15 Packaging

Packaging is an essential process step in the manufacture of most foods. The

following are the main objectives:

1. Containment, i.e., separating the food from the environment: It involves

partitioning of the product into units that can be handled during distribu-
tion, storage, transport, and final use. It prevents contamination of the
environment with the food material, which would cause hygienic prob-
lems. It generally guarantees the integrity and the quantity of the contents.
2. Protection of the product from outside influences: This implies prevention
of contamination with microorganisms and chemical compounds (for
example, oxygen and flavor compounds) or dirt particles, and exclusion
of radiation, especially light. Packaging often is an essential part of food
preservation. Protection also implies preventing (or minimizing) loss of
components, such as water and flavor substances, to the environment.
3. Convenience for the consumer: An obvious point is that it should be
easy to open the package and close it again. Minimizing contamination
after a portion has been taken out of the package is also of importance,
as is easy stacking of the containers (for example, a package containing
milk that can be laid down after it has been opened). Packaging in a
range of portion sizes is convenient for those who need either a little
or a lot of food per day. Modern packaging systems often enable the
distribution of foods that are ready to eat (for example, dairy desserts),
or that need only little preparation (for example, heating in the package).
4. Providing information: This may be factual information regarding the
quality of the product, its composition, nutritive value, keeping quality
(day before which it should be consumed), manner of storage, how to
handle the product, and so forth. Moreover, several marketing messages
may be printed on the label, from the brand name, to possible applications
of the product (recipes) and potential benefits of its consumption.

Some aspects mainly related to the first two objectives will be discussed, with
some emphasis on packaging of liquid milk products.

15.1 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

These vary widely, according to product type and local practices and facilities.
Milk and milk products may be sold unpackaged. The product is kept in a
vat, and the desired amount is poured or ladled from the vat into a smaller vat

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412 Packaging

belonging to the consumer. The method is cheap with respect to processing and
packaging material, but it is labor intensive. An important drawback is that
contamination by microorganisms is inevitable. The contaminated milk will rap-
idly spoil and may contain pathogens, and it is highly advisable that the user boil
the milk and clean the vat.
Packaging in glass bottles (currently also in PET or polycarbonate bottles)
has the advantage that the bottles can be used many times, but the drawback is
that their return, and especially their cleaning and subsequent inspection, is
laborious and expensive. The disadvantage of the great weight of glass bottles
may be acceptable in the case of home delivery.
Most milk is distributed in single-service containers. Containers for durable
milk products are often made of tinplate or various synthetic materials. For less
durable products, plastics or laminates of cardboard and plastic are often shaped
into cartons, sachets, or small cups. The contents may range from about 10 ml
(coffee cream) to 3785 ml (beverage milk in some countries).
Another important variable is whether the packaged product is sufficiently
stabilized or still has to be processed (for example, cooling, sterilization, and
shaking) or transformed (for example, lactic acid fermentation, often with CO2
formation). In-bottle or in-can sterilization implies heating under pressure in a
moist atmosphere, and is predominantly applied to products packaged in glass
or plastic bottles, or in cans; close control of the heating intensity and of the
closure of the packages is required.
Still another variable is the stage at which the package is made. Compare the
use of a previously prepared package that needs only to be closed after filling
(glass bottle, can, and some cartons and plastic bottles) to that of a package that
is made and filled simultaneously (formation of cartons, blowing of bottles from
extruded plastic, and pressing of plastic cups from a foil). In one system, a vertical
cylinder is formed from laminated packaging material (cardboard and plastic). It
is supplied with milk while it is rapidly pulled down. The filled, moving tube is
sealed and cut at regular distances so that tetrahedral or brick-shaped packages
are formed. During filling, particular measures may be taken to prevent microbial
contamination (aseptic packaging).
The manufacturer’s selection of a particular packaging system depends on
the specific requirements for the package, the extent to which the process can be
fitted into the whole operation, the reliability, and the costs involved. Among
other important aspects are environmental pollution and restrictions of the use of
nonreturnable packages.

