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EDUCATION IS THE GREATEST EQUALISER
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Diploma in Junior Primary

Education
IOL
Numeracy and Mathematics 3
YEAR 3: SEMESTER 1
Study Guide revised and re-written by:
J. J. A. Basson
2015
Published by the Institute for Open Learning
Windhoek, Namibia
© Institute for Open Learning 2015
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or

transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise,
without prior permission from publishers.
Date of next revision of syllabus: 2018
Institute for Open Learning

Windhoek
Telephone: +264 61 275 4700

E-mail: info@iol.na
Website: www.iol.na
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I Word of welcome
II How to use this module
III Time required
IV Exit learning outcomes
V Study support available
VI Module assessment policy
VII Verbs’ thinking processes
VIII Prescribed textbooks
IX References in IOL centres
X Plagiarism
XI Icons used in this study guide
I. Word of welcome
You are heartily welcomed at IOL and in this course in Numeracy and Mathematics.
We trust that the time that you will spend on this course will be worth your while and
that you will eventually become much more professional in your approach to and
teaching of Mathematics.
J J A Basson
II. How to use this module
This module is divided into eight units which slowly but logically introduce you to the
relevant aspects of Mathematics for this course. The first unit deals with important
concepts with regard to writing numbers in standard form and direct and indirect
proportion. From unit two to unit eight we deal with the concepts, principles and
operations of personal income and expenditure, volume and surface area of
cuboids and cylinders, the features of geometry, algebraic fractions, functions and
the Cartesian coordinate system of axes, statistics and probability, and
trigonometry for right-angled triangles.
Each unit consists of a table of contents and an introduction provides an overview

of the unit. Your attention is then gained and focused by means of the objectives.
The activities are then provided. The answers to these activities are found in the
text of each unit and are aimed at creating interest and critical thinking skills with
regard to the content. During that time it is important to reflect about the content
but also to try and relate it to the specific context that each student finds
himself/herself in at that stage. At the end of the module the answers to the
activities are posted, but you have to read the prescribed and additional literature to
get comprehensive answers to the questions posted in the activities. Content
discussed in the module is explained in more detail in this literature. You are also
encouraged to read other sources such as newspapers, journals and Ministry of
Education reports and relate the reality with the theory that is discussed in the
module.
Please enjoy this module and good luck with the assessment through assignments
and examination that is part and parcel of your studies! Perseverance is the hard
work you do after you get tired of doing the hard work you already did!
III. Time required

The module carries 8 credits which will take roughly 80 study hours. Commit
yourself to work consistently through the module and to hand in your assignments
on time.
IV. Exit learning outcomes

Upon completion of this module you should be able to:
 explain and do calculations with numbers
 calculate personal income and expenditure
 apply the concept of volume and surface area of cuboids and cylinders
 apply features of geometry
 perform operations with algebraic fractions
 draw and interpret function graphs on the Cartesian coordinate system of
axes
 apply features of statistics and probability
 use trigonometry to solve problems involving right-angled triangles
V. Study support available

The prescribed materials have been provided to you. It is essential that you will
devote sufficient time to these sources to ensure that you have good knowledge of
what they are about and how to use them to facilitate the learning of the subject
material. Please ensure that you spend enough time reading the prescribed
materials and to follow the instructions carefully so as to ensure that you do not
waste unnecessary time and effort.
 You have received all the materials needed to successfully complete the
module.
 Take time to first acquaint yourself with the content of the module by reading
through the material carefully.
 Read the assignment carefully so that you will know what is required of you.
 Read the expected learning outcomes.
 The learning outcomes are there as a guide so that you will know what is
expected of you to know or to be able to do at the end of each unit and what
the competencies are that you are expected to master.
 When you are sure that you know what you have to do you should plan your
time so that you have enough time to do everything that you are expected to
do and still have time to do revision.
 You are strongly advised to ensure that you complete ALL the exercises
given and not to cheat on the learning activities. First complete it on your
own and then use the answers provided to mark your answers. Ensure that
you follow all the guidelines given.
 Note that reference to the prescribed books will be made by the author
throughout the module.
 Other support activities involve face-to-face sessions, IOL resource centres,
and feedback on assignments
VI. Module assessment policy

One assignment of 100 marks must be submitted for this module.
A pass mark of 50% is required in this assignment to get admission to the
examination.
The examination question paper will have the same format as the assignment. It
will count for 100 marks and have a 2-hour duration.
A final pass mark of 50% is required (60% of the written examination PLUS 40% of
the assignment mark). A sub-minimum of 50% must be obtained in the
examination.
VII. Verbs’ thinking processes

The following Table of verbs, used in the assignment and the examination, provides
examples of the thinking involved in each verb:
VERB MEANING / THINKING REQUIRED
1
List/Name/Write  Write down the items without any description.
down (e.g. Write down the 5th term of the sequence).
2
Calculate/Determine  A numerical answer from given figures or information is required.
The process or method leading to the answer must be shown.
3
Measure and write  Use your ruler to determine the measurement and write it down.
down
4
Find  Do some computation
5
State and give a  Write down only what is asked (no explanation) and give a
reason reason.
6  Write as equal quantities (e.g. X = Y).

Equate
7  Replace one quantity by another.

Substitute
8  Sit passively and listen - do not talk back.

Listen
9  Write over word-for-word.

Copy
10  Commit to memory so that you can recall it without effort.

Memorize
11
Represent the  Use the information and draw a graph on two axes.
information in a Graph
12  Only write down the similarities and the differences between two
Compare things. Draw a conclusion about the similarities and differences,
emphasising similarities. A description of one phenomenon after
the other is not a comparison.
13  Comment on something in your own words. This often requires

Discuss debating two possibilities or viewpoints.
14  Describe something and give reasons (the why) and examples (the
Explain how) of features. Giving Examples show that you understand
something.
15  Write out the arguments that you use in your solution with a
Prove reason for each statement that you make.
16  Use your pencil and ruler and/or compass and/or protractor to draw
Construct the required figure and show all the construction lines.
(Geometry)
17  Say what you think is going to happen on the basis of available

Predict information. Give reasons for your thoughts.
18  Decide on a particular method and then write out a proof for your
Solve solution.
19  Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/

Analyse components/ patterns or relationships. Show why they are
important and how components are related and what theories they
reflect.
20  Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of

Estimate dimensions; the impact of something or the numerical calculation of
something.
21  Describe something, explain the meaning, significance or impact of

Interpret it or explain the meaning of graphic information.
22  Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law, principle or

Deduce context, to come to a conclusion after reasoning about it.
23  Systematically seek and bring together.

Collect
24  Give an orderly structure to.

Organize
(Adapted from: Study Methods, UCT; Quia verb definitions, 2004; CUE action verbs,
2004; Definitions of behavioural verbs, 2004).
If you look carefully at the meanings of the different verbs, you will realise that there
is a difference between the first 10 (up to memorize) on the list and the rest. While
the first 10 verbs require thinking on a Lower Level (Levels 1 and 2), the last
14 verbs (from 11 to 24) require thinking on a higher level (Level 3).
Thinking on a lower level mainly involves recall, i.e. knowledge that has been
committed to memory must be brought back. And this is necessary because in
everyday life you encounter situations where you just have to recall information from
memory to function normally. Thinking on a higher level, on the other hand, means
that the learners must be actively involved with the concepts and ideas in the
problem. This process takes time and involves effort: learners have to reason
(because this is so, then that has to follow OR because that is so then this cannot
be) and try to figure out what is meant. In short, they must make sense of what
they are dealing with.
Mark schemes should also be in accordance with the level of thinking /
difficulty required by the verb, e.g. the answer to a ‘discuss question of 12
marks’ should be allocated marks for the facts (e.g. 7) and marks for the
discussion (e.g. 5). Marks for the higher level verbs can be from 20% to 50%,
depending on the grade of the learners.
VIII. Prescribed textbooks
1. Courney-Clarke M. and Coulson, M. 2008. Maths for life. Grade 10

Learners’ Book. MacMillan. ISBN 978999 16-2-407-5
3. This study guide
4. Further support is face-to-face sessions, IOL centres with reference books,
and feedback on assignments.
IX. References in IOL centres
Charlesworth, R. 2012. 6th edition. Experiences in Math for young children.

Wadsworth/Cengage: USA. ISBN 13 978 1 111 35579 1
Suffolk, J. 2004. Teaching Primary Mathematics. MacMillan: Malaysia.

ISBN 139781111355791
Van de Walle, J.A., Karp, K.S., Bay-Williams, J.M. 7th edition. Elementary &
Middle School Mathematics. Allyn & Bacon. Cape Town.ISBN-13: 978-0-
205-69005-3
You can also visit the IOL centre where applicable and ask for help and
support with regard to extra information to be used in the preparation of
assignments and examinations.
X. Plagiarism
Copying text from other students or from other sources (for instance the study
guide, prescribed material or directly from the internet) is not allowed only brief
quotations are allowed and then only if indicated as such.
You should reformulate existing text and use your own words to explain what you
have read. It is not acceptable to retype existing text and just acknowledge the
source in a footnote or in the bibliography – you should be able to relate the idea or
concept, without repeating the original author to the letter.
The aim of assignments is not the reproduction of existing material, but to ascertain
whether you have the ability to integrate existing texts, add your own interpretation
and/or critique to the texts and offer a creative solution to existing problems.
Assignments are individual tasks and not group activities (unless explicitly indicated
as group activities)
Be warned: students who submit copied text will obtain a mark of zero for the
assignment and disciplinary steps may be taken by IOL. It is also
unacceptable to do somebody else’s work, to lend your work to them or to
make your work available to them to copy – be careful and do not make your
work available to anyone!
XI. Icons used in this study guide
This icon indicates the minimum time required for the study unit.
This is an indication of the estimated time it will take to finish the
unit. Please note that the time estimated is never precise as your
working time may either be faster or slower than that which was
estimated. Try not to take too much longer than the estimated
time, though.
This icon indicates learning activities that you must do. Use a
separate exercise book for this purpose and use it throughout the
year - especially also when you start doing revision for the
examination.
This icon indicates the learning outcomes for a specific unit.
This icon indicates feedback on learning activities. Feedback tells

you what you should have done in the activity, or what is done in
the activity, or where you can find more information on the activity.
You are encouraged to read many different books and magazines

about child education to find out more with regard to Mathematics
in Primary Education.
STUDY UNIT 1: CALCULATIONS WITH NUMBERS IN STANDARD
FORM AND DIRECT AND INDIRECT
PROPORTION
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
1.1 How to represent numbers in standard form

1.1.1 What is meant by “standard form”?
1.1.2 How to use the calculator to convert numbers in standard form to
ordinary numbers
1.2 Direct and indirect proportion

1.2.1 The difference between a ratio and a proportion
1.2.2 The difference between direct and indirect (inverse) proportion
1.2.3 Direct and indirect proportion problems in everyday life
1.3 Summary
Feedback on learning activities
Introduction
In this unit we deal with numbers in standard form and direct and indirect
proportion.
Standard form is a way of writing very large or very small numbers easily. This
way of representing numbers is necessary for our learners because when they do
calculations with very large or very small numbers, they must have a way of making
working with such numbers manageable.
Proportional reasoning follows next and the idea is to develop an understanding of

multiplicative relationships between quantities. To help in this development we
lead learners to an intuitive understanding of the concepts of ratio and proportion.
Readings

Learners’
Book.
2 This study guide
Learning outcomes
After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:
 write large and small numbers in standard form
 differentiate between direct and indirect proportion
 solve problems involving direct and indirect proportion
Learning activities
Learning activity 1: Write ordinary numbers in standard form and vice versa.
Learning activity 2: Use a calculator to represent numbers in standard form.
Learning activity 3: Calculate and simplify ratios
Learning activity 4: Solve problems involving direct and indirect proportions
Learning activity 5: Further problems on direct and indirect proportions
1.1 How to represent (write) numbers in standard form
Specific objective for this section
In this section you will learn how to

 write numbers in standard form
 use your calculator to convert numbers in standard form to ordinary
numbers
1.1.1 What is meant by “standard form?”
Standard form is a way of writing very large or very small numbers
easily.
 Very large numbers: Let’s use the number 3 000.
We know that 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1 000.

So, 3 × 103 = 3,0 × 1 000 = 3 000
We see that the large number 3 000 can easily be written as 3,0 ×
103 .
What have we really done?
Steps: Explanation:
1 We have reduced the number 3 000 to 3, a 1 Move the decimal comma in 3 000
number between 1 and 10. three places to the left to get 3.
2 But to get back the original number of 3 2 3 000 = 3,0 × 103

000, we must multiply the 3 by 103 (the index is equal to the number of
places that we have moved the
decimal comma to the left).
Example 1: Large numbers

Write 5 120 000 000 in standard form.
Solution: 5 120 000 000 = 5,12 × 109

[The index is positive (+9) because the decimal comma has been
moved 9 places to the right to get the number 5,12 back to 5 120 000
000]
 Very small numbers:
Example 2: Small numbers

Write 0,000 001 3 in standard form.
Solution: 0,000 001 3 = 1,3 × 10‒6

[The index is negative (̶ 6) because the decimal comma has been
moved 6 places to the left to get the number 1,3 back to 0,000 001,3]
We can formulate a rule to write numbers in standard form:
To write a number in standard form we use the form A × 𝟏𝟎𝒏 , where

A is a number between 1 and 10 (1≤A<10) and n is an integer.
Learning activity 1
1 Write each of the following numbers in standard form:

(a) 502 (b) 9 419 000 (c) 65 (d) 706 70
2 Write each of the following numbers in standard form:

(a) 0,0562 (b) 0,02 (c) 0,0000076 (d) 0,097854
3 Write each of the following numbers as ordinary numbers:

(a) 6,72 × 102 (b) 5,123 × 104 (c) 5,6 × 101 (d) 5,6 × 103
(e) 3,56 × 10‒1 (f) 76,342 × 10‒3 (g) 1 × 10‒2 (h) 9 × 10‒4
Feedback on this learning activity is provided at the end of this module.
1.1.2 How to use the calculator to convert numbers in standard form

to ordinary numbers
On a calculator we can use one of two keys to enter numbers in

standard form: the EXP key or the 𝑦 𝑥 key.
We will now explain how to use each of these keys.
Using the EXP key:

1 Type in the number between 1 and 10
2 Press the [EXP] key
3 Type in the index for the power of 10.
Using the 𝒚𝒙 key

1 Type in the number between 1 and 10
2 Press the × key and then enter the number 10
3 Then press the 𝑦 𝑥 key and type in the index for the power of 10.
In both cases, if you press the = key, the calculator will give you the
ordinary number.
Example 1: Let’s use the number 2,7 × 103 .

(note: the number is written in standard form and we want to use the
calculator to get the ordinary number)
Method 1 – using the key EXP

1 Type in 2,7
2 Press the EXP key
3 Type in 3
The calculator display is 2,7 03 which is read as 2,7 × 103
If you now press the = key, you get the ordinary number 2 700, which
is the value of 2,7 × 103 .
Method 2 – using the key 𝒚𝒙

1 Type in 2,7
2 Press the × key and then enter the number 10
3 Then press the 𝑦 𝑥 key and type in the index 3
4 Then press the = key
The calculator display is 2 700.
NOTE: If the index is negative, you use the ± key after you have
entered the index.
For the number 2,7 × 10‒3, you would enter the following keys:
1 Type in 2,7
2 Press the EXP key
3 Type in 3
4 Type in the ± key
5 Press the = key
The calculator display is 0,0027, which is the ordinary value of

2,7 × 10‒3 .
Learning activity 2
Write down the calculator keys that you would use to write each of the following
numbers in ordinary form. In each case write down the full calculator display:
1. 8,199 × 103 [8,199][EXP][3][=] 8 199

2. 0,34 × 102 [0,34][EXP][2][=] 34
‒4
3. 9,08 × 10 [9,08][EXP][4][±][=] 0,00090 8
4. 567,98 × 10‒2 [567,98][EXP][2][±][=] 5,6798

1.2 Direct and indirect proportion
Specific objective for this section

 differentiate between a ratio and a proportion
 differentiate between direct and indirect (inverse) proportion
 use direct and indirect proportion to solve problems in everyday life
To understand proportion you have to have a good understanding of what

constitutes a ratio.
1.2.1 The difference between a ratio and a proportion
 A RATIO is a comparison of two numbers or quantities with

each other (examples of numbers are: 2, 7, 11, etc.; examples of quantities
are: 5 kg, 7 km, 2 minutes, etc.)
A ratio can be written in three different ways –

𝑎
a to b OR a:b OR 𝑏
where a and b can be any number or quantity.
Each expression is read as “the ratio of a to b”.
𝑎
(From the last ratio, 𝑏, we see that a ratio is the same as a fraction).
Examples of ratios:
2
 In a school the ratio of girls to boys is 2 : 3 (also: 3 or 2 to 3).
This ratio does not tell us how many girls and boys there are in the
school, it only tells us that for every 2 girls there are 3 boys.
We can also say that, if there are 500 children in the school, 200 of
them are girls while 300 of them are boys.
On the other hand, the ratio of boys to girls would be 3 : 2
 "N$ 10,25 per 1 litre" is a ratio. (1 ℓ of fuel costs N$ 10,25)

10,25
We can also write it as 1 or 10,25 : 1
 "40 kilometres per hour". (it takes 1 hour to travel 40 km)

40
Also written as 1 or 40:1
15
 “15 girls versus 14 boys” or 14 or 15:14
569
 “569 words in 2 minutes” or or 569 :2
2
Further examples of ratios
 To make pastry, I need twice as much

flour as butter. Express this as a Flour : butter = 2 : 1
ratio.
1
From the ratio above I see that I need
2
 If I use 110 g of flour, how much the amount of butter than flour. This
butter do I need? means 55 g of butter
 Write the values 110 g and 55 g as a 110 : 55 = 2 : 1

ratio equivalent to the ratio 2 : 1
NOTES:
 A ratio is always given in the simplest form.
 A ratio has no units.
 You can only multiply or divide ratios, NEVER add or subtract.
Example 1
A farmer has 45 chickens, 75 ducks and 105 birds.
Write down the ratio of chickens : ducks : birds
Solution
chickens : ducks : birds = 45 : 75 : 105
= 3 : 5 : 7 (simplest form)
Example 2
Write the following numbers as a ratio in its simplest form:
2,35 : 3,75 : 5,05
Solution
Make all the numbers whole numbers by multiplying by 1 00:
2,35 : 3,75 : 5,005 = 235 : 375 : 505
Now simplify: = 47 : 75 : 101 (divide by 5)
Example 3
1 1 3
Simplify the ratio 14 : 38 : 4
Solution
1 1 3 5 25 3
1 : 3 : = : : (write fractions as improper fractions)
4 8 4 4 8 4
(now multiply each improper fraction by the LCM of the denominators -

i.e. 8)
= 10 : 25 : 6 (ratio in simplest form)
Learning activity 3
1 Simplify the ratio N$ 35 : N$ 14

2 (a) Write down the ratio of unshaded triangles to shaded triangles
(b) Write the ratio in (a) as a fraction
3 Harry and his sister Anne share N$ 225 in the ratio 7 : 8. How much does each one
get?
4 Martin and Tom share a sum of money in the ratio 4 : 3. Martin’s share is
N$ 19,60. Exactly how much money did they have to share?
5 On a map 2 cm represents 1 km. If two villages are 8,4 cm apart on the map, what
is the actual distance between the two villages?
6 Janet goes shopping with N$ 68,60 in her purse. She buys a pair of socks. After
she has paid for the socks, she sees that the money in her purse has decreased in
the ratio 4 : 3. How much money does she still have in her purse?
 A PROPORTION is a statement that tells us that two ratios

are equal.
Example 1
So, one-third (one-out-of-three) is equal to two-sixths (two-out-of-

six)
The two ratios are equal, so they are proportional.
Example 2
The length and weight of a piece of rope.
If 10 m of rope weighs 2 kg, then 20 m of the same rope weighs 4 kg,

etc.
10 20
So, =
2 4
5
The two ratios are equal because both can be simplified to 1.
Example 3
When shapes are in proportion, their corresponding sizes are in
proportion.
Here we see that the ratio of head lengths to body lengths is the same
in the two pictures.
10 24
Ratio of head lengths = ;
Ratio of body lengths =
15 36
10 24
=
15 36
These ratios are equal because both ratios can be simplified to the
2
ratio 3.
 Using proportions to solve problems
Example
Six copies of a textbook cost N$ 325,20. Calculate the cost of eight
copies of the same textbook.
Solution:
Method 1: Use the price of 1 book to calculate the price of 8
books.
Price of 6 books = N$ 325,20
𝑁$ 325,20
Hence, price of 1 book = = N$ 54,20
6
Therefore, the price of 8 books = N$ 54,20 × 8 = N$ 433,60
Method 2: Use proportion.

6 8
=
325,20 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 8 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠
Now cross-multiply the numbers, numerator with denominator:
So, price of 8 books × 6 = N$ 325,20 × 8 = N$ 2601,60
𝑁$ 2 601,60
Therefore, price of 8 books = = N$ 433,60
6
The price of 8 books is N$ 433,60.
1.2.2 The difference between direct and indirect (inverse) proportion
 Direct proportion
Two amounts are in direct proportion when one amount
increases at the same rate that the second amount
increases.
Example 1: You are paid N$15 an hour for work that you do.
If you work for 1 hour, you get paid N$15, (1 × N$15);

If you work for 2 hours, you get paid N$30, (2 × N$15);
If you work for 3 hours, you get paid N$45, (3 × N$15), etc.
The more hours that you work, the more money you earn in direct
proportion.
This can be written as:
amount earned ∝ number of hours worked

(read as: “amount earned is directly proportionate to the number of
hours worked”).
The symbol, ∝, is used to indicate direct proportionality (do not

confuse this symbol with the symbol for infinity, ∞ ).
Example 2
In a small bowl of mixed fruit, there is 50 g of raisins and 90 g of nuts.
If, in a larger bowl, there is 85 g of raisins, what will be the mass of the
nuts?
Solution: Put the mass of nuts equal to x.

In the smaller bowl: raisins : nuts = 50 : 90
In the larger bowl: raisins : nuts = 85 : x
(note: raisins forms the first part of each ratio)
The two ratios are in direct proportion, so we can write

50 : 90 = 85 : x
We can rewrite the ratios as fractions to make the calculation easier:
50 85
This means that =
90 𝑥
If we cross-multiply,
we get 50x = 90 × 85
= 7 650
7650
so x = = 153
50
The mass of the nuts in the larger bowl is 153 g

Note: the examples that we used in the paragraph on proportion
are all examples of direct proportion.
 Indirect proportion
Two amounts are in indirect proportion when one amount
decreases at the same rate that the second amount
increases.
Calculations for indirect proportions differ slightly from those for direct
proportions.
Let us use an example to explain the difference:
Example:
If 1 person takes 12 days to complete a job, then 2 persons will take 6
days if they work at the same pace. Similarly, 3 persons will take 4
days, etc.
In a table, the information will look as follows:
x (persons) 1 2 4 8 12
y (days) 12 6 3 1 1
12
xy = k 12 12 12 12 12
If you multiply each pair of values, you get 12 each time.
This value is a constant (the proportionality constant), which we

indicate with the letter k.
In an indirect (inverse) proportion you will always have that xy =

k
We can write this equation in three different ways:
𝒌 𝒌
xy = k or x = or y =
𝒚 𝒙
Example If I travel at 60 km/h, I can get from home to my work in 12

minutes. How long will it take me if I travel at 80 km/h?
Solution:
Step 1: Determine what kind of proportion this is.
If I travel faster, I will take less time.
The quantities are, therefore, indirectly proportional.
Step 2: Determine the constant, k:

k = speed × time ……. (1)
= 60 × 12
= 720
Step 3: Use the constant k to determine the time taken at the higher
speed.
720
Time taken = ……. from equation (1)
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
720
=
80
= 9 minutes
So, the time taken at the higher speed is 9 minutes.
Learning activity 4
1 The two triangles below are in proportion - they are similar.
The value of b is
A 1,8 B 2,25 C 1,8 D 2,4
2 To make 12 bread rolls, you need the amounts of ingredients shown below:
240 g of flour 75 mℓ of milk

48 g of sultanas 24 g of sugar
60 g of margarine 12 g of salt
Calculate the amounts of ingredients necessary to bake 16 bread rolls.
3 Four men can build a wall in 15 days. How long would it take six men to build the
same wall if they work at the same rate?
4 A basket of chicken feed is enough for four hens for five days. How many days will
you be able to feed eight hens with the same basket of chicken
feed?
1.2.3 Direct and indirect proportion problems in everyday life
In the examples that follow, you will see the expressions “is directly
proportional to”, “varies directly with”, or “varies with”. Each
one of these expressions simply means that a direct proportion
exists.
You will also see the expression “is inversely proportional to”.
This means that an indirect proportion exists.
Example 1 - the relationship between the speed of a falling

stone and the time that the stone takes to fall from a cliff.
A stone is dropped from the top of a cliff. The speed at which the
stone falls varies directly with the time in seconds, since the stone
was dropped. After 0,5 seconds, the speed of the stone is 4,9 m/s.
(a) What is the speed of the stone after 1 second?

