1

Name – Sutanwi Modak

UG-3, Semester -5
Roll no: 54
Registration no: 20106270054
Paper code: HIST-DSE 1E
Department of History
Presidency University

TOPIC:
Traces of Jewish Interaction in Medieval India: A unique Story of
Jewish Sufi-Saint Sarmad
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Introduction: Jews in Medieval India

No doubt, the medieval period of India is much debated. The sixteenth century marks the rise of

Mughal Dynasty in India. As well as the rise of Safavid Dynasty with the introduction of Shi’ah

Islam as a state religion in Persia in 1502 A. D. and the arrival of Portuguese merchant in India

coast and their colonization had far-reaching effect upon the life and history of the Jewish

communities1. To know the History of Mughal dynasty we have “Tremendous wealth of

Sources”, however the Jewish historical sources are scanty. It would require collective and co-

operative effort of various scholars to pursue Jewish historical research in India.

The uniqueness of Akbar’s religious personality is not unknown to us. Being a great patron of all

religions he built an interreligious policy through which he built a bridge of understanding

between his subjects of various religions. According to the contemporary Mughal Persian

sources, Jews learned men were actively participated in the matter of religious disputations at

“Ibadat-Khana” in Fatehpur-Sikri. Contemporary famous Persian court historian Abul Fazal

clearly stated that, “……. not only Sufis, Sunnis, Shiahs, Brahmans………but Jews, participated

in this ‘Parliament of Religion’.”2 In “Dabistan”, David Shea and Anthony Troyer traced

significant Jewish influence in the contemporary Mughal court3. Not only in the court of Akbar

but also in the time of his predecessors we find traces of Jews. Many of them also worked as

writers and translators in imperial “kitab-kahana”.

Jews from Persia, Khorasan, Afghanistan, and China looked India as a new “Haven” where they

can enjoy great religious freedom as well as great economic opportunity. So they migrated and
1
Walter J. Fischel, “Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India,” Proceedings of the
American Academy for Jewish Research 18 (1948): 137, https://doi.org/10.2307/3622197.
2
Abu L-Fadl Allami, The Ain I Akbari (Frankfurt Am Main: Institute For The History Of Arabic-Islamic Science,
1993).
3
Mir Dul’fiquar, The Dabistan or School of Manners, trans. David Shea and Anthony Troyer, vol. 3 (1843; repr.,
Paris: Hesperides Press, 2006), 76–77.
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took shelter in various places of contemporary India under the Mughal patronage. Learned Jews-

mainly scholars, poets, painters and theologians grabbed the opportunity to join the Mughal

court. However, most of the contemporary Jews were mainly merchants and jewelers4.

Jewish mercantile activities from 16th century also deserve attention. Contemporary sources trace

the presence of Jews in different parts of India especially in the port towns. Dutch East India

Company’s reports are one of the best resources to trace the history of Jewish merchants in India.

Goa, Cochin, Malabar Ahmadabad, Surat and Lahore were the important places where Jewish

merchants set their foot5.

Tracing out the unique life of Sarmad:

“O Sarmad, expect not love from the people of this world

A tree without foliage is no shelter against the sun.

Honour lies with contentment and disagrees with greed

Live with honour and seek not to live in disagree.”

- Sarmad6

While in India the Jewish-Indian encounter is not a much concerning topic among the scholars

and historians a Jewish personality of 17th century Muhammad Sa’id commonly known by his

4
Fischel,“Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India,”155.
5
Ishrat Alam, “JEWISH MERCHANTS in the MUGHAL EMPIRE,” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress
65 (2004): 267–76, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44144741.
6
Fazl Mahmud Asiri, ed., The Rubaiyat of Sarmad, ed. and trans. Fazl Mahmud Asiri (Visva-Bharati, 1998), 1.
 4

pen-name “Sarmad”, literary means ‘eternal’ or ‘everlasting’ was a dynamic and popular saint in

India7. According to Historian Sir Jadunath Sarkar the name “Sarmad” means ‘chief’8. In the

present day, his shrine stands in the middle of Delhi, near the magnificent Jama Mosque where

thousands of devotees of all religions gather to offer honour to Sarmad.