15.2 PACKAGING MATERIALS

Several widely varying materials are in use. The extent to which they meet various
requirements and preferences will be briefly discussed. A number of character-
istics are listed in Table 15.1. The data involved are highly approximate because
they can vary widely according to the precise composition and method of man-
ufacture. The following packaging material criteria are far from exhaustive.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 15.2 Packaging Materials
TABLE 15.1
Properties of Some Packaging Materials
Permeability to

H2O O2 CO2
Resists Resists 10−12 kg. −18
10 kg.
Material Strength Flexibility Sealability sterilization freezing Transparency m−1.s−1 m−1.s−1.Pa−1 Fat

Glass Brittle 0 — Yes No Clear 0 0 0 0

Tinplate Great Small — Yes Yes 0 0 0 0 0
Aluminum foil +++ ++ Not Yes Yes 0 < 0.1 0.002 0.003 0
Paper or cardboard ++ ++ Not No Yes/no + great great great great
Cellophane ++ +++ Good No Yes Clear 100 1 10 tr
Coated cellophane ++ +++ Good No Yes Clear 1 0.1 0.1 tr
Polyethylene, L.D.a + +++ Good No Yes +++ 4 40 200 +++
Polyethylene, H.D.a ++ ++ Good No Yes +++ 1 10 50 ++
Polyvinyl chloride ++ ++ Fair No No Clear 10 1 10 ++
Polyamide (nylon) ++ ++ Poor Yes Yes Clear 40 0.3 1 tr
CPETb +++ ++ Good Yes Yes Clear 5 0.3 2 tr
Polycarbonate +++ + Not Yes Yes Clear 500 10 50
Polypropylene +++ Depends Depends Yes No Clear 3 20 100 ++
Polystyrene +++ + Not No Yes +++ 30 20 100 ++

Note: 10−12 kg⋅m−1⋅s−1 corresponds to 3.5 g⋅m−2⋅d−1 at a layer thickness of 25 µm; 10−18 kg⋅m−1⋅s−1⋅Pa−1 corresponds to 0.35 g⋅m−2⋅d−1 at a pressure difference of
1 bar and a layer thickness of 25 µm.
a L.D. = low density; H.D. = high density.

b CPET = crystalline poly(ethylene-terephthalate).

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414 Packaging

Processability. Is the material brittle, pliable, or moldable? Is it available in