(b) What is the speed of the stone after 5 seconds?
Solution
The information given in the problem tells us that this is a direct
proportion problem. This means that if the time that the stone
falls, is doubled, the speed at which the stone falls also doubles.
(a) After 1 second the time has doubled (1 = 0,5 × 2), so the speed
at 0,5 s also doubled.
Therefore, speed of stone after 1 second = 2 × 4,9 m/s
= 9,8 m/s
(b) After 5 s the time has increased 10 times (5 = 0,5 × 10), so the
speed at 0,5 s also increased 10 times.
Therefore, speed after 5 s = 10 × 4,9 m/s
= 49 m/s
Example 2 - the relationship between the frequency and
wavelength of a radio wave
The frequency of a radio wave is inversely proportional to its

wavelength. A radio wave of wavelength 150 metres has a frequency
of 2 000 Kilohertz (kHz). If the frequency is 850 kHz, find the
wavelength, correct to 3 sf.
Solution
The information given in the problem tells us that this is an indirect
proportion problem. This means that if the wavelength of the
wave increases (gets longer), the frequency decreases (gets
smaller), and vice versa.
Step 1: Determine the constant, k:

k = wavelength × frequency ……. (1)
= 150 × 2 000
= 300 000
Step 2: Use the constant k to determine the wavelength at the
smaller frequency.
300 000
Wavelength = ……. from equation (1)
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
300 000
=
850
= 351,77
= 352 metres …. to 3 sf.
Example 3 - The relationship between the cost of a can of

sardines and its mass
The cost of a can of sardines varies directly with its mass. A 400 g
can costs N$ 11,50.
Find the cost of a 250 g can of sardines.
Solution
The information given in the problem tells us that this is a direct
proportion problem. This means that the cost of a can of
sardines decreases as the mass decreases and vice versa.
Therefore, the cost of a 250 g of sardines will be less than a 400 g

can.
Put the price of the 250 g can equal to x.
We have the first ratio as 400 : 11,50

The second ratio is 250 : x
(note: mass forms the first part of each ratio)
The two ratios are in direct proportion, so we can write

400 : 11,50 = 250 : x
We can rewrite the ratios as fractions to make the calculation easier:
400 250
This means that =
11,50 𝑥
If we cross-multiply,
we get 400x = 250 × 11,50

= 2 875
2 875
so x =
400
= 7,187
= 7,19
The price of a 250 g can of sardines is N$ 7,17
Learning activity 5
1 During summer a honey bee flies 75 km to produce 120 g of honey (the 75 km

represent the flight back and forth between the flowers and the hive). Assume
that the distance travelled is directly proportional to the amount of honey made.
(a) Calculate how much honey a bee can make if it flies 375 km.
(b) Calculate how far the bee has to fly (back and forth) to make 1 kg of honey.
2 If I travel at 100 km/h, I can go from Windhoek to Swakopmund in 3 hours and 36

minutes. Calculate how long it will take me if I travel at 120 km/h.

1.3 Summary
In this unit we dealt with numbers in standard form and direct and indirect
proportion.
Standard form is a way of writing very large or very small numbers easily.
This way of representing numbers is necessary for our learners because
when they do calculations with very large or very small numbers, they must
have a way of making working with such numbers manageable.
Proportional reasoning followed next and the idea was to develop an

understanding of multiplicative relationships between quantities. To help in
this development we have led learners to an intuitive understanding of the
concepts of ratio and proportion.
Feedback on the learning activities can be found at the back of this

module.
STUDY UNIT 2: CALCULATIONS WITH PERSONAL INCOME AND
EXPENDITURE
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
2.1 Interest and how to calculate it

2.1.1 How to understand the concept “interest”
2.1.2 The difference between simple interest and compound interest
2.2 Municipal accounts and paying for it

2.2.1 Basic municipal services
2.2.2 Paying for basic municipal services
2.3 Hire purchase (HP) and paying cash for items

2.3.1 The meaning of hire purchase
2.3.2 Buying on hire purchase and buying for cash
2.3.3 Calculating the different aspects of hire purchase
2.4 Income tax

2.4.1 The meaning of “income tax”
2.4.2 Terms that are used in taxation
2.4.3 Examples of how to interpret individual tax tables and how to
calculate
the tax payable
2.5 Summary
Introduction
This unit explains the difference between simple interest and compound interest.
It also explains how to interpret municipal bills, hire purchase, and personal income
tax.
It is important that our learners learn to understand the basic principles of
personal income and expenditure. They must be able to make sense of the
world they live in and how to use money intelligently and effectively.
The growing use of geometry in everything from global positioning systems (GPS)
to computer animation makes it one of the important strands of mathematics.
Readings

Learners’
Book.
2. This study guide.
Learning outcomes
 calculate compound interest earned over 2 years
 interpret municipal bills and calculate the cost of water and electricity used
 differentiate between buying for cash and buying on hire purchase
 interpret personal income tax tables and calculate the tax payable on money
earned
 calculate surface area and volume of cuboids and cylinders
Learning activities
Learning activity 6: Calculating simple interest

Learning activity 7: Calculating compound interest
Learning activity 8: A class discussion on services provided by the municipal /
town
council or village council.
Learning activity 9: A class discussion on the tariffs payable for water and
electricity.
Learning activity 10: Interpretation of municipal accounts.
Learning activity 11: Calculating the cost of hire purchase.
Learning activity 12: Calculating personal income tax.
2.1 Interest and how and how to calculate it
Specific objectives for this section

 interpret the concept “interest”
 differentiate between “simple interest” and “compound interest”
 calculate compound interest on money invested or borrowed
2.1.1 How to understand the concept “interest”
People always have a use for money. Most of us use money to make
our lives more comfortable by buying food, clothes and other property.
Some of us (businesses but also private people) invest money to
make more money.
If you do not have the money to use, you can always borrow money.
However, if you have to borrow money, you will have to pay additional
money to borrow money.
The additional money that you have to pay for borrowed money
is called interest.
Different places charge different amounts for the money that they lend
out, but normally it is done as a percentage per year of the amount
that you borrow.
Example Suppose Peter wants to borrow N$ 200 from the bank

and the bank says to him “you can have the N$ 200 at 10% interest”.
This is what happens:

“10% interest” means “10% interest per year”.
The interest on the N$ 200 is N$ 200 × 10% = N$ 20 for 1 year.
So, after 1 year Peter has to pay back the original N$ 200 that he
borrowed as well as the N$ 20 interest - a total amount of N$ 220.
There are different words that we use when we invest or borrow

money:
Making the loan Payment of the loan
today after 1 year
N$ 200 N$ 220
Peter is the borrower and the bank is the lender.

The amount borrowed, N$200, is the principal amount (P).
The interest, (I), paid is N$20.
10% is called the rate (R) at which the interest is calculated.
(T) is the time for which the money is borrowed.
2.1.2 The difference between simple interest and compound interest
Banks have two methods to calculate interest: simple interest and

compound interest.
 Simple interest
Suppose Peter wants to borrow the money for a second year. If the
bank charges “simple interest”, Peter would just pay another 10% for
the extra year.
Peter pays interest of N$(200 × 10%) × 2 years = N$40.
This is how simple interest is calculated:
You pay the same amount of interest every year.
Formula: I = P × R × T
where P is the principal amount (amount borrowed),

R is the interest rate,
and T is the time in years.
Example 1:
An amount of N$ 2 500 is invested for 3 years at a rate of 8% simple
interest per year.
(a) Calculate the amount of interest earned.
(b) Calculate the total amount of money at the end of the investment
period.
Solution:
(a) Interest = P × R × T
𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟖 × 𝟑 𝟔𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 8
= = [R = 8% = ]
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 100
= N$ 600
The amount of interest earned is N$ 600.
(b) Total amount = Principal amount + interest

= N$ (2 500 + 600)
= N$ 3 100
Example 2:
An amount of N$ 2 500 is invested for a number of years at a rate of
8% simple interest per year. An amount of N$ 600 is paid in simple
interest for the period. Calculate the number of years for which the
money was borrowed.
The formula for simple interest gives the interest, I, in terms of the
other variables, P, R and T: I = P × R × T ……. (1)
For the problem we have to find the number of years, T. So we must

make T the subject of the formula in (1).
We do that by cross multiplication and then simplification.

I PRT I
If = , (I = 1)
1 1
then 1(I) = PRT (by cross multiplication, )

1(I)
T = (by division)
PR
Solution:
I (600)100
If I = P × R × T, then, T = =
PR 2500 × 8
8
(substitute values of variables, P = 2 500, I = 600, and R = )
100
60 000
=
20 000
= 3 years
Learning activity 6
1 John borrowed N$ 3 500 for 3 years at 7% simple interest.

How much money must he pay back after 3 years? (I = N$735; Total N$ 4 235)
2 Peter borrowed N$ 5 000 for 3 years and had to pay N$ 1 350 simple interest at
the end of that time. At what rate of interest did he pay back? (I = 9%)
3 Mary borrowed N$ 7 000 at a simple interest rate of 3% per year. After a

number of years she had paid back N$ 840 interest altogether. How many years
was that? (4 years)
4 Joanne borrowed N$ 4 000 for 4 years at 10% simple interest per year. How much
interest did she have to pay? (N$ 1 600)
 Compound interest
Suppose Peter borrows N$200 from the bank at compound interest of
10% per year. Compound interest on the loan is calculated as
follows:
If Peter does not pay the interest on the principal amount at the end of
the first year, the bank adds the interest owed (N$20) to the principal
amount so that for the second year Peter gets a loan of N$220.
Hence, for the 2nd year Peter has to pay 10% interest on a loan of
N$220 and not on N$200!
This means that the principal amount grows every year and
therefore, the interest that Peter has to pay gets more every year.
This is why it is called compound interest - you pay interest on
interest!
Peter borrows N$200 at 10% compound interest

Peter owes the bank N$220 and the bank lends it back to him for
a 2nd year
At the end of the 2nd year
Peter owes the bank N$242

As you can see, Peter pays N$22 interest in the 2nd year, not just
N$20.
That is because he pays 10% interest on N$220 and not on N$200.
This is how compound interest is calculated:
Work out the interest for the first year and then add it to the principal
amount for the 1st year. This amount becomes the principal amount
for the 2nd year. Work out the interest on this new principal amount
and add it to the new principal amount, and so on ……
In later grades we will develop a formula to calculate compound

interest.
Example 1:
If the present value of my investment is N$ 1 000 and the rate of
compound interest is 6%, what will be the value of my investment
after two years?
Solution:
Interest after 1st year = N$ 1 000 × 6% = N$ 60
New principal amount = N$ (1 000 + 60) = N$ 1 060
Interest after 2nd year = N$ 1060 × 6% = N$ 63,60
New principal amount = N$ (1 060 + 63,60) = N$ 1 123,60
Hence, value of investment after 2 years = N$ 1 123,60
Example 2:
Mrs Junius wants to borrow N$ 25 000 to start a small business. Her
friend offers to lend her the money at 17% simple interest per year
while the bank will charge 15% compound interest.
Show all you working and determine which loan is better for Mrs
Junius after 3 years.
Solution:
PRT 𝑁$ 25 000 ×17 ×3
Simple interest: I = =
100 100
= N$ 250 × 17 × 3
= N$ 12 750
Compound interest:
14
Interest after 1st year = N$ 25 000 × = N$ 3 500
100
14
Interest after 2nd year = N$ 28 300 × = N$ 3 962
100
14
Interest after 3rd year = N$ 32 262 × = N$ 4 516,68
100
Total compound interest after 3 years = N$(3 500 + 3 962 + 4
516,68)
= N$ 11 978,68
The bank’s loan is better.
Learning activity 7
1 If the present value of my investment is N$ 2 000 and I earn compound interest of

6% annually, what will the value of my investment be after 2 years?
2 John borrows N$ 45 000 to buy a car at 12% compound interest per year. How
much will he have to pay back after 3 years?
3 Mary invested N$ 7 500 in an account at 7% compound interest.
(a) Calculate the amount of interest that she receives after 3 years.
(b) How much money will she have in her savings account after 3 years?
2.2 Municipal accounts and paying for it

 interpret municipal services and accounts and pay for it
2.2.1 Basic municipal services
Municipalities, town councils and village councils provide basic

services to households and other large consumers such as
businesses that make life easier for people. These services make a
city, town or village clean and well-organised places where people can
live and do business. Water, electricity and refuse removal are
some of the most important services that are provided by these
councils.
The following diagram illustrates some of the services that are

provided by municipalities and town councils (note: not all the
services are provided by all the municipalities or town councils):
Electricity
BASIC
Refuse
water MUNICIPAL
removal
SERVICES
sewerage
Learning activity 8
Have a class discussion on the services that are provided by the municipality or
town council or village council.
1 Learners should identify whether their area is being serviced by a

municipality or a town council or a village council.
2 Learners can identify which of these services are delivered by the council in
their city/town/village.
3 Learners should discuss what each of these services entails and why the
service is important to the city/town/village.
2.2.2 Paying for basic municipal services
Basic municipal services are not provided free of charge - people

who get it must pay for it.
The council that manages the city or town or village charges a basic
fee for delivering water and electricity to households. Apart from this
fee they also charge an extra fee for the units of water or
electricity that a household uses.
Water consumption is measured in kilolitres (kℓ).
One kilolitre (kℓ) is the amount of water that is equal to 1 000 litre
bottles filled with water.
The extra fee that is charged for water consumption is a tariff of so

many N$ per kℓ of water used by a household.
Electricity usage is measured in kilowatt-hours (kwh).
One kilowatt-hour (kwh) is the amount of electricity used by ten

100 watt light bulbs in 1 hour (10 × 100 watt = 1 000 watt or 1
kilowatt).
The extra fee that is charged for electricity used is a tariff of so many
N$ per kwh used by a household.
Refuse removal and sewerage are also services that every

household has to pay for.
Learning activity 9
Have a class discussion on the services that are provided by the local council.
Explain to learners the meaning of units of water and electricity used by a
household.
Then request learners to find out what the basic charge for water and for
electricity is as well as the extra fee that is charged for water and for electricity
usage by a household in the place where they live.
How to interpret your municipal account
Below is an example of a typical municipal account. These

accounts might differ slightly from council to council.
Meter readings Description of service Amount (N$)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Service Previous Current Usage Electricity usage 558,00
Electr 452076 452548 472 Basic electricity 75,00
Water 67832 67875 43 Water consumption 516,00
Basic water 95,00
Refuse removal 65
Sewerage 110
Total amount due 1 419
On this account there are 6 columns. These columns contain the

different services that are rendered, as well as the usage of, and
prices for particular services.
Column Purpose
(a) Column (a) shows the services, electricity and water,
that are rendered to the household.
(b) Column (b) shows the meter readings for electricity and water
for the previous month.
(c) Column (c) shows the current meter readings for electricity
and water.
(d) Column (d) shows the number of units used for water and
electricity. You get this number by subtracting the previous
reading, (b), from the current reading, (c).
(e) Column (e) shows the usage and other services rendered.
(f) Column (f) shows the amount payable for usage and services
rendered as well as the total amount for the account.
Somewhere on the account (either on the front or on the back) the

tariffs for water and electricity usage are also shown. This will
enable you to work out whether the amounts shown in column (f)
for water and electricity usage are correct. The rest of the
amounts shown in column (f) are the basic fees payable for other
services such as refuse removal and sewerage.
Example

Service Previous Current Usage Electricity usage 1 056,00
Electr (a) 452548 480 Water consumption 636,00
Water 67832 67885 (b) Basic water 125,00
Basic electricity 115,00
Refuse removal 65
Sewerage 110
Total amount due (d)
Calculate or write down (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f):
(a) is the previous month’s meter reading for electricity,

(b) is the number of units of water used for the month,
(c) is the amount for electricity usage,
(d) is the total amount due,
(e) is the tariff (N$ per kilolitre) for water,
(f) is the tariff (N$ per kilowatt-hour) for electricity.
Calculations:
Previous month’s meter reading = current reading + units used
= 452548 + 480
= 453028
(a) = 453028
Number of units of water used = current reading ‒ previous reading

= 67885 ‒ 67832
= 53
(b) = 53 kℓ
(c) = N$ 1 056,00
(d) = N$ 2 107,00
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(e) The tariff for water = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑁$ 636
=
53
= N$ 12,00
The tariff for water is N$ 12,00 per kilo-litre.
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒

(g) The tariff for electricity = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑁$ 1 056
=
480
= N$ 2,20
The tariff for electricity is N$ 2,20 per kilowatt-hour.
Learning activity 10
1 The account below is for the period 1 April 2014 to 30 April 2014.

Service Previous Current Usage Electricity usage (c)
Electr 34571 (a) 230 Water consumption 650,00
Water 12753 12803 (b) Basic water 85,00
Basic electricity 75,00
Refuse removal (d)
Sewerage 110
Total amount due 1 400,00
(a) Find the current electricity meter reading.

(b) Calculate the number of units of water used for April 2014.
(c) If the tariff for electricity is N$ 1,80 per kwh, calculate the amount
payable for electricity by this household.
(d) Calculate the amount payable for refuse removal.
(e) Calculate the tariff per kiloliter for water consumption.
2 Mrs April’s municipal account for September shows that the electricity
meter reading is 37568. Her household used 450 kwh of electricity in
September.
(a) Find the electricity meter reading for end of August.
(b) The electricity tariff in her town is N$ 1,50 per kwh and the basic
charge is N$ 119,50. Calculate the amount that Mrs April has to pay for
electricity at the end of September.
2.3 Hire purchase (HP) and paying cash for items

 interpret buying on hire purchase as oppose to buying for cash
2.3.1 The meaning of hire purchase
Hire purchase (HP) is a contract by which a buyer pays for an item

in regular and equal instalments while enjoying the use of the item.
During the repayment period ownership of the item does not pass over
to the buyer. Only on full payment of the loan does ownership of the
item pass to the buyer.
2.3.2 Buying on hire purchase and buying for cash
When a person cannot buy an item for cash, he/she usually makes
use of the hire purchase system. Sometimes the seller requires a
deposit. Also, because it takes longer fir the seller to get all his
money, interest is added to the instalments and therefore, hire
purchase is more expensive than paying cash when buying
goods.
If the buyer defaults in paying the instalments, the owner may

repossess the goods. HP is normally advantageous to consumers
because it spreads the cost of expensive items over a longer period of
time.
2.3.3 Calculating the different aspects of hire purchase
 how to calculate the deposit
Example: Peter wants to buy a second-hand car for N$ 25 200 using

a hire purchase contract. He is asked to make a deposit of one-
third of the total price. Calculate the amount of the deposit.
Solution:
1
Deposit = of N$ 25 200
3
1
= × N$ 25 200
3
= N$ 840
Peter needs to make a deposit of N$ 840.
 how to calculate the HP price
(Sometimes, when you make use of an HP contract, you have to pay a
deposit first and the balance by way of monthly instalments. To calculate
the total HP price you have to add the deposit to the total of all of the
instalments).
Example:
A new lounge suite costs N$ 15 000. It is available on HP by paying
a deposit of 12% followed by 24 instalments of N$ 572,50 each.
Find the total H.P. price and the extra amount that you would pay by
buying on HP.
Solution:
1 First we calculate the deposit:
Deposit = 12% of N$ 15 000
12
= × N$ 15 000
100
= N$ 1 800
2 Now we calculate the total instalments

Total instalments = N$ 572,50 × 24
= N$ 13 740
3 Now we can find the total HP cost

Total HP cost = deposit + total instalments
= N$ 1 800 + N$ 13 740
= N$ 15 540
4 Now calculate the difference between the HP cost and cash

Extra amount paid by using HP = HP cost – cash price
= N$ 15 540 – N$ 15 000
= N$ 540
 how to calculate the instalment
Example:
The cash price of a bike is N$ 780. The hire purchase price is
N$ 1 100. If the deposit is 10% followed by 10 equal monthly
instalments, find the amount that you pay each month.
1 First calculate the deposit:

Deposit = 10% of N$ 780
= N$ 78
2 Now calculate the total instalments

Total instalments = HP price – deposit
= N$ 1 100 – N$ 78
= N$ 1 022
3 Calculate each instalment

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Individual instalments = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑁$ 1 022
= 10
= N$ 102,20
1 Have a class discussion on each of the following topics:

(a) Why is it more expensive to buy on hire purchase?
(b) What happens to an item bought on hire purchase if the customer only
pays a few instalments and cannot make any further payments?
2 The cash price of a second hand car is N$ 18 780. Mary wants to buy the
car and is asked to pay a deposit of one-third of the cash price and then 10
equal instalments for the balance.
(a) Calculate the deposit that Mary must pay.
(b) Calculate the amount of each instalment.
3 The Furniture Shop sells a refrigerator on hire purchase as follows:

A deposit of 10% of the cash price plus 15% per year compound interest on
the balance for 18 months. The cash price of the refrigerator is N$ 2 450.
(a) Calculate the hire purchase price of the refrigerator.
(b) Calculate the amount of each monthly instalment.
2.4 Income tax

 interpret income tax tables and calculate personal tax payable
2.4.1 The meaning of “Income tax”
Read more: http://www.pwc.com/na/en/namibia-tax-rate-card/index.jhtml
Income tax can be defined as a "monetary burden laid upon

individuals on the income that they earn or on the property that they
own”. In short: it is payment exacted by the government of a country
to help the government in the development of various projects, like the
armed services, the civil service, the police service, schools, hospitals,
roads and bridges, dams, etc.
2.4.2 Terms that are used in taxation
 Assessable income
Assessable income for a tax year refers to the total income of an
employee for the year. This income is the total salary of the
employee for the year and may include overtime, bonuses, housing
allowance, subsistence payments, travelling, etc.
Beside his/her salary, an employee may receive rent from property or

interest on money invested with a bank. This also forms part of the
employee’s income for tax purposes.
 Allowances
Each resident of the country is entitled to a certain amount of tax-free
income. This tax-free income is called an allowance or
abatement. Some of these abatements are:
 child allowance
 payments to an approved annuity
 payments for study of children at university
 Taxable income
The income left after allowances have been deducted from the
assessable income is called the taxable income. Tax is only paid on
the taxable income according to the rate of tax for that year for the
individual.
 Rate of tax
The taxable income of an individual is taxed at the applicable rate for
that tax year. Tax rates are given as percentages and may vary from
year to year. The rate for an individual depends on the income
category in which the taxable income falls. The tax rate is laid down
in the Income Tax Act.
Individual income tax rates in Namibia for 2014
Rates of tax for year of assessment

ending
Taxable income N$ 28 February 2014 (N$)
0 – 50 000 Not taxable
50 001 – 100 000 18% for each N$ above 50 001
100 001 – 300 000 9 000 + 25% for each N$ above 100 001
300 001 – 500 000 59 000 + 28% for each N$ above 300 001
500 001 – 799 999 115 00 + 30% for each N$ above 500 001
800 001 – 1 500 001 205 000 + 32% for each N$ above 800 001
Above 1 500 001 429 000 + 37% for each N$ above 1 500 001
2.4.3 Examples of how to interpret individual tax tables and how to

calculate the tax payable
For both questions you are required to use the tax table provided below:
Rates of tax for year of assessment ending

50 001 – 100 000 18% for each N$ above 50 001
100 001 – 300 000 9 000 + 25% for each N$ above 100 001
300 001 – 500 000 59 000 + 28% for each N$ above 300 001
500 001 – 799 999 115 00 + 30% for each N$ above 500 001
800 001 – 1 500 001 205 000 + 32% for each N$ above 800 001
Example 1: A man earns N$ 45 000 per year. What is the percentage

tax applicable to this person?
Solution: This person earns less than N$ 50 000 per year and will
therefore, not pay any tax for that year.
Example 2: Mrs Endoro earns N$ 575 000 per year. Her entitlement
for tax-free allowances is N$ 85 000.
(a) Calculate the tax payable by Mrs Endoro.

