Process Safety and Environmental Protection 142 (2020) 150–155

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Process Safety and Environmental Protection

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psep

Solar still with evacuated tubes and calcium stones to enhance the
yield: An experimental investigation
Hitesh Panchal a,∗ , Sanil S. Hishan b , Robbi Rahim c , Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni d,∗
a
Government Engineering College Patan, Gujarat, India
b
Azman Hashim International Business School, University Teknologi, Malaysia
c
Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Manajemen Sukma, Medan, Indonesia
d
Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University, Qatar

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Present research study shows the evacuated tubes coupled with solar still to enhance the yield. Basin
Received 29 April 2020 area of 1-meter square taken for the experiments and 14 evacuated tubes have been used at a lower side
Received in revised form 8 June 2020 of the still. Calcium stones as sensible heat storage material (SHSM) have also been utilized to enhance
Accepted 13 June 2020
the yield in present work. Three modes of experiments have been performed namely conventional solar
Available online 18 June 2020
still (CSS), solar still with evacuated tubes (SSET) and solar still with evacuated tubes and calcium stones
(SSETCS) during January to June 2019 at Patan District, Gujarat. Groundwater was taken as feed water
Keywords:
in present experiments. It was examined that the average yield was enhanced by 113.52 % and 104.68 %
Solar still
Evacuated tubes
by use of SSET and SSETCS. The payback time (PBT) also determined in current work, and it was 237 for
Calcium stones SSETCS. At last, it was concluded that the calcium stones are good SHSM to reduce water quantity and
Payback period accumulate the heat during the daytime.
© 2020 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

tinually works by researchers on solar still to increase the yield.

Nomenclature (Kabeel et al., 2016; Kabeel et al., 2014a, Kabeel et al., 2014b; Kabeel
et al., 2019; Panchal, 2016; Kabeel et al., 2014c, Sharshir2017;
SHSM Sensible heat storage materials Kabeel et al., 2014d; Panchal et al., 2019; Panchal and Thakkar,
CSS Conventional solar still 2016).
SSET Solar still with evacuated tubes The higher water temperature leads to an increase in the yield
SSETCS Solar still with evacuated tubes and calcium stones of solar still (Panchal and Mohan, 2017); therefore, researchers
PBTP payback time have tried solar collector with solar still to increase the yield. O.O.
Badran (Badran and Al-Tahaineh, 2005) have utilized a flat plate
collector and tested at climate conditions of Jordan and found 36 %
1. Introduction enhancement of yield of CSS. Rajaseenivasan et al. Rajaseenivasan
et al. (2014) had tested a novel design of flat plate design in still
Just one percent of the Earth’s water is potable water, and the to enhance the yield and obtained remarkable enhancement as
remaining water is saline, found in the rivers and sea. Today solar compared with CSS. Morad et al. Morad et al. (2015) had tested
energy is available freely on Earth, so it does not pollute the atmo- the double slope CSS with use of Flat plate type collector to see
sphere. Thus, the research and development of applications for its impact on yield and efficiency. They received higher yield and
solar energy are growing day by day. The solar still is an instrument thermal efficiency. Madiouli et al. Madiouli et al. (2020) had tested
used to produce freshwater from unwanted water. But because of the CSS with a packed bed, parabolic trough and flat plate collec-
the lower yield, it is not used for the potable water industry and tor in climate conditions in Saudi Arabia during the summer and
domestic use. It is, therefore, research and development that con- winter season. After a series of experiments, they concluded that
203 and 172 percentage increment yield as compare with the CSS.
Parabolic trough collector is considered as concentrating collec-
tor type which concentrates the sun rays to the focal point and
∗ Corresponding authors.
increases the temperature. To evaluate the capacity, exergy anal-
E-mail addresses: engineerhitesh2000@gmail.com (H. Panchal),
kishorkumarsqatar@gmail.com (K.K. Sadasivuni). ysis and yield, Hassan et al.(Hassan, 2020) conducted works on