the desired thickness (e.g., cellophane can only be made thin-walled)? Is it
suitable for being sealed (especially by heat sealing) or is it suitable for lamination
(adhesiveness)? Can it readily be cleaned and sterilized? Is it resistant to high
temperatures, for example, during in-bottle sterilization?
Resistance. Does the material resist damage? In other words, is it strong
enough (this depends very much on its thickness) and wear resistant? Can it
withstand fluctuations in pressure and temperature, for example, during steriliza-
tion, freezing (some plastics become brittle at low temperature), or gas formation?
Is it resistant to a moist atmosphere, that is, does it not soften? Does it show
rapid aging? Some plastics rapidly become weak or brittle when exposed to light.
Permeability. Bacteria are generally not let through, provided that the closure
of the package is perfect. Passage of a substance through the packaging material
may be by diffusion and, consequently, greatly depends on the solubility of the
substance in the material. The amount of substance permeating generally is
proportional to contact area, time, and concentration difference (for gases often
expressed as pressure difference), and inversely proportional to the thickness of
the material (see Equation 12.4). Consequently, the permeability can be
expressed in, e.g., kg⋅m−1⋅s−1⋅Pa−1. Examples are given in Table 15.1. Considering
transport of water, the loss of water into air of a certain relative humidity (often
85%) is usually taken as a basis. The permeabilities can greatly depend on the
precise composition of the material. Compare, for instance, polyethylene of low
and high densities. The latter is more compact due to its large proportion of
unbranched chains. Plasticizers (softeners) mostly increase the diffusion coeffi-
cients considerably, and the plasticizer content can vary widely. Most plastics are
hydrophobic, so the permeability to hydrophobic components (e.g., fat) is fairly
large. Compare also the permeabilities of CO2 and O2 in Table 15.1.
The permeability also depends on temperature (T). In most materials, the
permeability increases as T increases, because the diffusion coefficient tends to
increase. On the other hand, the permeability for a given chemical compound is
also proportional to its solubility in the packaging material, and the solubility may
either increase or — for most gases — decrease as T increases. Hence, it is difficult
to predict the temperature dependence of the permeabilities.
The preceding relations often do not apply if the layer becomes very thin (for
example, 25 µm or less), because such a thin film can contain perforations.
Aluminum foil is a good example because the permeability of aluminum to almost
all substances is effectively zero, but any perforations cause trouble. Their number
increases considerably with decreasing thickness of the foil and depends, more-
over, on the production process and further handling in the dairy, during distri-
bution, and so forth.
The permeability of the packaging material naturally depends on its thickness.
Often, containers composed of layers of different materials, so-called laminated
foils, are applied. If the permeability to a certain component in a packaging material
of a given thickness is designated as b (expressed in, for example, kg⋅m−2⋅s−1), the
total permeability of a laminate can be calculated from 1/btotal = Σ(1/bi).

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

15.2 Packaging Materials 415

Release of components of the material into the food depends on the type of
food (pH, presence of fat, and so forth) and on the temperature. Plastics may
release plasticizers, if still present, especially to high-fat products. Cans can release
iron, tin, etc., and because of this, tinplate is always coated, that is, supplied with
a plastic layer. Uncovered cardboard may release several substances into the milk.
Generally, legal requirements apply to the release of several components.
Heat Insulation. Often a well-insulating package is not desirable, because
after packaging heating and/or cooling are to be applied. Although most plastics
have poor heat conductivity, the layer often is too thin for satisfactory insulation.
If insulation is needed, expanded polystyrene (polystyrene foam) can be applied.
Light Transmission. For many foods a transparent package is desirable so
that the user can see the contents. The drawback for milk products is that light-
induced flavors (cardboard or sunlight flavor, and oxidized or tallowy flavor) may
develop. Cardboard is not transparent but is certainly not impermeable to light.
Glass can be browned (it is the short-wavelength light that is most harmful), but
brown glass is often considered unattractive. Most plastics are quite transparent.
Fillers can be applied to give color, and TiO2 is often used for a white color.
Printability of the material often is important for the trade.
Laminates. It will be clear that in many instances no single packaging
material meets all requirements. Because of this, laminates are applied. In a milk
carton for durable, aseptically packaged products, we may find (going from
outside to inside):

Polyethylene: for water repellance.

Paper: for printing.
Cardboard: for firmness.
Polyethylene: for making cardboard adhere to aluminum.
Aluminum: against passage of light and all substances.
Polyethylene: for good sealability; sealing here means closing the filled
package by pressing while heating.

All the layers are very thin (e.g., 20 µm, with aluminum foil being even thinner),
except for the cardboard; a 1-liter package weighs about 25 g and a glass bottle
from 400 to 600 g.

15.3 FILLING OPERATION

There are various methods to fill a package with a certain amount of liquid.
Weighing is rarely applied. Bottles are usually filled to a certain level, but for
highly viscous products a measuring pump should be used; one or a few turns
of a plunger determines the amount of product delivered, nearly independently
of the product viscosity. Sometimes the filling step itself can cause problems
because the high strain rates applied may change the consistency of the product,
which then becomes too thin. Accordingly, high-speed filling machines may be
unsuitable for products such as yogurt and custard.