(b) If the PAYE system is used, how much will Mrs Endoro pay per
month?
Solution:
(a) Taxable income = N$ 575 000 – N$ 85 000
= N$ 490 000
Tax payable on first N$ 300 000 = N$ 59 000

28
Tax payable on balance of N$ 190 000 = 100 × N$ 190 000
= N$ 53 200
Total tax payable by Mrs Endoro = N$ 59 000 + N$ 53 200

= N$ 112 200
𝑁$ 112 200
(b) Amount payable per month = = N$ 9 350
12
For each question you are required to use the tax table shown below:
Rates of tax for year of assessment ending

50 001 – 100 000 18% for each N$ above 50 001

100 001 – 300 000 9 000 + 25% for each N$ above 100 001
300 001 – 500 000 59 000 + 28% for each N$ above 300 001
500 001 – 799 999 115 00 + 30% for each N$ above 500 001
800 001 – 1 500 001 205 000 + 32% for each N$ above 800 001
1 Calculate the total tax payable on each of the following annual incomes:
(a) N$ 39 750 (b) N$ 81 500 (c) N$ N$ 325 000
2 Calculate the monthly PAYE deductions on each of the following annual

salaries:
(a) N$ 65 000 (b) N$ 31 200 (c) N$ 378 000
3 Vitalis earned a gross salary of N$ 210 000 in 2014. The following

deductions are made from his monthly salary:
PAYE Pension: 7% of gross monthly salary
Medical aid: N$ 360 Social security: N$ 45
(a) Calculate the monthly
(i) PAYE tax deduction (ii) Pension fund contribution
(b) Calculate the netto salary of Vitalis per month.
(c) In June of 2014 Vitalis had to pay the following accounts:
Housing loan: N$ 1 500 Pre-paid electricity: N$ 545
Municipal services, including water: N$ 750.
How much money did Vitalis have left to spend on other expenses like
food, transport, etc.?
2.5 Summary
This unit we learnt the difference between simple interest and compound
interest.
We also learnt how to interpret municipal bills, hire purchase, and personal
income tax.
It is important for our learners learn to understand the basic principles of

personal income and expenditure. They must be able to make sense of
the world they live in and how to use money intelligently and effectively.
The growing use of geometry in everything from global positioning systems

(GPS) to computer animation makes it one of the important strands of
mathematics.

module.
STUDY UNIT 3: VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA FOR CUBOIDS
AND CYLINDERS
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
3.1 How to calculate the surface area of a cuboid and of a cylinder

3.1.1 The terms that describe a cuboid and a cylinder
3.1.2 The surface area of cuboids and of cylinders
3.2 How to calculate the volume of a cuboid and of a cylinder

3.2.1 The meaning of a “cubic unit”
3.2.2 How to calculate the volume of a cuboid (box-like shape)
3.2.3 How to calculate the volume of a cylinder
3.3 Mixed examples on surface area and volume of the cuboid and cylinder
3.4 Summary
Introduction
In this unit we deal with the concepts of volume and surface area of a cylinder and
a cuboid. We look at problems and structured questions in real life and how to
solve them.
Readings

Learners’
Book.
3 This study guide
Learning outcomes
 understand the concepts of cuboid and cylinder
 use formulae to calculate the surface area of cuboids and of cylinders
 use formulae to calculate the volume of cuboids and of cylinders
 calculate unknown dimensions of cuboids and cylinders if relevant
information is given.
Learning activities
Learning activity 13: Calculating surface area and volume of cuboids and cylinders.
3.1 How to calculate the surface area of a cuboid and of a

cylinder

 describe a cuboid and a cylinder
 calculate the surface area of a cuboid and a cylinder
3.1.1 The terms that describe a cuboid and a cylinder
 The cuboid The shape on the left has 6 flat sides.

Each of these flat sides is called a face
of the shape.
(Note: you can see 3 of the faces – the
top face, the front face, and the right-
hand side face (shaded part). These
3 faces are formed by the solid lines.
The 3 faces that cannot be seen are
the back face, the bottom face and the
left-hand side face. These 3 faces are
partly formed by the broken lines).
Where two faces meet a straight line is formed. This straight line is called an
edge of the shape. The shape above has 12 edges, formed by the solid
lines. (Note: you can see 9 of the edges. They are formed by the solid
lines. The 3 edges that cannot be seen, are formed by the broken lines).
The point where two or more edges meet is called a vertex (corner) of the
shape. The shape on the left has 8 vertices (corners).
(Note 1: you can see 7 of the vertices. These vertices are formed by the
solid lines. The vertex that cannot be seen is the one formed by the 3
broken lines at the back).
(Note 2: the plural of vertex is vertices)
Definition of a cuboid:
A cuboid (rectangular block) is a solid object that is shaped
like a box. It has six faces, 12 edges, and 8 vertices. All the
angles are right angles (900). Every one of the six faces is a
rectangle.
Can you recognize the 6 faces, the 8 vertices, and the 12

edges?
Examples of objects shaped like cuboids
A brick, a box of matches, a die, a shoe box, a plank of wood
 The cylinder
The shape on the left has 2 flat circular ends
called the top and the base of the shape
(the base is the end that the shape stands
on). The shape also has a curved face
which is sometimes called the body of the
shape.
Where the curved face and the top or base

meet, an edge is formed. The shape on the
left has 2 circular edges.
Definition of a cylinder:
A solid object with two identical flat ends that are circular, called the top
and the base, and one curved face.
Examples of objects shaped like a cylinder

A cigarette, a tin of beans, a tin of jam, a pencil, a tin of paint.
3.1.2 The surface area of cuboids and of cylinders
To find the surface area of a shape, we calculate the total area of all
the faces of the shape.
 The surface area of the cuboid

A cuboid has 6 faces.
The face on the left-hand side and

the face on the right-hand side have
the same areas.
The face on the front and the face

on the back have the same areas.
The face on the top and the face on
the bottom have the same areas.
Example
Calculate the surface area of the cuboid below:
Solution
From previous work we know that the area of a rectangle is given by
Area rectangle = length × width
Area of left face = 5 cm × 4 cm = 20 cm2
Area of right face is also 20 cm2
Area of top face = 10 cm × 4 cm = 40 cm2

Area of bottom face is also 40 cm2
Area of front face = 10 cm × 5 cm = 50 cm2

Area of back face is also 50 cm2
Total surface area of cuboid = 2 × 20 cm2 + 2 × 40 cm2 + 2 × 50 cm2

= 2 (20 + 40 + 50) cm2
= 220 cm2
The surface area of a cuboid
= area of top face + area of bottom face

+ area of left face + area of right face
+ area front face + area of back face
 The surface area of a cylinder
The total area of all the faces of the cylinder below

= the area of the top + the area of the base + the area of
body
If the cylinder is cut open and flattened out, the body of the
cylinder has the form of a rectangle. The diagram below
shows why:
From the diagrams above, it is clear that the surface area of a

cylinder = area of the top + area of the base + the area of
the body
The top of the cylinder is a circle and so is the base while the
body of the cylinder forms a rectangle. The length of the
rectangle is equal to the circumference of the top/base (2𝜋𝑟)
while the width of the rectangle is equal to the height, h, of the
cylinder.
We already know the formula for the area of circle with radius
r. It is 𝜋𝑟 2. We also know the area for a rectangle that has a
length of l and a width of .
The circumference of a circle with radius r = 2𝜋𝑟. The length

l, of the rectangle is equal to the circumference of the top/base,
therefore, length of the rectangle = 2𝜋𝑟.
The width of the rectangle is equal to the height, h, of the

cylinder.
We can now write down the formula for the surface area of a
cylinder.
The surface area of a cylinder with height, h, and radius, r,
= area of top + area of base + area of the rectangle

= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 𝝅𝒓𝟐 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
= 2(𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
Example
Calculate the total surface area of the cylinder below:
r = 4 cm
h = 7 cm
Solution
Surface area of cylinder = 2(area of top/base) + area of body
= 2(𝜋𝑟 2) + 2𝜋rh
= 2[𝜋(4)2 ] + 2(𝜋)(4)(7)
= 32𝜋 + 56𝜋
= 88𝜋 cm2
= 276,46
= 276,5 cm2 (to 1 decimal place)
= 276 cm2 (to 3 significant figures)
3.2 How to calculate the volume of a cuboid and of a cylinder

 understand a cubic unit
 calculate the volume of a cuboid and of a cylinder
3.2.1 The meaning of a “cubic unit”
Each of the solids below has sides that have the same length.
The sides of this solid have
the same length The sides of this solid have
the same length
A solid that has sides of the same length is called a cube.
When the lengths of the sides of a cube are equal to 1 unit, the cube
is called a “unit cube”.
A unit cube
By definition we say that 1 cubic unit is the amount of space

(volume) that a unit cube occupies,
Therefore, 1 cubic unit = the volume of a unit cube.
The object below is made up of 6 unit cubes (they are numbered 1 to

6):
The volume of this object is 6 units.

Below are some other objects, A, B, and C, that each has a volume of
6 units:
 The meaning of 1 cm3 (1 cubic centimetre)

1 cm3 = the volume of a cube that has sides of 1 cm.
The object below is made up of eight (8) 1-cm3 units.
The volume of the object is 8 cm3.
Below are some other objects (A, B, and C) that each also has
a volume of 8 cm3:
A B C
3.2.2 How to calculate the volume of a cuboid (box-like shape)
The cuboid below has a length of 4 cm, a width of 3 cm and a height

of 2 cm. We want to determine the volume of the cuboid.
The cuboid is divided into two layers of equal size. Each layer has 12
unit cubes (3 rows of 4 cubes each).
There are 2 layers in the cuboid, so we have 2 × 12 = 24 cubes
altogether.
Each of the 24 cubes has a volume of 1 cm3.

So, the volume of the cuboid = 24 × 1 cm3 = 24 cm3
We get the same result if we multiply the length and the width and the
height:
Volume of cuboid = length × width × height

= 4 cm × 3 cm × 2 cm
= 24 cm3
The formula for the volume of a cuboid is given by:
Volume of a cuboid = length × width × height
NOTE: length × width gives the area of the base area of the
cuboid.
Therefore, we can also say that
Volume of a cuboid = base area × height
Example
Calculate the volume of the cuboid below:
Solution
Volume of cuboid = length × width × height
= 10 cm × 4 cm × 5 cm
= 200 cm3
OR
Volume of cuboid = base area × height
= (10 cm × 4 cm) × 5 cm
= 40 cm2 × 5 cm
= 200 cm3
3.2.3 How to calculate the volume of a cylinder
The cylinder below has a radius of r and a height of h.

We can use the same argument as for the cuboid to calculate the
volume of this cylinder.
base area
Hence, Volume of this cylinder = base area × height

The base of the cylinder is a circle with radius r.
Hence, the area of the circle = 𝜋𝑟 2
Therefore, the volume of the cylinder = base area × height

= area of circle × height
= 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
Volume of a cylinder = base area × height

Example
The diagram represents a cylinder with a diameter of 20 cm and a
length of 1 m.
a) Write down the radius of the cylinder.

b) Calculate the volume of the cylinder.
Solution
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 20 𝑐𝑚
a) Radius of cylinder = = 2 = 10 cm
2
b) Volume of cylinder = base area × height
= 𝜋𝑟 2 × ℎ
= 3,142 × 102 × 100 (Note: 1 m = 100 cm)
= 3,142 × 1000 × 100
= 3 142 × 100
= 314 200 cm3
3.3 Mixed examples on surface area and volume of the cuboid

and cylinder
Example 1
The base of the cuboid below measures 6 cm × 6 cm and the height is 9 cm.
a) Calculate the area of the shaded side of the

cube.
b) Calculate the total surface area of the
cube.
c) Calculate the volume of the cube.
Solution
a) Area of shaded side = length × width
= 9 cm × 6 cm
= 54 cm2
b) This cuboid has 4 sides that measure 9 cm × 6 cm and 2 sides that

measure 6 cm × 6 cm.
Hence, the total surface area of the cube

= 4(9 × 6) cm2 + 2(6 × 6) cm2
= 216 cm2 + 72 cm2
= 288 cm2
c) Volume of the cube = base area × height
= (6 cm × 6 cm) × 9 cm
= 36 cm2 × 9 cm
= 324 cm3
Example 2
A solid cylinder has a volume of 154 cm3 and a radius of 35 mm.
a) Calculate the height of the cylinder.

b) Calculate the total surface area of the cylinder.
Solution
a) Volume of cylinder = 𝜋𝑟 2 × ℎ
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Therefore, h = 𝜋𝑟2
154 𝑐𝑚3 22
= 22 (𝜋 = = 3,142)
(3,5)2 7
7
154 𝑐𝑚3
= 22
× 12,25
7
154 × 7
=
22 × 12,25
= 4 cm
Height of cylinder is 4 cm.
b) Total surface area of cylinder

= 2(area of base) + area of body
= 2(area of base) + (circumference of base × height)
= 2[𝜋(3,5)2] cm2 + 2(𝜋)(3,5) × 4 cm2
= 76,96 + 87,96 cm2
= 165 cm2 (to 3 significant figures)
1 Give two examples of different objects in your house that have the shape of a
cuboid.
2 Give two examples of different objects in your house that have the shape of a
cylinder.
3 a) Draw a rough diagram of a shoe box that has the following
measurements: length = 20 cm, width = 12 cm, height = 10 cm.
b) Calculate the volume of the shoe box in a).
4 Calculate the height, to the nearest cm, of a cylinder that has a volume of
35 cm3 and a diameter of 7 cm.
5 Calculate the total surface area of the shoe box in 3 a).
6 Calculate the surface area of the cylinder in 4, correct to 3 significant
figures.
3.4 Summary
In this unit we learnt about the concepts of volume and surface area of a
cylinder and a cuboid. We looked at problems and structured questions in
real life and how to solve them.

mathematics.

module.
STUDY UNIT 4: FEATURES OF PLANE GEOMETRY
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
4.1 How to identify plane figures that are similar

4.1.1 What is meant by “plane” figures?
4.1.2 What is meant by “similar” figures?
4.1.3 Similar triangles
4.2 Geometrical constructions

4.2.1 Geometrical instruments for doing geometrical constructions
4.2.2 Three-figure bearings
4.2.3 Scale drawings
4.3 How to construct nets of cubes, cuboids, triangular prisms, and cylinders
4.4 Transformations
4.4.1 Understanding transformations
4.4.2 How to find the scale factor and the centre of enlargement
4.4.3 How to construct enlargements
4.5 Polygons
4.5.1 Getting to know polygons
4.5.2 Angle properties of polygons
4.5.3 Exterior angles of regular and irregular polygons
4.6 Angle properties of circles

4.6.1 What we already know about circles
4.6.2 Angle properties of the circle
4.7 Summary
Introduction
This unit explains how to apply the properties of similar triangles, regular and
irregular polygons, and the angles in circles. It also explains how to construct
and describe enlargements. It further deals with scale drawings and nets.
Readings

Learners’
Book.
4 This study guide
Learning outcomes
 identify plane figures that are similar
 proof triangles that are similar
 do geometrical constructions
 construct nets of cubes, cuboids, triangular prisms and cylinders
 construct and describe enlargements
 identify and use angle properties of polygons
 use angle properties of the circle
Learning activities
Learning activity 14: Identifying similar plane figures.

Learning activity 15: Identifying and proving similar triangles.
Learning activity 16: Three-figure bearings
Learning activity 17: Calculating lengths from scale drawings
Learning activity 18: Constructing scale drawings
Learning activity 19: How to draw nets of solids
Learning activity 20: Describing transformations
Learning activity 21: Drawing enlargements
Learning activity 22: Identifying polygons
Learning activity 23: Using angle properties of polygons to calculate unknown
angles
Learning activity 24: Using angle properties of circles to calculate unknown angles
4.1 How to identify plane figures that are similar

 identify plane figures that are similar by referring to shape and size
4.1.1 What is meant by “plane” figures?
Plane geometry is about flat shapes like lines, triangles, circles,

rectangles, squares, kites, trapeziums, etc. These shapes have 2
dimensions and can be drawn on a flat piece of paper:
plane
Therefore, “plane” figures are figures that are flat. They have 2
dimensions.
4.1.2 What is meant by “similar” figures?
The dictionary describes “similar” as “alike” or “resembling” each

other. Therefore, similar figures look alike or resemble each other.
Using the definition of “similar” given above, would you say that the
following figures are similar?
SIMILAR
The two triangles have the same shape
although one is smaller than the other
4.1.3 Plane figures that are similar.
Two (or more) plane figures are similar if they satisfy BOTH the
following conditions:
1 Their corresponding angles are equal
2 Their corresponding sides are in the same proportion
Consider the two rectangles PQRS and DEFG below:

Condition 1: Angles: ∠P = ∠D = 900; ∠Q = ∠E = 900;
∠R = ∠F = 900; ∠S = ∠G = 900
All the corresponding angles are equal.
Condition 2: Proportion:
𝑷𝑸 8 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑹𝑺 8 𝑚𝑚 1
= = and = =
𝑫𝑬 16 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑭𝑮 16 𝑚𝑚 2
𝑷𝑺 5 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑸𝑹 5 𝑚𝑚 1
= = and = =
𝑫𝑮 10 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑬𝑭 10 𝑚𝑚 2
All the corresponding sides are in proportion.
For the above two plane figures, all the corresponding angles are
1
equal (900), and all the corresponding sides are in proportion (2).
therefore, rectangle PQRS is similar to rectangle DEFG.
We use the notation, “lll”, to indicate similarity.
Hence, we write PQRS lll DEFG and we read it as: PQRS is similar to
DEFG.
It is possible for two (or more) figures to satisfy one of the conditions
but not the other in which case the figures are NOT similar.
Example 1
Two trapeziums
Angles: Corresponding angles are equal
Proportion: Corresponding sides are not

𝑃𝑄 𝑄𝑆
in proportion [ ≠ ]
𝐾𝐿 𝐿𝑁
The two trapeziums are NOT similar

Example 2
Two quadrilaterals
Angles: Corresponding angle are not

equal.
Proportion: Corresponding sides are in

proportion [(3 : 1) or (1 : 3), depending on
which quadrilateral you start with]
The two quadrilaterals are NOT similar.
1 a) Which of the figures below are similar to figure A?

b) Which of the figures below are similar to figure E?
2 Which of the figures below are similar to figure P?
Give a reason for each answer.
Feedback on this learning activity can be found at the back of this module.
4.1.3 Similar triangles
We have learnt that plane figures are similar if they have exactly
the same shape. This can be accomplished by having
corresponding angles that are equal in size AND by having
corresponding sides which are in the same proportion.
However, for triangles we have a different situation.
If two triangles satisfy only one of the conditions, then they

automatically satisfy the other condition, and so they are
similar.
If the two triangles have their

corresponding angles equal, their
corresponding sides will be in the
same proportion and therefore, they
are similar.
If the two triangles have their

corresponding sides in the same
proportion, their corresponding angles
will be equal and therefore, they are
similar.
To proof that 2 triangles are similar, you have to proof

1 that the corresponding angles are equal
OR
2 that the corresponding sides are proportional
Example 1
State whether the following pair of triangles is similar. Give a reason
for your answer.
Solution
In the first triangle the unknown angle is equal to 800 and in the
second triangle the unknown angle is 400. So the 2 triangles have
equal corresponding angles (600, 400, and 800), and therefore, they
are similar.
Example 2
In the diagram above, DE is parallel to AB, DC = 4 cm, DE = 6 cm,

and BC = 8 cm.
a) Show that ΔEDC lll ΔABC
b) Calculate the length of AB.
Solution
[We have two triangles, ΔEDC and ΔABC, and lines with lengths
given. We further have two parallel lines so that we have more
information on angle sizes].
a) In triangles EDC and ABC,

∠ EDC = alternate ∠ ABC (DE ll AB)
∠ DEC = alternate ∠ CAB (DE ll AB)
∠ DCE = ∠ BCA (vertically opposite angles)
The angles of ΔEDC are equal to the corresponding angles of

ΔABC.
Hence, ΔEDC lll ΔABC.
NOTE: The names of the triangles are written in such a way that
the corresponding angles appear in the correct order.
∠E corresponds with ∠A, so you write ∠E first in the name ΔEDC and
∠A first in the name ΔABC
∠D corresponds with ∠B, so you write ∠D second in the name ΔED
and ∠B second in the name ΔABC
∠C corresponds with ∠C, so you write ∠C third in the name ΔEDC and
∠C third in the name ΔABC.
Therefore, ΔEDC lll ΔABC
b) In ΔEDC and ΔABC, side ED corresponds to side AB,

side EC corresponds with side AC,
and side DC corresponds with side BC.
The two triangles are similar, so the corresponding sides are in the
same proportion.
𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝐶 𝐷𝐶 6 𝑐𝑚 4 𝑐𝑚
This means that = = = =
𝐵𝐴 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐴 8 𝑐𝑚
8 𝑐𝑚 × 6 𝑐𝑚 48 𝑐𝑚2
Hence, AB = = = 12 cm
4 𝑐𝑚 4 𝑐𝑚
The length of AB is 12 cm.
1 Prove that the following two triangles are similar:

2 In the diagram on the right are two
right-angled triangles, ΔABD and ΔECD.
AB = 12 cm, BC = 4 cm, and CD = 5 cm.
a) Explain why ΔABD lll ΔECD.

b) Calculate the length of EC, correct to
1 decimal point.
4.2 Geometrical constructions

 do geometrical constructions by making scale drawings of maps, plans and
journeys which include directions given as three-figure bearings
 construct nets of cubes and cuboids, and of triangular prisms and cylinders
4.2.1 Geometrical instruments for doing geometrical constructions
To make a geometric construction means using one or more of the

tools shown below to draw various shapes and to measure angles
and lines. There are also certain rules that you must adhere to.
The instruments for doing constructions
1. a protractor 2. a compass 3. 2 × HB pencils

(to measure angles) (to draw circles and arcs)
4. a rubber
(to rub out incorrect work)
5. a ruler 6. a set square
(to measure lines in mm and cm) (to draw parallel and perpendicular lines)
The rules for constructions

 make sure that the markings on your tools (especially the ruler,
the protractor and the set square) are clear,
 always use a sharp HB pencil for constructions,
 use an eraser to rub out incorrect work,
 drawings must be neat.
 drawings must be accurate. You are expected to draw and
measure lengths to the nearest millimetre, and angles to
the nearest degree.
How to use a protractor to measure an angle
Step 1: place the protractor on the angle so that its centre point is on top of
the vertex of the angle and its zero line on top of one arm of the
angle. (If necessary, extend the arms of the angle so that they
reach the outer edge of the protractor).
Step 2: Start from the zero (0) mark which is on top of the arm of the
angle. Notice whether it is on the clockwise or anti-clockwise
scale. Go round its scale until you reach the other arm of the
angle. Count the degrees on the scale as you go around: 0, 10,
20, …, then any extra degrees 1, 2, 3, … etc.
How to use a protractor to construct (draw) an angle
To construct an angle, you need a protractor, a ruler and a sharp

pencil.
Suppose you have a straight line segment XY and you want to draw
an angle of 1450 with its vertex at A and with AY as one of the arms of
the angle.
Step 1: Put the centre point of the protractor on top of the vertex A of the angle,
and the zero line of the protractor on top of the arm AY (see diagram
below).
Step 2: Find the zero mark on the protractor on the arm AY and count anti-
clockwise round the scale: 00, 100, 200, …. 1300, 1400, and then the
extra degrees 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50.
Step 3: Put a dot (C in the diagram) next to the mark for 1450.
Step 4: Remove the protractor and use a ruler to draw a straight line from A
through C.
Angle CAY is the angle that you want.
How to use a compass

You use a compass to draw a circle or part of a circle (an arc).
Step 1: You must know the radius of the circle

and the position of the centre.
Step 2: Move the pencil point away from the
sharp point of the compass so that the distance is
equal to the radius.
Step 3: Place the sharp point of the compass
where the centre of the circle is to be.
Step 4: Hold the compass at the back end and
move the pencil point slowly around to draw the
circle (your hand should lean slightly towards the
direction that you move the pencil point).
How to use a set square to draw parallel lines

You use a set square to draw parallel or perpendicular lines.
Suppose you have a straight line RS and a point P, and you want to
draw a line through P which is parallel to RS.
Step 1: Place the set square so that one of its perpendicular edges,
say XY, lies along the line RS.
Step 2: Place the ruler along another edge, say XZ. Hold the ruler
down firmly and then slide the set square along the ruler until the edge
XY passes through P.
Step 3: Now let go of the ruler and hold the set square firmly. Draw
the required line along the edge XY of the set square.
How to draw perpendicular lines
Suppose now you want to draw a line through point P which is at right
angles to the line RS.
Step 1: Place the ruler so that one of its edges lies along line RS.
Step 2: Place the set square so that the shorter edge XZ lies along
line RS. Hold the ruler firmly and slide the set square along the ruler
until the other shorter edge, XY, passes through point P. Draw the
required line along edge YX.
4.2.2 Three-figure bearings
The diagram on the right.is that of a

compass. We use a compass to find a
direction or a bearing.
The compass on the right shows the four

main directions, which are N (North), E
(east), S (South), and W (West). This
compass shows degree measurements
from 00 to 3600 in intervals of 100. As you
already know, going around in a full circle
is equivalent to going through 3600.
This is the reason why we use three
figures to give a bearing or a direction. A compass
Bearing is a measure of direction, with North taken as the reference.

The bearing of a point is the angle measured in degrees in a
clockwise direction from the North line.
The bearing North (N) is represented by 0000 .

