SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION

Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerians are known for their high
degree of cooperation with one another and their desire for great things. They are not contented with
the basic things that life can offer. This desire pushed them to develop many things connected with
science and technology.

Cuneiform
One of the major contributions of the Sumerians is the development of the first writing system known as
cuneiform. It is a system that utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols which are carved on clay
using wedge instruments and then left to dry. Cuneiform allowed the Sumerians to keep records of
things with great historical value or their everyday life.

The Great Ziggurat of Ur

Another engineering and architectural feat of the Sumerians is the Great Ziggurat of Ur. The ziggurat,
also called the mountain of god, was built in the same manner that they constructed the City of Uruk.
Without much building materials, the structure was constructed using sunbaked bricks. The ziggurat
served as the sacred place of their chief god, where only their priests were allowed to enter. The temple
showcases not only the elaborate and intricate Sumerian architecture but also the remarkable
technology used to build it. As such, even until today, people still enjoy and marvel at the preserved
Great Ziggurat of Ur.

Irrigation and Dikes

As population increased, so did the demand for food. The Sumerians were challenged to mass produce
food items but the elements in the environment seemed uncooperative.

It was difficult to get water from the rivers, thus they could not maintain farmlands. Some groups had
scarce water supply, while others had problems with flooding caused by the river. As a solution to this
dilemma, the Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands and at the same
time control the flooding of the rivers. This method was considered as one of the world’s most beneficial
engineering Works. Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming
and harvesting, which increased their food production.

Sailboats
Another challenge to the Sumerians was transportation. At that time, the wheel was not yet invented;
the main mode of transportation was through waterways such as rivers and seas. Boats were used to
carry large quantities of products and were able to cover large distances. However, they wanted to
discover faraway lands to settle since the population was getting larger, and boats were not enough to
accommodate more people and products. They needed a mode of transportation that did not require
much human resource.

Wheel
In the latter part of their history, the Sumerians were able to invent the wheel since the specialized tools
needed to create it were already available. The first wheels were not made for transportation but for
farm work and food processes. With the use of the wheel and axle, mass production was made easier.
Farmers were able to mill grains with less effort in less time.

The Plow

Another farm technology invented by the Mesopotamians is the plow. Humans evolved from being food
gatherers to farm cultivators. However, farmers needed a technology which would enable them to dig
the ground where seeds would be planted. The plow was invented to dig the earth in a faster pace. As
the plow breaks the ground, the farmer would just drop the seeds and farm work would already be
done. With this tool, farmers could cultivate larger parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass
produce food without taking so much effort and time.

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Another early civilization famous for its legacy is the Egyptian civilization located in North Africa. Many
stories tell about the engineering feats of the Egyptians especially regarding the infrastructures
established by the pharaohs. Aside from engineering technology, the Egyptians have contributed other
practical things that the world now considers as essential. It is thus safe to say that the pyramids are
not the only contribution of the Egyptian civilization to the modern world.

Paper or Papyrus
Before the Egyptian innovation, clay tablets were used. However, safe-keeping and transporting them
were a major problem. Clay tablets were very fragile, heavy, and delicate to handle. So, bringing them
to places was a major challenge. Hence, the Egyptian invention of the paper or papyrus was a welcome
development. Papyrus was a plant that grew abundantly along the Nile River in Egypt. They were able to
process the plant in order to produce thin sheets on which one could write down things. Since papyrus
was lighter and thinner than clay tablets, it was easy to carry and store. The sheets were also less
breakable as compared to clay tablets. This invention was a major accomplishment in Egyptian record-
keeping and communications. People then were able to send letters or correspondences anywhere in the
world since the pieces of paper were very light that they could be carried and delivered by birds.
Moreover, record-keeping was no longer a problem since documents would not take huge storage
spaces. Therefore, it was easier to keep them away from raiders who often destroyed records of the
nations they invaded.

Ink

When the Egyptians invented the papyrus or the paper, engraving ceased to be used in writing. As a
result, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks of different
colors. The ink must withstand the elements of nature since it was used to record history, culture, and
codified laws. It must also be tamper-proof so that people could not simply tinker with those written
down by authorities.

Hieroglyphics

Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians also developed a system of writing using symbols, known as
hieroglyphics. Although some say that hieroglyphics was adapted from the early writing system
established in Mesopotamia as a result of trade between civilizations, the Egyptians believed that this
writing system was provided to them by their gods. This form of writing can still be seen today and
remains to be as famous as the pyramids where they were found. Hieroglyphics was the language that
tells the modern world of the history and culture of the ancient Egyptians. Their records were well-
preserved since they were carved at the walls of pyramids and other important Egyptian structures.

Cosmetics
The Egyptians also invented the use of cosmetics. Although cosmetics in the modern times are used to
improve and highlight the facial features of a person, their function in ancient Egypt was for both health
and aesthetic reasons. Egyptians also believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil
and that beauty was a sign of holiness. At present, the cosmetic industry is a booming multibillion
industry.

Wig
Another cosmetic invention of ancient Egyptians is the wig. At present, wigs are used to enhance the
appearance of people who are balding or those who want to try new hair trends. Meanwhile, during the
ancient Egyptian times, wigs were worn for health and wellness rather than for aesthetic purposes. The
wigs were used to protect the shaved heads of the wealthy. Egyptians from the harmful rays of the sun.
Wearing a wig was better than putting on a scarf or any other head cover since a Wig allowed heat to
escape. Moreover, it was considered cleaner than natural hair because it prevented the accumulation of
head lice.

Water Clock/Clepsydra

This device utilizes gravity that affects the flow of water from one vessel to the other. The amount of
water (or its height, depending on the method used) remaining in the device determines how much time
has elapsed since it is full.
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION
The Chinese civilization is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia, if not in the world.

Silk
One of the things that connected Far East China to the world is silk. Although silk is naturally
produced by silk worms, the Chinese were the ones who developed the technology to harvest
the silk and process it to produce paper and clothing. Silk production resulted in the creation of a
product for trade. The silk trade opened China to the outside world, making way for cultural,
economic, and scientific exchanges. It bridged the gap between the western world and the middle
kingdom.

Tea Production
Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded dried tea leaves. It
was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese emperor. Tea production was developed when an
unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that was able to shred tea leaves into strips. This machine
was done using a wheel-based mechanism with sharp edges attached to a wooden or ceramic pot.
Because of this invention, the Chinese were able to increase their production of tea and trade with other
nations. China thus became known for its tea exports aside from its silk products.

Great Wall of China

Once considered the only man-made structure that could be seen from outer space, the Great Wall of
China is said to be the largest and most extensive infrastructure that the nation built. It was constructed
to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China. Made with stone, brick, wood, earth, and
other materials, it showcased the extent of Chinese engineering technology at that time. The structure
was so massive and strong that it was said to have literally divided China from the rest of the world. The
wall’s construction put the nation among the powerful civilizations during the ancient times. It was the
pride of their land and their crowning glory.

Gunpowder
The gunpowder is one of the most interesting inventions in China. Originally, it was developed by
Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality. They mixed charcoal, sulfur, and potassium
nitrate, but instead of creating an elixir of life, they accidentally invented a black powder that could
actually generate large amounts of heat and gas in an instant. Ironically, instead of prolonging life,
gunpowder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons which cause countless deaths. In
fact, gunpowder-propelled weapons are preferred by raiders who plan to attack at a distance. The same
weapons are also used to dissipate any attempts of invasion. On the other hand, gunpowder is also used
in fireworks during important celebrations in China.