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2020.06.023
0957-5820/© 2020 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 H. Panchal et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 142 (2020) 150–155 151

single and double slope solar still. By using solar still with parabolic
trough collector, they obtained a yield of 115 and 85 percentage for
solar stills. Fathy et al. Fathy et al. (2018) incorporated the tracked
parabolic trough collector with the CSS and obtained 10.93 L and
4.51 L per meter square area during summer climate condition.
In order to reduce the glass temperature and its effect on yield
and thermal efficiency, Hasan et al. (Hassan et al., 2019) had com-
bined still with a condenser. They concluded that the condenser
and parabolic trough collector improve the yield as well as ther-
mal efficiency during summer and winter. Subedar et al. (Subhedar
et al., 2020) had experimented the parabolic trough collector and
solar still with the use of water nanofluid. They concluded that the
water nanofluid flow from collector to solar still enhances the yield.
Some researchers have also tried to use a solar pond with
solar still to improve the yield. The first experiment on solar still
was conducted by Sebaii et al. (El-Sebaii et al., 2008). They pre-
pared theoretical analysis and compared with experimental results
and obtained good agreement between them. Velmurugan et al.
(Velmurugan et al. (2009a)) had tried the effluent type stepped still
with a solar pond in climate condition of Tamilnadu and also deter-
mined 217 days of energy payback time. Later Velmurugan et al.
Velmurugan et al. (2009b) had used the same set up with wick type
and energy storage materials in CSS and stepped solar still. They
also carried out theoretical analysis and received a good agreement
with experimental results. Appadurai and Velmurugan (Appadurai
and Velmurugan, 2015) had used fins in the solar pond and tested
the same without the use of fin with solar still. They concluded that
the fin in the solar pond supply higher temperature increases the
yield of solar still. Evacuated tube collector is very famous as a solar
water heater nowadays; therefore, many researchers have coupled
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of SSET used for an experiment.
evacuated tubes with CSS (Panchal and Shah, 2014, 2015). Sharshir
et al. (Sharshir et al. (2019)) fabricated innovative pyramid type
CSS and tested with evacuated tubes along with the nanofluid and install evacuated tubes on the roof at a steep angle, as the solar
carbon black to enhance the yield and obtained enhancement in system can produce heat throughout the year.
yield. Shafi et al. (Shafii et al., 2016) used thermoelectric modules • The sun travels east to west through the sky. The tubular con-
with evacuated tubes coupled solar still to see its effect on yield. figuration of evacuated tube collectors ensures they still face the
They obtained 1.11-litre yield with the generation of electricity to sun and automatically absorb full solar energy, as long as they
operate the fan. Shiv Kumar et al. (Kumar et al. (2014)) had used are within 40 degrees of due south. Flat plate collectors only con-
forced circulation mode of evacuated tubes coupled solar still in sume maximum solar energy at noon on the sun. This element
New Delhi climate conditions. They also optimized the mass flow is known as a modification of the incidence angle’ and should be
rate of water from evacuated tubes to solar still and also received modified for solar energy systems in estimation.
good agreement between the theoretical and experimental results.
Ragha vendra Singh et al. Singh et al. (2013) had used natural circu- The primary objective of the present work is to evaluate the per-
lation mode on evacuated tubes coupled solar still and also carried formance of CSS with evacuated tubes. The system was also tested
out an optimization of mass flow rate and a number of evacuated with the use of calcium stones in the basin, calcium stones used to
tubes. They obtained 3.8 L per meter square yield from their exper- reduce the water depth inside the still and also improve the yield.
imental results. Calcium stones have been used by Shanmugan et al. Shanmugan
From the above kinds of literature, it is interesting to know that et al. (2012), so same size calcium stones have been used to improve
various collector could enhance the yield with CSS. Among them, yield in present experimentation.
evacuated tubes are more famous and productive as compared with
flat plate collector due to the following reasons. 2. Experimental setup