The bearing East (E) is represented by 0900
(Note: 900 is only two figures, so we add a 0 in front of 900 to get 3 figures.
We do the same for all angles from 00 to 900)
The bearing South (S) is represented by 1800
The bearing West (W) is represented by 2700.
So, if you are travelling North, your bearing is 0000. We usually

represent this by a straight line straight up your page. If you are
travelling in any other direction, your bearing is measured clockwise
from North.
Example
1. the bearing of point P is 0650, which is the
number of degrees in the angle measured in a
clockwise direction from the north line to the
line joining the centre of the compass
at O with the point P (i.e. line OP).
2 the bearing of point Q is 3300, which is the

number of degrees in the angle measured in a
clockwise direction from the north line to the
line joining the centre of the compass
at O with the point Q (i.e. line OQ).
The bearing of one point from another point

A bearing is used to represent the direction of one point relative to
another point.
Example
The bearing of P from Q is 085º. The bearing of Q from P is 275º.
Note 1: The words “…from Q…” tell us that we measure the

bearing at point Q. Similarly, the words “…from P…” tell us that
we measure the bearing at point P.
Note: Because we measure from the N-line, it is only necessary

to draw the N-S line in diagrams. Then we join the two points
with a straight line and measure the angles in a clockwise
direction from the two N-S lines.
Worked examples
Example 1: Points on the compass can all be converted into 3-figure

bearings. We know that North is 0000.
Illustrate and write down the 3-figure bearing for
(a) East (E) (b) West (W) (c) South (S)
(d) South-East
Solution:
(a) N (b) N
900
E
W 2700
The bearing for East is 900 The bearing for West is 2700
(c) N (d)
1800 1350
S
The bearing for South is 1800 The bearing for South-East is 1350
(900 + 450)
Example 2: A ship sails from A to B on a bearing of 1200.

On what bearing will it have to sail to return from B to A?
N N
1200
A
B
Solution:
N N
1200
A 1200
B
1800 3000
We can extend the line from A to B, then rotate through 180° to head in
the opposite direction. We can see from the diagram above that the
bearing from B to A is 3000, because 1200 + 1800 = 3000.
Example 3: The map of an island is shown below. Different

installations are also shown on the map.
What is the bearing of
(a) the beach from the tower,
(b) the tower from the church,
(c) the mine from the tower,
(d) the quay from the tower,
(e) the tower from the lighthouse?
Solution: Draw the N-S line at every location (place) from which you
must measure the angle for the bearing.
(a) 1350 (900 + 450, draw the N-S line at the tower)
(b) 0900
(c) 3150 (2700 + 450)
(d) 0450
(e) 0450
1 Write down the bearing of point P in each of the following diagrams:
a) b)
c) d)
2 Use the map of Southern Africa below to find the 3-figure bearing of:
(a) Johannesburg from Windhoek

(b) Johannesburg from Cape Town
(c) Cape Town from Johannesburg
(d) Lusaka from Cape Town
(e) Kimberley from Durban.
Feedback on this learning activity can be found at the back of this

module.
4.2.3 Scale drawings
It is not always possible to draw on paper the actual size of real-life

objects such as building plans, or maps, or designs of vehicles. We
therefore, need scale drawings to represent the size. Scale
drawings make it easy to see large things, like buildings and roads, on
paper.
What is a scale? The term scale is used to represent the
relationship between a measurement on a model and the
corresponding measurement on the real-life object.
The lines in the scale drawing are all the same fraction of the lines that
they represent in the real-life object. This fraction is called the scale
of the drawing.
The scale of a diagram, or a map, or a design, is given either as a

1
fraction, like 25 000 or as a ratio, like 1 : 25 000.
Note: the first number always refers to the length of the drawing on
paper while the second number refers to the length of the real-life
object.
Example 1
Suppose you are told that the height of a house is drawn to scale.
The scale of the drawing is 1 : 30.
If the height of the drawing of the house on paper is 10 cm, how high
is the house?
Solution
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 1
Step 1: Write a proportion as follows: =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒 30
Step 2: Cross multiply the numerator of one fraction with the

denominator of the other fraction.
We get: height in drawing × 30 = height of real-life house × 1

The height of the house in the drawing is 10 cm, so we have
10 cm × 30 = real height × 1
So, the real height of the house = 30 × 10 cm
= 300 cm
Note: the only aspect in a scale drawing that does not change
from that of the real object, is the angles. The angles on a scale
drawing are exactly the same as the angles on the real object.
Example 2
A rugby field is 100 m long and 45 m wide. A scale drawing is made
of the field with a scale of 1 cm to 10 m. What are the length and the
width of the field in the scale drawing.
Solution
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚
=
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚 10 𝑚
Length in drawing × 10 m = real length in m × 1 cm

100 𝑚 × 1 𝑐𝑚
Length in drawing = 10 𝑚
= 10 cm
Width in drawing × 10 m = real width in m × 1 cm

45 𝑚 × 1 𝑐𝑚
width in drawing = 10 𝑚
= 4,5 cm
1 On the plan of a house the kitchen is 3,5 cm long and 2,6 cm wide.
The scale of the plan is 1 cm to 2 m. Calculate the actual length and
width of the kitchen.
2 The actual distance between two towns is 115 km.

Calculate the distance between the towns on a map whose scale is
(a) 1 cm to 10 km
(b) 1 cm to 25 km.
3 A ladder is 5 m long and stands against a wall at an angle of 65 0 with

the ground. A scale drawing is made of the ladder against the wall
using a scale of 1 cm to 2 m.
(a) How long is the ladder on the scale drawing?
(b) What is the angle that the ladder makes with the ground on the
scale drawing?

module.
How to draw accurate scale diagrams
1 Draw a rough sketch in which you show the lines and their lengths
as well as the angles and their sizes.
2 Use the scale that is given or use a suitable scale that is easy to
use and gives a drawing as large as possible.
3 Use the scale to work out the lengths of the lines in the drawing.
4 Make a clean and accurate scale drawing by using the appropriate

geometrical instruments. Show on the drawing the given lengths
and the angles. Write the scale next to the drawing.
5 Measure lengths and angles in the drawing so that you can work
out the answers to the problem. Remember to change the
lengths to full size by using the scale. Also remember that the
full size angles are the same as the angles in the scale drawing.
The diagram shows the positions of the school, the church and a
shopping mall in a town as well as the distances between them. The
bearing of the shopping mall from the school is 850.
School N
900m 1,44 km
Shopping mall
Church 1,6 km
(a) Make an accurate scale drawing of the diagram. Use a scale of 1 cm

to 200 m.
(b) A treasure id hidden in the triangle that is formed by the positions of
the school, church and shopping mall. The treasure lies on a
bearing of 0750 from the church and 700 m from the school.
Draw appropriate construction lines and indicate the position, T, of
the treasure on the diagram.
(c) Write down the distance and the bearing of the treasure from the
shopping mall.

module.
4.3 How to construct nets of cubes, cuboids, triangular prisms
and cylinders

 understand a net of a cube
 construct nets of cuboids, triangular prisms and cylinders
What is meant by a “net” of a cube (3-D shape)?

A shape which can be cut out and folded to make the outside surface of a 3-
D shape is called a net of the 3-D shape (solid). The easiest of nets is the
net for a cube.
a cube
net of a cube
The diagram above is a net of a cube. How do we know this? A cube has
six faces that are all squares, so the net must have six squares of equal size.
Furthermore, think of the cube as having four sides, plus a top and a bottom.
Now arrange four squares in a line. These squares form the sides. Put the
top square on one side of this line, and the bottom square on the other side
of this line. It doesn't really matter where on each side, they all work.
To make this cube, the net is folded as shown below:
The net Step 1 Step 2 The cube
A solid can have several different nets. Below are three more nets of the
cube:
The net of a cuboid
The diagram represents a small box that has the shape of a cuboid.
The cuboid has 6 rectangular faces.

2 faces (sides) have measurements of 3 cm × 4 cm,
2 faces (sides) have measurements of 3 cm × 5,5 cm, and
2 faces (top and bottom) have measurements of 4 cm × 5,5 cm
Below is one possible net of the cuboid:
Can you identify the 6 faces according to their measurements?
The net of a triangular prism
Below is the diagram of a triangular prism.
You can see that the shape has 2 triangular faces and 3 rectangular
faces. This gives us a total of 5 faces.
A possible net of the triangular prism can look as follows:
The net of a cylinder
Below is a diagram of a cylinder:
The cylinder has 3 faces: 2 circular faces (the top and the bottom)
and a rectangular curved face.
A net of the cylinder would look as follows:
1 The diagram represents a view of an ordinary die. In a die the

number of dots on opposite faces add up to 7.
On this net of a die, put the correct number of dots in the blank spaces.
2 The diagram represents a small box with measurements as shown:
a) How many faces does the box have?

b) Draw an accurate net for the box.

module.
4.4 Transformations

 understand a transformation
 describe and construct enlargements
4.4.1 Understanding transformations
A transformation is a movement that changes the position and/or

shape and/or size of an object.
Look carefully at the image of this triangle:

What has happened to each of the following triangles?
A B C
Figure A has the same shape and position as the original, but
differs in size – it is larger than the original.
Figure A has been enlarged.
Figure B has the same shape and size as the original, but a
different position – it faces in a different direction.
Figure B has been rotated clockwise.
Figure C has the same position as the original, but differs in shape
and size - it is larger than the original.
Figure C has been stretched in a horizontal direction.
All these movements of the original shape that resulted in figures A, B

and C, changed either the size, or the position, or the shape of the
original shape. Therefore, they are all transformations.
In this section we are interested in the first transformation, namely

ENLARGEMENT.
ENLARGEMENT MAKES A SHAPE LARGER OR SMALLER
Two things you need to know about an enlargement:
1 The scale factor: how many times larger or smaller

2 The centre of enlargement: the point from where you enlarge.
Example 1
Enlarge this rectangle by a scale factor of 2.
A scale factor of 2 means the image is 2 times larger than the
object.
Therefore, you multiply all the lengths by 2.
Note: A centre of enlargement is not given, so it does not matter
from which point you enlarge.
Example 2
1
Enlarge this shape by a scale factor of 2.
𝟏
A scale factor of 𝟐 means the image is 2 times smaller than the
object. Therefore, you divide all the lengths by 2.
Again, a centre of enlargement is not given, so it does not matter

from which point you enlarge.
Note: Although the image is smaller than the object, we still use
the term “enlargement” to describe the transformation.
4.4.2 How to find the scale factor and the centre of enlargement of an
enlargement
When we describe an enlargement, we need to mention two aspects

of the enlargement: the scale factor and the centre of enlargement.
Note 1: In this work the image is always labelled exactly as the

object is but with accent marks. For instance, if the object is
labelled ABC, then the image is labelled as A'B'C'.
Note 2: When the diagrams are given on graph paper it is easy
to find the scale factor and the centre of enlargement. If the
diagrams are not given on graph paper, one has to resort to
actual measurement.
In the following diagram we have the triangle GHI and its image G'H'I'.
ΔGHI has been transformed into ΔG'H'I'.
1 Because the image, ΔG'H'I', is larger than the object, ΔGHI, we

know that this transformation is an enlargement.
2 How to find the scale factor:

Because the shapes are on graph paper, we can see that all the
sides of the image, ΔG'H'I', are 2 times longer than the sides of
the object, ΔGHI.
To find the scale factor, we divide the image lengths by the object
lengths.
𝐺′𝐼′ 𝐺′𝐻′ 𝐻′𝐼′
The scale factor = or or
𝐺𝐼 𝐺𝐻 𝐻𝐼
2
= 1
= 2
3 How to find the centre of enlargement

Join the vertices of the image with vertices of the object and then
extend the three lines (broken lines) in the direction of the object.
The point where these three lines meet, is the centre of
enlargement.
The three lines meet at the point (0, ‒1).
The point (0, ‒1) is the centre of enlargement.
Description of this transformation:
The transformation is an enlargement with scale factor 2 and

centre of enlargement the point (0, ‒1).
1 In each of the following two diagrams, the larger shape is the image.
i) Find the scale factor in each case.
ii) Find the centre of enlargement and label it C in each case.
a) b)
2 In each of the diagrams, describe fully the transformation.
a) b)

module.
4.4.3 How to construct enlargements
Example
Construct the enlargement of
triangle ABC on the right by a scale
factor of 2 from the centre of
enlargement labelled P.
Solution
1 Draw a line from point P to vertex
C and extend the length of this
line by more than 2 times
Solution
(broken line from P to C).
2 Count the units from point P to
vertex C: it is 2 units.
3 Multiply the 2 units by the scale
factor 2 to get 4 units.
4 Now count 4 units from P on the
extended line to C to get the
position of C1, the image of vertex
C.
5 Repeat steps 2 to 4 with vertex B
and vertex A. This will give you
the images of vertex B and vertex
A.
6 Now draw triangle A1B1C1, which
is the enlargement of ΔABC, with
scale factor 2 from the centre of
enlargement P.
1 On the grid below, draw accurately the enlargement of triangle A,

scale factor 2 and centre of enlargement (4, 5). Label the
enlargement D.
2 In the diagram below, ΔG'H'I' is the image of ΔGHI under an
enlargement.
a) Find the coordinates of the centre of enlargement.
b) Find the scale factor of the enlargement.

module.
4.5 Polygons
Basic competencies for this section

 identify and use angle properties of polygons
 calculate the sizes of interior and exterior angles of regular and
irregular polygons
 interpret and use angle properties of circles
4.5.1 Getting to know polygons
If the boundary (perimeter) of a plane (flat) figure is closed and
consists of straight lines, the figure is called a polygon.
Examples of polygons:
triangle rectangle parallelogram pentagon
All the figures above are plane figures and they are also polygons.
The word polygon comes from Greek and means “many angles”.
The following figures are plane figures but are not polygons:
boundary not closed boundary not a straight line
Using this definition of a polygon, we see that the circle is not a

polygon.
Polygons are named according to the number of sides or angles

that they have. A polygon has the same number of sides as it has
angles.
Number of sides / angles Name of polygon

3 triangle
4 quadrilateral
5 pentagon
6 hexagon
7 heptagon
8 octagon
9 nonagon
10 decagon
n n-agon
Polygons are divided into two groups - regular polygons and irregular
polygons.
Regular polygons: All the sides have the same length and all the
angles are equal in size.
Irregular polygons: If a polygon is not regular, it is called an irregular
polygon.
1 Look at the shapes below and explain why each of them does not fit
the description of a polygon:
(a) (b) (c)
2 How many polygons can you identify in figure PQRS?:

module.
4.5.2 Angle properties of polygons
To find the sum of the angles of a polygon, we divide the polygon

into triangles because we already know that the sum of the angles of
a triangle is equal to 1800.
Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon
The sum of the angles The sum of the angles

(angle sum) of a The sum of the angles
(angle sum) of a pentagon (angle sum) of a hexagon
quadrilateral is 1800 + 1800 + 1800 + 1800,
1800, i.e. 2 × 1800 = 3600 is 1800 + 1800 + 1800 +
i.e. 3 × 1800 = 5400 1800, i.e. 4 × 1800 = 7200
If you draw up a table with the results for angle calculations of polygons, you
will see a pattern that you can use to find a general formula for the angle
sum of a polygon with n sides:
Number of
Name of polygon Number of sides triangles Angle sum
triangle 3 1 (3 – 2) 1 × 1800 = 1800
quadrilateral 4 2 (4 – 2) 2 × 1800 = 3600
pentagon 5 3 (5 – 2) 3 × 1800 = 5400
hexagon 6 4 (6 – 2) 4 × 1800 = 7200
n-agon n n–2 (n – 2) × 1800
The angle sum of a polygon with n sides is

(n ‒ 2) × 1800
Example 1 Calculate the size of angle a in the quadrilateral below:
Solution
a + 1000 + 550 + 650 = 3600 (angle sum of quadrilateral)
a + 2200 = 3600
a = 1400
Example 2 A quadrilateral has angles of x0, 2x0, (x + 42)0, and (2x

+ 72)0. Calculate the value of x.
Solution
x0 + 2x0 + (x + 42)0 + (2x + 72)0 = 3600 (angle sum of
quadrilateral)
6x + 1140 = 3600
6x = 2460
x = 410
Example 3 a) Find the angle sum of a regular polygon with 7 sides.

b) Find the size of each interior angle of the polygon.
Solution a) Angle sum of 7-sided polygon = (7 ‒ 2) × 1800

= 5 × 1800
= 9000
b) A 7-sided polygon has 7 interior angles.
9000
Each interior angle = = 128,60
7
4.5.3 Exterior angles of regular and irregular polygons
The quadrilateral KLMN on the left has 4 exterior

angles 1, 2, 3, and 4.
[If you extend one side of a polygon, then the

angle that this side makes with the next side is
called an exterior angle].
Imagine that you start walking from point Q in the

direction of N, and then at N turn right to walk in
the direction of M. When your turn right at N, you
turn through angle 3.
At M you turn right again to walk in the direction of
L. This second time you turn through angle 4.
Similarly, at point L you turn right through angle 1

and at K right again through angle 2 to face in the
same direction as when you started walking.
You have now turned through a total angle of

1 + 2 + 3 + 4. However, you have turned
your body through one complete turn (or circle)
since you have started.
Therefore, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 3600
We can therefore, say
The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is equal to 3600
exterior angle
interior angle
Note: exterior angle + interior angle = 1800

because they lie on a straight line (line ML)
Example 1 Find the size of each interior angle of

a) a regular pentagon
b) a regular octagon
Solution
a) A regular pentagon has 5 equal exterior angles which have a sum
of 3600.
3600
Therefore, each exterior angle = = 720
5
and each interior angle = 1800 ‒ 720 (the exterior and interior
angles lie on a straight line)
= 1080
b) A regular octagon has 8 equal exterior angles which have a sum

of 3600.
3600
Hence, each exterior angle = = 450
8
So, each interior angle = 1800 ‒ 450 (the exterior and interior
angles lie on a straight line)
= 1350
Example 2 Four of the interior angles of an irregular pentagon are

each 1000. Calculate the size of the fifth interior angle.
Solution There are 4 interior angles of 1000 each.

This means there are 4 exterior angles of 1800 ‒ 1000 each.
These 4 exterior angles add up to 4 × 800 = 3200
But 5 exterior angles add up to 3600

So, the 5th exterior angle = 3600 ‒ 3200 = 400
So, the 5th interior angle = 1800 ‒ 400 = 1400
1 Calculate the size of the lettered angle in the diagram:
2 A quadrilateral has 3 interior angles of 850 each.

Calculate the size of the 4th interior angle.
3 Each of the interior angles of a regular polygon is 165 0.
Calculate the number of sides of the polygon.

module.
4.6 Angle properties of circles

 calculate unknown angles by using angle properties of the circle
4.6.1 What we already know about circles

In grade 6 we have already learnt the following facts about circles:
A circle is a round flat shape where all the points on the

circumference (boundary line) are the same distance from the
centre. The area inside the circumference forms part of the circle.
 The centre is the point in the middle of the circle.

 The diameter is the distance across the circle through the
centre.
 The radius is the distance from the centre to any point on the
circle.
 The circumference is the total length around the circle.
 The area is all of the grey-coloured part inside the
circumference.
Here are some more facts about circles:

 The diameter divides the circle into two equal parts. Each of
these parts is called a semicircle.
 The line which touches the circle in only one point, is called a
tangent.
 The line that joins two points on the circumference of the circle,
is called a chord.
4.6.2 Angle properties of the circle
What follows are some angle properties the circle. You do not have
to remember the number of the property, but you must remember
the property so that you can solve problems:
Property 1: The angle in a semicircle is always equal to 900
If QR is the diameter of the circle and P

is a point on the circumference of the
circle, then angle QPR = 900.
Similarly, angle QSR = 900.
The angle in a semi-circle is equal to 900.
Note: In this study course we do not have to prove this theorem.
Example
In the diagram on the left, AB is a diameter of the circle,

∠DAB = 400 and ∠ABC = 350.
Calculate the size of:

a) ∠CAD
b) ∠CBD
Solution
a) angle ACB = 900 (angle in semi-circle)
∠CAB + 900 + 350 = 1800 (angle sum of ΔABC)
∠CAB = 1800 ‒ 1250 = 550
hence, ∠CAD = 550 ‒ 400

= 150
b) angle ADB = 900 (angle in semi-circle)

∠DBA + 900 + 400 = 1800 (angle sum of ΔABD)
∠DBA = 1800 ‒ 1300 = 500
hence, ∠CBD = 500 ‒ 350 = 150
Property 2: The angle between a tangent and the radius of a

circle is equal to 900
If the radius is drawn to the point of

contact with the circle, then the
angle between the radius and the
tangent is equal to 900
This means that angle XYZ = 900.

Similarly, angle XYT = 900.
The angle between the radius and a tangent of a circle

through the point of contact, is equal to 900.
Example
In the diagram, ZY is a tangent to circle

O and XOY is a diameter.
Find the sizes of the following angles
and give reasons for each answer:
(a) ∠XTY (b) ∠YTZ
(c) ∠ZYX (d) ∠YXT
Solution:
(a) ∠XTY = 900 (angle in a semicircle)
(b) ∠YTZ = 1800 – 900 (angles on a straight line)

= 900
(angle between radius and tangent)

(c) ∠ZYX = 900
(angle XYZ = 900; angle ZYT = 430)

(d) ∠TYX = 900 – 430
= 470
(angle sum of triangle)
so, ∠YXT = 1800 – (900 – 470)
= 430
Property 3: The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle

at the circumference.
In circle O on the left, angle QOR stands

on chord QR. Angle QPR also stands on
chord QR. If this is the case, then
angle QOR = 2 × angle QPR
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the

circumference of the circle (if the angles stand on the same chord
or arc).
Example
Find the size of each angle marked with small letters in the diagrams.
Give reasons for your answers.
The centre of the circle is marked as O.
a) b) c)
Solution
1
a) Angle x = (700) (angle at the centre of a circle is twice the
2
size of the angle on the circumference if both angles stand on the same chord).
= 350
1
b) Angle y = (1100) (angle at the centre of a circle is twice
2
the size of the angle on the circumference if both angles stand on the same
chord).
= 550
1
c) Angle u = (1200) (angle at the centre of a circle is twice
2
chord).
= 600
1
Angle v = 2 (1200) (angle at the centre of a circle is twice
chord).
= 600
Property 4: Angles in same circle segment and standing on the

same chord, are equal.
In circle O on the left, angle ZXY stands on

chord ZY. Angle ZPY also stands on
chord ZY. If this is the case, then
angle XXY = angle ZPY
Angles in the same circle segment and standing on the same chord,
are equal.
Example Find the size of each angle marked with small letters in the
diagrams. Give reasons for your answers.
a) b) c)
Solution
a) Angle x = 500 (angles in the same the same circle segment
and standing on the same chord are
equal).
b) Angle y = 350 (angles in the same the same circle segment

equal).
Angle z = 350 (angles in the same the same circle segment
equal).
Angle s = 680 (angles in the same the same circle segment

equal).
Angle t = 240 (angles in the same the same circle segment
equal).
Property 5: Angles in opposite circle segments that lie on
the circumference of a circle, add up to 1800
(are supplementary).
Note: The vertices of the quadrilateral lie

on the circumference of the circle. The
quadrilateral is called a cyclic
quadrilateral
If this is the case, then

angle a + angle c = 1800
and, angle b + angle d = 1800
Angles in opposite circle segments that lie on

the circumference of a circle, add up to 1800
(are supplementary).
Example Find the size of each lettered angle in the diagram.
Solution
Angle p = 1800 ‒ 950 (opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral)
= 850
Angle q = 1800 ‒ 750 (opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral)
= 1050
1 In the following diagrams, O is the centre of each circle.

Find, in each case, the value of angle x.
a) b)
2 In the diagram, TV is the diameter of a circle with centre O.