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416 Packaging

The extent of contamination by bacteria during packaging is essential for the

keeping quality of the milk product. Relatively simple measures may yield sub-
stantial results, but strictly aseptic packaging is far more difficult to achieve. For
less durable products, contamination should be rigorously avoided if the product
is heated before being packaged. Accordingly, the packaging material should be
devoid of pathogenic microorganisms and contain few if any bacteria that can
grow during its storage. Satisfactory standards of hygiene during manufacture,
transport, and storage of the packaging material will prevent many problems,
because the materials involved are very poor substrates for microorganisms.
Moreover, high temperatures and little water are used during manufacture of
packaging materials.
Packages intended for repeated use (bottles) should be thoroughly cleaned
before filling, and after cleaning they should be examined to remove dirty and
damaged bottles. It is a known fact that consumers may put a milk bottle to other
uses or insert into it objects that may barely be removable. This involves a certain
danger but produces no appreciable health hazard. After cleaning, the package is
disinfected, for example, with a sodium hypochlorite solution of 10 ppm activated
chlorine if the milk product is not reheated. The bacterial count should not exceed
50 per bottle. If the product is heated after packaging, the packaging material
causes few or no bacteriological problems. A major point is that leakage of the
closure due to pressure differences occurring during cooling must be prevented.
In aseptic packaging of durable products, spoilage of fewer than 1 in 105
packages — and preferably less — may be considered acceptable. Pipes, storage
tank, and surfaces of the packaging machine come into contact with the sterilized
product and have to be sterilized. The same holds true for the packaging material.
Laminated paper has been shown to contain, say, 10 organisms per 100 cm2,
among which about 3% are spores. The inner surface of a 1-liter carton is about
800 cm2 and will thus on average be contaminated by about 2.5 spores. These
spores are the most heat resistant, and hence their number must be reduced to
less than 10−5 per package. Furthermore, the packages should be aseptically
closed; an atmosphere with overpressure and sterile air is usually applied.
Sterilization of the packaging material should not impair that material. Con-
sequently, steam or hot water heating often is not possible. In most cases, steril-
ization with a hot (60 to 80°C) and concentrated (20 to 35%) solution of H2O2
is applied. Hot air (>100°C) can readily remove residues of H2O2, and it provides
an additional sterilizing effect. H2O2 has an advantage over other liquid disinfec-
tants in that it causes no serious problems with respect to residues left in the
milk. Gaseous disinfectants such as ethylene oxide have a slow spore-killing
action and can only be applied if a long reaction time (several hours) is feasible.
Because suitable light sources have been developed, sterilization by UV irradia-
tion is becoming increasingly prevalent, especially for packaging materials and
machines that are less readily sterilized by H2O2. UV light of 200 to 280 nm
accounts for the sterilizing effect. If dust particles have become attached to the
packaging material, H2O2 will produce better effects due to its rinsing effect,

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15.3 Filling Operation 417

whereas UV irradiation will be less effective due to particle shade. Clean-room

techniques combined with irradiation are sometimes applied.
Aseptic packaging has to be meticulously checked. Not only must the pack-
aged product be examined, but so must all preceding steps, as well as the oper-
ators, which are potential carriers of pathogens. If just one bacterium reaches the
product, and that bacterium is pathogenic and can proliferate (for example,
Staphylococcus aureus), the result could be disastrous. In addition to regular
sampling during production, further samples should be taken at the times or in
situations known to be associated with an increased risk of contamination. It is
advisable to incubate these samples long enough, in most cases from 5 to 7 days
at 30°C to allow sublethally damaged bacteria also to grow to detectable counts.
The products should only be delivered if the result of the shelf-life test is
satisfactory.

Suggested Literature
A general overview of the packaging of foods: G.L. Robertson, Food Packaging: Principles
and Practice, Dekker, New York, 1993, which also has a chapter on milk products.
The packaging of dairy products: Technical Guide for the Packaging of Milk and Milk
Products, IDF Document 143, 1982.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC