CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

ELEMENT IN THE CELL

2.There are about 92 element occurring naturally in nature.
From these 92 element, only about 25 element are needed to build living organisms.
Not all these element found in all living cell.
Main element (CHON) are the most frequently found elements in cells, forming about 96%
of the human body mass.
Trace-elements are the elements are found in small quantity in cells, but are important in
biological processes.

3 CHEMICAL COMPOUND IN THE CELL

Chemical compounds in the cell can be divided into two major group:
Organic
Inorganic

Organic compounds are:

Chemical compounds contain carbon (exception are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
carbides and carbonates which are typically considered as inorganic)
Are usually found in and originate from living organism.
Usually consist of macromolecules (large molecules).

Inorganic compounds are:

Chemical compounds that do not contain carbon
Usually a smaller and simpler than organic compounds
Founds in cells water, acids, alkalis and mineral salts
4 There are 4 main group of organic compounds in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
The carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The ratio of hydrogen to
oxygen atoms in a molecule usually 2:1.
Many carbohydrates have the general formula CX(H2O)Y, where x is approximately equal to
y.
Three basic types of carbohydrates are monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides

5 Monosaccharide
Monosaccharide also called simple sugar
The common monosaccharide are six-carbon sugar with a molecular formula of C6H12O6
Example of monosaccharide are glucose, fructose (fruit sugar) and galactose
Glucose is the most common monosaccharide and respiratory substrate
Monosaccharide are sweet-tasting crystalline substances which are soluble in water

6 Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide molecules combining together with the
elements of a molecule of water. The chemical reaction of the formation is known as
condensation.
The general formula of a disaccharides is C12H22O11
Disaccharides also called double sugar.
Disaccharides can be broken down to their constituent monosaccharide by a chemical
reaction involving the addition of water. The reaction is known as hydrolysis.
7 The most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose and
sucrose.
Like monosaccharide, they are sweet-tasting crystalline substances that are soluble in water.
The most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose and sucrose.
Hydrolysis
Condensation
C12H22O11
sucrose
+ H2 O
water
C6H12O6
fructose
glucose
+

8 + Condensation + H2 O water Hydrolysis C12H22O11

C6H12O6 maltose
glucose
+
sucrose
fructose
lactose
galactose

9 Polysaccharides
Many monosaccharide molecules join together in a condensation reaction (with the removal
of water molecules) to form a large polysaccharides molecules.
Polymerisation is the process of condensing many individual monosaccharide molecules to
form a large polysaccharides molecules.
In polymerisation, the individual monosaccharide molecule are called monomers.
Polymerisation of monosaccharide forms:
Glycogen – in humans and animals
Starch and cellulose – in plants

10 Consists of two components.

glucose
Starch structure
Sub unit: Glucose
Consists of two components.
Unbranched, helical chains of glucose units
Branched chains of glucose units
Major storage of carbohydrate in plants

11 glycogen Sub unit: Glucose Molecules with many side

branches
Major storage of carbohydrates in animals and fungi, for
examples, in muscle cells and liver cells

12 cellulose Straight unbranched chain of glucose units

Plant cell wall
13 Some sugars act as mild reducing agents
Reducing and non-reducing sugar
Some sugars act as mild reducing agents
Two common test reagent to test for reducing sugar are:
Benedict’s reagent (alkaline solution of CuSO4)
Fehling’s reagent (alkaline solution of CuSO4)
c) Reducing sugars reduce Cu²+ (blue solution) to Cu+ (brick red precipitate) in both
reagents.
14 Proteins
Proteins are compounds of these element: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen sulphur and
phosphorus.
Amino acids are the subunits of all proteins.
Each amino acids carries two functional group:
A carboxyl group (- COOH) which is acidic and
An amino group (-NH2) which is basic.
COOH carboxyl group
C
NH amino group

15 Two amino acids can combine together to form a

dipeptide by a condensation reaction between the carboxyl
group of one and the amino group of the other. The
resulting a bond liking the two amino acids that is called a
peptide bond.
cooh Hn c n
CCcc
NH2 hooc nh2 hooc
Oh
h
H2O
condensation
Peptide bond

16 Long chains of amino acids are called polypeptides.

A polypeptide is formed by the condensation reaction of many amino acids, with the
removal of water.
A polypeptide chain can also be hydrolysed, with the addition of water molecules to form
individual amino acids.
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
Primary-linear sequence of amino acids
Secondary structure- forming ahelixor pleated sheet.
Tertiary structure- compact structure
Quaternary structure- 2 or more tertiary structure

17 LIPIDS
Lipids a diverse group of substance that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The
proportion of oxygen is lower than that in carbohydrates. For example, the general formula
of stearic acid is C18H36O2.
All lipids are insoluble in water
Lipids dissolve readily in other lipids and in organic solvent such as ether and ethanol.
The main types of lipids are:
Fats
Oils
Waxes
Phospholipids
steroids

18 Fats are solid at room temperature (20°C), whereas oil

are liquid
Fats and oils
Fats are solid at room temperature (20°C), whereas oil are liquid
Each molecule of fats or oils is made up of one glycerol combine with three fatty acids which
may be the same or may be different. Three molecule of water are remove in this
condensation reaction.
Hydrolysis (+ H2O)
Condensation (- H2O)
+
glycerol
3 fatty acids molecules
Triglyceride +
3 water molecules

19 These molecules of fats and oils are known as

triglycerides.
Fats often contain only saturated fatty acids.
Oils usually contain unsaturated fatty acids.
In a saturated fatty acids, the carbon atoms are bonded to the maximum number of other
atoms. Saturated fatty acid has only single bond and the hydrocarbon chain is relatively
straight.
Unsaturated fatty acids has double bond in the form of –CH=CH- in the hydrocarbon chain.
Fatty acids; those with two or more double bond are called polyunsaturated fatty acids.

20 Type of fatty acids Example Structural formula

Saturated
Stearic acid
CH3 (CH2)16COOH
Unsaturated
Oleic acid
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
Fats and oils function efficiently as energy storage material. Fats and oils provide 38kJ per
gram, while carbohydrates can provide only 17 kJ per gram.

21 Waxes
Waxes are similar to triglycerides, but the fatty acids are bonded to long-chain alcohols
rather than glycerol
Waxes are usually hard solids at room temperature
Waxes are used to waterproof the external surface of plants and animal. The cuticle of a leaf
and the protective covering on an insect’s body are made of waxes.
Wax is also a constituent of the honeycomb of bees

22 Phospholipids
Phospholipids have a similar structure to triglycerides but one of the fatty acids is replaced
by a phosphate group
The end of the phospholipids molecule containing the phosphate group is hydrophilic. The
other end containing the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acids is hydrophobic.
The hydrophilic end is soluble in water while hydrophobic is insoluble in water.
Phospholipids bilayer from the basis of all cell membrane.

23 A steroid molecule has a complex ring structure

Steroids
A steroid molecule has a complex ring structure
Steroid occur in plants and animals
Examples of steroids are cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone.
Steroid
Function
Cholesterol
Strengthens the cell membrane at high body temperature
Testosterone
Male reproductive hormone
Oestrogen and progesterone.
Female reproductive hormone

24 Saturated and saturated fats

Animal fats such as lard, butter and cream are example of saturated fats
Vegetable oil such as olive oil and sunflower oil are example of unsaturated fats.

25 Saturated fats
Unsaturated fats
Similarities
Both are triglycerides
They yield 38 kJ per gram
Their molecules congregate into globule because of their hydrophobic properties
Differences
Higher melting point
Lower melting point
Most are solid at room temperature
Most are liquid at room temperature
More likely to cause disease of the heart and arteries
Less likely to cause disease of the heart and arteries
More stable at room temperature and less readily become rancid
Unstable at room temperature and less readily become rancid

26 ENZYMES
Enzymes are protein molecules act as biological catalysts. They speed up the rate of
metabolic reactions and do not chemically changed at the end of the reaction
The substance whose reactivity is increased by an enzymes is knowing as a substrate

27 THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES

Enzymes speed up the rates of biochemical reactions in cells.
Only a small amount of enzymes is needed to catalyse a lot of substrate.
Enzymes are very specific – each class of enzymes will catalyse only one particular reaction.
Enzymes are not used up or destroyed in the reactions that they catalyse, but can be reused
again.
Enzymes catalyse reversible reactions
Many enzymes are only able to work with in presence of a coenzymes (or cofactor).
Enzymes are affected by changes in temperature and pH

28 NAMING OF ENZYMES
An enzyme is named by taking its substrate name and adding the suffix ‘-ase’
Example, protease catalyses the hydrolysis of protein.
The ‘-ase’ rule does not apply to enzymes discover before the ‘-ase’ idea was introduced.
For example, pepsin, rennin, ptyalin and tripsin.
The modern classification of enzymes was decided by the International Union of
Biochemistry (IUB) in 1961

29 INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ENZYMES

Intracellular enzyme that catalyses reaction within a cell and formed by the free ribosome in
the cytoplasm.
Extracellular enzyme that leaves the cell and catalyses reaction outside the cell and
synthesised by ribosome attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

30 MECHANISM OF ENZYMES ACTION

Each enzyme molecule has a region with very precise shape called active site.
The substrate molecule fit into the active site of the enzymes like a key into a lock, forming
an enzyme-substrate complex, a temporary structure.
Reaction take place at active site to form a product.
The product have a different shape from the substrate and therefore repelled from a active
site.

31 The effect of pH on enzyme activity

THERE ARE 4 FACTORS AFFECT THE ACTIVITY OF ENZYMES
pH
Temperature
Concentration of enzyme
Concentration of substrate
The effect of pH on enzyme activity
Each enzyme has a optimum pH at which its rate of reaction is the fastest. i.e. pepsin at pH
2,(acidic) amylase pH 7 (neutral) and trypsin at pH 8-9 (alkaline)

32 The effect of temperature on enzyme activity

The rate of reaction will increase up to maximum, known as optimum temperature.
After the optimum temperature around 37ºC-40ºC, the rate of reaction falls quickly because
of the bonds maintaining the structure of the enzyme start to break and the active site loses
its shape.
At 60ºC, enzyme activity will stop altogether because the enzyme is denatured

33 The effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity

Increase the substrate concentration will increase the chance of enzyme-substrate collision,
and the rate of reaction will increase.
Addition of substrate will not increase the rate of reaction anymore because the constant
enzyme concentration becomes the limiting factor.

34 The effect of enzyme concentration on enzyme activity

When the concentration of enzyme increase, there are more chance enzyme-substrate
collision. The rate of reaction increase linearly as long as no other factors are limiting.
THE USES OF ENZYMES
Enzyme can extracted from any living organism, and used either at home or in industry
Enzymes that are commonly used in daily life are:
Papain-found in papaya used to tenderise meat
Protease-used to tenderise meat and remove hair from the skin etc.