STU and SWV are straight lines. The lines TV and WU intersect at X. If
∠WSU = 200 and ∠TVW = 550, find
a) ∠WTU
b) ∠TWU
c) ∠TXU
3 In the diagram, P, Q, R and S lie on the circumference of circle O. PQ is

parallel to SR and ∠QOR = 500.
Find
a) ∠QSR
b) ∠SPQ
c) ∠SQR
4.7 Summary
In this unit we learnt how to construct and describe enlargements in
geometry. We also learnt how to do scale drawings and nets. In the third
place the unit explained how to apply the properties of similar triangles,
regular and irregular polygons, as well as the properties of angles in circles.

mathematics.
Feedback on the learning activities in this unit can be found at the back
of the module.
STUDY UNIT 5: ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
5.1 How to simplify simple algebraic fractions

5.1.1 Revision - how to simplify numerical fractions
5.1.2 How to simplify simple algebraic fractions
5.1.3 The four operations with simple algebraic fractions
5.1.4 How to factorize algebraic fractions
5.2 How to simplify more advanced algebraic fractions

5.2.1 Addition and subtraction of advanced algebraic fractions
5.2.2 Multiplication and division of advanced algebraic fractions
5.3 Linear equations

5.3.1 What is meant by a “linear equation”?
5.3.2 How to solve linear equations
5.3.3 How to solve linear equations that contain fractions
5.3.4 How to change word problems into linear equations and solve them
5.4 Summary

Introduction
This unit introduces you to Algebraic Thinking. Algebraic thinking (algebra

reasoning) involves forming generalizations from your experience with numbers
and computation and how to formalize these ideas with the use of a meaningful
symbol system.
This unit explains how to carry out the four basic operations with algebraic fractions;
how to solve linear equations which contain brackets and fractions; and how to
solve quadratic equations by factorisation.
Algebraic thinking pervades all of the subject mathematics and is essential for
making mathematics useful in everyday life.
Readings

Learners’ Book.
2 This study guide
Learning outcomes
 perform the four basic operations with simple algebraic fractions
 perform the four operations with more advanced algebraic fractions that
include factorisation
 solve linear equations with and without brackets
 solve linear equations with fractions
 solve word problems by translating them into linear equations
Learning activities
Learning activity 25: Simplifying algebraic fractions

Learning activity 26: The four operations with algebraic fractions
Learning activity 27: Factorizing algebraic fractions
Learning activity 28: The four operations with advanced algebraic fractions
Learning activity 29: Solving linear algebraic equations
Learning activity 30: Translating word problems into equations and solving them
5.1 How to simplify simple algebraic fractions

 simplify algebraic fractions
 perform the four basic operations with simple algebraic fractions
 how to factorize algebraic expressions
5.1.1 Revision - how to simplify numerical fractions

Before taking a look at simplifying algebraic fractions, let's remind
ourselves how to simplify numerical fractions.
Sometimes the numerator (top number) and the denominator (bottom

number) of a fraction can be divided by the same number. We call
this simplifying the fraction. Fractions often have to be written in
their simplest form. This means they have to be simplified until they
cannot be simplified any more.
To do this, look for fractions where the numerator and the
denominator are both multiples of the same number. This gives you
a common factor, which you use to divide the top and bottom number,
in order to simplify or cancel down the fraction as required.
16
Example Write the fraction in its simplest form.
20
Solution The numerator, 16, as well as the denominator, 20, are

multiples of the number 2. Therefore, 2 is called a common factor
of 16 and 20 and we divide both numbers by 2 to simplify them.
16 8
=
20 10
8
But the fraction is not simplified enough because both 8 and 10 still
10
have 2 as a common factor. We must therefore, simplify further:
8 4
=
10 5
4
The numbers 4 and 5 do not have any more common factors, so is
5
16
the simplest form of the fraction, .
20
We can see that it is better to divide by the highest common factor.

This means that the fraction can be simplified in just one step.
To simplify a fraction, divide the numerator as well as the

denominator by their highest common factor.
5.1.2 How to simplify simple algebraic fractions
We use a similar process as for simplifying numerical fractions:

divide both numerator and denominator by the highest common
factor.
𝑎2 𝑏
Example 1 Write the fraction in its simplest form.
𝑎𝑏2
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑏
Solution =
𝑎𝑏2 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑏
We have factorized the numerator and the denominator and we see

that there are 2 common factors: a and b. Since a and b are both
factors, we simplify the fraction by dividing the numerator and
denominator by both a and b.:
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑏 1 × 𝑎 × 1 𝑎
= = =
𝑎𝑏 2 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑏 1 × 1 × 𝑏 𝑏
Remember: a number divided by itself is equal to 1.
(𝑎+2)
Example 2 Write fraction in its simplest form:
(𝑎+3)(𝑎+2)
Solution You can see that (𝑎 + 2) is the common factor for both
the numerator and the denominator. So we divide by (𝑎 + 2):
(𝑎+2) 1 1
= : = :
(𝑎+3)(𝑎+2) (𝑎+3)(1) (𝑎+3)
5.1.3 The four operations with simple algebraic fractions
 Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions

We can add or subtract algebraic fractions in the same way as we
do in arithmetic: we use the common denominator approach,
because we can only add or subtract fractions which have the
same (common) denominator. We use the lowest common
denominator (LCD) to get the final fraction in its simplest form.
𝑎 𝑐
Example 1 Addition +
𝑏 𝑑
Solution To make the denominators the same, we multiply the
numerator and the denominator of each fraction by the
denominator of the other fraction.
𝑎 𝑑 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑐
If we do this, we get ( ) + ( ) = +
𝑏 𝑑 𝑑 𝑏 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
Now the denominators are the same (bd) and we can add the
fractions.
𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑏 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
+ =
𝑏𝑑 𝑑𝑏 𝑏𝑑
Example 2 Addition
2 7 (2 × 𝑦) + (7 × 𝑥) 2𝑦 + 7𝑥
+ = =
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦
Sometimes you have to simplify the fraction at the end, like the
following example shows:
Example 3 Subtraction
x+3 𝑥 – 5 3(𝑥 + 3) − 2(𝑥 – 5)

‒ =
2 3 6
3𝑥 + 9 − 2𝑥 + 10
= (simplify by adding and
6
subtracting like terms)
𝑥 + 19
=
6
Example 4 Subtraction
𝑥 + 2 𝑥 (𝑥+2)(𝑥 –2) – 𝑥(𝑥)

– =
𝑥 𝑥 – 2 𝑥(𝑥 –2)
𝑥2 – 4 – 𝑥2
=
𝑥 2 – 2𝑥
–4 –4
= =
𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 – 2)
Simplify the following fractions:

1 1 2 3 4 3
1 + 2 + 3 ‒
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑡 𝑡2
2𝑥 + 5 3𝑥 ‒ 1 4𝑥 ‒ 1 𝑥+ 3
4 + 5 –
3 2 4 3
 Multiplication of algebraic fractions

To multiply fractions with each other, you simply multiply the
denominators with each other and the denominators with each
other:
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
× =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
 Division of algebraic fractions

When we divide by a fraction, we simply invert (turn upside down)
the second fraction and then multiply in the normal way:
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑
÷ = ×
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎𝑑
=
𝑏𝑐
𝒂 𝟐 𝑎 × 2 2a
Example 1 × = =
𝒃 𝒙 𝑏 × 𝑥 bx
3𝑥 𝑥 (𝟑𝒙)(𝒙)
Example 2 × =
𝑥–2 3 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟐)
3𝑥 2 𝑥2
= = (cancel 3)
3(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 2
3𝑦 2 𝑦 3𝑦 2 2
Example 3 ÷ = ×
𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1 𝑦
2(3𝑦 2 )
=
𝑦(𝑥+1)
6𝑦 2 6𝑦
= = (cancel y)
𝑦(𝑥+1) 𝑥 + 1
Simplify each of the following expressions:

2𝑦 𝑦 𝑥−3 𝑥+2 2𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 2
1 × 2 + 3 –
𝑦−3 6 2 3 8 12
8𝑥 2(𝑦 − 1) 2𝑥 2 𝑥
4 ÷ 5 ÷
3(𝑦 + 1) 6𝑥 𝑦 − 3 5
3 + 𝑥 𝑥 5 5− 𝑦
6 + 7 –
𝑥 3− 𝑥 𝑦+ 2 2
5.1.4 How to factorize algebraic fractions
When you remove brackets from an expression like x(y + z), you get
xy + xz (the expanded form). You have multiplied the factor outside
the brackets with the factor inside the brackets.
Factorization is the reverse process of removing brackets. To

factorize, you have to get xy + xz back in the form x(y + z). In other
words, you have to break up the expression into factors or rewrite
the expression as factor × factor.
There are four methods of factorization: finding a common factor,

grouping, the difference between two squares, and factorising
quadratic three-terms. The easiest one is taking out the common
factor.
 The common factor
Finding the common factor is the first method of factorization.
Example 1 Factorize completely: 3𝑥 2 ‒ 4x

Solution This algebraic expression has two terms, 3𝑥 2 and
‒ 4x. (Note: the minus sign, ‒, goes with the term). Each of these
two terms contains an x, which therefore, is the common factor. We
take out this common factor to get x(3x ‒ 4), the form that we want.
Therefore, 3𝑥 2 ‒ 4x = x(3x ‒ 4)
Example 2 Factorize ‒ q ‒ r
At first glance it looks as if there is no common factor. However, each
of the two terms, ‒ q and ‒ r, contains ‒1 as the common factor.
Therefore, ‒ q ‒ r = ‒1(q + r)
4𝑥 ‒ 6
Example 3 Simplify by factorising
2𝑥 2 ‒ 3𝑥
Solution The two terms, 4𝑥 and ‒ 6, in the numerator have 2 as a

common factor. The two terms, 2𝑥 2 and ‒ 3𝑥, in the denominator
have x as a common factor. If we take both these common factors
out, we get
4𝑥 ‒ 6 2(2𝑥 ‒ 3)
=
2𝑥 2 ‒ 3𝑥 𝑥(2𝑥 ‒ 3)
Now we see that both the new numerator and denominator have
(2𝑥 ‒ 3) as a common factor. If we cancel (2𝑥 ‒ 3) in both the
numerator and the denominator, we get
4𝑥 ‒ 6 2(2𝑥 ‒ 3) 2
= =
2𝑥 2 ‒ 3𝑥 𝑥(2𝑥 ‒ 3) 𝑥
 Group terms (write them together) that contain a common

factor
Grouping of terms is a second method of factorization and we

use it, when possible, to get a common factor.
Example Factorize completely: ax + ay + by + bx

Solution You can group the first two terms because they have a
as a common factor. We can also group the last two terms because
they have b as a common factor. If we do that, we get
ax + ay + by + bx = (ax + ay) + (by + bx)
Now we take a and b out as common factors from the two groups:
= a(x + y) + b(x + y)
We have (x + y) as a common factor, and we can take that out:
= (x + y)(a + b)
So, ax + ay + by + bx = a(x + y) + b(x + y)
= (x + y)(a + b)
Remember: Always group terms in such a way as to yield a
common factor with which you can simplify the expression.
 The difference between two squares

The difference between two squares is a third method of
factorization.
When you multiply (x ‒ y) with (x + y), you get

(x ‒ y) (x + y) = 𝑥 2 ‒ xy + xy ‒ 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 ‒ 𝑦 2
The result 𝑥 2 ‒ 𝑦 2 is the difference between two squares.

(each term is a square and they have a minus sign between them).
More examples:
1 4𝑦 2 ‒ 9𝑧 2 because 4𝑦 2 = (2𝑦)2 and 9𝑧 2 = (3𝑧)2
2 25𝑘 2 ‒ 16𝑙 2 because 25𝑘 2 = (5𝑘)2 and 16𝑙 2 = (4𝑙)2
3 𝑡 2 ‒ 1 because 𝑡 2 = (𝑡)2 and 1 = (1)2
To factorize the difference between two squares is the reverse of the

multiplication that we used above:
You write the square root of each term with a minus sign
between them in one bracket and the same two square roots with
a plus sign between them in the other bracket.
Examples:
A Factorize each of the following expressions:
1 x2 – y2; 2 36a2 – 1; 3 4b2 – 9c2;
9𝑎6 49𝑐 10
4 x4 – y2; 5 – ;
16 4
1 3
B Work out the value: (64)2 – (54)2
Solutions:
A 1 x2 – y2 = (x – y)(x + y)
2 36a2 – 1 = (6a – 1)(6a + 1)
3 4b2 – 9c2 = (4b – 3c)(4b + 3c)
4 x4 – y2 = (x2 – y)(x2 + y)
9𝑎6 49𝑐 10 3𝑎3 7𝑐 5 3𝑎3 7𝑐 5
5 – = ( – )( + )
16 4 4 2 4 2
1 3 25 2 23 2
B (64)2 – (54)2 = (4) – (4)
25 23 25 23
= (4 – )(4 + )
4 4
2 48
= (4) ( 4 )
1
= (2) 12
= 6
 Factorizing quadratic expressions

Factorising quadratic expressions is a fourth method of
factorization.
Expressions that have the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are

numbers, are called quadratic expressions. They are quadratic
when the highest index is 2.
Examples are:
1. x2 + 8x – 16
In this example a = 1, b = 8, and c = –16.
2. 4x2 – 5x – 27
In this example a = 4, b = –5, and c = –27.
y3 + 2y – 1 is not a quadratic expression: because the highest

index is 3.
If you multiply two factors like (3x + 1)(2x – 4), you get
(3x + 1)(2x – 4) = 3x(2x – 4) + 1(2x – 4)
= 6x2 – 12x + 2x – 4
= 6x2 – 10x – 4
The answer is a quadratic expression!
NOTE: the first term in the answer, 6𝑥 2 , is the product of 3x and

2x
the second term in the answer, –10x, is a combination of
(3x and 1) and (2x and ‒4),
while the third term, –4, is the product of 1 and –4.
The following example shows how we factorize a quadratic

expression:
Example Factorize 4x2 + 10x – 24

Method:
Step 1: Look for the greatest common factor (common to all three
terms - constants and variable x).
Step 2: In this case there is a common factor of 2. We take the
common factor out and write it in front of the the two factors
as follows:
4x2 + 10x – 24 = 2(2x2 + 5x – 12).
Step 3: After taking out the common factor 2, we now only work with
the remainder (2x2 + 5x – 12). Note that the coefficient
of the first term is now 2, and 1 has only the factors 2 and
1. Hence, the x of one factor gets a 2 as coefficient while
the x of the other factor also gets a 1 as coefficient,
therefore, 4x2 + 10x – 24 = 2(2x )(1x ).
Step 4: Note that the constant term is –12.
Write down pairs of factors that will give you a product of
–12.
These are (–12, 1), (12, –1), (–6, 2), (6, –2), (–4, 3),
(4, –3)
Step 5: Note that the coefficient for the middle term is +5. Now
determine which of the pairs listed in step 3 cross-multiplied
with the pairs listed in step 4 will give you a sum of +5 (the
middle term).
2
Step 6: Note that when the pair ( ) listed in step 3 and the
1
−3
pair ( ) listed in step 4 are cross-multiplied as follows
4
2 −3
( ) , ( )
1 4
it gives you +8 – 3 = +5, which is our middle term!

Step 7: Therefore, we insert the numbers +4 and –3 as follows in the
brackets in step 3:
4x2 + 10x – 24 = 2(2x – 3)(x + 4).
+
NOTE: The 2 goes with the 1 and the ‒3 goes with the 4.
Step 8: You go through the 7 steps mentally and when you write
out the solution, it looks as follows:
Not necessary to write out
factors of 2 factors of –12

Solution written out:
2 −3
4x2 + 10x – 24 = 2(2x – 3)(x + 4). ( ) ( )
1 4
Note: It is obvious that when the coefficient of x2 in the

quadratic expression is 1, you only need to find a pair of factors
for the constant term that will give you the middle term.
Examples
Factorize each of the following expressions:
1 x2 + 7x + 6
Coefficient of x2 is 1, so the factors of 6 that give 7, are 6 and 1.

So, x2 + 7x + 6 = (x + 6)(x + 1)
2 2x2 ‒ 14x ‒ 36
Common factor is 2, so 2x2 ‒ 14x ‒ 36 = 2(x2 ‒ 7x ‒ 18)
The coefficient of x2 is 1, so the factors of ‒18 that give ‒7, are ‒9 and
2.
So, 2x2 ‒ 14x ‒ 36 = 2(x2 ‒ 7x ‒ 18)
= 2(x ‒ 9)(x + 2)
3 5x2 – 9x – 2 = (5x + 1)(x – 2)
Coefficient of x2 is 5, so now you

find the factors of 5 and of –2 that
(51) 1
(–2 )
give –9.
These factors are (5 and 1) and (5 x –2) + (1 x 1) = –10 + 1 = –9
(1 and –2)
Simplify each of the following fractions by factorizing their numerators and

denominators and then cancelling equal factors:
𝑥 2 ‒ 2𝑥 𝑎𝑥 2 ‒ 4𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
1 2 3 4
𝑥2 ‒ 4 𝑥 2 ‒ 16 𝑏 4𝑥
5.2 How to simplify more advanced algebraic fractions

 perform the four basic operations with advanced algebraic fractions that
includes factorization
5.2.1 Addition and subtraction of advanced algebraic fractions
Factorize numerators and denominators and simplify.
Examples Simplify each of the following expressions:
1 1
1 +
(𝑥 ‒ 3) (𝑥 + 3)
Solution
1 1 1 𝑥+ 3 1 𝑥 ‒ 3
+ = × (𝑥 + 3) + × (𝑥 )
(𝑥 ‒ 3) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 ‒ 3) (𝑥 + 3) ‒ 3
(make the denominators the same)
(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 ‒ 3)
= +
(𝑥 ‒ 3)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 ‒ 3)(𝑥 + 3)
(𝑥 + 3) + (𝑥 ‒ 3)
= (Lowest LCD = (𝑥 ‒ 3)(𝑥 + 3)
(𝑥 ‒ 3)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑥+ 3+ 𝑥 ‒ 3
=
(𝑥 ‒ 3)(𝑥 + 3)
2𝑥
=
(𝑥 ‒ 3)(𝑥 + 3)
3𝑥 1
2 (𝑥 2 ‒ 16)
‒
(𝑥 + 4)
Solution
3𝑥 1 3𝑥 1
(𝑥 2 ‒ 16)
‒ = ‒ (factorize the difference
(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 ‒ 4) (𝑥 + 4)
between two squares)
3𝑥 ‒ 1(𝑥 ‒ 4)
= (Lowest LCD = (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 ‒ 4)
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 ‒ 4)
you cannot cancel (x ‒ 4) because it is
part of a “sum” in the numerator)
3𝑥 ‒ 𝑥 + 4
= (‒1 × ‒4 = +4)
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 ‒ 4)
2𝑥 + 4
= (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 ‒ 4)
𝑥 2
3 ‒
(4 ‒ 2𝑥) (2𝑥 ‒ 𝑥 2 )
Solution
𝑥 2 𝑥 2
‒ = ‒ (take out the common
(4 ‒ 2𝑥) (2𝑥 ‒ 𝑥2) 2(2 ‒ 𝑥) 𝑥(2 ‒ 𝑥)
factor in each denominator)
𝑥2 ‒ 4
= (Lowest LCD = 2x(2 ‒ x)
2𝑥(2 ‒ 𝑥)
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 ‒ 2)
= (factorize difference between
2𝑥(2 ‒ 𝑥)
squares)
‒1(𝑥 + 2)(2 ‒ 𝑥)
= (cancel equal factors)
2𝑥(2 ‒ 𝑥)
‒1(𝑥 ‒ 2) 2 ‒ 𝑥
= =
2𝑥 2𝑥
5.2.2 Multiplication and division of advanced algebraic fractions
Factorize numerators and denominators, invert 2nd fraction for

division, and simplify.
Examples Simplify each of the following expressions:
(3𝑎2 ‒ 9𝑎) 1
1 ×
𝑎 (𝑎2 ‒ 9)
Solution
(3𝑎2 ‒ 9𝑎) 1 3𝑎(𝑎 ‒ 3) 1

× = ×
𝑎 (𝑎2 ‒ 9) 𝑎 (𝑎 + 3)(𝑎 ‒ 3)
(take out common factor in numerator of 1st fraction; factorize denominator in 2nd
fraction; multiply remaining numerators and denominators)
3𝑎
= (cancel factor a)
𝑎(𝑎 + 3)
3
=
(𝑎 + 3)
3𝑎2 (2𝑎 + 4)
2 ×
(𝑎 + 2) 6𝑎
Solution
3𝑎2 (2𝑎 + 4) 3𝑎2 2(𝑎 + 2)

× = × (take out common
(𝑎 + 2) 6𝑎 (𝑎 + 2) 6𝑎
factor in numerator of 2nd fraction)

2𝑎2 (𝑎 + 2)
= (cancel factor (a + 2)
6𝑎(𝑎 + 2)
2𝑎2
= (cancel common factor 2a)
6𝑎
𝑎
=
3
(2𝑥 ‒ 2) (𝑥 2 ‒ 2𝑥 + 1)
3 ÷
4 6
Solution
(2𝑥 ‒ 2) (𝑥 2 ‒ 2𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥 ‒ 2) 6
÷ = ×
4 6 4 (𝑥 2 ‒ 2𝑥 + 1)
(invert – turn around - the 2nd fraction and
multiply)
2(𝑥 ‒ 1) 6
= ×
4 (𝑥 ‒ 1)(𝑥 ‒ 1)
st
Take out the common factor, 2, in the 1 fraction; factorize the denominator of the
2nd fraction; cancel the factor (x ‒ 1))
12
= (cancel 4 as common
4(𝑥 ‒ 1)
factor)
3
=
(𝑥 ‒ 1)
Simplify each of the following fractions by factorizing their numerators and

denominators and then cancelling equal factors:
2 3 𝑥 1
1 + 2 (𝑥 2
‒
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 ‒ 3) ‒ 1) (𝑥 ‒ 1)
(2𝑝2 + 7𝑝 ‒ 4) 6 (2𝑥 2 + 2) 1
3 × 4 ÷
(3𝑝 + 12) (4𝑝 ‒ 2) 𝑥2 ‒ 𝑥 (𝑥 ‒ 1)
5.3 Linear equations

 solve linear equations, with and without brackets
 solve linear equations that contain fractions
 solve word problems by translating them into linear equations
5.3.1 What is meant by a “linear equation”?
An algebraic equation is a statement that has two parts: an “equal

sign” (=) and an unknown number (variable) , that we mostly call
“x” or “y”.
Example: x + 5 = 12
We understand this statement as “some number plus 5 is equal to
12”.
Because the unknown number, x, has an index of 1, we call this
equation a linear equation.
(The word “linear” is used to describe this equation because the
graph of this equation is a straight line).
Another example: y ‒ 3 = 4
Note: 𝑥 2 + 5 = 12, or 𝑦 3 ‒ 3 = 4 are not a linear equations: the
index of x is 2 (a quadratic equation), and the index of y is 3 (a
cubic equation).
5.3.2 How to solve linear equations

In general, to solve an equation, you must undo whatever has been
done to the unknown. This is done to get the unknown value alone.
Example x + 5 = 12
5 is added to the unknown value. To undo this, we must subtract 5.
x + 5 ‒ 5 = 12
But now the equation is unbalanced and the equal sign is no longer
valid. To keep the equal sign valid, we must also subtract 5 from the
right-hand side of the equation:
x + 5 ‒ 5 = 12 ‒ 5
Now the equation is balanced again (left side is equal to the right
side). If we simplify the equation, we get
x = 7
The value 7 is the solution to the equation, because 7 + 5 = 12.
7 is the only value of x for which the statement “x + 5 = 12” is true.

We say that x = 7 satisfies the equation.
Remember
Whatever you do to any equation, do the SAME THING TO

BOTH sides of that equation.
Examples Solve for x in each of the following equations:

1 x – 4 = 10 2 2x – 4 = 10
3 5x – 6 = 3 x – 8
4 2(3x – 7) + 4(3x + 2) = 6(5x + 9) + 3
5 √2 x – √3 = √5
Solutions:
1 x – 4 = 10
x – 4 + 4 = 10 + 4 (add 4 to both sides to
get x on its own)
x = 14
2 2x – 4 = 10
2x – 4 + 4 = 10 + 4 (add 4 to both sides)
2x = 14 (divide both sides by 2)
14
x = = 7
2
3 ‒2(5x – 6) = 3x – 8 (remove the brackets)

‒10x + 12 = 3x – 8 (both terms inside the brackets
are multiplied by ‒2)
‒10x + 12 – 3x = 3x – 8 – 3x (subtract 3x from both sides)
‒10x + 12 = – 8
‒10x + 12 ‒ 12 = – 8 ‒ 12 (subtract 12 from both sides)
‒10x = – 20 (divide both sides by ‒10)
x = 2
4 2(3x – 7) + 4(3x + 2) = 6(5x + 9) + 3 (remove brackets)
6x – 14 + 12x + 8 = 30x + 54 + 3
(simplify like terms on each side of the equation)
18x – 6 = 30x + 57 (subtract 18x from both sides)
–6 = 12x + 57
(rewrite the equation so that the variable (unknown quantity) is on the left-
hand side (we always want the unknown on the left-hand side):
12x + 57 = – 6 (subtract 57 from both sides)
12x + 57 – 57 = – 6 – 57
12x = – 63 (divide both sides by 12)
63 21
x = – =
12 4
5 √2 x – √3 = √5
√2 x – √3 + √3 = √5 + √3 (add √3 to both sides)
√2 x = √5 + √3 (divide both sides by √2)
√5 + √3
x =
√2
NOTE: You can leave the answer in surd form (with root signs) unless
requested to simplify it further.
5.3.3 How to solve linear equations that contain fractions

The easiest way to solve linear equations that contain fractions, is to
get rid of the fractions. We do this by using the LCD (Lowest
Common Denominator) or LCM (Lowest Common Multiple) of the
denominators of the fractions.
𝑥 5 2𝑥 1
Example 1 Solve the equation: + = ‒
3 3 3 3
Solution
Step 1: Multiply every term of the equation by 3 (LCD of
denominators of fractions):
𝑥 5 2𝑥 1
3(3) + 3(3) = 3( 3 ) ‒ 3(3)
Step 2: Simplify the terms:
x + 5 = 2x ‒ 3
Step 3: Collect like terms, with the unknown terms on the left:
x ‒ 2x = ‒3 ‒ 5
‒x = ‒8
Step 4: Divide by ‒1:
x = 8
𝑝− 2 4𝑝 − 1
Example 2 Solve the equation: =
3 5
Solution
Step 1: Multiply every term of the equation by 15 (LCD of
denominators of fractions):
𝑝− 2 4𝑝 − 1
15( 3 ) = 15( 5 )
Step 2: Simplify the terms:
5(p ‒ 2) = 3(4p ‒ 1)
5p ‒ 10 = 12p ‒ 3
Step 3: Collect like terms, with the unknown terms on the left:
5p ‒ 12p = ‒3 + 10
‒7p = 7
Step 4: Divide by ‒7:
p = 1
3 5 125
Example 3 Solve the equation: x + = 5x –
4 6 3
Solution
3 5 125
x + = 5x –
4 6 3
Multiply each side with the LCM of 4, 6 and 3, which is 12:
3 5 125
12(4 𝑥 ) + 12(6) = 12(5𝑥) + 12(– 3 )
Simplify: 3(3x) + 2(5) = 60x – 4(125)
9x + 10 = 60x – 500
Subtract 9x from both sides:
10 = 51x – 500
Re-write the equation with the side containing the variable on the left:
51x – 500 = 10
Add 500 to both sides:
51x = 510
Divide both sides by 51:
x = 10
1 Solve each of the following equations:

(a) 5x + 3 = 38 (b) 4n – 1 = n + 8
(c) 6(x + 2) = 42 (d) 7(y – 3) + 5 = 4(2 – y) + 3y
(e) 3(x – 4) + 2(4x – 5) = 5(x + 2) + 16
2 Solve each of the following equations:
2𝑥 5 𝑥 22 6𝑥 – 7 3𝑥 – 5 5𝑥 + 78
(a) + = + (b) + =
3 7 2 21 4 7 28
5.3.4 How to change word problems into linear equations and solve
them
The skill that you need most when you work with word problems is
understanding how to turn the word problem into numbers that you
can calculate.
Generally speaking, converting a word problem into an equation
involves reading through the problem and setting up word
equations — that is, equations that contain words as well as
numbers.
Once you have learnt how to translate phrases into expressions and
sentences into equations, you are ready to do word problems.
Let’s see whether you understand how these phrases are translated
into algebraic expressions:
Phrase 1: "the sum of 8 and y" translates (changes) into “8 + y”.
phrase algebraic expression
Phrase 2: "4 less than x" changes into “x – 4”.