Early Life

Due to scanty of resources it is very difficult task to sketch Sarmad’s early life. According to

sources, he was born in the early 17th century though some scholars opined that he was born in

1590. His was born in Kashan which was a remarkable seat of a Jewish Community in Persia.

However, many scholars also opined that he was an Armenian from Iran and according to few

others he was a “Ferengee”, having his ancestors in Europe9. He was a descendant of a family of

Rabbis and he himself was a great patron of learning and had mastered the Hebrew language and

rabbinical literature. It is also assumed that, besides the Jewish scriptures he also studied Torah,

New Testament and books upon Islamic theology and science. Though few other scholars also

debated that he was born to a prosperous Jewish merchant family in Persia and when he grew

older he joined to the family profession10. There is no evidence to show that he was married and

had children. According to the majority of scholars Sarmad was converted to Islam when he

grew up, but few also stated that he became a mystic whose teachings were not confined to any

single doctrine or school of belief11.

7
Issac A. Ezekiel, Sarmad Martyr of Love Divine, Internet Archive, 5th ed. (1966; repr., Radha Soami Satsang Beas,
2005), 3–4, https://archive.org/details/hbRb_sarmad-martyr-of-love-divine-issac-e-ezekiel-radhasoami-satsang-beas.
8
Lakhpat Rai, Sarmad, His Life and Rubāīs (Gorakhpor: Hanumanprasad Poddar Smarak Samiti, 1978), 13–14.
9
Natalia Prigarina, “Ghalib and Sarmad,” Indian Literature 46, no. 5 (211) (2002): 154–76,
https://www.jstor.org/stable/23344411.
10
Fischel,“Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India,”160.
11
Issac A. Ezekiel, Sarmad Martyr of Love Divine,5.
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Coming to India : love that changed his life

Sarmad conducted trade between Persia and India, exporting expensive goods12 like Persian rugs,

dry fruits, precious stones, Indian gold and silver wares, cotton and silk textiles and copper and

Brass works throughout the Middle East. The date of his coming to India is much debatable.

Approximately during the first half of 1630s (1631/1632/1634) Sarmad set foot in India at Thatta

in Sind. According to the sources, after his arrival to the port, Sarmad met a young Hindu boy

named Abhai Chand, who was the son of the contemporary feudal ruler of Sind and Sarmad was

fascinated by the “exceptional beauty” of Abhai. But this was not ordinary love but a divine love

indeed which gradually transformed Sarmad’s personality13. Dr. M. G. Gupta quoted in his

treatise “Sarmad the Saint” – “Sarmad in loving Abhai was only carrying forward the tradition

that prevalent among Sufi-saints and poets. I. A. Ezekiel compared Sarmad’s alleged

“infatuation” for Abhai Chand with the intense love of Tulsidas (the author of Ramayana) for his

wife which later transformed to spiritual love. It is stated in Dabistan that, “when Sarmad arrived

at the town, he fell in love with a Hindu boy, called Abhi Chand and abandoning all other things

like a “Sanyasi”(priest), naked as he came from his mother, sat down before the door of his

beloved.” We also found significant mention of Sarmad’s “infatuation” for Abhai Chand in the

works of Maulana Azad and Sauiyad Rizvi’s “A History of Sufism in India”. However, the

father of Abhai Chand decided to break their connection and sent Abhai Chand out of the town.

The separation shocked Sarmad to such an extent that he gave away all of his possessions, even

took of his clothes and according to the sources never covered himself since then. Moved by the

12
Natalia Prigarnia, “SARMAD: LIFE and DEATH of a SUFI,” Docslib, accessed November 20, 2022,
https://docslib.org/doc/8999062/natalia-prigarina-sarmad-life-and-death-of-a-sufi.
13
Lakhpat Rai, Sarmad, His Life and Rubāīs (Gorakhpor: Hanumanprasad Poddar Smarak Samiti, 1978), 23.
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sufferings of Sarmad, the king of Sind finally accepted their friendship. Abhai became Sarmad’s

“devoted disciple” and “inseparable companion”14.