Water Mill      
Watermills were also considered as one of the most important contributions of the Greek civilization to the
world. They were commonly used in agricultural processes like milling of grains which was a necessary form
of food processing during that time. Because milling was made possible by the use of watermills, the mass
production of rice, cereals, flours, and the like became common. Watermills were considered better than
mills powered by farm animals because they required less effort and time to operate since the farmer did not
have to raise animals.    

ROMAN CIVILIZATION  
The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west. It was considered
to be the cradle of politics and governance during that period, because the Roman Empire was so large,
other civilizations looked up to it as their model in terms of legislation and codified laws. Aside from their
contributions in politics, a lot of discoveries and inventions still relevant today can be attributed to the
Roman Empire.    
  
 
Newspaper      
One of the major contributions of the Romans is the newspaper. The first newspapers, known as gazettes,
contained announcements of the Roman Empire to the people. Made before the invention of paper, these
gazettes were engraved in metal or stone tablets and then publicly displayed. When paper was invented, it
became easier for the Romans to “publish” matters that needed the attention of the Roman citizens. This
way, the Romans enjoyed easy access to government information the same way we benefit from present day
newspapers.       
Bound Books or Codex      
With the invention of paper, it became easier for civilizations to write down everything that happened in their
time. As a result, civilizations became fond of record-keeping, especially documenting historical events and
newly legislated laws. Aside from Romans writing down information about history and politics, literature also
changed form from clay tablets to parchments of paper. According to sources, Julius Caesar started the
tradition of stacking up papyrus to form pages of a book. Later on, they were able to provide covers to
protect the papyrus. The earlier covers were made of wax but were later on replaced by animal skin which
proved to be stronger end longer-lasting. With the papyrus pages bound together and covered by animal
skin, the ancient Roman Empire was able to produce the first books or codex.      

Roman Architecture      
 
Roman architecture is one of the most visual contributions of the ancient Roman Empire to the world.
However, Roman architecture was still regarded as pioneering since the Romans were able to adapt new
building and engineering technology on architectural designs established in the past. In this manner, they
were able to preserve great and elaborate architectural designs because they could produce sturdier and
stronger infrastructures. The Romans were also able to creatively redesign old architectural patterns to adapt
to the new trends at that time. This development in the field of engineering and architecture was fully
supported and funded by the Roman government so they were able to implement major projects such as
large churches (cathedrals and basilicas), aqueducts, coliseums, amphitheaters, and even residential
houses.     
  
  
 
 
Roman Numerals       
  
Although other number systems had already been established before the Roman numeral, these old systems
could not keep up with high calculation requirements due to the increasing rate of communication and trade
among nations. Since the Roman Empire was expanding, it had to deal with many nations to maintain its
power. For this reason, the Romans devised their own number system specifically to address the need for a
standard counting method that would meet their increasing communication and trade concerns. Although the
Roman numeral is no longer widely used today due to its inherent limitations, quite a number of enthusiasts
would still use it over other more popular number systems, like the Hindu-Arabic system, due to its aesthetic
and historical value.     

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE- magnifying 3 times the siza by hans and zacharias

GALILEO GALILEI- INVENTED THWE FIRST TELESCOPE
NEBUCHADNEZZAR- LAYERS OF GARDEN, GARDEN OF BABYLON
Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm clock to signal the start of his lecture. His version used four
water vessels lined up vertically. 

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) -a Mathematician and astronomer - He proposed that the sun is stationary and is the
center of the universe and Earth revolved around it. His proposal is contrary to Ptolemy’s geometric model
of the universe and Aristotle’s uniform circular motion of all ecclesiastical bodies. Copernicus heliocentric
model of the universe is that the distance of the planets from the sun bare a direct relationship to the size
of their orbits. Copernicus’ concept of the universe was the start of a change in a way the world was
viewed. Because of Copernicus heliocentric model of the universe, he called as the “initiator of the
Scientific Revolution.”   
 
Figure 2. Charles Darwin - Darwin had two (2) natural evolution theories: The Origin of Species (1859)
and Descent of Man (1871).  
  
He held that man descended from apes. He presented that natural species have changed or evolved over
a long time. Such evolution of species radically forms new life which developed out of existing species.
Through this period of evolution, organism compete with one another over space, food, and other things
for survival, or avoid being eaten, resist disease, or become parasites in order to exist. The species which
are not fit for survival or not better adapted to environmental conditions die or are eliminated. This
process of natural evolution is called the natural selection process or sometimes referred to as “struggle
for existence and the elimination of ' the unfit” natural process of survival.
Three Levels of Mind   
Freud believed that human personalities are a result of three conflicting personalities. The conscious mind
(lowest level) consists of our thoughts, desires, and wishes which we are aware of or can be recalled at
any time.   
  
The pre-conscious mind is located between the unconscious and conscious mind. It consists of experiences
that we are not aware of but are made conscious by simply focusing on them. For example, if one were to
ask another what she ate yesterday for lunch, this would require recalling preconscious thoughts.   
  
The unconscious mind (sometimes referred to as sub-conscious) is the highest level of the mind that
contained repressed urges, thoughts, memories, and wishes which are disturbing and threatening. They
could not be easily accessed unless they are brought out into the surface by psychoanalysis or
psychotherapist. Thoughts within the unconscious mind are unorganized. They are based solely on
pleasures and desires and are usually in conflict with society.   
   
Three Structures of Personality   
Freud also believed that there are three (3) structures of personality: id, ego, super ego. The ID is the
animalistic nature of man the MAKAHAYOP personality. It is destructive and pleasure-seeking structure of
personality. It is where the sex urge (libido) is present.   
  
The EGO (self) is the human nature of man ~ the MAKATAO. It builds; it acts according to laws and
morals. It is bound by limits of reality. The ego controls the ID and acts as mediator between the super
ego and ID.   
  
The SUPER EGO (conscience) is the MAKA-DIYOS. It strives for perfection. It is always to be good and
honorable. When the ID and super ego are in conflict, the SUPER EGO tries to compromise between the ID
and the EGO (Myers).   
Another theory that influenced society was the idea of certain stages of development in man. Freud
discussed the importance of early childhood experiences in these stages. Each stage is characterized by
seeking pleasure in specific pleasure sensitive areas.   
  
The five (5) psychosexual stages of development are (1) Oral stage (0.1 year); Anal stage (13 years);
Phallic stage (4-6 years); Latency stage (7-12 years); and Genital stage (13 years and above). As a
therapist, Freud also invented a specific form of treatment for mentally ill people through
psychoanalysis.   

Human flourishing is an effort to achieve self-actualization and fulfillment within the context of a larger
community of individuals, each with the right to pursue his or her own such efforts. In the Theory of
Sequential Development or Theory of Hierarchy of Needs, Abraham  
Maslow (19081970). Dealt on selfactualization (self-fulfillment, reaching one’s potential to the fullest,
creativeness and appreciation of beauty and symmetry) as the last level of man’s motivation (Ariola,
2009).   
Human flourishing encompasses the uniqueness, dignity, diversity, freedom, happiness, and holistic well-
being of the individual within the larger family community and population. Achieving human flourishing is
a lifelong existential journey of hopes, achievements, regrets, losses, illness, suffering, and coping.   
According to Anthony Bradley, in an article on the World Magazine writes: ”an emphasis on human
flourishing, ours and others, becomes important because it is characterized by holistic concern for the
spiritual, moral, physical, economic, material, political, psychological, and Social context necessary for
human beings to live according to their design.” This idea of human flourishing is important to Christians
today. On the Old Testament, the concept of flourishing is best described by the Jewish word shalom.
Shalom signifies a number of things.   
According to Kenneth W. Watcher of the University of California human well-being (human flourishing)
however, consists in a much broader range of states and outcomes including mental and physical health,
happiness, and life satisfaction, meaning and purpose, Character and Virtual and close social
relationship.   