Phrase 3: "x multiplied by 13" translates into “13x”.
𝑥
Phrase 4: "the quotient of x and 3" translates into “ ”.
3
Phrase 5: "the difference of 5 and y" translates into “5 – y”.
𝑥+ 9
Phrase 6: "the ratio of 9 more than x to x translates into .
𝑥
Phrase 7: "nine less than the total of a number and two translates
into “(n + 2) – 9”.
This can then be simplified to n – 7.
Phrase 8: The length of a football field is 30 metres more than its
width. Express the length of the field in terms of its
width w.
Whatever the width w is, the length is 30 metres more

than this. Remember that "more than" means "plus that
much", so you'll be adding 30 to w.
The algebraic expression is "w + 30".
Phrase 9: One hundred litres of crude oil are poured into two
containers of different sizes. Express the amount of
crude oil poured into the smaller container in terms of the
amount, g, poured into the larger container
The expression that you are looking for is found by

reasoning as follows:
There are one hundred litres in total, and we've already

poured g litres of it into the larger container. How
many litres are left? There are 100 – g litres left.
They answer is "100 – g".
Some practical examples:

Example 1: A rough rule for changing temperatures in degrees
Celsius (0C) to degrees Fahrenheit (0F) is F = 2C + 30.
(a) Find the value of F when C = 25.
(b) Find the value of C when F = 20.
Solution:
(a) C = 25, so F = 2 × 25 + 30 = 80.
(b) F = 20, so 20 = 2C + 30.
This is an equation which we must solve:
2C + 30 = 20
2C = 20 – 30 = – 10
C = – 5.
Example 2: Twenty less than five times a number is equal to the

product of ten and the number. What is the number?
Solution:
Let x be the number we are trying to find.
Now, translate the sentence piece by piece, and then solve the
equation.
Twenty less than five times a number equals the product of 10 and x.
 five times a number, if the number is x, is 5x
 20 less than this number is 5x – 20
 the product of 10 and x is 10x
Now, these two numbers are equal so you can write down the
equation: 5x – 20 = 10x
To solve this equation, we subtract 5x from both sides and re-write the
equation to get the variable (unknown) on the left:
5x = – 20
x = –4
– 4 is the unknown number.
Note: In this example, the key words less than tell you to subtract from
the number and the key word product reminds you to multiply.
When you are translating sentences and word problems into

algebraic expressions and equations, it can look as if you are
translating between two different languages.
There are some strategies, however, that will help you to become
fluent in both:
 First: Read the problem to determine what you are looking for.
 Second: Write the amount that you are looking for in terms
of x (or whatever letter you want to use). You can do this by
writing "Let x = … ". Write any other unknown amounts in
terms of x.
 Third: Set up the algebraic expressions in an equation with
an “equal” sign and solve for the variable.
Example 3: If I double a certain number and add 5, I get the same

answer as when I subtract the number from 50.
Write an equation for the unknown number and then
solve the equation.
Solution: Let n be the unknown number.

The equation is 2n + 5 = 50 – n
3n + 5 = 50
3n = 45
n = 15
The unknown number is 15.
Example 4: Peter gives a quarter of his sweets to John and then

gives 5 sweets to Mary. He has 7 sweets left. How many sweets
did he have at the beginning?
Solution: Let n be the number of sweets Peter has at the
1
beginning. He gives a quarter to John, so has n – 4n left.
1
Then he gives 5 to Mary, so has n – 4n – 5 left.
We are told that he has 7 sweets left at the end, therefore,
1
n – 4n – 5 = 7
3
4
n = 12
3n
= 48 (multiply both sides by 4)
= 16n
Peter had 16 sweets at the beginning
(CHECK: after giving John 4 sweets (one quarter), Peter has 12 sweets
left. Then he gives 5 to Mary, so has 7 left).
Example 5: Jason can mow a lawn in 2 hours. Gertrude can mow

the same lawn in 4 hours. If they work together, how many hours
will it take them to mow the same lawn?
Solution: Let x be the time they take together to mow the lawn.
Think about how much of the lawn each person can mow in 1
hour:
1
Jason completes the mowing in 2 hours, so in 1 hour he completes 2 of the
1
lawn. Gertrude takes 4 hours, so in 1 hour she completes 4 of the lawn. If
1
they work together, then is the area they finish in 1 hour.
𝑥
1 1 1
The equation is = +
𝑥 2 4
Multiply each fraction by 4x:
1 1 1
4x( ) = 4x( ) + 4x( ) (LCM of 2, 4, and x is 4x)
𝑥 2 4
2x + x = 4
3x = 4
1
x = 1 hours
3
1
But hour is 20 minutes.
3
So, together Jason and Gertrude take 1 hour and 20 minutes to mow
the lawn.
In each of questions 1 - 4: (i) write an equation which expresses the

information, and (ii) solve the equation.
1 A number is doubled and then 8 is added. The result is 24. Calculate the
original number.
2 A number is multiplied by 4 and then 12 is subtracted. The result is 36.
Calculate the original number.
3 Peter has N$ x. Craig has N$12 more than Peter. Together they have
N$ 136. Calculate how much money each of them has.
4 Nangolo and Simon each has y marbles. Hidipo has 7 marbles more than
Nangol and Simon together. When all the marbles of all three boys are in
one bag, there are 251 marbles in the bag. Calculate the number of
marbles that Hidipo has.
In the following questions you must

(i) use the diagrams to write an equation, and
(ii) solve the equation to find the value of m.
5 6
5.4 Summary
This unit introduced you to Algebraic Thinking. Algebraic thinking (algebra

reasoning) involves forming generalizations from your experience with
numbers and computation and how to formalize these ideas with the use
of a meaningful symbol system.
This unit explained how to carry out the four basic operations with algebraic
fractions; how to solve linear equations which contain brackets and fractions;
and how to solve quadratic equations by factorization: taking out the
common factor, grouping of like terms, the difference of two squares, and by
factorizing a quadratic three-term.
Algebraic thinking pervades all of the subject mathematics and is essential

for making mathematics useful in everyday life.

module.
STUDY UNIT 6: THE STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
6.1 The Cartesian coordinate system

6.1.1 Cartesian coordinates in two dimensions
6.1.2 Algebraic equations and function equations
6.1.3 The linear function and its graph
6.2 How to interpret the graph of y = mx + c
6.3 Summary
Introduction
Graphs provide visual representation of growing patterns or sequences that allow

learners to see the relationships between such patterns. Learners are also
enabled to look for generalizations or algebraic relationships that will tell them what
the pattern will be at any point along the way.
It is important for learners to be able to construct and interpret graphs related to

real situations. This should include sketching the shape of a graph without any
data or numbers. The advantage is that activities such as this focus the attention
on how a graph can express the relationship that is involved.
This unit explains how to construct and interpret straight line graphs that have the
general equation y = mx + c.
Readings

Learners’ Book.
2 This study guide
Learning outcomes
 determine the independent and the dependent variable in a function
equation
 construct tables of values for the function y = mx + c
 draw and interpret graphs of the function y = mx + c
 find the gradient of a straight line graph
 find the equation of a straight line graph
Learning activities
Learning activity 31: Plotting points on the Cartesian coordinate system

Learning activity 32: Drawing straight line graphs
Learning activity 33: Finding the gradient, y-intercept and equation of a straight
line graph
6.1 The Cartesian coordinate system
In this section you will learn

 what is meant by the Cartesian coordinate system
 what a function is as well as the independent and the dependent
variable in a function equation
 how to construct tables of values for the function y = mx + c and
how to draw the graph of the function
6.1.1 Cartesian coordinates in two dimensions

The position of a point on a flat surface (a plane) can be
specified by two numbers. To do this, we need two number lines
that are at right angles to each other.
The two diagrams below illustrate this fact:

y-axis The two lines meet at right angles to
each other, as shown in the diagram
on the left. This point is called the
origin.
origin The vertical line is called the y-axis

and the horizontal line is called the
0 x-axis x-axis.
y
The location of any point in the plane
3 P is given as an ordered pair of
numbers, written in brackets. The x-
2 coordinate is always written first,
and the y-coordinate second.
1
In the diagram on the left, P is the
0 1 2 3 x point (2, 3).
This system is called the Cartesian Coordinate System, after the

French mathematician, René Descarte.
6.1.2 Algebraic equations and function equations

Let us look at the algebraic equation y = 2x + 3.
We can take different values for x and calculate the corresponding
value of y.
Example: when x = 2, the value of y = 2(2) + 1 = 5
when x = 4, the value of y = 2(4) + 1 = 9
when x = ‒2, the value of y = 2(‒2) + 1 = ‒3
If we put these values for x and y in a table, we have
+1 +1
x ‒2 ‒1 0 1 2 3 4
y = 2x + 3 ‒3 ‒1 1 3 5 7 9
+2 +2
You can see from the table that whenever x is increased by 1, y
increases by 2.
Note: Because x and y can have different values, we call them

variables. The value of y depends on what value x takes on.
Therefore, y is called the dependent variable and x the
independent variable.
If the value of variable y depends on the value of x in such a way

that for each value of x, there is one and only one value of y, then y
is said to be a function of x.
The equation y = 2x + 3 is called a function equation, because we

have seen from the table that for each particular x-value, there is only
one y-value.
Example 1
In the diagram:
Point P has coordinates (1, 3)
Point Q has coordinates (–2, 2)
Point R has coordinates (–1, –1)
Point S has coordinates (2, 0)
Notice that if you join P, Q, R, and S they

are the corners of a square.
Example 2 The area, A cm2, of a square is related to the length, s

cm, of a side of the square. Write down:
i) the dependent and the independent variables
ii) the function equation
Solution
i) the area, A, depends on the length of a side of the square. The
longer a side of the square, the larger the area. Therefore, the area
A is the dependent variable and the length, s, of a side of the square
is the independent variable.
Ii) The function equation: A = s2
1 For each of the following relations, write down

i) the independent and the dependent variables
ii) a function equation.
a) The distance, y km, that a car travels at a speed of 90 km/h, is related to
the duration of the journey, x hours.
b) The perimeter, P cm, of a square is related to the length of a side of the
square, m cm.
On the diagram plot the following:
Point A with coordinates (4, 3)

Point B with coordinates (2, 2)
Point C with coordinates (–4, –1)
3 Construct a table of values for the function: y = 2x + 3 for values of

x from ‒2 to 3.
6.1.3 The linear function and its graph
In paragraph 5.3.1 we learnt what a linear equation is: an equation

where the independent variable , x, has an index of 1.
Now we know that when there is one and only one value for the
dependent variable, y, for a particular value of the independent
variable, x, we have a function equation. If we draw a graph of this
function, if is a straight line.
Example 1
1
Construct a table of values for the function y = 2
x – 1 for
values of x from –3 to 3. Draw a graph for this function.
Solution:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1 1 1
y=2x– 1 –22 –2 –12 –1 –2 0
2
1
The seven points obtained from the table are: (‒3, ‒22), (‒2, ‒2),
1 1 1
(‒1, ‒12), (0, ‒1), (1, 2), (2, 0), (3, 2).
The 7 points are shown as crosses on the grid and the line drawn
through these points is a straight line. The line is the graph of the
1
function y = 2
x – 1.
Example 2
Draw the graphs of y = 3x + 4 and y = 2 – x on the same grid, for
values of x from –2 to 2. Write down the coordinates of the point
where the two lines intersect.
Solution:
x –2 –1 0 1 2 x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = 3x + 4 –2 1 4 7 10 y = 2 – 3x 4 3 2 1 0
The two graphs are drawn in the diagram above. Each graph has
been labelled.
On the x-axis, 10 small squares (2 cm) represent 1 unit, so each small
square represents 0,4 unit.
On the y-axis, 10 small squares represent 4 units, so each small

square represents 0,4 unit.
The point at which the two graphs intersect has coordinates (–0,5,
2,5)
𝑥 –2
1 Complete the table of values above for the relation y = and draw the
2
graph for the relation.
x –2 0 2 4 6
𝑥 − 2
y= –2 2
2
Construct a table of values for the

relation y = 5 – 3x for the whole
number values of x from –2 to 4.
Draw the graph of this relation

and write down the coordinates
of the point where the line
intersects with the x-axis.
On the axes on the left, draw

the graphs of
y = x – 1 and y = 4 – x for
–1 ≤ x ≤ 4.
Write down the coordinates of
the point at which the graphs
intersect.
Feedback for this learning activity is provided at the end of this module.
6.2 How to interpret the straight line graph of y = mx + c
The graphs that we have drawn so far are all straight lines and they can all
be written in the form y = mx + c.
Examples
1 1
1: y = 2
x– 2 : m = 2
; c = –2
2: y = 7 – 3x : m =–3 ; c = 7
3: y = 3x + 4 : m = 3 ; c = 4
4: y = 2 – x : m = –1 ; c = 2
5: y = 5x : m = 5 ; c = 0
 The gradient of the straight line graph

The gradient of a straight line graph indicates the steepness and the
direction of the graph. It compares the vertical change with the
horizontal change as you move along the x-axis.
y
B The gradient of line AB
increase increase in y−coordinate from A to B
=
in y-coordinate increase in x−coordinate from A to B
NB
A N =
increase in AN
x-coordinate
x
𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 (𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒚)

Gradient of straight line =
𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 (𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒙)
If the equation of the line is in the form y = mx + c, we can see that an
increase of 1 in the value of x will result in an increase of m(1) = m in the
value of y. This means that
The gradient of the line y = mx + c is m

(m is the coefficient of x)
 The y-intercept of the straight line graph

If we put x = 0 in y = mx + c, we get y = m(0) + c = c. So the point (0, c)
lies on the line. This means that the line crosses the y-axis at a point which
is c units above or below the origin (depending on whether c is a positive or a
negative number).
c is called the intercept on the y-axis of the line y = mx + c.

(the y-intercept)
Example 1 For the line, y = 4 ‒ 3x, find the gradient and the y-intercept.
Solution: The equation y = 4 ‒ 3x

The gradient, m = ‒3
The y-intercept, c = 4
Example 2 For the line, 2y ‒ 4 = x, find the gradient and the y-intercept.
Solution: First write the equation in the form y = mx + c

2y ‒ 4 = x
2y = x + 4
1
y = x + 2
2
1
The gradient, m = 2
The y-intercept, c = 2
Example 3 Write down and simplify the equation of the line which has a
3
gradient of 5 and a y-intercept of ‒2.
3
Solution The equation of the line is y = 5x ‒ 2
Simplify the equation by multiplying each term with 5:
5y = 3x ‒ 10
Example 4 Find the gradient and the intercept on the y-axis for the line
drawn in the diagram below. Then write down the equation of the line.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦
Gradient = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥
6 ‒ 2 4
= 4 ‒ 0
= 4
= 1
y-intercept = 2
Equation of line is y = x + 2
1 For the following line x + y = 3, find the gradient and the intercept on the y-
axis.
1
2 Write down and simplify the equation of the line which has a gradient of ‒
2
3
and a y-intercept of 4.
3 Find the gradient and the y-intercept for each of the lines drawn in the
diagrams below. Then find the equation of each line.
a) b)
Feedback for this learning activity is provided at the end of this module.
6.3 Summary
This unit explained how to construct and interpret straight line graphs that
have the general equation y = mx + c.
Graphs provide visual representation of growing patterns or sequences that

allow learners to see the relationships between such patterns. Learners are
also enabled to look for generalizations or algebraic relationships that will tell
them what the pattern will be at any point along the way.
It is important for learners to be able to construct and interpret graphs

related to real situations. This should include sketching the shape of a
graph without any data or numbers. The advantage is that activities such as
this focus the attention on how a graph can express the relationship
that is involved.

module.
STUDY UNIT 7: STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
7.1 Data representation

7.1.1 Discrete and continuous data
7.1.2 Frequency distribution for discrete data
7.1.3 Bar graphs and histograms
7.1.4 Frequency distribution for continuous data
7.2 Measures of central tendency (statistical averages)

7.2.1 Different measures of “central tendency”
7.2.2 How to calculate measures of central tendency for discrete data
7.2.3 How to calculate the mode for grouped data
7.3 Probability
7.3.1 The meaning of “probability”
7.3.2 The probability that an event will occur
Introduction
In this unit we will draw and interpret histograms with equal intervals, find the
modal class of a grouped frequency distribution, calculate the mean from a
table of discrete values, and calculate the probability of an event occurring.
Our learners need to understand statistics because they must be able to interpret
and not be misled by statistics as presented in newspapers and advertisements.
Doing statistics involves four stages: asking appropriate questions, collecting data,
analysing and organizing the data, and interpreting the data that is being used in
statistics. In this unit we will concern ourselves only with data analysis.
Statistics involves using data (information) in the form of numbers and graphs to
describe our world.
Statistics bombard the public in areas such as advertising, opinion polls, population
trends, health risks, progress of learners in schools. We hear that the average
rainfall for 2011 – 2012 was more than for 2010 – 2011 or that the average number
of learners in a grade 10 class is 30.
Statistical literacy is critical to understand the world that we live in. Misuse of
statistics occurs readily even in sources like newspapers or television, where
graphs are often used to exaggerate findings.
Statistics is about numbers in context that are called data. Data is gathered
and organised in order to answer questions about the populations from
where the data comes. Different types of graphs provide different information
about the data, and hence the populations from where the data comes.
Readings
Prescribed reading
1 Courtney-Clarke, M. & Coulson, M. 2008. Maths for life, Grade 10. Windhoek:
MacMillan. ISBN 978 999 1624 075.
Additional reading
2 Van de Walle, J.A.; Karp, S.K.; Bay-Williams, J.M. (2010) Elementary and
Middle School Mathematics, Teaching Developmentally. Allyn & Bacon: Cape
Town.
3 This study guide.
Learning outcomes
 distinguish between discrete and continuous data
 construct frequency distribution tables
 distinguish between bar graphs and histograms
 construct and draw conclusions from histograms with equal intervals
 understand different measures of central tendency
 calculate the mean from a set of discrete data
 determine the modal class for a set of grouped data
 understand probability and estimate the probability of an event
happening
 express probability as a fraction in its simplest form.
Learning activities
Learning activity 34: Interpret frequency distribution tables

Learning activity 35: Drawing conclusions from histograms
Learning activity 36: Calculating the mean, median and mode for discrete data
Learning activity 37: Calculating the probability of a single event happening
7.1 Data representation

 what discrete and continuous data is
 what frequency and a frequency distribution is
 how to construct histograms with equal intervals
 how to read and draw conclusions from histograms with equal intervals
7.1.1 Discrete and continuous data
Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, measurements,

words, observations or even just descriptions of things.
Numerical data is data that is presented as numbers.
Numerical data can be discrete or continuous:
Discrete data can take only certain values (is counted);

continuous data can take any value (is measured)
Examples of discrete data:

 the number of learners in a class (you cannot have half a
learner!).
 the number of tries scored in a match (can only be 0, 1, 2, etc.)
 the result of rolling 1 die (you can only have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6)
Examples of continuous data:
 a person’s height (could be anywhere within the range of
human heights - not just certain fixed heights)
 a dog’s weight (could be anywhere within the range of dogs’
weights - not just certain fixed weights)
 time in a race (you can even measure to fractions of a
second)
 the length of a leaf, etc.
7.1.2 Frequency distribution for discrete data
The word “frequency” describes how often something happens.
Example: John plays rugby on

 Monday morning,
 Monday afternoon,
 Wednesday afternoon
The frequency is 2 on Monday, 1 on Wednesday, and 3 for the week.
By counting frequencies we can make a frequency distribution

table.
Example 1: John scored the following number of tries in 10 rugby

matches:
1, 3, 0, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 2
John wrote the number of tries in order from lowest number of tries to
highest number of tries per match and then added them up:
Number of tries frequency

how often no tries were scored
(2 times) 0 2
how often 1 try was scored
(4 times) 1 4
how often 2 tries were scored
(3 times) 2 3
how often 3 tries were scored
(1 time) 3 1
The tries John scored and how many of them are now written in a
frequency distribution table.
A frequency distribution is a table that shows values and their

frequency (how often each value occurs)
From the frequency table we can read interesting things, such as

 scoring 1 try in a match happened the most (4 times)
 scoring 3 tries in a match happened only once
 scoring no tries in a match happened twice
1 Which letter occurs the most frequently in the following sentence?

The sun always sets in the West
2 A fair die was thrown 100 times. The frequency distribution is shown in the
following table:
Score Frequency
1 16
2 18
3 11
4 15
5 19
6 21
How many throws scored less than 3?
3 60 learners wrote a test. The frequency distribution for the marks obtained is
shown in the table:
Mrak obtained Frequency
0 1
1 3
2 6
3 9
4 8
5 11
6 8
7 7
8 4
9 1
10 2
a) How many learners obtained 5 marks or more?
b) How many learners obtained more than 2 marks but less tha or equal to 5
marks?
Feedback on this learning activity is found at the back of the module.
7.1.3 Bar graphs and histograms

We can show data by using graphs. There are two graphs that we
are interested in - the bar graph and the histogram.
 The bar graph
a Bar graph is used to display discrete data.
Example: The number of learners that obtained different symbol
grades in a test is shown below:
Symbol: A B C D E
Number of learners: 2 5 6 3 1
Here is the bar graph that displays the data above:
Note the following about the bar graph:

 Bar graphs are used to present discrete data, that is data
which can be counted, like grades, or tries scored, or days of
the week, etc.
 The bars all have the same width.
 The height of each bar represents the frequency of the data
 There are gaps between the bars (so as not to confuse it with
the histogram where we do not have gaps).
 The histogram
The Histogram is used to display continuous data.
As you can see, the histogram is similar to the bar graph, but it uses
intervals to group the data. In this example the intervals are 10 units
wide (40 – 50; 50 – 60; 60 – 70; etc.)
Note the following about the histogram:
 Histograms are used to present continuous data, that is data

which is measured, like height, weight, time, etc.
 The bars can have the same width, but they can also have
different widths.
 If the bars have equal widths, the length of each bar
represents the frequency of the data
 There are no gaps between the bars.
7.1.4 Frequency distribution for continuous data
Example Below are the numbers of newspapers sold at a local

shop over the last 11 days:
22, 20, 18, 23, 20, 25, 24, 22, 20, 18, 20
We can now count how many of each number have been sold:
Number of
papers sold Frequency
18 2
19 0
20 4
21 0
22 2
23 1
24 1
25 1
This is an ordinary frequency distribution table. However, we

can also group the frequencies.
Step 1:
Find the range (range = largest value ‒ smallest value)
Range = 25 ‒ 18 = 7 newspapers
Step 2:
Calculate the group size (divide the range by the number of
groups that you want)
Lets say we want 3 groups:

Then the group size = 7 ÷ 3 = 2,3
Step 3: Round the group size up to a simple value

Round 2,3 up to 3.
Step 4: Pick a start value (this value must be smaller than or

equal to the smallest value that you used to find the range)
In this case we pick our start value as 16.