Schematic diagram and experimental setup of SSET are as shown

• Flat plate collectors are more vulnerable to loss of ambient heat as
the heated fluid has a significant time of residence in the flat plate
collector as it passes through the collector. In an evacuated tube
network, the fluid flows through the header manifold, reducing
the time of residence.
• A system that tilts to the winter sun would be increased solar
energy in winter while rising solar energy just marginally in sum-
mer. However, flat plates are a sturdy structure that, if tipped
onto the roof, would capture the wind resulting in the possibility
of being a hazardous projectile in wind storms. Due to the spaces
between the tubes which let the wind through, the evacuated
tubes have significantly less drag. A major benefit is the ability to
in Figs. 1 and 2. Basin area of the still was 1-meter square for the
experimentation. It is made up of a galvanized iron sheet of 3 cm
thickness and painted black chrome paint to enhance the solar rays
to increase the water temperature. Front and back height of the
still was 500 mm and 924.475 mm to accommodate the 23-degree
latitude of a place for glass cover. Waste sawdust was used as an
insulating material to reduce heat loss from the side as well as the
bottom of the still. The lower portion of the still accommodates
slightly inclined to accommodate the 14 number of an evacuated
tube in which the water flows to the solar still and vice versa.
Length, inner and outer diameter of the evacuated tubes remains
same as available in the market (1.5 m length, 57 mm outer diam-
eter and 47 mm diameter).
152 H. Panchal et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 142 (2020) 150–155
Fig. 2. Experimental set up of SSET used for the experiment.
3. Working and Experimental procedure for experiments
of SSET
First of all, the water from a storage tank is allowed to pass
through experimental setup with the help of a pipe between them.
Due to the density of the water, no pump is needed, and the water is
flowing to still. The lower part of the pipe has already been drained,
and the water flows into the pipe. During the day, the cold water
flows down and becomes hot, moves up to the reservoir of the still
and mixed with the cold water in the basin reservoir, and then
passes on to the evacuated tubes and the cycle is repeated.
Every day the water is filled to the storage tank by groundwater
taken from the Mehsana. Total three numbers of K type thermo-
couples have been used in experiments to measure water, glass
cover and ambient temperature. The solar intensity was measured
by Pyranometer and wind speed measured by anemometer in the
tests. The yield obtained from the still received by the calibrated
flask. All the readings of temperature, solar intensity, wind speed
and yield measured at every hour from January to June 2019 at Mah-
esana. Every day all the readings have noted down from morning 7
a.m. to evening 6 pm during daytime and temperatures, solar inten-
sity, yield and wind speeds measured by instruments. After 07 pm
no readings as stated above measured but the only total yield from
evening 07 to next day 6 pm measured by the calibrated flask.
The anemometer has a range of 0−15 m / s and an accuracy of
±0.1 m / s. Thermocouples of type K for measuring water, glass
and ambient temperatures between 0 and 1000 ◦ C and ±1 ◦ C accu-
racy. The solar intensity measured by Pyranometer with a range of
0−1500 W/m2 and accuracy of ±10 W/m2 . Calibrated flask of plas-
tic material used and has 0−1000 ml range and ±1 mL used for the
present experiment.
4. Result and discussion
Evacuated tubes have been directly connected to the CSS to
increase the yield. Besides, to improve the yield by use of calcium
stones reduced the quantity of water and preheating time. The cal-
