.
– fatty acid - has a long chain of hydrocarbons
to which a carboxyl group is attached.
- is an amphipathic compound with a
hydrophylic portion (carboxyl) and
hydrophobic tail (hydrocarbon).
Lipid Structure
 Saturated Fatty Acid

• only single bonds between neighboring

carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, thus making
it saturated with hydrogen.
• example:
– stearic acid
– lauric acid
– palmitic acid
 Unsaturated Fatty Acid

• a hydrocarbon chain that contains a double

bond.
– one double bond - monounsaturated
– more than one double bond - polyunsaturated
• is usually of plant origin
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
 Waxes

• any of various natural, oily or greasy heat-

sensitive substances, consisting of
hydrocarbons or esters of fatty acids that are
insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
organic solvents.
 Triacylglycerol
• also known as triglycerides
• is a result of esterification
of three fatty acids into
glycerol.
• it accumulates in adipose
tissues (fat cells) as stored
energy.
– Lipase - is an enzyme
that can hydrolyze
triglycerides.
 Glycolipid

• is a carbohydrate linked to the alcohol group of

a lipid via a glycosidic bond, found in nerves
and brain cell membrane.
 Steroid

• it contains fused
ring systems
consisting of three
six-membrane rings
and one five-
membrane rings.
• is an important part
of many hormones.
 Protein
• a biomolecule composed of
C, H, O, and N.
• is the most abundant organic
molecule in living systems
and has the most diverse
range of functions of all
macromolecules.
• it may be structural,
regulatory, contractile,
protective, storage, for
transport membrane,
enzymes.
– amino acids - monomers
of protein.
 Amino Acids

• are monomers that make

up proteins.
• "amino acid" is derived
from the amino group and
the carboxyl acid group.
• the chemical nature of the
side chain determines the
nature of the amino acid.
Amino Acids
 Peptide Bond

• the bond that

links one amino
acid to another.
• this linkage is
between the
carboxyl and
amine group of
two amino acids.
 Types of Protein

1. Enzymatic Protein - are catalysts in biochemical

reactions.
– each is specific for the substrate it acts on.
– may help in breakdown, rearrangement, or
synthesis.
– types: (a) catabolic enzymes
(b) anabolic enzymes
What are enzymes made of?

enzyme amino acid chain

 Types of Protein

2. Regulatory or Signal
Protein (Hormones) - are
chemical signaling
molecules, usually small
proteins or steroids,
secreted by the
endocrine cells that act
to control or regulate
specific physiological
processes, including
growth, development,
metabolism, and
reproduction.
 Types of Protein
• Structural Protein - proteins that form the structural partof
cells and tissues.
 Types of Protein

• Transport Protein - aids

cells to be selective in
moving substances into
and out of the cell.
 Types of Protein

• Defense Proteins - play an

important role in the body's
defense system against disease-
causing foreign organisms and
particles.

Antibodies - are produced by

specific type of WBC called B
lymphocytes, in response to the
presence of a foreign substance in
the body, which is referred to as
antigen.
 Types of Protein

• Contractile Proteins -
are in the form of
actin and myosin,
which are found in
cells to allow
movement and cause
muscle contraction.
 Types of Protein
• Storage Protein - serves as reserves of amino acids, which can
be used later on to nourish the growth and development of
organisms.
– prevalent in seeds, egg white, milk
 Protein Structure

• Primary Structure -
refers to the linear
polypeptide chain,
which does not
achieve any folding
state.
• Ex: Insulin
 Protein Structure
• Secondary Structure - refers
to the interaction of the
hydrogen bond donor and
acceptor residues of the
repeating peptide unit.
– the two most important
secondary structures of
proteins, the alpha helix
and the beta sheet.
– Ex: Myoglobin
 Protein Structure

• Tertiary Structure - is the three-dimesional

conformation of proteins.
• Ex: Albumin
 Nucleic Acids
• are organic compounds that function for the storage
of genetic information, which is transmitted from one
generation to the next in all living organisms.
• it also function in protein synthesis as it carry the
code needed in the information of specific proteins.
• Building blocks - Nucleotides
• Types:
– Deoxyribonuclei Acid
– Ribonucleic Acid
 Nucleotide

• is made up of:
– Five-carbon sugar
– Phosphate group
– Nitrogenous bases
• Purines (double ringed) - Guanine (G) and
Adenine (A)
• Pyrimidines (single-ringed) - Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T), & Uracil (U)
Nucleotide
Nitrogenous Bases
 Properties of DNA

• double helix
• has complementary
bases of A-T; C-G
• deoxyribose sugar
 Properties of RNA

• has complementary
bases G-C; A-U
• ribose sugar
• single-stranded
 Types of RNA

• mRNA
• tRNA
• rRNA
• Regulatory RNA
 mRNA
• is an intermediate between a
protein-coding gene and its
protein product.
• If a cell needs to make a
particular protein, the gene
encoding the protein will be
turned “on,” meaning an
RNA-polymerizing enzyme
will come and make an
RNA copy, or transcript, of
the gene’s DNA sequence.
• The transcript carries the
same information as the
DNA sequence of its gene.
 Regulatory RNA

• RNAs that do not encode

proteins, help regulate the
expression of other genes.