CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research overview

According to WHO (2020) antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health and

development threat. The antimicrobial properties of the crude extract of Andrographis
paniculata leaves have been studied by various researchers and found to be highly
effective (0.A. Adeleye, 2019. This project is to do an analysis of antimicrobial activity
from Andrographis paniculata leaves. According to Bahman Khameneh (2019),
phytochemicals have exhibited potent activities while many researchers have used
natural products to act against microbial resistance. Andrographis paniculata Wall
(family Acanthaceae) is a popular medicinal plant that has been used for centuries in
Asia, America, and Africa to treat a variety of diseases including cancer, diabetes, high
blood pressure, ulcer, leprosy, bronchitis, skin diseases, flatulence, colic, influenza,
dysentery, dyspepsia, and malaria. Leaf extraction and the compound of Andrographis
paniculata such as flavoid and phenolic have been reported that has function as anti-
microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-diabetic and other. (Okhuarobo, 2014). In
the proposed study, quality control studies will be conducted on the plant material and
extract. This will be followed by the screening of phytochemicals in the leaves extracts
and evaluation of anti-bacterial activity of Andrographis paniculata leaves extracts
against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria using Minimum Inhibitory
Concentration Assay (MIC).

1.2 Problem statement

Infection is an invasion and growth of germs in the body. The germs may be bacteria,
viruses, yeast, fungi, or other microorganisms. Infections can begin anywhere in the
body and may spread all through it. An infection can cause fever and other health
problems, depending on where it occurs in the body. The microorganism uses that
person’s body to sustain itself, reproduce, and colonize. These infectious microscopic
organisms are known as pathogens, and they can multiply quickly. They can spread in
several different ways, including skin contact ingesting, contaminated food or water
inhaling airborne particles or droplets. A sore throat, which cause from infection, is pain,
scratchiness or irritation of the throat that often worsens when you swallow. The most
common cause of a sore throat (pharyngitis) is a viral infection, such as a cold or the flu.
A sore throat caused by a virus resolves on its own. The sore throat problem can be
caused by viral infection and bacterial infection. That is why sore throat problem is
difficult to identify the causes and mostly patients would mistakenly take medication to
treat infection and that would cause antimicrobial resistance. These would make sore
throat problem more worsen.

Bacteria can enter any part of the human body. Bacterial infections are caused by the
spread of bacteria on or in the body. When bacteria enter our bodies, the infection
begins to multiply. These infections usually trigger a protective immune response. If a
bacterial infection remains untreated, it carries the potential of a major health problem.
The most prevalent bacteria are Salmonella, Escherichia coli, bacterial pneumonia
including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, and others. (Kristina Duda, 2020).

Antimicrobial Resistance, which is AMR, occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines. It will make the
infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and
death. The emergence and spread of drug-resistant pathogens that have acquired new
resistance mechanisms, leading to antimicrobial resistance, continues to threaten our
ability to treat common infections. Especially alarming is the rapid global spread of
multi- and pan-resistant bacteria also known as “superbugs” that cause infections that
are not treatable with existing antimicrobial medicines such as antibiotics. In 2019 WHO
identified 32 antibiotics in clinical development that address the WHO list of priority
pathogens, of which only six were classified as innovative. Furthermore, a lack of
access to quality antimicrobials remains a major issue. Therefore, treating a sore throat
using natural ingredients can reduce this problem. it has been proven that plants like
Andrographis paniculata can treat infections.
1.3 Significant of study

Traditional medicinal plants have grown greatly from the use of herbal products as
natural cosmetics and for self-medication by the people to the research -based
investigations of plants of their antimicrobial effects against human pathogens in human
beings. In traditional medicine, Andrographis paniculata is widely used to get rid of body
heat, dispel toxins from the body, prevent common cold, upper respiratory tract
infections including sinusitis and fever and as antidote against poisons of snakes and
insects. (Eka Idorenyin,2020) Antimicrobial is used to describe substances which
demonstrate the ability to reduce the presence of microbes, such as bacteria and
mould. There are many types of antimicrobials such as disinfectants, antibiotics, and of
course antimicrobial additives. (CDC, 2021).

Sore throat is contagious and can be transmitted from one person to another. Due to
the difficulties to distinguish the sore throat is cause of bacteria or viral infections,
prevention it from spread that can increase the patient safety and the prevention of the
overprescribed of antibiotic. Even the synthetic antibiotic agent has been already
approved in many countries, the use of natural compounds that has been use by
indigenous people especially in rural communities attract interest many of research.
(Eka Idorenyin Idorenyin, 2020).

This research intends to validate the significance of data for antimicrobial therapy in the
development of natural alternatives that can achieve quality, safety, and efficacy
requirements. As a result, this might be helpful to minimize the spread of infection to
older people who typically smoke, children, people with allergic reactions, and
individuals with diseases such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). (Carissa
Stephens, 2020) Consequently, serious complications are managed to reduce.
Therefore, this study will therefore examine the antimicrobial properties of Andrographis
paniculata and its effect on selected human pathogens, attempted to provide significant
data to develop natural alternatives to anti-microbial therapy that has proven quality,
safety and efficacy might reduce risk to infection for elders, infants, people with weak
immune response and people with chronic illnesses. (CDC, 2021)

1.4 Objectives
1. To evaluate the macroscopical, microscopical and physicochemical properties of
Andrographis paniculata leaves and powder using quality control assessment.
2. To determine the presence of phytochemical constituents in Andrographis
paniculata leaves extract that causing the anti-microbial activity by qualitatively
and quantitatively.
3. To evaluate the anti-microbial activity of Andrographis paniculata leaves extract
using Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Assay.

1.5 Scope of Study

In this study, the raw material will be Andrographis paniculata leaves obtained from two
different local suppliers. The raw material and water extracts of Andrographis paniculata
leaves will be tested for quality control. Only the following parameters will be used to
assess the quality of Andrographis paniculata leaves and powder: macroscopic and
microscopic examination, organoleptic and physicochemical qualities, which would
include foreign matter analysis, loss on drying, and ash values.

The presence of phytochemical compounds such as alkaloid, flavonoid, terpenoid,

glycoside, saponin, and tannin will be evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively in
Andrographis paniculata leaves powder. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Assay
on leaf extracts against Listeria monocytogens Escherichia coli, Salmonella
Typhimurium, Streptococcus pneumonia, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Staphylococcus
Aureus will be used to investigate anti-microbial activity of Andrographis paniculata
leaves powder. As a result, the research of anti-microbial qualities can be utilized as a
reference to develop a sore throat lozenge.