cium stones also serve as SHSM and release the heat accumulated
during hours in the absence of sunlight. Compared to other meth-
ods of experimentation, the use of calcium stones with evacuated
tubes achieved maximum yield. Various parameters which affect
the performance of SSET and SSETCS have been studied here Fig. 3.
4.1. Effect of solar intensity and Ambient temperature on SSET
The yield of SSET depends on the effect of the environmental
conditions, namely the solar intensity and the ambient tempera-
ture at the test site. Fig. 4 represents hourly fluctuations in solar
intensity and ambient temperature as of 01/04/2019. With the day,
the solar radiation increases slowly until 2 pm and then slowly
decreases towards the evening. It reaches a maximum of 1000 W
/ m2 . The ambient temperature for 07 a.m. was at its minimum of
22 ◦ C, and at 1 pm it reached a maximum value of 38 ◦ C. The two
parameters above are solely dependent on the specific day’s local
climate conditions.
4.2. Effect of SSEV on yield during morning 07 a.m. To the evening
at 06 pm
The effect of SSEV on the yield during morning 07 a.m. to evening
06 pm.is as shown in Fig. 5. The basin water temperature is the
main parameter, which affects the yield of the still. The evacu-
ated tubes provide the extra heat to the still in the form of hot
water, therefore the temperature of water in the basin increases.
According to research conducted by Hitesh et al. (Panchal and Shah,
2011)[Kabeel et al. (Kabeel et al. (2018)), the higher water tem-
perature in the basin raises the water temperature and the glass
cover, and consequently the solar yield is enhanced. Also, in the
present work, a couple of evacuated tubes, the bottom loss has
been reduced. In CSS, the solar output still increased from 07 a.m. to
01 pm at noon in the morning and then gradually decreased and the
SSEV output increased from 07 a.m. to 03 pm at noon in the morning
and then gradually decreased. The heat capacity of water in the CSS
and SSEV responsible for the variations in the attainment of max-
imum yield. The figure shows that the maximum yield of 420 mL
obtained on 01 pm by CSS and 810 mL obtained on 03 pm by SSEV.
The supply of extra heat in the form of hot water by evacuated tubes
to the solar still is a reason behind the maximum temperature by
SSEV. It is also found that preheating time of raw water also reduced
by the application of evacuated tubes with still. Hence, the yield
remains higher all the time for SSEV as compared with the CSS. It
is obtained 4360 mL and 2075 mm yield obtained by SSEV and CSS.
It is also found 123 % increment in yield by SSET as compared with
the CSS.
4.3. Effect of SSEVCS on yield during morning 07 a.m. To the
evening at 06 pm
Calcium stones were used in the present experimentation to
reduce the water quantity in still as well as enhance the night time
yield. Also, the calcium stones possess pore holes, so the water
stored in it and release the heat during the night hours. Fig. 6
shows the effect of SSEVS on the yield during morning 07 a.m.
to an evening at 06 pm. It is seen that yield remains higher as
compared with CSS due to the reduction of the quantity of water
in the basin. Low water in the still reduce the heat capacity and
hence, the yield was improved as proven by Panchal et al.Panchal
et al. (2011), Elango et al. Elango et al. (2015) and Shanmon et al.
(Shannon et al., 2008). Also, it is clearly seen that the maximum
yield obtained by SSESCS and CSS found 740 mL and 420 mL at
03 pm and 01 pm respectively. The total yield obtained by SSESCS
and CSS saw 4850 mL and 20175 mL, therefore the percentage
increment of 133 % as compared with the CSS. It was found that
 H. Panchal et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 142 (2020) 150–155 153

