AP Chemistry 2022-2023

AP Chemistry Summer Assignment

In the interest of saving valuable time at the beginning of September, students are asked to complete
a “Summer Assignment” for AP Chemistry. This summer assignment is mostly review of some
material that you learned in 10th grade Chemistry. Attached are a few lists for you to “memorize”.
Also attached are “flash cards” for you to review.

Memorize the following (lists attached)

• Polyatomic Ions
• Rules for Naming Acids
• Rules for Naming Ionic Compounds
• The Solubility Rules
• Determining Oxidation Numbers

Please read chapter 1, 2 and 3 in the text (Zumdahl 10th Edition – pdf attached) and do the following
questions at the end of each chapter.

Chapter Questions
Chapter 1 24, 28, 34, 36, 38, 40, 43, 76, 83, 86, 94, 96
Chapter 2 25, 26, 27, 35, 36, 40, 42, 66, 68, 76, 78, 80, 84, 87, 90, 93, 98
Chapter 3 32, 33, 40, 42, 44, 56, 62, 65, 72, 90, 92, 102, 110, 116

This work is due on September 15, 2022, and during the third week of September you will be given a
test based on the summer assignment.

AP Chemistry is a challenging course. It is not all about memorization; however, having these items
memorized is essential for success in learning the concepts covered in the course.
Please do not wait until the night before school begins, to complete the assignment.

Dr. M. Sharma
 Rules for Determining Oxidation Number
Oxidation Number: A number assigned to an atom in a molecular compound or
molecular ion that indicates the general distribution of electrons among the bonded
atoms.
1. The oxidation number of any uncombined element is O.
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equal the charge on the ion.
3. The more electronegative element in a binary compound is assigned the number
equal to the charge it would have if it were an ion.
4. The oxidation number of fluorine in a compound is always –1
5. Oxygen has an oxidation number of –2 unless it is combined with F, when it is +2,
or it is in a peroxide, when it is –1.
6. The oxidation state of hydrogen in most of its compounds is+1 unless it combined
with a metal, in which case it is –1.
7. In compounds, the elements of groups 1 and 2 as well as aluminum have oxidation
number of +1, +2, and +3, respectively
8. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is O.
9. The sum of the oxidation number of all atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the charge
of the ion.

Solubility Rules
1. All compounds containing alkali metal cations and the ammonium ion are soluble.
2. All compounds containing NO3-, ClO4-, ClO3-, and C2H3O2- anions are soluble.
3. All chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble except those containing Ag+, Pb2+,
or Hg2+.
4. All sulfates are soluble except those containing Hg2+, Pb2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, or Ba2+.
5. All hydroxides are insoluble except compounds of the alkali metals, Ca2+, Sr2+, and
Ba2+.
6. All compounds containing PO43-, S2-, CO32-, CrO42- and SO32- ions are insoluble except
those that also contain alkali metals or NH4+.

Rules for Naming Ionic Compounds

1. Balance Charges (charges should equal zero)
2. Cation is always written first (in name and in formula)
3. Change the ending of the anion to -ide (unless it is a polyatomic ion in which case it
retains its name).
 SOME COMMON IONS
IONS LIST
acetate C2H3O2– ferric Fe3+ (yellow) oxalate C2O42–
aluminum Al3+ ferrous Fe2+ (green) oxide O2–
ammonium NH4+ fluoride F– perbromate BrO4–
barium Ba2+ hydrogen H+ perchlorate ClO4–
bicarbonate HCO3– hydronium H3O+ periodate IO4–
bisulfate HSO4– hydroxide OH– permanganate MnO4 (purple)
–

bisulfide HS– hypobromite BrO– peroxide O22–

bisulfite HSO3– hypochlorite ClO– phosphate PO43–
bromate BrO3– hypoiodite IO– phosphide P3–
bromide Br– iodate IO3– phosphite PO33–
bromite BrO2– iodide I– potassium K+
calcium Ca2+ iodite IO2– silver Ag+
carbonate CO32– lead Pb2+ sodium Na+
chlorate ClO3– lithium Li+ stannic Sn4+
chloride Cl– magnesium Mg2+ stannous Sn2+
chlorite ClO2– manganese Mn2+ strontium Sr2+
chromate CrO4 (yellow)
2– mercuric Hg2+ sulfate SO42–
chromium Cr3+ mercurous Hg22+ sulfide S2–
cupric Cu (blue)
2+ nickel Ni (green)
2+ sulfite SO32–
cuprous Cu+ (green) nitrate NO3– thiocyanate SCN–
cyanide CN– nitride N3– thiosulfate S2O32–
dichromate Cr2O72– (orange) nitrite NO2– zinc Zn2+

Rules for Naming an Acid

1. When the name of the anion ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the prefix
hydro-, the stem of the anion has the suffix –ic and it is followed by the word
acid. -ide becomes hydro _____ic Acid
Cl- is the Chloride ion so HCl = hydrochloric acid
2. When the anion name ends in –ite, the acid name is the stem of the anion with
the suffix –ous, followed by the word acid.
-ite becomes ______ous Acid
ClO2- is the Chlorite ion so HClO2. = Chlorous acid.
3. When the anion name ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with
the suffix –ic, followed by the word acid.
-ate becomes ______ic Acid
ClO3- is the Chlorate ion so HClO3 = Chloric acid.
1. Significant Digits I
What do they mean?
Consider: 16.82394 cm
In a measurement or a calculation, it is important to know
which digits of the reported number are significant.
That means… if the same measurement were repeated
again and again, some of the numbers would be
consistent and some would simply be artifacts.
All of the digits that you are absolutely certain of plus one
more that is a judgment are significant.
If all the digits are significant above, everyone who
measures the object will determine that it is 16.8239 cm,
but some will say …94 cm while others might say …95
cm.
2. Significant Digits II
Some examples with rulers.
Suppose that three people were told to determine the length of a
piece of wood and were given a tape measure whose smallest
markings were at 0.1 centimeter intervals. They report the
following values: Person 1 reported 11.6 cm, person 2 reported
11.6283476 cm and person 3 reported 11.63 cm
Person 1 has been overly conservative because it is possible to
estimate how far between the 0.1 cm marks the edge of the
wood lies. Person 2 is being silly, because it is impossible to
estimate such small distances by eye. Person 3 has made the best
estimate of where the edge lies. No accuracy is lost as in case 1,
and no unrealistic accuracy is claimed as in case 2. We’ve
assumed here that one can measure accurately to one-tenth of
the smallest markings on the ruler—in this case, that means to
the nearest 0.01 cm. So Person 3’s length measurement of 11.63
cm has 4 S.F., with the least significant digit in the hundredths
place.
3. Significant Digits III
Rules for Recognizing Sig. Digits
In a number written with the correct number of sig.
digits...
• All non-zero digits are significant. 523 grams (3)
• 0’s in the MIDDLE of a number are ALWAYS
significant. 5082 meters (4) 0.002008 L (4)
• 0’s in the FRONT of a number are NEVER significant.
0.0032 kg (2) 0.00000751 m (3)
• 0’s at the END of a number are SOMETIMES
significant.
• Decimal point is PRESENT, 0’s ARE significant
2.000 Liters (4) 0.000500 grams (3)
• Decimal point is ABSENT, 0’s are NOT significant
2000 Liters (1) 550 m (2)
4. Scientific Notation
Useful for showing Significant Digits
Scientific notation uses a number between 1 and 9.99 x
10 to some power. Its use stems from the use of slide
rules.
Know how to put numbers into scientific notation:
5392 = 5.392 x 103 0.000328 = 3.28 x 10–4
1.03 = 1.03 550 = 5.5 x 102
Some 0’s in numbers are placeholders and are not a
significant part of the measurement so they disappear
when written in sci. notation. Ex: 0.000328 above. In
scientific notation, only the three sig. digits (3.28) are
written.
Scientific Notation can be used to show more sig. digits.
Values like 550 ( 2 sig. digits) can be written 5.50 x 102 (3)
5. Significant Digits IV
Significant Digits in Calculations
When you perform a calculation using measurements,
often the calculator gives you an incorrect number of
significant digits. Here are the rules to follow to report
your answers:
x and ÷: The answer has the same # of sig. digits as the
number in the problem with the least number of sig.
digits.
example: 3.7 cm x 8.1 cm = 29.97 » 30. cm2 (2 sig. digits)
+ and –: The last sig. digit in the answer is the largest
uncertain digit in the values used in the problem.
example: 3.7 cm + 8.1 cm = 11.8 cm (3 sig. digits)
Know how to illustrate why these rules work.
6. Accuracy vs. Precision
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to some
accepted or true value (a standard).
Ex: an experimental value of the density of Al° is 2.69
