BIOLOGICAL

MOLECULES
GROUP 4 EVOLUTION
Biomolecule
• molecules that occur naturally in living organisms.
• include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and nucleic acids.
• also includes small molecules like primary and secondary
metabolites and natural products.
• consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen with nitrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus.
Biomolecules are very large molecules of many atoms,
that are covalently bound together.
CLASSES OF
BIOMOLECULES
Carbohydrates
• often known as sugars, they are the 'staff of life' for most
organisms.
• the most abundant class of biomolecules in nature, based on
mass. 
• important energy source required for various metabolic activities
• are intermediates in biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• aids in regulation of nerve tissue and is the energy source for
brain. 
• gets associated with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens,
receptor molecules, vitamins and antibiotics. 
• they form structural and protective components, like in cell wall
of plants and microorganisms. 
Classifications of carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides or simple sugars consists of single
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. 
ex. Glucose, galactose, glycerose, erythrose, ribose, ribulose,
fructose
• Oligosaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides, which
contain more two to ten residues on hydrolysis.
ex. Maltose, lactose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose.
• Polysaccharides are polymeric anhyderides of
monosaccharides.
ex. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin, inulin, hyaluronic acid. 
Proteins 
• makes up the majority of biomolecules present in a cell. 
• are seen in muscles, hair, skin and other tissues, they constitute the
bulk of body's non-skeletal structure.
• Proteins transport different substances in blood of different tissues.
• Proteins are responsible for many enzymatic functions in the cell
and play an important structural role . 
• are composed of subunits called amino acids.  
Structure of Proteins
• Primary Structure of Protein is the linear sequence of amino acids
that make up the polypeptide chain. 

• Secondary Structure of Protein refers to the regular folding

pattern of twists and kinks of the polypeptide chain.
• Tertiary Structure of Protein is the three dimensional structure
formed by the bending and twisting of the polypeptide chain.

• Quaternary Structure of Protein Some proteins contain more than

one polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide chain is called
a subunit. The subunits can be same or different ones. 
Nucleic acids
• These molecules are responsible for all of our genetic information
(to store and transfer)
• Nucleic acids are formed from subunits called nucleotides. 
- there are 5 different types of nucleotides in the cell;
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine and Uracil. 
• Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are long polymers made of
repeating units of nucleotides.  
• 2 types of nucleic acids
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - are essential to all living forms
• RNA (ribonucleic acid) - convert genetic information from
genes into amino acid sequences of protein
Structure of Nucleic Acid
• Primary structure of nucleic acids is a linear sequence of nucleotides,
which are linked to each other by phosphodiester linkages.

• Secondary structure is the interaction between the bases. This

structure shows parts of which strands are bound to each other.
• Tertiary structure is the three dimensional shape into which the entire
chain is folded. Tertiary structure arrangement differs in four structural
forms; left or right handedness, length of the turn of the helix, number
of base pairs per turn, the difference in size between major and the
minor groove. 

• Quaternary structure is the higher-level of organization of the

nucleic acids. This structure refers to the interactions of the nucleic
acids with the other molecules.
Lipids
• are composed of long hydrocarbon chains (-CH2-). 
• these molecules hold an incredible amount of energy and are
therefore energy storage molecules. 
• lipids are the major component of cell membranes. 
• Cholesterol and other sterols are also types of lipids and are
necessary components of cell membranes (eukaryotic cells).
• they serve as source for fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E, K.
• lipids are components of some enzyme systems
• they are soluble in non-polar solvents, like ether, chloroform,
methanol.
• lipids have high energy content and are metabolized to release
calories.
Enzymes
• are large biomolecules that are responsible for many chemical
reactions that are necessary to sustain life.
• is a protein molecule and are biological catalysts
• found all around us, they are found in every plant and animal.
• they take part in movement with the help of the protein myosin
which aids in muscle contraction.
• all living being are controlled by chemical reactions that are
involved in growth, combating disease, breathing,
digestion, reproduction, and everything else are catalyzed by
enzymes.
• our body contains about 3,000 enzymes that are constantly
regenerating, repairing and protecting us. 
• Enzymes increase the rate of the reaction.
• they are specific, they function with only one reactant to produce
specific products. 
• Substrate is the reactant in an enzyme catalyzed reaction. The
portion of the molecule that is responsible for catalytic action of
enzyme is the active site. 
Classification of enzymes
Enzymes are classified based on the reactions they catalyze into 6
groups:
• Oxidoreductases - are the enzymes that catalyze oxidation-
reduction reactions. These emzymes are important as these
reactions are responsible for the production of heat and energy.
• Transferases - are the enzymes that catalyze reactions where
transfer of functional group between two substrates takes place.
• Hydrolases - are also known as hydrolytic enzymes, they
catalyze the hydrolysis reactions of carbohydrates, proteins and
esters.
• Lyases - are enzymes that catalyze the reaction involving the removal
of groups from substrates by processes other than hydrolysis by the
formation of double bonds. 
• Isomerases - are enzymes that catalyze the reactions where
interconversion of cis-trans isomers is involved.
• Ligases - are also known as synthases, these are the enzymes that
catalyze the reactions where coupling of two compounds is involved
with the breaking of pyrophosphate bonds. 
Redox Reaction
• Redox reactions are reactions in which one species is reduced
and another is oxidized. Therefore the oxidation state of the
species involved must change. These reactions are important for
a number of applications, including energy storage devices
(batteries), photographic processing, and energy production and
utilization in living systems including humans.
• Reduction: A process in which an atom gains an electron and
therefore decreases (or reduces its oxidation number). Basically
the positive character of the species is reduced.
Oxidation: A process in which an atom loses an electron and
therefore increases its oxidation number. In other words, the
positive character of the species is increased.