According to scholars he moved to Lahore from Thatta but for how long he lived there, that is

not known. In 1647 he moved from Thatta to Hyderabad and in 1654 he went to Delhi, which

was the capital of contemporary Mughal emperor Shah Jahan15. According to legends, during this

particular period of his moving here and there, Sarmad along with Abhai Chand wandered

through Forests, Mountains to find the true path leading to god and in search of the god he

mastered in Bhagavad Gita, the Upanisads and Quran. In the capital, Delhi, Sarmad’s reputation

for his devotion and wisdom reached to Price Dara Shikoh and Sarmad became a regular guest to

the palace. According to Dara Shikoh, Sarmad was his “mentor, guide, friend and

philosopher”16. It is said that, only for his visit to the palace, Sarmad agreed to conceal his

nudity. Besides Sarmad actively participated in discussions concerning religious matters and due

to his vast knowledge in Judaism, Islam and Hinduism he became the central attraction among

Dara Shikoh’s companions. Sarmad could also predict the course of events and his several

predictions came true. According to several legends Sarmad was also able to perform magic.

Sarmad gradually became popular in Delhi.

Religious Identity of Saramd- a Jew, Muslim, Hindu Yogi, Atheist or Mystic

14
Issac A. Ezekiel, Sarmad Martyr of Love Divine,6.
15
Fischel,“Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India,”161.
16
Natalia Prigarina, “Ghalib and Sarmad,”164.
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Sarmad’s religious identity is not too easy to establish. It is a topic of continuous debate among

scholars. According to Sarmad’s first biography written by Iranian scholar Tahir Nasrabadi,

Sarmad was “a Jew who later converted to Islam”. According to Mu'bid Shah's “Dabistan-i-

Mazahib” Sarmad was originally from a family of learned Yahuds (Jews) however after an

investigation into the faith of the Rabbins and the perusal of the Mosaic books, he converted

himself to Islam. B. A. Hashimi clearly put evidences of Sarmad’s Muslim identity. Lakhpat Rai

further confirmed Sarmad’s conversion to Islam. On the other hand, According to Maulvani

Abdul Wali, Walter J. Fischel, and others, Sarmad remained a “Jew” despite his “spiritual

peregrinations” around India.

"He had neither any faith in Christianity or in Islam. Once a Jew, always a Jew”17.

According to Fischel, after coming in India, in search for knowledge and wisdom, Sarmad came

into contact with leading Mohammedan scholars of the contemporary period, under whose

guidance he studied Islamic philosophy, metaphysics and science, and therefore under their

influence he was apparently induced to become a Muslim. However, His conversion was

probably only nominal and superficial, since he himself later warned the Jews not to convert

themselves to Islam. A few scholar insisted that Sarmad was neither a “Muslim” nor a “Jew”, but

an “Atheist”. According to Dr. Niccolo Manucci of Venice(the court-physician of Aurangzeb

and a contemporary to Sarmad), Prince Dara Shikoh never confined himself to any particular

religion as he praised all religion and he had a great delight in talking to Sarmad, who was

exactly like him. It is also noted that, in his Rubbai’s Sarmad clearly stated that he was neither a

Jew nor a Muslim. But he never denied himself of being Hindu at the same time.

17
Maulavi 'Abdu'l Wali,"A Sketch of the Life of Sarmad," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1924), 121.
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According to few scholars, Sarmad was a great patron of Hinduism. In his many Rubai’s Sarmad

repeatedly stated that, Lord Rama was presented himself before him disguising as his beloved

Abhai Chand. Besides, he had a great knowledge of Upanishads, Vedas and various Sanskrit

scriptures and he is still worshipped by Radhasoami Sat-sang18.