g/mL. The accepted value is 2.70 g/mL. Your value is
accurate to within 0.37%
% error is used to express accuracy.
Precision refers to the reliability, repeatability, or
consistency of a measurement.
Ex: A value of 2.69 g/mL means that if you repeat the
measurement, you will get values that agree to the
tenths place (2.68, 2.70, 2.71, etc.)
± and sig. digits are used to express precision.
7. Potential Energy (PE) and
Kinetic Energy (KE)
You can calculate the KE of an object: KE =½ mv2
m = mass, v = velocity [Note units: 1 J = 1 kg·m2·s–2]
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy.
PE = the potential to do work which is due to an
object’s position in a field. For example, if I hold a
book 0.5 m above a student’s head it can do some
damage... 1.0 m above her/his head, more work can be
done.
Important ideas:
Objects tend to change from high PE to low PE
(downhill). High PE is less stable than low PE.
8. Mass, Volume, and Density
Extensive properties depend on the amount of
substance.
We measure these properties frequently... (mass &
volume... mostly).
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the
sample. These are useful for identifying substances...
(melting point, boiling point, density, etc.)
It is interesting that an intensive property,
density = mass /volume
is the ratio of two extensive properties... the size of the
sample sort of “cancels out.” Be able to do density
problems (3 variables) and know the usefulness of
specific gravity.
9. Calorimetry
Heat is the total KE while temperature is the average
KE.
A way to measure heat is to measure the temperature
change of a substance... often water. It takes 1 calorie of
heat energy (or 4.184 J) to heat 1 gram of H2O by 1 °C.
The specific heat of water = 1cal g·°C = 4.184J g·°C
heat = specific heat x mass H2O x ΔT
You can heat other substances as well, you just need to
know their specific heats. Notice that this is simply
heating or cooling a substance, not changing its phase.
Definite Composition: Samples of the same substance from various sources (e.g. water) can be broken down to give
the same %’s of elements. Calculation: percent composition
Multiple Proportions: Samples of 2 substances made of the same 2 elements – (e.g. CO2 & CO or H2O and H2O2) if
you break down each to give equal masses of one element, the masses of the other element will be in a sample, whole-
number ratio. Calculation: proportions to get equal amounts of one element and then simple ratios.
10. Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical and Chemical Change
Equations to symbolize changes: reactants ® products
Physical Properties can be measured from a sample of
the substance alone... (density, MP, BP, color, etc.)
Chemical Properties are measured when a sample is
mixed with another chemical (reaction with acid, how
does it burn in O2)
Physical Changes imply that no new substances are
being formed (melting, boiling, dissolving, etc.)
Chemical Changes imply the substance is forming new
substances. This change is accompanied by heat, light,
gas formation, color changes, etc.
11. Pure Substances, Elements, &
Compounds
Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Mixtures
This chart should help you sort out these similar terms.
Be able to use chemical symbols to represent elements and
compounds. For example...
CuSO4•5H2O, a hydrate, contains 21 atoms & 4 elements.
Memorize the 7 elements that exist in diatomic molecules:
HONClBrIF or BrINClHOF or “H and the 6 that make a
7 starting with element #7”
12. Separating Mixtures by Filtration,
Distillation, and Chromatography
Mixtures are substances that are NOT chemically
combined...so if you want to separate them, you need to
exploit differences in their PHYSICAL properties.
Filtration: some components of the mixture dissolve and
some do not. The filtrate is what passes through the filter.
Distillation: some components vaporize at different
temperatures or one component may not vaporize at all
(e.g.: salt+water) complete separation may not be possible.
Chromatography: differences in solubility vs. adhesion to
the substrate. Substrate may be filter paper (paper
chromatography), or other substances, GLC, TLC, HPLC,
column, etc.
1.Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Formula Conventions
Superscripts
used to show the charges on ions
Mg2+ the 2 means a 2+ charge (lost 2 electrons)
Subscripts
used to show numbers of atoms in a formula unit
H2SO4 two H’s, one S, and 4 O’s
Coefficients
used to show the number of formula units
2Br– the 2 means two individual bromide ions
Hydrates CuSO4 • 5 H2O
some compounds have water molecules included
2. Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Stoichiometry Terms
stoichiometry : study of the quantitative relationships
in chemical formulas and equations.
atomic mass : weighted average mass of an atom,
found on the periodic table
formula mass : sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms in a formula
molecular mass : sum of the atomic masses of the
atoms in a molecular formula
gram molecular mass : molecular mass written in grams
molar mass same as gram molecular mass
empirical formula : formula reduced to lowest terms
3.Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic
Calculating Formula Mass
Formula or molecular mass is found by simply
summing the atomic masses (on the periodic table) of
each atom in a formula.
H2SO4
1.01 + 1.01 + 32.06 + 16.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 + 16.0 = 98.08
or 2(1.01) + 32.06 + 4(16.0) = 98.06 u or 98.06 g/mole
Generally, round off your answers to the hundredths or
tenths place. Don’t round off too much (98.06 g/mol or
98.1 g/mol is OK, but don’t round off to 98 g/mol)
Units: Use u or amu if you are referring to one atom or
molecule
4.Chemical Arithmetic: Mole Facts
A mole (abbreviated mol) is a certain number of things.
It is sometimes called the chemist’s dozen.
A dozen is 12 things, a mole is 6.02 x 1023 things.
Avogadro’s Number
1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
Molar Volume (measured at P = 760 mmHg and T = 0
°C)
1 mole of any gas has a volume of 22.4 Liters
Molar Mass (see gram formula mass)
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
1 mole = 22.4 L also 1 mole = molar mass
5.Chemical Arithmetic
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis or a Line Equation is the preferred way
to show conversions between quantities (amount, mass,
volume, and number) by canceling units (moles, grams, liters,
and molecules)
The line equation consists of the Given Value, the Desired
Unit, and the line equation itself.
Example: What is the mass of 135 Liters of CH4 (at
STP)?
Given: 135 L CH4 Desired: ? g CH4
135 L CH4 x 1 mol CH4 x 16.0 g CH4 = 96.43 g CH4
22.4 L CH4 1 molCH4
6. Chemical Arithmetic: Mole Relationships
7.Chemical Arithmetic
Percentage Composition (by mass)
Percentage Composition quantifies what portion (by
mass) of a substance is made up of each element.
Set up a fraction: mass of element
mass of molecule
Change to percentage: 100 x mass of element
mass of molecule
Generally, round off your answers to the tenth’s place.
The percentage compositions of each element should add
up to 100% (or very close, like 99.9% or 100.1%)
8. Formula from % Composition
Given the Percentage Composition of a formula, you can
calculate the empirical formula of the substance.
Step 1 assume you have 100 g of substance so
the percentages become grams
Step 2 change grams of each element to moles
of atoms of that element
Step 3 set up a formula with the moles
example: C2.4 H4.8
Step 4 simplify the formula by dividing moles by the smallest
value for C 2.4 ÷2.4 and for H 4.8 ÷ 2.4 = CH2
Step 5 If ratio becomes… 1:1.5 multiply by 2
1:1.33 or 1:1.66 multiply by 3
9. Chemical Arithmetic: Equation Terms 12. Chemical Arithmetic
equation : condensed statement of facts about a Coefficients and Relative Volumes of Gases
chemical reaction. Since every gas takes up the same amount of room (22.4
reactants : substances that exist before a chemical L
reaction. Written left of arrow. for a mole of a gas at STP), the coefficients in an
products : substances that come into existence as a result equation tell you about the volumes of gas involved.
of the reaction. Written to the right of the arrow.
word equation: an equation describing a chemical Example: N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)
change using the names of the reactants and products.
coefficient : a number preceding atoms, ions, or
molecules in balanced chemical equations that show
relative #’s.

10. Chemical Arithmetic 13. Chemical Arithmetic

Other Mole Problems and Conversions Heart of the Problem
The gas density is often converted to molar mass: The “heart of the problem” conversion factor relates the
Example : Given and the Desired compounds using the coefficients
The gas density of a gas is 3.165 g/Liter (at STP). What is from the balanced equation.
the molar mass of the gas? Example: N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
Knowing that 22.4 L is 1 mole, you can set up the ratio: ♥ could be 3 moles H
3.165 g = molar mass 2 moles NH3
1 Liter 22.4 L …this means that every time 2 moles of NH3 is formed, 3
moles of H2 must react.
Other metric conversions you should know:
1000 mL 1 Kg…… The format is always, moles of Desired
1 Liter 1000 grams moles of Given

11. Chemical Arithmetic 14. Chemical Arithmetic

Writing Formula Equations Mass-Mass Problems
Things To Remember Mass-Volume Problems
Example: Write the formula equation of...
sodium metal + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas Mass-Mass problems are probably the most common
Na° + H2O → NaOH + H2 type of problem. The Given and Desired are both masses
• metals often are written with the ° symbol to (grams or kg).
emphasize The pattern is:
that the metal is in the neutral elemental state, not an Given x molar mass of Given x ♥ x molar mass of Desired
ion.
• some compounds have common names that you In Mass-Volume problems, one of the molar masses is
should replaced with 22.4 L depending on whether the Given or
just know... water, H2O; ammonia, NH3; methane, CH4 1 mole
• remember the seven diatomic elements so they can be the Desired is Liters.
written as diatomic molecules when they appear in their
elemental form. Other elemental substances are written
as single atoms (e.g. sodium metal or helium gas, He)
15. Chemical Arithmetic
Mass-Volume-Particle Problems
If the Given or Desired is molecules, then the
Avogadro’s
Number conversion factor, 6.02 x 1023 molecules
1 mole
is used and the problem is a Mass-Particle or Volume-
Particle problem.
The units of the Given and Desired will guide you as to
which conversion factor to use:
Mass grams or kg
Volume Liters or mL
Particles molecules or atoms
16. Chemical Arithmetic
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
The answer you calculate from a stoichiometry problem
can be called the Theoretical Yield. Theoretically , you
should get this amount of product.
In reality, you often get less than the theoretical amount
due to products turning back to reactants or side
reactions.
The amount you actually get is called the Actual Yield.
Percentage Yield = Actual Yield x 100
Theoretical Yield
17. Chemical Arithmetic
Balancing Chemical Equations
The balanced equation represents what actually occurs
during a chemical reaction. Since atoms are not created
or destroyed during a normal chemical reaction, the
number and kinds of atoms must agree on the left and
right sides of the arrows.
__Na2CO3 + __HCl → __ NaCl + __H2O + __CO2
To balance the equation, you are only allowed to change
the coefficients in front of the substances... not change
the formulas of the substances themselves.
Reduce the coefficients to the lowest terms.
Fractions may be used in front of diatomic elements.
18. Chemical Arithmetic
Dilution Problems
You can calculate the moles of a solute using the volume
and molarity of the substance. Since diluting a solution
adds water and no solute, the moles of solute before and
after the dilution remains constant. So...
Vi · M i = Vf · M f
where “i” means “initial” and “f” means “final”
The units of volume or concentration do not really
matter as long as they match on the two sides of the
equation.
19. Chemical Arithmetic
Acid-Base Titrations
Acids form the H+ ion. Bases form the OH– ion.
Acids + bases mix to form H2O (HOH) and a salt.
The moles of H+ = the moles of OH– in a neutralization.
An acid-base titration is the technique of carefully
neutralizing an acid with a base and measuring the
volumes used. An indicator (we used phenolphthalein)
allows us to observe when the endpoint is reached.
If a monoprotic acid is neutralized with a base that only
has one OH– ion per formula unit, the simple formula:
Va · M a = Vb · M b
allows you to determine the molarity of the unknown.