C. The Good Life   

It is a philosophical term for the life that one would like to live.    
  
Concerns That Make Up the Good Life    
The values that make up the foundation of a life well lived is not money. The ultimate expression of life is
not the paycheck, not Mercedes Benz, Cruise Ship, not even a billion peso in the bank. The ultimate
expression of life is living a good life. What then constitutes a good life?   
   
1. Produce as much as you can.   
   
Here is a quotation from the bible (Psalm 92:12-13) ”The righteous will flourish like a palm tree; they will
grow like a cedar of Lebanon, planted in the house of the Lord; they will flourish in the courts of our God."
You want to be happy, even a day, but if you don’t produce anything nothing will happen, isn’t it? The
game of life is not rest. Yes, we must rest, but only long enough to gather strength to get back to
productivity.   
Jim Rohn asked: “What’s the reason for the season and the seeds, the soil and the sunshine, the rain and
the miracle of life? It’s to see what you can do with it to try your hand to see what you can do.”   
   
2. Develop good friends.   
   
There is a line in a song “that’s what friends are for”. Friendship is considered the greatest support system
in the world. So, take the best opportunity and develop it. Nothing can match a good friend. It gives you
an extraordinary benefit. Friends are those wonderful people who know all about you and still like you.
They are not just friends in need but are friends indeed. They will stick with you even in times of stress
and distress.   
  
3. Keep your culture alive.   
   
Language, music, dance, ceremonies, art, religion, traditions, dress, etc. are all vitally important that you
must brighten and keep them alive. The uniqueness of all of us in a culture is that when all these are
blended together brings vitality, energy, power, influence, and tightness to the world. Remember the
song: ”If We Hold on Together" and "We are the World”. It’s a nice song to remember. They mean
something to us as One World-One People. Instead of fighting for our own ideology, why not lay down our
arms and hold in together for we are one in this Planet Earth.   
   
4. Your spirituality counts a lot.   
   
Your spiritual life is the foundation of your life and family. It helps build the nation. Don’t be careless
about the spiritual part of YO11f nature because it makes you who you are. You are a human being
defined from other living things dogs, cats, birds, and mice. When you preach spirituality, practice it too.
Make your voice turn into action and set good example to others.   
   
5. Don’t miss anything.   
   
Enjoy life but it must be healthy lifestyle that you enjoy in life. Go to everything that you possibly can and
communicate with people there. Buy a ticket to everything you possibly can. Watch a movie, a concert, a
game, a tV program. Go to a beach or swimming pool.  
Sing in a Video challenge. Live a Vital life. Don’t stay-all the time inside your home reading, texting, and
chatting with an online friend. Life becomes shorter if you always sit for many hours a day. If you live
well, you will earn well. Rohn said:”If you live well, it will show in your face, it will show in the texture of
your voice. There will be something unique and magical about you if you live well. It will infuse not only
your personal life but also your business life and it will give you a Vitality nothing else can give.”   
   
6. Inspire your family and the inner circle   
   
Communication among the members of the family is the greatest thing that ever happens in a family.
Talking to each other. Sharing one’s concern and problems in life makes the family stay alive. It is not
only praying together that makes the family stay together. It is in sharing one’s concern an openness
towards the others are all indications of the value of love.  
Love makes one strong, powerful, and influential. There is greater value in life than just caring and living
one’s family and inner circle.   

A. Examination of Human Rights   

  
Human being has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment. In the
Philippines, the constitution sets forth the basic rights of the Filipino people. These rights are embodied in
Article III (Bill of Rights) and Article XIII (Social Justice and Human Rights). When both sets out basic
rights they are referred to as constitution of liberty. Rights are designed to protect the individual against
Violation by the government or by an individual or groups of individuals. These rights are enshrined in the
Constitution to the individual in a democratic state on the belief that the individual has intrinsic dignity
which must be respected and safeguarded.   
  
Under a democratic country, there are three (3) human rights: natural rights, statutory rights, and
constitutional rights.   
 
Natural Rights   
These are rights possessed by man (not granted by the state) but conferred to him by God and nature so
that he may live happily. Examples are the right to happiness, right to live, and the right to love.   
Statutory Rights   
These are rights granted to individuals by laws which are promulgated by the law-making body and
consequently may be abolished by the same body. Examples are the right to receive minimum wage, right
to receive 13th month pay, right to service incentive pay.   
Constitutional Rights   
These are rights of the citizens to participate directly or indirectly to the establishment or administration of
the government. These rights are rights of citizenships (Art IV), rights of suffrage, right on information on
matters of public concern (Art III, Section 7). Constitutional ‘rights include civil rights, social, and
economic rights, and rights of the accused.   
The General Assembly of the United Nations adapted Resolution No. 53/148 on December 9, 1998
declaring the rights and responsibilities of individuals, groups and organs of society to promote and
protect universally recognized human rights and fundamental freedom.   
 
B.   Local Government Policies that protect the Well being    
   
The following laws and agencies created to protect the citizens and natural habitat from the impact and
negative effect of new technologies.   
   
 Republic Act No. 10173 approved on January 6, 2012. This law is known as the Data Privacy Act of
2012. This law protects the fundamental human rights of privacy of communication which ensures
free flow of information to promote innovation and growth.   
 1987 Constitution which stipulates that the “State shall protect and advance the right of the people
to a balance and healthful ecology with the rhythm of nature.”   
 Philippine Agenda 21 Which serves as the nation’s blueprint for sustainable development.   
 Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change (IA CCC) Which aimed at harnessing and synergizing
the various activities undertaken by the national government and civil society in response to the
crisis pose by the growing problem on climate change.   
 Republic Act 8749 (Clean Air Act of 1999) that moves for an effective air quality management
program that Will mitigate the worsening problem of air pollution in the country.   
 Republic Act No. 8435 (Agriculture and Forestry Modernization Act of 1997) states that the
Department of Agriculture (DA) should take into account climate change, weather disturbance, and
annual productivity cycle in order to forecast and formulate appropriate agricultural and fisheries
programs.   
 Republic Act No. 9003 (Solid Waste Management Act of 2000) aimed at providing a comprehensive
solution to the country’s garbage problem.   
 Republic Act No. 9275 (Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004) moves for a comprehensive water
quality management.   
 Administrative Order 171, 2007 created Presidential Task Force on Climate-Change (PTFCC) to
address and mitigate the impact of climate change in the Philippines.   
 Republic Act No. 9729 (Climate Change Act of 2009) systematized and integrated the concept of
climate change in the policy formulation and development plan of all government agencies and
units to prepare the government for the impact of climate change.   
 Philippine Climate Change Commission (PCCC) under the office of the President as the policy
making body of the government to coordinate, monitor and evaluate the program and action plan
relating to climate change.   
 Natural Framework Strategy on Climate Change 2010-20-22 committed towards ensuring and
strengthening the adaptation of our natural ecosystem and human communities to climate
change.  
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used
across all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and
engineering.  

The Latin word of Nano is ”nenus” which means dwarf. Hence, nano means extremely small. Nano World
literally means “small world”. Nano World is the global market leader for tips for Scanning Probe
Microscopy (SPM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The AFM is the defining instrument for the Whole
field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The Nano World enables its users in research and high-tech
industry to investigate materials at the atomic scale.   

The incredibly small Nano World enables scientists to prove years of scientific discovery and create
amazing Nano devices. A nanometer (nm) is a unit of length equivalent to one billionth (10 -9) of a meter. 

The Intellectual revolution pertains to the period of paradigm shifts or changes in the scientific beliefs that
have been widely embraced and accepted by the people (Hintay, 2018). 
B.   Types of Microscopes Used in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology  
  
1. Electron Microscope- a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of
illumination. In 1930, German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll built the first electron microscope.    
2. Atomic Force Microscope- a type of high resolution scanning probe microscope that has a
resolution that you can measure in fractions of a nanometer. It was pioneered in 1986 by Nobel
Prize Winner Gerd Binnig along with Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber.  
3. Scanning Tunneling Microscope- an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. Its
development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM Zürich), the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.   
  
 
   
   
Gene mutations are passed to every cell that arises from the mutated. If the mutation occurs in somatic
(body) tissues, its defect is limited to the tissues immediately surrounding the mutated cell. On the other
hand, DNA is a polymer made up of a repeating chemical unit known as the nucleotide. Thousands of the
units are known to comprise a single-DNA molecule, making it one of the largest of all organic
compounds.   
   
DNA nucleotides themselves are quite complex, being composed of three separate subunits:   
 Phosphate group - a chemical group made up of phosphorus and oxygen.   
 Deoxyribose - a five-carbon sugar made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.   
 Nitrogenous base - a chemical unit composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Bases
found in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)  
   
A.   Meaning and Nature of Gene Therapy    
Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this
technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient’s cells instead of using
drugs or surgery. Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy including:    
 Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.    
 Inactivating, or "knocking out,” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.    
 Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.    
Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including inherited
disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections), the technique remains risky and is still under
study to make sure that it will be safe and effective. Gene therapy is currently being tested only for
diseases that have no other cures.    
  

   
1. Germ line Gene Therapy    
This therapy involves the modification of the genes inside germ cells (sperm or ova). During reproduction,
these gamete cells fuse to form a zygote, which would divide and pass on the modified gene into all other
cells of the body during the development of offspring. In this Way, the therapy alters the genome of future
generations to come.    
Although theoretically this could counteract hereditary disease, jurisdictions in various countries such as
Switzerland, Australia and Germany prohibit the use of germ line therapy due to fears over unknown risks
and long-term effects in future generations. In addition, the therapy is very costly.   
 
2. Somatic Gene Therapy    
Unlike germ line therapy, somatic gene therapy only involves the insertion of therapeutic DNA into body
cells and not the germ cells or gametes. This means any effects of the therapy are confined to the
individual being treated and are not inherited by future offspring.    
The field of somatic gene therapy is surrounded by fewer ethical issues compared with germline gene
therapy, although the therapeutic approach is also still in the early stages of design and prone to
obstacles.    
The first hurdle is successful incorporation into the genome; integrating the modified gene into the wrong
part of the DNA could induce rather than prevent disease. Secondly, the desired gene needs to be
expressed. Thirdly, the gene expression needs regulating to prevent over expression triggering any
disease.    
\
   
Techniques in Cancer Treatment    
There are some techniques that may be used to treat cancer. These are:    
 1. Harnessing the Immune Response.    
Some forms of gene therapy are designed to strengthen the body’s existing ability to target and kill cancer
cells. The role of certain cells of the immune system is to recognize and kill these cells. Adding certain
genes to a patient’s immune cells can improve their ability to find or kill certain forms of cancer. These
techniques are currently being tested in a few trials across the UK.    
2. Gene Therapy to Enhance Cancer Treatment.    
Some techniques insert genes into cancer cells that can make the cancer cells more vulnerable to
radiotherapy or chemotherapy, therefore improving the effectiveness of these treatments.    
3. Blocking the Protection of Cancer Cells.    
Certain processes cancer cells use to survive can be blocked using gene therapy. For example, one
process called apoptosis refers to the programmed cell death a cell undergoes if it contains DNA that is
damaged and beyond repair. In cancer cells, apoptosis is stopped and the cells divide to form new cells
that also contain the damage DNA. Some gene therapy techniques are designed to prevent this inhibition
of apoptosis to ensure that the cancer cells do in fact die rather than survive.    
   
4.  Pro-drug Gene Therapy    
Certain gene therapy techniques insert genes into cancer cells that allow conversion of an inactive drug
called a pro-drug into the active form. The converting gene is given in the form of a tablet or capsule and
the pro-drug is then administered. The pro-drug does not harm normal cells and only reaches cancer cells,
where it is activated by the gene to become destructive.   
   
  
A. Earth’s Movement around the Sun   
  
Climate is not similar to weather which is constantly changing. Climate refers to the long-term weather
patterns prevailing over a given area of the planet. The term comes from a Greek word klinein meaning
“to slope.” It evolved into klima, connoting a zone or region of the Earth as characterized by its
atmospheric conditions. In ancient Greece, the orb of the sun stood at a high angle in the sky at noontime
as ships sailed toward the north, and the daytime temperature of the air would get colder. Hence the
klima in the north was colder than in the south.   
   
 
Figure 1. Earth’s Movement around the Sun  
  
While the orbit remains an ellipse, its position or orientation in space changes over time. Due to the tilt of
the Earth, the whole area does not receive an equal amount of sunlight. The Earth spins around its own
axis, an imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole, which dips and wobbles gradually. The Earth
could then be imagined like a Spinning top or trumpo, turning and wobbling in its path about the sun.   
  
The elements in this interaction between the sun and the Earth are defined as follows:   
1. Aphelion refers to the point in the orbit of the Earth farthest from the sun.   
2. Perihelion is the point in the orbit of the Earth closest to the sun.    
3. Earth’s axial tilt is the inclination angle of the Earth’s rotational axis in relation to a line
perpendicular to its orbital plane.   
4. Precession is the change of the orientation of the rotational axis of the Earth.   
5. Equinox refers to the time the sun at noon is directly over the equator. It happens twice a year and
causes an almost equal length pf day and night.   
6. Solstice happens when the sun at noon sits above the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn. The
Summer solstice has the longest period of daylight in the Year and the winter solstice has the
shortest period.   
7. Precession of the equinoxes refers to the motion of the equinoxes relative to the precession of the
Earth’s axis of rotation. It happens over thousands of years.   
  
The center of the Earth’s orbital motion is the sun but the angle or orientation of the planet around the
sun makes all the difference. In discussing global warming or climate change, it makes sense to start
considering the orbit of the Earth. Sunlight falling upon the Earth warms the planet. The amount sunlight,
however, is not constant since the orientation of the Earth to the sun changes.    
  
 B. Milankovitch Parameters   
  
Our lives literally revolve around cycles: series of events that are repeated regularly in the same order.
There are hundreds of different types of cycles in our world and in the universe. Some are natural, such as
the change of the seasons, annual animal migrations or the circadian rhythms that govern our sleep
patterns. Others are human-produced, like growing and harvesting crops, musical rhythms or economic
cycles.  
Cycles also play key roles in Earth’s short-term weather and long-term climate. A century ago, Serbian
scientist Milutin Milankovitch hypothesized the long-term, collective effects of changes in Earth’s position
relative to the Sun are a strong driver of Earth’s long-term climate, and are responsible for triggering the
beginning and end of glaciation periods (Ice Ages).  
Specifically, he examined how variations in three types of Earth orbital movements affect how much solar
radiation (known as insolation) reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere as well as where the insolation
reaches. These cyclical orbital movements, which became known as the Milankovitch cycles, cause
variations of up to 25 percent in the amount of incoming insolation at Earth’s mid-latitudes (the areas of
our planet located between about 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator).  
The Milankovitch cycles include:  
1. The shape of Earth’s orbit, known as eccentricity;  
2. The angle Earth’s axis is tilted with respect to Earth’s orbital plane, known as obliquity; and  
3. The direction Earth’s axis of rotation is pointed, known as precession.  
Eccentricity – Earth’s annual pilgrimage around the Sun isn’t perfectly circular, but it’s pretty close. Over
time, the pull of gravity from our solar system’s two largest gas giant planets, Jupiter and Saturn, causes
the shape of Earth’s orbit to vary from nearly circular to slightly elliptical. Eccentricity measures how much
the shape of Earth’s orbit departs from a perfect circle. These variations affect the distance between Earth
and the Sun.  
Eccentricity is the reason why our seasons are slightly different lengths, with summers in the Northern
Hemisphere currently about 4.5 days longer than winters, and springs about three days longer than
autumns. As eccentricity decreases, the length of our seasons gradually evens out.  
The difference in the distance between Earth’s closest approach to the Sun (known as perihelion), which
occurs on or about January 3 each year, and its farthest departure from the Sun (known as aphelion) on
or about July 4, is currently about 5.1 million kilometers (about 3.2 million miles), a variation of 3.4
percent. That means each January, about 6.8 percent more incoming solar radiation reaches Earth than it
does each July.  
When Earth’s orbit is at its most elliptic, about 23 percent more incoming solar radiation reaches Earth at
our planet’s closest approach to the Sun each year than does at its farthest departure from the Sun.
Currently, Earth’s eccentricity is near its least elliptic (most circular) and is very slowly decreasing, in a
cycle that spans about 100,000 years.   
The total change in global annual insolation due to the eccentricity cycle is very small. Because variations
in Earth’s eccentricity are fairly small, they’re a relatively minor factor in annual seasonal climate
variations.  
Obliquity – The angle Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted as it travels around the Sun is known as obliquity.
Obliquity is why Earth has seasons. Over the last million years, it has varied between 22.1 and 24.5
degrees perpendicular to Earth’s orbital plane. The greater Earth’s axial tilt angle, the more extreme our
seasons are, as each hemisphere receives more solar radiation during its summer, when the hemisphere
is tilted toward the Sun, and less during winter, when it is tilted away. Larger tilt angles favor periods of
deglaciation (the melting and retreat of glaciers and ice sheets). These effects aren’t uniform globally --
higher latitudes receive a larger change in total solar radiation than areas closer to the equator.  
Earth’s axis is currently tilted 23.4 degrees, or about half way between its extremes, and this angle is
very slowly decreasing in a cycle that spans about 41,000 years. It was last at its maximum tilt about
10,700 years ago and will reach its minimum tilt about 9,800 years from now. As obliquity decreases, it
gradually helps make our seasons milder, resulting in increasingly warmer winters, and cooler summers
that gradually, over time, allow snow and ice at high latitudes to build up into large ice sheets. As ice
cover increases, it reflects more of the Sun’s energy back into space, promoting even further cooling.  
Precession – As Earth rotates, it wobbles slightly upon its axis, like a slightly off-center spinning toy top.
This wobble is due to tidal forces caused by the gravitational influences of the Sun and Moon that cause
Earth to bulge at the equator, affecting its rotation. The trend in the direction of this wobble relative to the
fixed positions of stars is known as axial precession. The cycle of axial precession spans about 25,771.5
years.  
Axial precession makes seasonal contrasts more extreme in one hemisphere and less extreme in the
other. Currently perihelion occurs during winter in the Northern Hemisphere and in summer in the
Southern Hemisphere. This makes Southern Hemisphere summers hotter and moderates Northern
Hemisphere seasonal variations. But in about 13,000 years, axial precession will cause these conditions to
flip, with the Northern Hemisphere seeing more extremes in solar radiation and the Southern Hemisphere
experiencing more moderate seasonal variations.  
Axial precession also gradually changes the timing of the seasons, causing them to begin earlier over
time, and gradually changes which star Earth’s axis points to at the North Pole (the North Star). Today
Earth’s North Stars are Polaris and Polaris Australis, but a couple of thousand years ago, they were
Kochab and Pherkad.  
There’s also apsidal precession. Not only does Earth’s axis wobble, but Earth’s entire orbital ellipse also
wobbles irregularly, primarily due to its interactions with Jupiter and Saturn. The cycle of apsidal
precession spans about 112,000 years. Apsidal precession changes the orientation of Earth’s orbit relative
to the elliptical plane.  
Summary  
  Climate refers to the long-term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of the planet.  
 Due to the tilt of the Earth, the whole area does not receive an equal amount of sunlight.  
 The Earth spins around its own axis, an imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole, which
dips and wobbles gradually.   
 Milutin Milankovitch hypothesized the long-term, collective effects of changes in Earth’s position
relative to the Sun are a strong driver of Earth’s long-term climate, and are responsible for
triggering the beginning and end of glaciation periods (Ice Ages).  
 Eccentricity is the reason why our seasons are slightly different lengths, with summers in the
Northern Hemisphere currently about 4.5 days longer than winters, and springs about three days
longer than autumns. As eccentricity decreases, the length of our seasons gradually evens out.  
 The angle Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted as it travels around the Sun is known as obliquity.
Obliquity is why Earth has seasons. Over the last million years, it has varied between 22.1 and
24.5 degrees perpendicular to Earth’s orbital plane.  
 Axial precession makes seasonal contrasts more extreme in one hemisphere and less extreme in
the other. Currently perihelion occurs during winter in the Northern Hemisphere and in summer in
the Southern Hemisphere. This makes Southern Hemisphere summers hotter and moderates
Northern Hemisphere seasonal variations. 
 
Climate change is a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the
mid to the late 20 century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric C0 2
produced by the use of fossil fuels.   
In the summer months of 2016 up to 2018, warm temperatures across the regions of the Philippines had
risen above 36°C. Heat index rose up to 53; some provinces in Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, and Ilocos
Region even had 53-56 degrees heat index. Because of the rise of warm temperature, a few senior
citizens and those with weak bodies collapsed and died due to heat stroke. Why is there a climate change
in our Planet Earth?   
  
  
2.   Concentration of CO2 in the Atmosphere   
   
The most well-known and most important greenhouse gas is C02. The concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere is subject to variation even without human intervention. The carbon cycle causes an exchange
of CO2 between the biosphere and the ocean on the one hand and the atmosphere on the other. Vast
amount of CO2 is also released by the burning of fossil fuels. There is inconvertible evidence that the CO2
concentration in the air has been so high in the planet’s surface from being lost into space.   
  
3.   Carbon Dioxide and the Carbon Cycle   
   
All living organisms contain carbon, as do gases (such as carbon dioxide) and minerals (such as diamond,
peat and coal). The movement of carbon between large natural reservoirs in rocks, the ocean, the
atmosphere, plants, soil and fossil fuels is known as the carbon cycle.   
  
The carbon cycle includes the movement of carbon dioxide:   
 Into and out of our atmosphere.   
 Between the atmosphere; plants and other living organisms through photosynthesis, respiration
and decay.   
 Between the atmosphere and the top of the oceans.   
 Climate change is a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent
from the mid to the late 20 century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of
atmospheric C02 produced by the use of fossil fuels.   
 Climate refers to the long-term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of the planet.  
 Due to the tilt of the Earth, the whole area does not receive an equal amount of sunlight.  
 The most well-known and most important greenhouse gas is C02. The concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere is subject to variation even without human intervention.  
 All living organisms contain carbon, as do gases (such as carbon dioxide) and minerals (such as
diamond, peat and coal). The movement of carbon between large natural reservoirs in rocks, the
ocean, the atmosphere, plants, soil and fossil fuels is known as the carbon cycle.   
 
 MODULE 16: CLIMATE CHANGE  
  
Introduction   
  
Energy crisis refers to any significant decrease in the supply of energy resources to an economy in a
certain time and place and has affected electric power supply and fuel machineries and vehicles.    
  
Discussion  
  
A. Energy Crisis and Alternative Energy Sources  
Industrial Development and population growth have led to a surge in the world (energy demand/demand
for energy) in recent years. In the 2005, this new demand together with Middle East tension, the falling
value of the US dollar, dwindling oil reserves, concerns over peak oil, and oil price speculation triggered
the 2005 energy crisis, which saw the price of oil reach an all-time high of $147.30 a barrel in 2008. For
the year 2018, the oil price in the world market has tripled already. Every year, oil price increases. The
current price of diesel in the Philippines is 41.10 pesos per liter (as of June 2018). Aside from the oil price
hike in the world market, the adjusted excise tax due to TRAIN Law also affected the price of diesel and
gasoline products. Due to the unstoppable increase of fuels and other forms of energy, there is a need to
tap alternative energy sources.   
  
Alternative Energy Sources   
  
Alternative sources of energy are the answer to energy crisis. They are the answer to energy crisis. They
are the ones which do not cause any undesirable consequences to people and the environment because
they are renewable and are free.   
  
  
Alternative energy sources can be implemented for houses, for cars, factories and any other facility you
can imagine. Scientists around the world are researching on developing and discovering new Alternative
Energy ' Sources so that the growing energy needs of human population can be met more easily, safely
and efficiently. Here is a list of Alternative Energy Sources which will help us maintain the balance of
nature without causing it much harm as compared to the conventional energy sources.   
   
B.   Commonly Known Alternative Energy Resources  
 
Figure 1. Alternative Energy Resources  
  
1.   Hydroelectric Energy    
The potential energy stored in the water held in dams by is made to drive a water turbine and generator
which in turn produces electric power. This form of energy generation is called hydroelectric power. Out of
all the alternative energy sources, this one has been most commonly adopted in the current time.   
   
Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Generation   
 The source of hydroelectric power generation i.e., water is free of cost, Dams can provide virtually
continuous electricity generation.    
 The water used for power generation can be put to use again.   
 There is no Chemical process involved in the power production process, therefore, the power
generated is clean and does not harm the environment.   
   
  
2.    Solar Energy  
This is the energy which the earth receives from the Sun. This is one of the most promising alternative
energy sources, Which Will be available to the mankind for centuries to come. The only challenge remain
is to tap the solar energy in the most efficient way The solar power generation is done by using a series of
photovoltaic cells Where the solar rays are converted into electricity. Apart from electricity production
solar energy is also being used for heating water, cooking food etc.   
   
Advantages of Solar Energy   
 The source of energy is absolutely ’free’.   
 Solar power which is generated in the day time can be stored to be made available in the night
time as well.   
 Solar power generators can be used to generate power in rural and remote areas where there is no
reach of the conventional form of energy.    
 The generation of solar power is quite and absolutely clean   
 Solar energy is a renewable form of energy will not deplete until thousands of years.   
   
3.    Wind Energy   
The power of the wind is harnessed to propel the blades of Wind turbine attached to an electric generator
to generate wind energy. Wind energy is an effective alternative source of energy in areas where the
velocity of Wind flow is high.   
   
Advantages of Wind Energy   
  Wind energy is a clean form of energy.    
 The source of power generation i.e., wind is free of cost.   
 Wind energy is a renewable source of energy.   
  
4.   Biomass Energy   
This is the energy developed from the wastes of various human and animal activities like the by-products
and wastes from timber industry, agricultural yields, municipal solid waste etc. Out of the many
alternative sources of energy this is the one which takes into account the utilization of waste material to
develop energy thereby disposing them off in a profitable and effective way.   
   
Advantages of Biomass Energy   
   
 It is environmental friendly way of energy production in which biological mass is recycled and
reused.   
 The biomass Will keep generating and decomposing as part of the natural biological cycle.
Therefore, biomass energy is considered as a renewable source of energy.   
   
C.    New Alternative Energy Resources   
To answer the question of which Alternative Energy Sources have been brought to the present time, you
should understand that as you are reading this, there are developments being carried on to find more and
more alternative energy sources. Apart from the commonly known alternative energy sources previously
mentioned, there have been recent advancements in terms of discovering new alternative energy sources
to add to the list of alternative energy sources for this new generation. These are:   
   
1.   Geothermal Energy   
This is the energy developed from the wastes of various human and animal activities like the byproducts
and wastes from timber industry, agricultural yields, municipal solid waste etc. Out of the many
alternative sources of energy this is the one which takes into account the utilization of waste material to
develop energy thereby disposing them off m a profitable and effective way.   
   
Advantages of Geothermal Energy   
 Similar to other alternative energy sources, geothermal energy source is free of cost.   
 With a proper power generation system in place, no harmful byproducts are produced.  
   
2.   Tidal Energy   
The surface of earth is 71.11% covered by water bodies especially Oceans. The tides in water rise and fall
due to the gravity of sun and moon. Since we know about how the position of moon changes we can
predict the rise and fall of tides. This rise and fall of tides can be utilized by setting up Small dams and
'passing water through the turbines to generate power.   
   
Advantages of Tidal Energy   
 The source of power generation is free and renewable.   
 The power generated is clean and does not cause any pollution.   
  
Challenges with Using Alternative Energy Sources   
As promising as the use of alternative sources of energy may sound, it is still under research as to how to
tap energy from these resources in the ' most efficient and effective way. Although small power
generation systems can be put in place but power production from these resources on a large scale is still
a challenge with hydroelectric power generation being an exception.   
Many countries are not yet ready to move from using conventional energy sources to the alternative
energy sources as it involves a huge amount to decommission the old power generation infrastructure and
establish a new infrastructure. Therefore, the shift is ideal to be made in phases.   
   
Why use Alternative Energy Sources?   
   
Alternative energy sources are available free of cost and do not tax the environment for their usage.
Power generation through alternative sources of energy is clean and ’green’. If we shift to use power
generated from these sources, then carbon dioxide emission from the conventional energy sources will be
greatly reduced, and the problem of global warming will be solved in a few years. Also the fast depleting
traditional energy sources can be preserved. Along with air pollution, the use of traditional energy
resources also causes soil pollution and water pollution by releasing various toxins to the land and water.
This can also be controlled reasonably.   
The damage that we have caused to earth after the industrial revolution is huge and we will have to take
action immediately if we want to keep the planet sustainable for our future generations. The biggest leap
that mankind can take to prevent further damage is to start using alternative energy sources.    
   
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)   
   
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a process that can produce electricity by using 'the
temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical surface waters. OTEC plants
pump large quantities of deep cold seawater and surface seawater to run a power cycle and produce
electricity. OTEC is firm power (24/7), a clean energy source, environmentally sustainable and capable of
providing massive levels of energy.   
Recently, higher electricity costs, increased concerns for global warming, and a political commitment to
energy security have made initial OTEC commercialization economically attractive in tropical island
communities where a high percentage of electricity production is oil based.   
According to OTECnews.org, The distinctive feature of OTEC is the potential to provide baseload electricity,
which means day and night (24/7) and year-round. This is a big advantage for instance tropical islands
that typically has a small electricity network, not capable of handling a lot of intermittent power. The vast
baseload OTEC resource could help many tropical and subtropical (remote) regions to become more
energy self-sufficient.   
 
  
Environmental awareness means being aware of the natural environment and making choices that benefit
the earth, rather than hurt it. Some of the ways to practice environmental awareness include: using safe
and non-toxic building supplies, conserving energy and water, recycling, activism, and others.  
  
  
A. Pollution  
Pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty and not safe or
suitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a contaminant into a natural environment,
but the contaminant doesn't need to be tangible. Things as simple as light, sound and temperature can be
considered pollutants when introduced artificially into an environment.    
Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, according to Pure Earth, a non-profit
environmental organization. In some of the world's worst polluted places, babies are born with birth
defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy may be as low as 45 years because of
cancers and other diseases. Read on to find out more about specific types of pollution.   
  
B.   Types of Pollution  
  
Land Pollution   
   
Land can become polluted by household garbage and by industrial waste. In 2014, Americans produced
about 258 million tons of solid waste, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. A little over
half of the waste — 136 million tons— was gathered in landfills.  
Only about 34% was recycled or composted.  Organic material was the largest component of the garbage
generated, the EPA said. Paper and paperboard accounted for more than 26%; food was 15% and yard
trimmings were 13%. Plastics comprised about 13% of the solid waste, while rubber, leather and textiles
made up 9.5% and metals 9%. Wood contributed to 6.2% of the garbage; glass was 4.4% and other
miscellaneous materials made up about 3%.   
Commercial or industrial waste is a significant portion of solid waste. According to the University of Utah,
industries use 4 million pounds of materials in order to provide the average American family with needed
products for one year. Much of it is classified as non-hazardous, such as construction material (wood,
concrete, bricks, glass, etc.) and medical waste (bandages, surgical gloves, surgical instruments,
discarded needles, etc.). Hazardous waste is any liquid, solid or sludge waste that contain properties that
are dangerous of potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Industries generate hazardous
waste from mining, petroleum refining, and pesticide manufacturing and other chemical production.
Households generate hazardous waste as well, including paints and solvents, motor oil, fluorescent lights,
aerosol cans and ammunition.   
   
Water Pollution   
   
Pollution happens when chemicals or dangerous foreign substances are introduced to water, including
chemicals, sewage, pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural runoff, or metals like lead or mercury.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 44% of assessed stream miles, 64% of lakes
and 30% of bay and estuarine areas are not clean enough for fishing and swimming. The EPA also states
that the United State's most common contaminants are bacteria, mercury, phosphorus and nitrogen.
These come from the most common sources of contaminates, that include agricultural runoff, air
deposition, water diversions and channelization of streams.   
Water pollution isn't just a problem for the United States. According to United Nations, 783 million people
do not have access to clean water and around 2.5 billion do not have access to adequate sanitation.
Adequate sanitation helps to keep sewage and other contaminants from entering the water supply.   
According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 80% of pollution in marine
environment comes from the land through sources like runoff. Water pollution can also severely affect
marine life. For example, sewage causes pathogens to grow, while organic and inorganic compounds in
water can change the composition of the precious resource. According to the EPA, low levels of dissolved
oxygen in the water are also considered a pollutant. Dissolved is caused by the decomposition of organic
materials, such as sewage introduced into the water.   
Warming water can also be harmful. The artificial warming of water is called thermal pollution. It can
happen when a factory or power plant that is using water to cool its operations ends up discharging hot
water. This makes the water hold less oxygen, which can kill fish and wildlife. The sudden change of
temperature in the body of water can also kill fish. According to the University of Georgia, it is estimated
that around half of the water withdrawn from water systems in the United States each year is used for
cooling electric power plants.    
"In nearly all cases, 90% of this water is returned to its source, where it can raise the water temperature
in an area immediately surrounding the water discharge pipe. Depending on water flow, the water
temperature quickly returns to ambient temperatures that do not harm fish." Donn Dears, former
president of TSAugust, a not for profit corporation organization focused on energy issues, told Live
Science.  Nutrient pollution, also called eutrophication, is another type of water pollution. It is when
nutrients, such as nitrogen, are added into bodies of water. The nutrient works like fertilizer and makes
algae grow at excessive rates, according to NOAA. The algae blocks light from other plants. The plants die
and their decomposition leads to less oxygen in the water. Less oxygen in the water kills aquatic
animals.   
   
Air Pollution   
   
The air we breathe has a very exact chemical composition; 99% of it is made up of nitrogen, oxygen,
water vapor and inert gases. Air pollution occurs when things that aren't normally there are added to the
air. A common type of air pollution happens when people release particles into the air from burning fuels.
This pollution looks like soot, containing millions of tiny particles, floating in the air.    
Another common type of air pollution is dangerous gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in
the atmosphere, creating acid rain and smog. Other sources of air pollution can come from within
buildings, such as secondhand smoke.    
Finally, air pollution can take the form of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide,
which are warming the planet through the greenhouse effect. According to the EPA, the greenhouse effect
is when gases absorb the infrared radiation that is released from the Earth, preventing the heat from
escaping. This is a natural process that keeps our atmosphere warm. If too many gases are introduced
into the atmosphere, though, more heat is trapped and this can make the planet artificially warm,
according to Columbia University.   
Air pollution kills more than 2 million people each year, according to a study published in the journal of
Environmental Research Letters. The effects of air pollution on human health can vary widely depending
on the pollutant, according to Hugh Sealy, professor and director of the environmental and occupational
health track at the Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, St. George's University, St.
George's, Grenada. If the pollutant is highly toxic, the effects on health can be widespread and severe. For
example, the release of methyl isocyanate gas at Union Carbide plant in Bhopal in 1984 killed over 2,000
people, and over 200,000 suffered respiratory problems. An irritant (e.g. particulates less than 10
micrometers) may cause respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular disease and increases in asthma. "The very
young, the old and those with vulnerable immune systems are most at risk from air pollution. The air
pollutant may be carcinogenic (e.g. some volatile organic compounds) or biologically active (e.g. some
viruses) or radioactive (e.g. radon). Other air pollutants like carbon dioxide have an indirect impact on
human health through climate change," Sealy told Live Science.   
   
Noise Pollution   
   
Even though humans can't see or smell noise pollution, it still affects the environment. Noise pollution
happens when the sound coming from planes, industry or other sources reaches harmful levels. Research
has shown that there are direct links between noise and health, including stress-related illnesses, high
blood pressure, speech interference, hearing loss. For example, a study by the WHO Noise Environmental
Burden on Disease working group found that noise pollution may contribute to hundreds of thousands of
deaths per year by increasing the rates of coronary heart disease. Under the Clean Air Act, the EPA can
regulate machine and plane noise.   
Underwater noise pollution coming from ships has been shown to upset whales' navigation systems and
kill other species that depend on the natural underwater world. Noise also makes wild species
communicate louder, which can shorten their lifespan.   
    
  
Light Pollution   
   
Most people can't imagine living without the modern convenience of electric lights. For the natural world,
though, lights have changed the way that days and nights work.   Some consequences of light pollution
are:   
   
 Some birds sing at unnatural hours in the presence of artificial light.    
 Scientists have determined that long artificial days can affect migration schedules, as they allow for
longer feeding times.    
 Streetlights can confuse newly hatched sea turtles that rely on starlight reflecting off the waves to
guide them from the beach to the ocean. They often head in the wrong direction.    
 Light pollution, called sky glow, also makes it difficult for astronomers, both professional and
amateur, to properly see the stars.   
 Plant's flowering and developmental patterns can be entirely disrupted by artificial light.   
 According to a study by the American Geophysical Union, light pollution could also be making smog
worse by destroying nitrate radicals that helps the dispersion of smog.   
   
Turning on so many lights may not be necessary. Research published by International Journal of Science
and Research estimates that over-illumination wastes about 2 million barrels of oil per day and lighting is
responsible for one-fourth of all energy consumption worldwide.   
   
   
C.   Environmental Issues  
  
In the Philippines, we, Filipinos, are already feeling this effect. From low pressure typhoons, it has evolved
into super typhoons with some incidences of tornadoes. Monsoon rain warning elicits fear as it can bring
flash floods. Temperatures rise and our heat index has increased dramatically.   
There is a long list of environmental issues but in reality, they are intertwined with each other and needs
serious attention from all of us.   
  
1. Pollution   
   
Pollution, in context, is the introduction of contaminants into the environment causing adverse change. It
is present through noise, air and water. As we produce more noise, it can interfere with the behavior of
certain animals in the ecosystem. Also, on some studies, the effect of sound waves turns into heat causing
a slight change in the temperature of the environment.   
Air pollution is what we can often see in urban places. Smoke belching vehicles and gases from factories
are the culprits in contributing to air pollution. On water pollution, incessant throwing of garbage and
inappropriate industrial waste disposal affects our bodies of water, which in turn cause trouble in marine
life.   
   
2. Global Warming due to Emission of Greenhouse Gases   
   
In almost any activity, we emit greenhouse gas such as using our electricity, cooking and driving our cars.
As we breathe out, we also produce carbon dioxide. The more people in a certain area, the bigger carbon
dioxide are emitted into the environment. As these gases are produce, it generates heat causing a change
in the climate.   
   
3. Overpopulation   
   
Overpopulation seeds into a lot of problems. With the need for new homes, the development of new
buildings, houses and establishments are in order. After which the demand for electricity, food and other
greenhouse gases also increases. Scarcity of food can be experienced due to the limited ability of the
animals to populate fast. Thus, dishonest people nowadays resort to using chemicals and medications to
boost and fake the growth of these animals. Overpopulation also means having more garbage to
dispose.   
   
 
 
4. Natural Resources Depletion   
   
Mining and quarrying has become rampant over the years and are to be blamed for destroying the beauty
of our environment. Among the natural resources that we have, water, oil and forests are the top three on
the list. Fresh water, in reality, is only 2.5% of the world’s total water volume. If the problems affecting
our bodies of water continue, the demand for drinking water will increase causing water shortage and
worse, famine. Oil, on the other hand, is used every day for transportation of goods and electricity. Lastly,
according to statistics, deforestation contributes an estimate of 12% to 17% of greenhouse gas emission
per year. Trees emit oxygen and filter the air. But with lesser trees, flash floods are likely to happen.   
   
5. Waste disposal   
   
Improper waste disposal creates a hazardous problem to everyone. It may infect people not only
physically but through the air and water. Garbage thrown in the rivers and canals may not only block our
waterways but it invites rodents to infect the water and soon be transferred to humans. Clogged
waterways have a tendency to spill causing flash floods, which is what is happening here in our country.
Likewise, the lack of enough dumpsites and landfills is also a hindrance in helping to solve our garbage
management crisis.   
   
D.   Control Measures   
   
The recent growing concern for the quality of our environment has strengthened the concept of
environmental monitoring which requires regular periodical measurements of environment followed by
timely assessment and interpretation of data obtained. Reliable monitoring data are necessary to know
pollution problem. Environment is deteriorating day by day due to industrial pollution, toxic chemicals,
automobile emission and natural resource depletion. Pollution in its various forms is increasing
tremendously.   
   
Environmental management aims at the study of all these problems and checking pollution so that the
environment satisfies the basic human needs at the minimum and more, if possible, for an indefinite
future. The main aim of environmental management is overall development of environment. Purpose of
environmental management is to see whether air is fit for breathing, water is fit for drinking and soil and
sea resources are fit to provide all needs. One also expects that people are well fed, well housed,
welleducated and enjoying happy and healthy life.   
   
Environmental problems are so diverse and diffused that virtually any activity of civilization interacts with
the environment. Many environmental pollution problems are local in character and they can be controlled
by creating environmental consciousness in each and every citizen. People should be told about the
importance of clean atmosphere as well as about the consequences of different types of environmental
pollutions. Besides, action is also needed at national level and guidelines may be established
internationally by the United Nations Joint Committee of Experts.   
   
Summary  
  
 As cities and provinces develop, our natural resources are also compromised. Even more sadly than
what was just stated, global warming has become one of the major problems worldwide since it
affects the whole planet and it slowly engulfs our world every minute.   
 As we produce more noise, it can interfere with the behavior of certain animals in the ecosystem.  
 Improper waste disposal creates a hazardous problem to everyone. It may infect people not only
physically but through the air and water.  
 Environmental problems are so diverse and diffused that virtually any activity of civilization
interacts with the environment. 
 
 Energy crisis refers to any significant decrease in the supply of energy resources to an economy in a
certain time and place and has affected electric power supply and fuel machineries and vehicles.

A gene that is inserted directly into a cell usually does not function. Instead, a carrier called a
vector is genetically engineered to deliver the gene. Certain viruses are often used as vectors
because they can deliver the new gene by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified so they
can’t cause disease when used in people. Some types of Virus, such as retroviruses, integrate
their genetic material (including the new gene) into a chromosome in the human cell. Other
viruses, such as adenoviruses, introduce their DNA into the nucleus of the cell, but the DNA is not
integrated into a chromosome.     
The vector can be injected or given intravenously (by IV) directly into a specific tissue in the
body, where it is taken up by individual cells. Alternately, a sample of the patient’s cells can be
removed and exposed to the vector in a laboratory setting. The cells containing the vector are
then returned to the patient. If the treatment is successful, the new gene delivered by the vector
W111 make a functioning protein.