The most recent views include the works of Isaac A. Ezekiel and M. G. Gupta. According to

them, Sarmad was a Mystic or Sufi and that Mystics and Sufis are often misunderstood as

belonging to one another religion, or as an atheist19. According to Leeming, in the present day,

Sarmad is known to most Indians as a Muslim saint as his spiritual teachings were adaptations

from various Muslim saints however he did not teach orthodox believes20. Sarmad's rejection of

social constraints (clothes to hide nakedness) was one of the greatest evident for being a Sufi

who ignored all the earthly connections to achieve the love of his beloved21.

But the complex issues regarding Sarmad’s religious identity rest upon his “mysticism” itself.

Weather he believed in God or not – it is also debatable. As according to the Rubbai’s of

Sarmad, he could portray Lord Rama in his beloved and the same person declared in the

Aurangzeb’s court that “La ‘ilaha”- there is no god22. And somewhere in the midst of the debate

we encounter Sarmad as a patron of all religion, who wandered from synagogue to mosque to

temple, claimed by each group as one of their own. No doubt, he was one of those greatest

personalities who overcame the tributaries of religion.

Tragic Death
18
Jonathan Gil Harris, “A Jewish Sufi Yogi - Tales of Confluence in India,” www.youtube.com (The Museum of
Art & Photography (MAP), September 14, 2020), https://youtu.be/GwlbyWOjE_8.
19
Nathan Katz, “THE IDENTITY of a MYSTIC: THE CASE of SA’ID SARMAD, a JEWISH-YOGI-SUFI
COURTIER of the MUGHALS,” Numen 47, no. 2 (2000): 142–60, https://doi.org/10.1163/156852700511478.
20
Leeming, "Foreword" to Ezekiel, Sarmad: Jewish Saint of India, VII
21
RAKSHAT PURI and Kuldip Akhtar, “Sarmad, the Naked Faqir,” India International Centre Quarterly 20, no. 3
(1993): 65–78, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23003972.
22
Rakshat Puri and Kuldip Akhtar, “Sarmad, the Naked Faqir,”66.
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Though his life story was full of contradictions, scholars are united to the point that Sarmad was

given death sentence by Aurangzeb. However, again they are not unanimous to the point that

what the real motive behind the execution of Sarmad is. The first reason might be that Sarmad

was very close to Aurangzeb’s opponent Dara Shikoh who was being Shah Jahan’s favourite

son, was the claimant or heir-apparent of the throne. According to the Persian sources, during the

“civil war” between Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh Sarmad predicted Dara would become the

emperor. However, the prediction was proven wrong.

Legends stated that, Sarmad was sentenced to death on account of his nakedness. But sources

also stated that, according to the Islamic law (Shariat), nakedness is not a sufficient reason to

order death penalty to anyone23. So Aurangzeb decided to fell Sarmad in a trap and before the

council of emperor he was asked to pronounce the Islamic creed and he only said that “there is

no God” and omitted “but Allah”24. Thus he was declared as a dangerous heretic and put to

death.

Sarmad’s Jewish origin also played a vital role in his execution. We have to remember that,

Aurangzeb was a practicing Orthodox Muslim and unlike his great ancestors who were

benevolent to all religions, Aurangzeb pointed non-Muslims as “Kafir” (infidel). So the growing

popularity of such a person was obviously not being tolerated by Aurangzeb.

The dramatic circumstance of Sarmad’s execution was held in the1661 A.D. according to the

sources, an unimaginable huge crowd had witnessed the execution and he was buried at the spot

of his execution.

Conclusion: Sarmad’s contributions

23
Rakshat Puri and Kuldip Akhtar, “Sarmad, the Naked Faqir,”65.
24
Fischel,“Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India,” 172-173.
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We cannot confine Sarmad’s contribution only to the religious aspect. Other than breaking the

barriers of religion Sarmad also establish a unique relation between two countries – Israel and

India. Before Sarmad, there are no traces of any Jew who arrive at India as a merchant and

highly affected by circumstances and gradually adopting Indian culture became a Sufi-saint.

Undoubtedly, the story of his entire life is debatable as well as unique.

One cannot ignore Sarmad’s contribution and influence on Persian literature. Sarmad entered the

annals of Persian literature as a composer of ‘Persian-Sufic’ poetry, which is called “Rubaiyat”.

In India he was primarily very popular for his poetry works through which he always try to

establish the truth of life in simple words for common people. He had written more than 300

“Rubaiyat”s and after his death, those were collected and compiled by his disciples25. However,

many scholars criticized and doubted his works by saying that, those poetries were not “unique”

and were a medium of preaching Judaism to mass. Nevertheless, Sarmad’s Rubaiyat are well

known and popular even today.

Despite several criticism, contradiction and drawbacks, Sarmad deserves a significant place in

the Jewish accounts for a “distinctive” and “constructive” contribution26 which he had made to

the learning of his time by collaborating with the authors of the most outstanding works in

Persian language on comparative religion. He also spread his own knowledge of Judaism to his

Indian and Persian contemporaries. Thus we can notice an intermingling state of religious studies

and ideas in his contemporary period. His translated scholarly works eliminated the barriers of

language too. The Jewish factor which came to India along with Sarmad continued to work

through various channels and made itself felt in India thought and theology.

25
Bankey Behari, Sufis, Mystics and Yogis of India, 1st ed.(Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhaban, 1991), 105–6.
26
Fischel,“Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India,”162.
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Bibliography

Alam, Ishrat. “JEWISH MERCHANTS in the MUGHAL EMPIRE.” Proceedings of the Indian
History Congress 65 (2004): 267–76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44144741.

Asiri, Fazl Mahmud, ed. The Rubaiyat of Sarmad. Edited and translated by Fazl Mahmud Asiri.
Visva-Bharati, 1998.

Behari, Bankey. Sufis, Mystics and Yogis of India. 1st ed. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhaban,
1991.

Dul’fiquar, Mir. The Dabistan or School of Manners. Translated by David Shea and Anthony
Troyer. Vol. 3. 1843. Reprint, Paris: Hesperides Press, 2006.

Ezekiel, Issac A. Sarmad Martyr of Love Divine. Internet Archive. 5th ed. 1966. Reprint, Radha
Soami Satsang Beas, 2005. https://archive.org/details/hbRb_sarmad-martyr-of-love-
divine-issac-e-ezekiel-radhasoami-satsang-beas.

Fischel, Walter J. “Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India.”
Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 18 (1948): 137.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3622197.

Gupta, M. G. Sarmad the Saint: Life and Works, Revised Edition. The Open Library. MG
Publishers, 2000. https://openlibrary.org/books/OL13177527M/Sarmad_the_Saint.

Harris, Jonathan Gil. “A Jewish Sufi Yogi - Tales of Confluence in India.” www.youtube.com.
The Museum of Art & Photography (MAP), September 14, 2020.
https://youtu.be/GwlbyWOjE_8.
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———. “Jonathan Gil Harris on the Iconic Sufi Saint, Sarmad Kashani.” www.youtube.com.
Sarmaya Arts Foundation, April 27, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=uBjZDeJOaiI&t=129s.

Katz, Nathan. “THE IDENTITY of a MYSTIC: THE CASE of SA’ID SARMAD, a JEWISH-
YOGI-SUFI COURTIER of the MUGHALS.” Numen 47, no. 2 (2000): 142–60.
https://doi.org/10.1163/156852700511478.

Prigarina, Natalia. “Ghalib and Sarmad.” Indian Literature 46, no. 5 (211) (2002): 154–76.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/23344411.

Prigarnia, Natalia. “SARMAD: LIFE and DEATH of a SUFI.” Docslib. Accessed November 20,
2022. https://docslib.org/doc/8999062/natalia-prigarina-sarmad-life-and-death-of-a-sufi.

PURI, RAKSHAT, and Kuldip Akhtar. “Sarmad, the Naked Faqir.” India International Centre
Quarterly 20, no. 3 (1993): 65–78. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23003972.

Rai, Lakhpat. Sarmad, His Life and Rubāīs. Gorakhpor: Hanumanprasad Poddar Smarak Samiti,
1978.
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