Fig. 3. Three views of SSET for better understanding of set up.

Fig. 4. Hourly Fluctuations in solar intensity and ambient temperature during Fig. 5. The effect of SSEV on the yield during morning 07 a.m. to evening 06 pm.
experimental day.

the 10 % increment of 10 % in yield by SSESCS with SSES. During

daytime, excess heat of the sun in the basin also stored by calcium
stones and reduction in the quantity of water. The trend of the yield
for the SSEVCS and CSS in the present experiment found similar to
Karuppusamy (Karuppusamy (2012)).

4.4. Night time yield comparison between solar stills

Fig. 7 shows the night time yield comparison between solar stills
during the experimental day. It is seen that the yield obtained from
the CSS remains lower as compared with the SSET and SSETCS
due to low heat capacity of water. In the case of SSET, hot water
supplied by the evacuated tubes, so the heat capacity of water
found higher as compared with the CSS. So the nighttime yield of Fig. 6. Effect of SSEVCS and CSS on the yield during morning 07 a.m. to evening
SSET found higher as compared with the CSS. Calcium stones are 06 pm.
porous materials, and they store the excess heat energy of the sun
154 H. Panchal et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 142 (2020) 150–155

Table 1
Procedure to determine the PBP of SSET.

1 USD = Rs. 65 (Assuming)

Cost of fabrication or SSET = Rs. 13,000 (200 US Dollar)

Cost of operation of SSET
Cost of Maintenance of SSSET
Cost of Raw water used in SSET
Cost of Potable water
The average yield from SSET
Cost of potable water produced per day
The subsidy given to Government is 4%
Net profit gained by SSET = Cost of
potable water produced – operation
cost of SSET – Cost of Maintenance of
SSET – Cost of raw water used in SSET
Fig. 7. night time yield comparison between solar stills during the experimental Payback period of SSET = (cost of
day. fabrication of SSET – Subsidy is given
to Government)/profit gained
= Rs. 5/day (0.07692 US Dollar)
= Rs. 5/day (0.07692 US Dollar)
= Rs. 1/Day (0.01538 US Dollar)
= Rs. 12/L (0.18462 US Dollar)
= 5.31 L/Day
= Rs. 63.72 (0.980 US Dollar)
= Rs. 520 (8 US Dollar)
= Rs. 52.72 (0.81 US Dollar)
= 237 days

used in the present experiment. Three thermocouples have been

used to measure water, glass cover and ambient temperature. It is
seen similar trends for the all temperatures corresponding to the
solar intensity on experiment day. The yield obtained by the SSET
depends on the difference between water and glass cover temper-
ature; therefore study of temperature is significant. The maximum
water temperature 87 ◦ C and ambient temperature 37 ◦ C obtained
by SSETCS on experiment day.

Fig. 8. Average total yield obtained from CSS, SSET and SSETCS from January to June 5. The payback time of CSS, SSET and SSETCS
2019.

The payback period (PBT) of the SSET and SSETCS is determined

by the various costs like fabrication, operating, maintenance and
feed water. It also includes the financial subsidy of the given by the
Government for awareness purposes. The procedure for determin-
ing PBT of SSET is taken from Karuppusamy Karuppusamy (2012)
and shown In Table 1.

6. Conclusion

In this work, CSS, SSET, and SSETCS experimental analysis have

been carried out in Mehsana, Gujarat. Six months of Experimental
analysis was performed to determine the improvement in yield for
CSS, SSET and SSETCS. Following points are concluded from this
Fig. 9. Hourly fluctuations of temperature in SSETCS. research work:

during daytime and release afterwards so yield of SSETCS found
highest among other modes. The yield obtained by CSS, SSET and
SSETCS found 400 mL, 740 mL and 950 mL. Hence, total yield (day-
time + nighttime) yield found 2475 mL, 5369 mL and 5800 mL.
Fig. 8 shows the total yield obtained by CSS, SSET and SSETCS
from January 2019 to June 2019. It is found that the average total
yield of CSS found lower and SSETCS found highest during experi-
mentations. Total average yield obtained by CSS, SSET and SSETCS
found 2.488 L, 5.09 L and 5.31 L. Percentage increment of yield
obtained by SSETCS and SSET found 113.52 % and 104.68 % as com-
pared with the CSS. Therefore, it is clearly seen that the 8.84 % rise
in average yield obtained by SSETCS as compared with the SSET.
4.5. Hourly fluctuations of temperature in SSETCS
• The yield obtained by SSETCS found highest during the daytime
as well as nighttime due to combined used of evacuated tubes
and calcium stones.
• Calcium stones are suitable storage materials to accumulate the
heat in terms of hot water and enhance the yield during night
hours too.
• Total average yield obtained by CSS, SSET and SSETCS found
2.488 L, 5.09 L and 5.31 L. Percentage increment of yield obtained
by SSETCS and SSET found 113.52 % and 104.68 % as compared
with the CSS during experimental days.
• The maximum water temperature 87 ◦ C and ambient tempera-
ture 37 ◦ C obtained by SSETCS on experiment day.
• Payback time (PBT) of SSETCS found 237 days from six months of
experimental analysis from January to June 2019.

The hourly fluctuations of temperatures obtained by the SSET on

April 1, 2019, are as shown in Fig. 9. Temperature measurement of Declaration of Competing Interest
the evacuated tubes is very complex, therefore the temperature
measurement used by Budhirajao et al. Budhirajao et al. (2007) Authors have no potential conflict of interest
 H. Panchal et al. / Process Safety and Environmental Protection 142 (2020) 150–155
References
Appadurai, M., Velmurugan, V., 2015. Performance analysis of fin type solar still
integrated with fin type mini solar pond. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments
9, 30–36.
Badran, O.O., Al-Tahaineh, H.A., 2005. The effect of coupling a flat-plate collector on
the solar still productivity. Desalination 183, 137–14.
Budhirajao, I., Morrison, G., Behina, M., 2007. Natural circulation flow through water
in glass evacuated tube solar collector. Sol. Energy 81 (12), 1460–1472.
Elango, T., Kannan, A., Kalidasa Murugavel, K., 2015. Performance study on single
basin single slope solar still with different water nanofluids. Desalination 360,
45–51.
El-Sebaii, A.A., Ramadan, M.R.I., Aboul-Enein, S., Salem, N., 2008. Thermal perfor-
mance of a single-basin solar still integrated with a shallow solar pond Energy.
Convers Manag 49, 2839–2848.
Fathy, M., Hassan, H., Ahmed, M.S., 2018. Experimental study on the effect of cou-
pling parabolic trough collector with double slope solar still on its performance.
Sol. Energy 163, 54–61.
Hassan, H., 2020. Comparing the performance of passive and active double and single
slope solar stills incorporated with parabolic trough collector via energy, exergy
and productivity. Renew. Energy 148, 437–450.
Hassan, H., Ahmed, M.S., Fathy, M., 2019. Experimental work on the effect of saline
water medium on the performance of solar still with tracked parabolic trough
collector (TPTC). Renew. Energy 135, 136–147.
Kabeel, A.E., Omara, Z.M., Essa, F.A., 2014a. Improving the performance of solar
still by using nanofluids and providing vacuum. Energy Convers. Manage. 86,
268–274.
Kabeel, A.E., Omara, Z.M., Essa, F.A., 2014b. Enhancement of modified solar still inte-
grated with external condenser using nanofluids: An experimental approach.
Energy Convers. Manage. 78, 493–498.
Kabeel, A.E., Omara, Z.M., Essa, F.A., 2014c. Enhancement of modified solar still inte-
grated with external condenser using nanofluids: An experimental approach.
Energy Convers. Manage. 78, 493–498.
Kabeel, A.E., Omara, Z.M., Essa, F.A., 2014d. Improving the performance of solar
still by using nanofluids and providing vacuum. Energy Convers. Manage. 86,
268–274.
Kabeel, A.E., Arunkumar, T., Denkenberger, D.C., Sathyamurthy, R., 2016. Perfor-
mance enhancement of solar still through efficient heat exchange mechanism –
a review. Appl. Therm. Eng. 114, 815–836.
Kabeel, A.E., Omara, Z.M., Essa, F.A., 2018. Enhancement of modified solar still inte-
grated with external condenser using nanofluids: an experimental approach.
Energy Convers. Manage. 78, 493–498.
Kabeel, A.E., Sathyamurthy, Ravishankar, Sharshir, SwellamW., Muthumanokar, A.,
Panchal, Hitesh, Prakash, N., Prasad, C., Nandakumar, S., El Kady, M.S., 2019.
Effect of water depth on a novel absorber plate of pyramid solar still coated
with TiO 2 nano black paint. J. Clean. Prod. 213, 185–191.
Karuppusamy, S., 2012. An experimental study on basin solar still augmented with
evacuated tubes. Therm. Sci. 16 (2), 573–581.
Kumar, S., Dubey, A., Tiwari, G.N., 2014. A solar still augmented with an evacuated
tube collector in forced mode. Desalination 347, 15–24.
Madiouli, J., Lashin, A., Shigidi, I., Badruddin, I.A., Kessentini, A., 2020. Experimental
study and evaluation of single slope solar still combined with flat plate collector,
parabolic trough and packed bed. Sol. Energy 196, 358–366.