Step 5: Calculate the list of groups (we must go up to or
past the largest value which is 25)
Starting with 16 and a group size of 3, we get

16, 19, 22, 25
Write down the groups and include the end value of each
group. This end value must be less than the start value of the
next group:
Number of
papers sold Frequency
17 – 19 2
20 – 22 6
23 – 25 3
Example The heights of 50 plants have been measured and the

results have been grouped in intervals of 5, as shown in the table below
(the groups are called class intervals)
Heights, h, in cm Frequency, f
10 ≤ ℎ < 15 8
15 ≤ ℎ < 20 11
20 ≤ ℎ < 25 21
25 ≤ ℎ < 30 4
30 ≤ ℎ < 35 6
Class intervals
Below is the histogram that shows the data:

Note the following about the histogram:
 The bars of the histogram are all of equal width. This is
because the class intervals are equal (widths of 5 cm each).
For this reason the heights of the bars represent the
frequencies.
 There are no gaps between the bars.
 The bar in the class interval 20 – 25 shows that there are 21
plants with a height of between 20 cm and just below 25 cm.
The other bars can be interpreted in the same way.
1 A class carried out an
experiment to measure the lengths
of chicken eggs. The length of each
egg was measured to the nearest
mm. The results are shown in the
histogram on the right
How many were measured

altogether in the xperiment?
2 A group of 60 learners wrote a Marks Frequency, f

science test out of 40 marks. 1 - 10 6
The results are grouped in 11 - 20 17
intervals of 10 and are shown in 21 - 30 25
the table on the right. 31 - 40 12
The histogram below shows the bars

for the first two intervals. Complete
the histogram
Feedback on this learning activity can be found at the back of the module.
7.2 Measures of central tendency (statistical averages)

 about the three different measures of central tendency, namely the
mean, the median and the mode
 how to determine the mean from a frequency distribution of discrete
values
 how to determine the modal class from a set of grouped data
7.2.1 Different measures of “central tendency”
When data is displayed in a graph or chart, it is often possible to

notice general trends, in other words, to analyze the data. However,
there are additional tools that we can use to analyze data that can
give us even more information.
There are three different ways of defining the centre of a distribution.

All three are called measures of central tendency. These three
measures are the mean, the median and the mode. They help us
to locate the centre of the data and this allows us to make
predictions about what is “likely” to happen.
One definition of “central tendency” is the point at which the

distribution is in balance.
The figure below shows the distribution of the five numbers 3, 4, 5, 9,

and 12. If each number weighs 1 kg, and is placed at its position
along the number line, it would be possible to balance them at the
point 6,6.
1 kg 1 kg 1 kg 1 kg 1 kg
6,6
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
7.2.2 How to calculate measures of central tendency for discrete

values
 The mean
The mean is often called the average. This is the measure of
centre that we most often use. This measure compares us with
others with regard to our weight, our height, our test marks, etc.
The mean is the number that you get when you divide the sum of all
the scores by the number of scores.
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒔

Mean =
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒔
Example Find the mean of 8, 7, 9, 6, 8, 10

Solution The sum of the scores = 8 + 7 + 9 + 6 + 8 + 10
= 48
The number of scores = 6
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 48
Mean = = = 8
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 6
 The median
The median of a number of items is the middle item when all the items
are arranged in ascending or in descending order.
For an odd number of items the median is the middle item

after all the items have been arranged in either ascending or
descending order.
For an even number of items the median is the mean of the

two middle items after all the items have been arranged in
either ascending or descending order.
Examples
Example 1 Find the median of the following scores:

20, 70, 50, 30, 35, 45, 75, 15, 90
Solution It is an odd number of scores, so the median is the

middle score after all the scores have been arranged in
ascending order:
Arrange the scores in ascending order:
15, 20, 30, 35, 45, 50, 70, 75, 90
The 5th score is the middle score, so the median is 45.

Example 2 Find the median of the following scores:
6, 5, 3, 8, 4, 2
Solution It is an even number of scores, so the median is the mean

of the two middle scores after all the scores have been
arranged in ascending order:

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8
4+ 5 9
The median = = = 4,5
2 2
Example 3 The distribution of marks obtained by learners in a test is

shown in the table below:
Mark obtained 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of learners 1 0 3 2 2 4 3 4 6 3 2
1st learner 15th learner 16th learner
Find the median of this distribution.
Solution
The total number of learners
=1+0+3+2+2+4+3+4+6+3+2
= 30
So, there are 30 scores which is an even number of scores.

Therefore, the median is the mean of the two middle scores. The
two middle scores are the 15th and the 16th scores.
The 15th learner is in a group of 3 learners that obtained 6 marks

each. The 16th learner is in the next group of 4 learners that
obtained 7 marks each.
15𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 16𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 6 + 7

Therefore, the median = =
2 2
= 6,5 marks
 The mode
The mode of a distribution is that score which appears most

often, i.e. the score with the highest frequency.
Example 1 Find the mode for the following distribution:

70, 80, 50, 95, 80, 73, 90, 85
Solution
50 70 73 80 80 85 90 95
80 is the score that appears most frequently (twice), so 80 is the

mode.
Example 2 Find the mode for the distribution given below:
Marks Number of
learners
0 2
1 1
2 1
3 2
4 6
5 10
6 7
7 6
8 3
9 1
10 1
Solution The highest frequency is 10. The mark against this

frequency is 5. Therefore, the mode is 5 marks.
7.2.3 How to calculate the mode for grouped data
We have learnt in paragraph 7.2.2 that the mode for an ungrouped

(discrete data) frequency distribution is the score that has the highest
frequency. We cannot find the mode for grouped data because
grouped data has no single scores, only scores in groups. In such
case we find the modal class, which means we find the group or
class interval that has the highest frequency.
Example Find the modal class for the following distribution:
Marks frequency
6 - 15 2
16 - 25 7
26 - 35 9
36 - 45 3
46 - 55 4
56 - 65 2
66 - 75 1
Solution
The highest frequency is 9 and it is for the class interval 26 - 35.
So, the modal class is 26 – 35.
1 Find the meadian value for each of the following distributions:

a) 8, 1, 6, 7, 5, 2, 3
b) 2, 3, 1, 5, 6, 4
2 Find the mode for each of the following sets of numbers;

a) 4, 5, 5, 1, 2, 9, 5, 6, 4, 5, 7, 5, 5
b) 2, 2, 3, 5, 8, 2, 5, 6, 6,
3 A man kept record of the number of letters he received each day over a period
of 60 days. The results are shown in the table below:
Number of letters per day 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency 28 21 6 3 1 1
For this distribution, find

a) the mode b) the median c) the mean
4 A teacher conducts a survey to find out how many hours per week each of her
grade 10 learners work to earn extra money. The histogram below shows the
results of her survey:
frequ
ency
12
10
0-2 3-5 6 - 8 9 - 11 12-– 14

Hours per week
a) Write down the modal class.
b) How many learners work more than 8 hours per week?
c) Complete the frequency table below:
Hours per week Frequency, f

0 - 2 11
3 - 5
6 - 8
9 - 11
12 - 14
7.3 Probability

 the meaning of “probability”
 how to estimate the probability of an event occurring
 how to express probability as a fraction in its simplest form
 how to calculate the probability of a simple event occurring
7.3.1 The meaning of “probability”
Probability is the likelihood that an event will happen.

 How to introduce probability to your class
The concept “probability” is used all around us: the weather
forecaster predicts a 40% chance of rain; medical researchers predict
that people who smoke a lot have a higher chance of contracting lung
and heart diseases; and so forth.
Considerable development of the concept of chance in learners

is required before learners are ready to understand formal ideas
about the probability of an event happening.
A good place to start with is to focus on the concepts “possible” and

“not possible”. Later you can go on to concepts like “impossible”,
“possible”, and “certain”. In preparation for these activities, discuss
the words possible, impossible and certain with your learners.
Class activity: Is it likely to happen?

Ask your learners to judge various events as “certain to happen”,
“impossible to happen” or “possible to happen” (might happen).
Let them consider the following events:
 it will rain tomorrow
 when you drop a stone in water it will sink
 the sun will rise tomorrow
 five learners will be absent tomorrow
 Peter will go to bed before 7 o’clock tonight
 you will have two birthdays this year
Learners can also make up their own events. However, for each
event they should justify their choice of whether it will happen.
The important idea with this kind of activity is to help learners

see that some of these possible events are more likely or less
likely to happen than others.
Adapted from: Van de Walle, section: Probability
Probability is measured on a scale from 0 to 1 (the probability scale)

The number 0 indicates an impossible outcome while the number 1
indicates an outcome that is certain. The higher the probability of an
event, the more certain we are that the event will happen.
𝟏
Probability 0 1
𝟐
Outcome impossible 50% chance certain

to happen to happen to happen
The probability scale
A simple example is when you toss a coin. Coin flipping is the

practice of throwing a coin in the air to choose between two
alternatives. There are only two outcomes possible, either “heads” or
“tails”.
Tails Heads
(back of coin) (front of coin)
Since the two outcomes are equally likely, the probability of "heads"
1
equals the probability of "tails". Therefore, the probability is 2 (or
50%) chance of either "heads" or "tails" happening when you toss a
coin.
7.3.2 The probability that an event will happen
Mathematically, the probability that an event will happen is expressed

as a number between 0 and 1 (from the probability scale in paragraph
7.3.1). If the event is “raining tomorrow”, we write the probability of
raining tomorrow as P(raining tomorrow). If event A is “coming
home”, we write the probability of coming home as P(coming home).
In general we write the probability of event A happening as P(A).
𝟏
Probability 0 1
𝟐
Outcome impossible 50% chance certain

to happen to happen to happen
 If P(A) equals zero, event A will almost definitely not happen.

 If P(A) is close to zero, there is only a small chance that event
A will happen.
 If P(A) equals 0.5, there is a 50-50 (50%) chance that event A
will happen.
 If P(A) is close to one, there is a strong chance that event A will
happen.
 If P(A) equals one, event A will almost definitely happen.
The probability that an event A will happen, is defined as the number

of favourable outcomes expressed as a fraction of the total number
of outcomes that are possible.
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔

P(favourable outcome) =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔
Note: The probability of an event happening is always

expressed as a fraction in its lowest terms.
7.3.3 How to calculate the probability that an event will happen
Example 1 A bag contains only red marbles. Find the probability

that a marble taken from the bag is
a) red
b) blue
Solution
a) There are only red marbles in the bag, so it is certain that you
will take a red marble.
Therefore, P(red) = 1
b) There are no blue marbles in the bag, so you will not be able to
take a blue marble.
Therefore, P(blue) = 0
Example 2 Find the possibility that a tossed-up coin will show

“heads” when it lands.
Solution
There are two outcomes that are equally likely - “heads” and “tails”.
Therefore, the total number of outcomes = 2
We would like “heads” to show, so the favourable outcome = 1
1
P(heads) =
2
Example 3 A bag contains 10 red beads and 6 blue beads. A bead

is taken at random from the bag. What is the probability that the
bead is red?
Solution
There are a total of 16 beads in the bag, so we can take any one of
these 16 beads. Therefore, the total number of outcomes = 16.
There are 10 red beads, and we can take any one of these 10 red
beads. Therefore, the number of favourable outcomes = 10
10 5
P(red bead) = =
16 8
Note: we always express probability as a fraction in its simplest

form (lowest terms).
Example 4 John chooses a letter at random from the 8 letters in the

name REHOBOTH.
What is the probability that the letter chosen is
a) (i) an O
(ii) an H or a T
(iii) an L
b) One of the letters H is removed from the 8 letters. Mary
chooses a letter at random from the 7 remaining letters.
What is the probability that the letter is an O?
Solution
a) (i) The 8 letters are equally likely to be chosen and 2 of them
are O’s.
2 1
P(an O) = =
8 4
(ii) Of the 8 letters, 3 are H or T
3
P(an H or a T) =
8
(iii) Of the 8 letters none is an L.
0
P(an L) = = 0
8
b) The 7 remaining letters are R, E, O, B, O. T, H

Two of these 7 letters are O’s
2
P(an O) =
7
1 A bag contains 2 red balls, 3 white balls, and 3 black balls. A ball is chosen at
random from the bag. What is the probability that the ball is
a) Red
b) Red or white
c) Neither red nor black
2 A bag contains 20 balls. 5 of the balls are blue.

a) What is the probability that a ball chosen at random is blue?
1
b) The probability of choosing a red ball is . How many red balls are there in
5
the bag?
3 The number of matches in each of 20 boxes of matches was counted. The

results are as follows:
39 43 42 40 41 41 42 40 45 42
43 40 39 41 39 39 43 41 39 43
a) Complete the frequency table below:
Number of matches 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Frequency 5 3
b) If one of these boxes is selected at random, what is the probability that it

contains more than 40 matches?
7.4 Summary
In this unit we learnt how to draw and interpret histograms with equal class
intervals, how to find the modal class of a frequency distribution, how to
calculate the mean from a table of discrete values, and how to calculate the
probability of a single event occurring.
Our learners need to understand statistics because they must be able to

interpret and not be misled by statistics as presented in newspapers and
advertisements. Doing statistics involves four stages: asking appropriate
questions, collecting data, analysing and organizing the data, and
interpreting the data that is being used in statistics. In this unit we
concerned ourselves only with data analysis. Statistics involves using
data (information) in the form of numbers and graphs to describe our world.

module.
STUDY UNIT 8: TRIGONOMETRY
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Readings
Learning activities
8.1 Trigonometric ratios to solve right-angled triangles

8.1.1 The definitions if the “sine, cosine, and tangent ratios”
8.1.2 The Theorem of Pythagoras
8.1.3 Angles of elevation and depression
8.1.4 How to solve problems by using angles of elevation and depression
8.2 Summary
Introduction
In this unit we will use the sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan) ratios to solve
problems containing right-angled triangles. We will also interpret angles of
elevation and of depression.
Trigonometry is that branch of mathematics that deals with triangles. Imagine the
following situations:
 a bridge that had not been properly engineered
 a house with a roof that might collapse at any moment
 an old tree in your erf with an “immeasurable” height that sparks your
curiosity
 perhaps you want to gauge how hard and at what angle to hit a billiard ball.
Each of the situations mentioned above has to do with trigonometry. The concepts
of trigonometry are applied extensively in the field of engineering when buildings,
bridges and other free-standing structures are designed. As can be seen at
virtually any building site, triangles are used to provide supporting strength
necessary to a finished structure. Not only are triangles used in the construction of
satellite dishes for stability with a lightweight frame but the successful transmission
of communication signals also relies on trigonometric calculations.
Al the aforementioned scenarios tell us that trigonometry is a fundamental branch of
mathematics that enables us not only to understand the universe of which we are
part but also to make effective use of the resources in the world around us.
Readings
Prescribed reading
1 Courtney-Clarke, M. & Coulson, M. 2008. Maths for life, Grade 10. Windhoek:
MacMillan. ISBN 978 999 1624 075.
Additional reading
2 Van de Walle, J.A.; Karp, S.K.; Bay-Williams, J.M. (2010) Elementary and
Middle School Mathematics, Teaching Developmentally. Allyn & Bacon: Cape
Town.
3 Coulson, M.; Pitts, J.; Butcher, M. (2009) Mathematics 2, Ordinary Level.

Cambridge University Press: Cape Town.
4 This study guide.
Learning outcomes
 use the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios to solve problems containing right-
angled triangles
 use the theorem of Pythagoras as well as bearings to solve problems
containing right-angled triangles
 solve problems in two dimensions by using angles of elevation and
depression
Learning activities
Learning activity 38: Calculating trigonometric ratios for given angles

Learning activity 39: Calculating sides of right-angled triangles
Learning activity 40: Calculating sides of right-angled triangles tha include angles
of elevation and depression
8.1 Trigonometric ratios to solve right-angled triangles

 the definition of the sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan) ratios that we
use to solve right-angled triangles
8.1.1 The definitions of the “sine, cosine, and tangent ratios”
The sine, cosine, and tangent functions express the ratios of the
sides of a right-angled triangle (a triangle with one angle = 900).
Because triangles can be oriented in different positions, we label the

sides in relation to the angle that we consider.
1. The side opposite to the right angle (the longest side of the
triangle), is always called the hypotenuse.
In the diagram, side QP is the hypotenuse.
2. If we consider the angle Q, then the side opposite angle Q is

called the opposite side.
The side next to angle Q is called the adjacent side.
If we call the angle that we consider, 𝜃, we can define the ratios for
the sine, cosine, and tangent of the angle 𝜃:
𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑷𝑹
the ratio is called the sine of 𝜽. ∴ sin 𝜽 = 𝑸𝑷
𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆
(sine is pronounced as “sign”)
𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑸𝑹
the ratio is called the cosine of 𝜽. ∴ cos 𝜽 =
𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑸𝑷
(cosine is pronounced as “co-sign”
𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑷𝑹
the ratio is called the tangent of 𝜽. ∴ tan 𝜽 =
𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑸𝑹
The sides that you use to define the ratios, depend on the angle that
you use. The following diagrams explain the difference:
𝑷𝑹 𝑸𝑹
sin 𝜽 = 𝑸𝑷 sin 𝜷 = 𝑸𝑷
𝑸𝑹 𝑷𝑹
cos 𝜽 = cos 𝜷 =
𝑸𝑷 𝑸𝑷
𝑷𝑹 𝑸𝑹
tan 𝜽 = tan 𝜷 =
𝑸𝑹 𝑷𝑹
Example 1: Write down the value of (i) sine 𝜃, (ii) cos 𝜃, and
(iii) tan 𝜃 for the following triangle:
√13
𝜽
2
3
2 3 2
Solution: (i) sin 𝜃 = (ii) cos 𝜃 = (iii) tan 𝜃 =
√13 √13 3
Example 2: Write down the value of (i) sine 𝜃, (ii) cos 𝜃, and
(iii) tan 𝜃 for the following triangle:
Solution: We need the length of the opposite
√12 side in order to calculate the trigonometric
𝜃 ratios.
x Let the opposite side be x.
6
2
Then, x = √62 – (√12) = √36 – 12 = √14
√14 √12 √14
Now, (i) sin 𝜃 = (ii) cos 𝜃 = (iii) tan 𝜃 =
6 6 √12
1 For which of these two triangles can we use the definitions of sine, cosine and
tangent? Give a reason for your answer,
A B
2 For each of the right-angled triangles below, write down (i) sin 𝜃,
(ii) cos 𝜃, (iii) tan 𝜃
𝜃
(a) 15 (b) 13
8 12
𝜃
17
5
3 For each of the triangles below, write down the ratio indicated with each triangle:
510
p q e
d
350
r f
(a) cos 350 (b) tan 510
8.1.2 The Theorem of Pythagoras
When a triangle has an angle of 900, and squares are made on each
of the three sides, then the biggest square has the exact same area
as the other two areas put together.
We can write this relationship in an

equation:
a2 + b2 = c2
Note:
c is the longest side of the triangle
a and b are the other two sides
The longest side of a right-angled triangle is called the “hypotenuse”.
Formal definition of the Theorem of Pythagoras:
In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is

equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
(if the hypotenuse has length c and the other two sides have lengths a and b, then
c2 = a2 + b2)
The theorem of Pythagoras is useful because if we know the lengths

of two sides of a right-angled triangle, then we can find the length of
the third side.
Example 1 Solve the triangle below.

(Note: “solve the triangle” means you must find the length of the
unknown side).
It is a right-angled triangle, so we can

use Pythagoras to solve it.
c2 = 52 + 122 (Pythagoras)
= 25 + 144
= 169
c = √169
= 13 units
Example 2 Calculate XZ in the following triangle.
X Solution: XYZ is a right-angled triangle

8 cm with the hypotenuse YZ = 17 cm.
? Y So, 172 = 82 + XZ 2
17 cm Therefore, XZ 2 = 172 – 82
= 289 – 64
Z = 225
XZ = √225 = 15
The length of XZ is 15 cm.
Example 3: In the circle below, XY is the diameter of 41 cm and XZ

is a cord of 40 cm.
(a) Give a reason why angle XZY = 900
Z (b) Calculate the length of ZY.
Solution:
(a) XY is the diameter of the circle so angle
X Y XZY = 900 because it is an angle in a semi-
circle.
(b) XY 2 = XZ 2 + ZY 2 (angle XZY = 900)
ZY 2 = XY 2 – XZ 2
= 412 – 402
= 1681 – 1600 = 81
ZY = √81 = 9
The length of ZY is 9 cm.
Example 4: A triangle has sides with lengths 26 cm, 24 cm, and 10

cm. Prove that it has an angle of 900.
Solution: Calculate the squares on the two

shorter sides:
26 cm 102 + 242 = 100 + 576
= 676
24 cm The square on the longest side is 262 = 676
Now, the square on the longest side is equal to
the sum of the squares on the shorter sides.
10 cm Therefore, the angle between the two shorter
sides = 900.
1 The two triangles below are both right-angled triangles. For each of them
calculate the length of the side marked x:
a) b)
3 cm 12 cm
4 cm x
x 13 cm
2 A ladder, 4,8 m long, leans against a vertical wall with its foot on horizontal
ground. The ladder makes an angle of 700 with the ground.
(a) How far up the wall does the ladder reach?
(b) How far is the foot of the ladder from the wall?
8.1.3 Angles of elevation and depression
If you look straight ahead, with your eyes level with the horizon, the
angle through which you must turn your eyes from the horizontal
to look upward at an object, is called the angle of elevation.
The angle through which you must turn your eyes from the
horizontal to look downward at an object, is called the angle of
depression.
To solve problems that involve angles of elevation or depression, you
should be able to apply the knowledge of sin, cos and tan that you
have learnt so far. It is also necessary to know how to find an angle
if the ratio of two sides of a right-angled triangle is given.
 How to find the value of a trigonometric ratio when an

angle is given
The values of trigonometrical ratios can be found on your calculator

by using the [sin], [cos], and [tan] keys.
Example 1: Use your calculator to find the value of sin 360

Solution: Press the keys [3], [6], [sin]
The display is [DEG 0,5877852]
so, sin 360 = 0,588 (to 3 significant figures)
Example 2: Use your calculator to find the value of tan 250
Solution: Press the keys [2], [5], [tan]
so, tan 250 = 0,466 (to 3 decimal places)
 How to find the angle if the value of a trigonometric ratio is

given
If you know the value of a trigonometric ratio, you can find the angle
by using your calculator. This process is the reverse of the process
used in the previous paragraph. To do this, you will have to use the
[2ndF] or [SHIFT] key, depending on how your calculator is
programmed. This key will then have to be followed by the [𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔–1 ]
key.
Example 1: Find 𝜃 if sin 𝜃 = 0,234.

Solution: Press the keys [.] [2] [3] [4] [2ndF] [𝑠𝑖𝑛–1 ]
Hence, 𝜃 = 13,50 (to 3 significant figures)
Example 2: Find 𝛽 if tan 𝛽 = 2,4.

Solution: Press the keys [2] [.] [4] [2ndF] [𝑡𝑎𝑛–1 ]
Hence, 𝛽 = 67,40 (to 1 decimal place)
8.1.4 How to solve problems by using angles of elevation and of
depression
A typical problem that involves angles of elevation and of depression

requires of you to do the following:
 draw a right-angled triangle and put the given information
with regard to distances and angles within the right-angled
triangle.
 In some cases, you will be asked to determine the size of an
angle; in others, you might be asked to find an unknown
distance.
Example 1 A tree has a height of 20 m and casts a shadow of 25 m.

Calculate the angle of elevation from the end of the shadow to the top
of the tree.
Method
Step 1: Draw a diagram to illustrate the given information (the
height of the tree, the length of the shadow, and the angle of the tree
with the ground). Remember, a tree grows straight upward and
therefore, makes an angle of 900 with the ground. A diagram of this
right-angled triangle is shown below:
20 m
𝜽
25 m
Step 2: Choose 𝜃 to represent the unknown angle of elevation.
Step 3: Write an equation to show the relationship between the

known lengths and the unknown angle 𝜃. The known sides are
adjacent to and opposite to the unknown angles 𝜃, therefore, we can
use the use the ratio of opposite and adjacent sides in a right-angled
triangle.
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 20 𝑚
So, tan 𝜃 = = = 0,8
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 25 𝑚
Therefore, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛‒1 0,8 = 38,70

{you press: [0] [.] [8] [2nd F] [𝑡𝑎𝑛–1 ]}
The angle of elevation from the end of the shadow to the top of the
tree. = 38,70.
Example 2:
From a lighthouse window Rory sights a sailboat at an angle
of depression of 430. If his eyes are 39 m above the water,
how far is the sailboat from the base of the lighthouse?
430
Solution
We are asked to find the horizontal distance from the boat to the
lighthouse. Assuming the lighthouse is standing upright, we can draw
a right-angled triangle and label the vertical leg as 39 m, the horizontal
leg with a variable, say x, and the angle of depression as 430. Since
the horizontal (dotted line) is parallel to x, the angle between the
hypotenuse and side x is also 430.
39
Now, = tan 430
𝑥
39
x = ……….do you know how to get this?
tan 430
39
= = 41,8
0,932515
Therefore, the sailboat is 41,8 m away from the base of the lighthouse
REMEMBER: Word problems should always be completed with

a statement which answers the question (the statement should
include appropriate units of measurement).
Example 3 Adrian (A) stands on a bearing of 0450 from Bianca (B).