Morad, M.M., El-Maghawry, H.A.M., Wasfy, K.I., 2015. Improving the double slope
solar still performance by using flat-plate solar collector and cooling glass cover.
Desalination 373, 1–9.
155
Panchal, H.N., 2016. Use of thermal energy storage materials for enhancement in
distillate output of solar still: a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 61,
86–96.
Panchal, H., Mohan, I., 2017. Various methods applied to solar still for enhancement
of distillate output. Desalination 415, 76–89.
Panchal, H., Shah, P., 2011. Effect of varying glass cover thickness on performance
of solar still : in a winter climate conditions. Int. J. Renewable Energy Res. 1 (4),
213–223.
Panchal, H.N., Shah, P.K., 2014. Enhancement of distillate output of double basin
solar still with vacuum tubes. Front Energy 8, 101–109.
Panchal, H.N., Shah, P.K., 2015. Enhancement of upper basin distillate output by
attachment of vacuum tubes with double-basin solar still. Desalin. Water Treat.
55, 587–595.
Panchal, H.N., Thakkar, Hemin, 2016. Theoretical and experimental validation of
evacuated tubes directly coupled with solar still. Therm. Eng. 63 (11), 825–831.
Panchal, H., Doshi, M., Goswami, R., Chavda, P., 2011. Effect of cow dung cakes inside
basin on heat transfer coefficients and productivity of single basin single slope
solar still. Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. Dev. 1 (4), 675–690.
Panchal, Hitesh, Taamneh, Yazan, Sathyamurthy, Ravishankar, Kabeel, A.E., El-
Agouz, S.A., Naveen Kumar, P., Muthu Manokar, A., Arunkumar, T., Mageshbabu,
D., Bharathwaaj, R., 2019. Economic and exergy investigation of triangular pyra-
mid solar still integrated to inclined solar still with baffles. Int. J. Ambient. Energy
40 (6), 571–576.
Rajaseenivasan, T., Nelson Raja, P., Srithar, K., 2014. An experimental investigation
on a solar still with an integrated flat plate collector. Desalination 347, 131–137.
Shafii, M.B., Shahmohamadi, M., Faegh, M., Sadrhosseini, H., 2016. Examination of
a novel solar still equipped with evacuated tube collectors and thermoelectric
modules. Desalination 382, 21–27.
Shanmugan, S., Janarthanan, B., Chandrasekaran, J., 2012. Performance of single-
slope single-basin solar still with sensible heat storage materials. Desalin. Water
Treat. 41, 195–203.
Shannon, M.A., Bohn, P.W., Elimelech, M., Georgiadis, J.G., Marinas, B.J., Mayes, A.M.,
2008. Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades.
Nature 452, 301–310.
Sharshir, S.W., Peng, Guilong, Lirong, Wu, Yang, Nuo, Essa, F.A., Elsheikh, A.H.,
Mohamed, ShowgiI.T., Kabeel, A.E., 2017. Enhancing the solar still performance
using nanofluids and glass cover cooling: experimental study. Appl. Therm. Eng.
113, 684–693.
Sharshir, S.W., Kandeal, A.W., Ismail, M., Abdelaziz, G.B., Kabeel, A.E., Yang, N., 2019.
Augmentation of a pyramid solar still performance using evacuated tubes and
nanofluid: Experimental approach. Appl. Therm. Eng. 160 (113997).
Singh, R.V., Kumar, S., Hasan, M.M., Khan, M.E., Tiwari, G.N., 2013. Performance of a
solar still integrated with evacuated tube collector in natural mode. Desalination
318, 25–33.
Subhedar, D.G., Chauhan, K.V., Patel, K., Ramani, B.M., 2020. Performance improve-
ment of a conventional single slope single basin passive solar still by integrating
with nanofluid-based parabolic trough collector: An experimental study. Mater
Today Proc., 2–5.
Velmurugan, V., Mandlin, J., Stalin, B., Srithar, K., 2009a. Augmentation of saline
streams in solar stills integrating with a mini solar pond. Desalination 249,
143–149.
Velmurugan, V., Pandiarajan, S., Guruparan, P., Subramanian, L.H., Prabaharan, C.D.,
Srithar, K., 2009b. Integrated performance of stepped and single basin solar stills
with mini solar pond. Desalination 249, 902–909.