A car (C) is 40 m from Bianca. The points A, B and C are on ground
level. Angle BAC = 900 and angle ACB = 300.
Calculate
(a) angle ABC.
(b) the bearing of
(i) C from B
(ii) B from A.
(c) the distance AB.
Solution:
(a) angle ABC = 1800 – 900 – 300 (angle sum of triangle = 1800)
= 600
(b) (i) bearing of C from B = 450 + 600 = 1050

(ii) bearing of B from A = 1800 + 450 = 2250
(Note: we have dealt with three-figure bearings in Unit 4,
paragraph 4.2.2. Read this paragraph again to refresh
your memory about bearings)
𝐴𝐵
(c) In triangle ABC, cos 600 = (angle A = 900)
40
Hence, AB = 40 cos 600
1
= 40 × 2 = 20
The distance AB is 20 m.
1 Use you calculator to find the value of each of the following:

a) tan 18,50, correct to 3 significant figures
b) cos 67,40, correct to 1 decimal place.
2 Mary is looking out of the window of her office and see her friend entering the
front gate of the property. The angle of depression from the office windown
to the gate is 320 and the window is 6m above the ground.
The diagram below illustrates this information:
P
320
6m
Q d R
Calculate the distance, d, of the gate from the building.
3 A 55 m high electricity pylon is supported by two wires of 65 m each.
65 m 65 m
55 m
Calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the pylon from the foot of the
wires.
8.2 Summary
In this unit we learnt how to use the sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent
(tan) ratios to solve problems that contain right-angled triangles. We also
learnt how to interpret angles of elevation and of depression.
Trigonometry is that branch of mathematics that deals with triangles.

Trigonometry enables us not only to understand the universe of which we
are part but also to make effective use of the resources in the world around
us.
Feedback for the learning activities can be found at the back of this
module.
Learning activity 1:
1 a) 5,02 × 102 b) 9,419 × 106 c) 6,5 × 101 d) 7,067 × 104
2 a) 5,62 × 10‒2 b) 2,0 × 10‒2 c) 7,6 × 10‒6 d) 9,7854 × 10‒2
3 a) 672 b) 51 230 c) 56 d) 5 600 e) 0,356

f) 0,076 342 g) 0,01 h) 0,0009
1. [8,199][EXP][3][=] Calculator display: 8 199

2. [0,34][EXP][2][=] Calculator display: 34
3. [9,08][EXP][4][±][=] Calculator display: 0,00090 8
4. [567,98][EXP][2][±][=] Calculator display: 5,6798
1 5 : 2 (divide by HCF of 35 and 14 which is 7)
2 a) unshaded triangles : shaded triangles = 3 : 6
3 1
b) 6 = 2 (in its simplest form)
3 N$ 225 is divided into 15 parts.
7 𝑁$ 225
Harry gets × = 7 × N$ 15 = N$ 105
15 1
8 𝑁$ 225
Anne gets × = 8 × N$ 15 = N$ 120 OR N$ (225 ‒ 105) = N$ 120
15 1
4
4 The sum of money is divided into 7 parts. Martin’s share is of this sum of money.
7
1 𝑁$ 19,60
This is equal to N$ 19,60. So, 7 is equal to = N$ 4,90
4
The sum that they had to share is 7 × N$ 4,90 = N$ 34,30
8,4 𝑐𝑚
5 The actual distance = × 1 km = 4,2 × 1 km = 4,2 km
2 𝑐𝑚
6 When the money decreases it gets less. So the money left in her purse is represented
by the smaller part of the ratio, namely 3.
3 𝑁$ 68,60
Therefore, the amount left in the purse = × = 3 × N$ 9,80 = N$ 29,40
7 1
1 The first ratio is 4 : 3
The second ration is 3 : b (the longer right-hand side forms the first part of each
ratio)
The two ratios are proportionate, therefore we can write
4:3 = 3:b
4 3
which is the same as 3 = 𝑏
4b = 9
9
b = 4 = 2,25
2 Flour for 12 bread rolls = 240 g

240 𝑔 240 𝑔
Flour for 16 bread rolls = × 16 (flour for 1 bread roll = )
12 12
= 320 g
48 𝑔 48 𝑔
Sultanas for 16 bread rolls = × 16 (sultanas for 1 bread roll = )
12 12
= 64 g
60 𝑔 60 𝑔
Margarine = × 16 (flour for 1 bread roll = )
12 12
= 80 g
75 mℓ 75 mℓ
Milk = × 16 (milk for 1 bread roll = )
12 12
= 100 mℓ
24 𝑔 24 𝑔
Sugar = × 16 (sugar for 1 bread roll = )
12 12
= 32 g
12 𝑔 12 𝑔
Salt = × 16 (salt for 1 bread roll = )
12 12
= 16 g
3 Four men can build a wall in 15 days

So, 1 man can build the wall in 4 × 15 days = 60 days (constant k = 4 × 15)
60 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
Therefore, 6 men can build the wall in = 10 days
6
4 Four hens will finish the food in 5 days

So, one hen will finish the food in 4 × 5 days
4 × 5 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 1
Therefore, 8 hens will finish the food in = 22 days
8
1 a) This is a direct proportion. Put the amount of honey equal to x.
Then, 75 : 120 = 375 : x
So, 75x = 120 × 375
45 000
x = 75 = 600
The amount of honey made is 600 g
b) 1 kg = 1 000 g
Put the distance to fly equal to x.
Then, 75 : 120 = x : 1 000 (cross multiply)
So, 120x = 75 × 1 000

75 000
x = 120 = 625
The distance to fly is 625 km
2 If I travel at a higher speed, I will take less time. The quantities are therefore,
indirectly proportional.
36 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Change the 36 minutes to hours. 36 min = 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 0,6 hours
Therefore, time taken at 100 km/h = 3,6 hours
Now, k = speed × time

= 100 × 3,6
= 360
360
So, the time taken at the higher speed =
120
= 3 hours
7
1 The interest accrued is I = P × R × T = N$ (3 500 × 100 × 3)
= N$ 735
Amount to pay back = principal amount + interest
= N$(3 500 + 735)
= N$ 4 235
I
2 If I = P × R × T, then R = (make R the subject of formula)
PT
1 350 450
= =
5 000 × 3 5 000
450
= 50 × 100 1
= 9%
Peter paid back at 9% simple interest.
I
3 If I = P × R × T, then T = (make T the subject of formula)
PR
840 × 100 3
= (R = 100
)
7 000 × 3
84 000
= = 4
21 000
The number of years is 4.

10
4 I = P × R × T = N$(4 000 × × 4 = N$ (400 × 4) = N$ 1 600
100
Amount of interest paid is N$ 1 600
6
1 Interest at end of 1st year = P × R = N$(2 000 × 100 = N$ 120
Principal amount at end of 1st year = N$ 2 120
6
Interest at end of 2nd year = N$(2 120 × 100 ) = N$ 127,20
Principal amount at end of 2nd year = N$(2 120 + 127,20) = N$ 2 247,20
Hence, value of investment is N$ 2 247,20
12
2 Interest at end of 1st year = N$ 45 000 × = N$ 5 400
100
12
Interest at end of 2nd year = N$ 50 400 × = N$ 6 048
100
12
Interest at end of 3rd year = N$ 56 448 × 100 = N$ 6 773,76
Total amount of interest after 3 years = N$ (5 400 + 6 048 + 6 773,76)
= N$ 18 221,76
Total amount to pay back after 3 years = N$ (45 000 + 18 221,76)
= N$ 63 221,76
7
3 a) Interest at end of 1st year = N$ 7 500 × = N$ 525
100
7
Interest at end of 2nd year = N$ 8 025 × = N$ 561,75
100
7
Interest at end of 3rd year = N$ 8 586,75 × 100 = N$ 601,07
Total amount of interest after 3 years = N$ (525 + 561,75 + 601,07)
= N$ 1 687,82
b) Total amount after 3 years = N$ (7 500 + 1 687,82)

= N$ 9 187,82
Amount of money in savings account after 3 years is N$ 9 187,82
No feedback required for this activity. Learners give feedback with regard to tier local
council.
No feedback required for this activity. Learners give feedback with regard to tier local
council.

1 a) 34571 + 230 = 34801
b) 12803 ‒ 12753 = 50
c) Amount payable = 230 × N$ 1,80 = N$ 414
d) Amount payable for rest of services = N$(414 + 650 + 85 + 75 + 110) = N$ 1 324
Amount payable for refuse removal = N$(1 400 ‒ 1 324) = N$ 76
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑁$ 650
e) Tariff for water = = = N$ 13 per kilolitre
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 50
2 a) Metre reading for August = 37568 ‒ 450 = 37118

b) Amount to pay = basic charge + tariff charge
= N$ 119,50 + N$ 1,50 × 450
= N$ 119,50 + N$ 675
= N$ 794,50

1 a) Learners can give their own reasons but these should be based on the idea that
interest is paid on the balance after the deposit is deducted.
b) The item is taken back by the seller.
1 𝑁$ 18 780
2 a) Deposit = 3(N$ 18 780) = = N$ 6 260
3
b) Balance = N$(18 780 ‒ 6 260) = N$ 12 520
𝑁$ 12 520
Amount of instalment = = N$ 1 252
10
3 a) HP price of refrigerator = deposit + balance + interest on balance
Deposit on refrigerator = 10% of N$ 2 450 = N$ 245

Balance payable = N$ (2 450 ‒ 245) = N$ 2 205
15 2 205
Interest for 1st year = 15% of N$ 2 205 = 100 × 1 = 15 × N$ 22,05
= N$ 330,75
Interest for 2nd year = 15% of N$ 2 535,75
15 2 535,75
= 100 × 1 = 15 × N$ 25,36
= N$ 380,40
nd
Principal amount at end of 2 year = N$ (2 535,75 + 380,40)
= N$ 2 916,15
Total HP price = N$ (2 916,15 + 245) = N$ 3 161,15
𝑁$ 3 161,15
b) Amount of each instalment = = N$ 175,62
18

1 a) No tax payable (taxable amount less than N$50 000)
b) Tax on N$ 81 500 = N$ 9 000 + 25% of N$ 31 500
25 𝑁$ 31 500
= N$ 9 000 + 100 × 1
= N$ 9 000 + 25 × N$ 315
= N$(9 000 + 7 875) = N$ 16 875
c) Tax on N$ 325 000 = N$ 59 000 + 28% of N$ 25 000
28 𝑁$ 25 000
= N$ 59 000 + 100 × 1
= N$ 59 000 + 28 × N$ 250
= N$(59 000 + 7 000) = N$ 66 000
18 𝑁$ 15 000
2 a) Tax on N$ 65 000 = N$ 0 + 18% of N$ 15 000 = 100 × 1
= 18 × N$ 150 = N$ 2 700
𝑁$ 2 700
Monthly PAYE = = N$ 225
12
b) N$ 31 200 is less than N$ 50 000, so no tax is payable and therefore, no PAYE.
c) Tax on N$ 378 000 = N$ 59 000 + 28% of N$ 78 000

28 𝑁$ 78 000
= N$ 59 000 + 100 × 1
= N$ 59 000 + 18 × N$ 780 = N$ 14 040
= N$ 73 040
𝑁$ 73 040
Monthly PAYE = = N$ 6 086,67
12
3 a) (i) Tax on N% 210 000 = N$ 9 000 + 25% of N$ 110 000

25 110 000
= N$ 9 000 + 100 × 1
= N$ 9 000 + 25 × N$ 1 100
= N$(9 000 + 27 500) = N$ 36 500
𝑁$ 36 500
Monthly PAYE = = N$ 3 041,67
12
𝑁$ 210 000
(ii) Monthly salary = = N$ 17 500
12
7 𝑁$ 17 500
Monthly pension = × = 7 × N$ 175 = N$ 1 225
100 1
b) Netto monthly salary = gross monthly salary ‒ monthly deductions

= N$ 17 500 ‒ N$(3 041,67 + 1 225 + 360 + 45)
= N$ (17 500 ‒ 4 671,67)
= N$ 12 828,33
c) Money left = netto monthly salary ‒ total account payments

= N$ 12 828,33 ‒ N$(1 500 + 545 + 750)
= N$ (12 828,33 ‒ 2 795)
= N$ 10 033,33

1 stove, shoe box, book, etc.
2 pencil, garden hose pipe, glasses where that top and base are the same size, etc.
3 a)
b) Volume of shoe box = length × width × height

= 20 cm × 12 cm × 10 cm
= 2 400 cm3
4 Volume of cylinder = 2𝜋rh
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
h =
2𝜋𝑟
350 𝑐𝑚3 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

= 22 (Note: radius =
2
)
2× ×3,5
7
350 × 7
=
2 ×22 ×3,5
= 15,9 cm
= 16 cm to the nearest cm.
5 Total surface area = 2( 20 × 12) + 2(12 × 10) + 2(20 × 10) cm2

= (480 + 240 + 400) cm2
= 1 120 cm2
6 Surface area of cylinder = 2(base area) + area of body (rectangle)

= [2𝜋 (3,5)2 + 2𝜋(3,5)16] cm2
= 76,97 + 351,86
= 428,8
= 429 cm2 (correct to 3 significant figures)

1 a) Figures D and F are similar to figure A.
(corresponding angles the same; corresponding sides in same ratio, 1 : 1)
Not figure G because corresponding side NOT in the same ratio.
b) Figure H is similar to figure E.
(corresponding angles equal; corresponding sides in same ratio, 1 : 1)
2 Figure S is similar to figure P.

(corresponding angle the same; corresponding sides in the same ratio, 1 : 1)

1 Using the angle sum of a triangle = 1800, we get ∠C = 800 and ∠P = 800.
Triangles ABC and PQR have the same angles (300, 700, 800), so they are similar.
2 a) In the overlapping triangles ABD and ECD,
∠ABD = ∠ECD = 900
∠BAD = ∠CED (they are corresponding angles)
∠ADB = ∠EDC (they are the same angle)
Hence, ΔABD lll ΔECD
b) ΔABD lll ΔECD

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐷
𝐸𝐶
= 𝐶𝐷
12 𝑐𝑚 (4 + 5) 𝑐𝑚
𝐸𝐶
= 5 𝑐𝑚
12 × 5
EC = 9
= 6,66 cm = 6,7 cm (correct to 1 decimal)

1 a) Bearing of point P = 790
b) Bearing of point P = 2330
c) Bearing of point P = 1500
d) Bearing of point P = 3030
2 a) Bearing of Johannesburg from Windhoek = 111 0

b) Bearing of Johannesburg from Cape Town = 0500
c) Bearing of Cape Town from Johannesburg = 2300
d) Bearing of Lusaka from Cape Town = 0280
e) Bearing of Kimberley from Durban = 2800

1 Length of kitchen = 3,5 × 2 m = 7 m
Width of kitchen = 2,6 × 2 m = 5,2 m
115 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚 115 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚
2 a) × 10 𝑘𝑚 = 11,5 cm b) × 25 𝑘𝑚 = 4,6 cm
1 1
5𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚
3 a) × = 2,5 cm b) 650
1 2𝑚

1 a) and b)
c) Distance of T from shopping mall = 6,7 cm × 200 m = 1 340 m = 1,34 km
Bearing of T from shopping mall = 1800 + 910 = 2710

1
2 a) 6 faces
b) This is just one possible net. There are many more.
1
a) I) scale factor = 4 (sides of image 4 times longer than sides of object)

ii) (see broken lines on first diagram)
b) I) scale factor = 3 (sides of image 3 times longer than sides of object)

ii) (see broken lines on second diagram)
a) b)
a) The transformation is an enlargement, with scale factor = 3, and the centre of

enlargement the point (1, 3).
b) The transformation is an enlargement, with scale factor = 2, and the centre of
enlargement the point (0, 0).
1
2
Solution:
a) Centre of enlargement
Join G' to G, H' to H and I' to I and extend
these lines until they meet. Their point of
intersection is the centre of enlargement.
Hence, centre of enlargement is (0, ‒1).
b) Scale factor
Method 1: Count units from G to I, it is 1.
Count the units of the image of GI, i.e G'I'. It
is 2. It is the same for the other sides of
image and object. Therefore, the scale factor
2
is 1 = 2
Method 2: G'H' = 2GH, H'I' = 2HI and I'G' =

2IG. Hence, the scale factor of the
enlargement is 2 and it is positive because the
image is larger than the object.

1 a) A circle has no straight lines.
b) The shape has no straight lines and is not closed.
c) The shape is not closed.
2 a) There are 13 polygons. They are as follows:
• Four small triangles, each defined by one side of the rectangle and two halves of the
diagonals (e.g., PQT)
• Four pentagons, each a complement of one of the small triangles (e.g., TQRSP)
• Four large triangles, each defined by two sides of the rectangle and one of the
diagonals (e.g., triangle PRS)
• The rectangle PQRS

1 a + 1000 + 900 + 650 = 3600 (angle sum of quadrilateral = 3600)
a + 2550 = 3600
a = 1050
2 Sum of 3 interior angles = 3 × 850 = 2550

Size of 4th interior angle = 3600 ‒ 2550 = 1050 (angle sum of quadrilateral = 3600)
3 Each interior angle = 1650

So, each exterior angle = 1800 ‒ 1650 = 150 (angles on a straight line)
The sum of the exterior angles = 3600
3600
So, the number of exterior angles = = 24
150
Hence, the number of sides of the polygon = 24.

1 a) angle x = 350 (angles in the same circle segment)
2400
b) angle x = (angle at centre = 2 × angle at circumference)
2
= 1200
2 a) ∠TWV = 900 (angle in semi circle)

hence, ∠TWS = 1800 – 900 (adjacent angles on a straight line)
= 900
Therefore, ∠WTU = 200 + 900 (sum of 2 opposite interior angles = exterior angle)
= 1100
b) ∠TUW = 550 (angles in same segment)

Therefore, ∠TWU = 1800 – (1100 + 550) (angle sum of Δ)
= 150
c) ∠UWV = 900 – 150 (complementary angles)

= 750
∠VTU = 750 (angles in the same circle segment)
Therefore, ∠TXU = 1800 – (750 + 550) (angle sum of Δ)
= 500
3
a) ∠QSR = 250 (angle at centre = 2 at circumference)
b) ∠SPQ = 1800 – (∠PSQ + ∠PQS) (angle sum of Δ)
= 1800 – (900 + 250) (angle in semi circle; PQ//SR)
= 650
c) ∠PSR = 900 + ∠QSR

= 900 + 250 = 1150
Hence, ∠PQR = 650 (opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary)
and ∠SQR = ∠PQR – ∠PQS

= 650 – 250 (PQ//SR, alternate angles)
= 400

1 1 1 1 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏2 + 𝑎2
1 + = b(𝑎) + a(𝑏) = + =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
2 3 2 3 2𝑎𝑏 3𝑎 2𝑎𝑏2 + 3𝑎
2 + = ab( ) + a( ) = + =
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
4 3 4𝑡 − 3 2𝑥 + 5 3𝑥 ‒ 1 (4𝑥 + 10) + (6𝑥 − 3) 10𝑥 + 7

3 ‒ = 4 + = =
𝑡 𝑡2 𝑡2 3 2 6 6
4𝑥 ‒ 1 𝑥+ 3 (12𝑥 ‒ 3) − (4𝑥 + 12) 8𝑥 ‒ 15

5 – = =
4 3 12 12

2𝑦 𝑦 2𝑦 2
1 × = (cancel the common factor, 2)
𝑦−3 6 6𝑦 − 18
𝑦2
=
3𝑦 − 9
𝑥−3 𝑥+2 3(𝑥 − 3) + 2(𝑥 + 2) 3𝑥 − 9 + 2𝑥 + 4 5𝑥 − 5
2 + = = =
2 3 2(3) 6 6
2𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 2 12(2𝑥 − 1) − 8(3𝑥 − 2) 24𝑥 − 12 − 24𝑥 + 16 4 1

3 – = = = =
8 12 96 96 96 24
8𝑥 2(𝑦 − 1) 8𝑥 6𝑥 48𝑥 2 8𝑥 2
4 ÷ = × = =
3(𝑦 + 1) 6𝑥 3(𝑦 + 1) 2(𝑦 − 1) 6(𝑦 2 − 1) 𝑦2 − 1
2𝑥 2 𝑥 2𝑥 2 5 10𝑥 2 10𝑥
5 ÷ = × = =
𝑦 − 3 5 𝑦 − 3 𝑥 𝑥(𝑦 − 3) 𝑦− 3
3 + 𝑥 𝑥 (3 + 𝑥)(3 − 𝑥) + 𝑥(𝑥) 9 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 9
6 + = = =
𝑥 3− 𝑥 𝑥(3 − 𝑥) 𝑥(3 − 𝑥) 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2
5 5− 𝑦 5(2) − (5 − 𝑦)(𝑦 + 2) 10 − 5𝑦 − 10 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦
7 – = =
𝑦+ 2 2 2(𝑦 + 2) 2(𝑦 + 2)
𝑦 2 − 3𝑦
=
2𝑦 + 4

𝑥 2 ‒ 2𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 ‒ 2) 𝑥
1 = =
𝑥2 ‒ 4 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 2)
𝑎𝑥 2 ‒ 4𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑥(𝑥 ‒ 4) 𝑎𝑥
2 = =
𝑥2 ‒ 16 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 + 4
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 𝑏(𝑎 + 1) 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2𝑥(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 2)
3 = = (a + 1) 4 = =
𝑏 𝑏 4𝑥 4𝑥 2

2 3 2(𝑥 − 3) + 3(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 − 6 + 3𝑥 + 3 5𝑥 − 3
1 + = = =
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 ‒ 3) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑥 1 𝑥 1
2 (𝑥 2 ‒ 1)
‒ = ‒
(𝑥 ‒ 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 ‒ 1)
𝑥 − (𝑥 + 1) 1
= =
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
(2𝑝2 + 7𝑝 ‒ 4) 6 (2𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 + 4) 6

3 × = × = 1
(3𝑝 + 12) (4𝑝 ‒ 2) 3(𝑝 + 4) 2(2𝑝 ‒ 1)
(2𝑥 2 + 2) 1 2(𝑥 2 + 1) (𝑥 − 1) 2(𝑥 2 + 1)

4 ÷ = × =
𝑥2 ‒ 𝑥 (𝑥 ‒ 1) 𝑥(𝑥 ‒ 1) 1 𝑥
1 a) 5x + 3 = 38 b) 4n – 1 = n + 8
5x = 35 4n – n = 8 + 1
x = 7 3n = 9
n = 3
c) 6(x + 2) = 42 d) 7(y – 3) + 5 = 4(2 – y) + 3y

6x = 30 7y – 16 = 8 – y
x = 5 8y = 24
y = 3
e) 3(x – 4) + 2(4x – 5) = 5(x + 2) + 16

11x – 21 = 10x + 26
x = 47
2𝑥 5 𝑥 22
2 a) + = +
3 7 2 21
14(2x) + 6(5) = 21(x) + 2(22) (LCM of 3, 7, 2, and 21 is 42)
28x + 30 = 21x + 44
7x = 14
x = 2
6𝑥 – 7 3𝑥 – 5 5𝑥 + 78
b) + =
4 7 28
7(6x – 7) + 4(3x – 5) = 5x + 78 (LCM of 4, 7 and 28 is 28)
54x – 69 = 5x + 78
49x = 147
x = 3

1 Let the number be x. Then, 2x + 8 = 24 So, 2x = 16 and x = 8.
The original number is 8.
2 Let the number be y. Then, 4y ‒ 12 = 36 So, 4y = 48 and y = 12.

The original number is 12.
3 If Peter has N$ x, then Craig has (N$ x + 12).

Now, N$ x + N$ x + 12 = N$ 136
2x + 12 = 136
2x = 124 and x = 62
Peter has N$ 62, and Craig has N$ 74.
4 2y + (2y + 7) = 251
4y = 244 giving y = 61
Hidipo has (2y + 7) marbles. That is 2 × 61 + 7 = 129 marbles .

1 a) i) independent variable: x dependent variable: y
ii) y = 90x
b) i) independent variable: P dependent variable: m

ii) P = 4m
3
x ‒2 ‒1 0 1 2 3
y = 2x + 3 ‒1 1 3 5 7 9

1 ‒2 0 2 4 6
x
𝑥 ‒ 2
y=
2 ‒2 ‒1 0 1 2
2
x ‒2 ‒1 0 1 2 3 4
y = 5 – 3x 11 8 5 2 ‒1 ‒4 ‒7
3 The graphs intersect at the point (2,5, 1,5)

1 The line is y = ‒x + 3, so the gradient is ‒1 and the y-intercept is 3.
1 3
2 y = ‒ 2 x + 4, which can be written as 4y = 2x + 3 OR 2x + 4y = 3
3 a) gradient = 2 and the y-intercept = ‒2. Therefore, equation is y = 2x ‒ 2

b) gradient = ‒1 and the y-intercept = 3. Therefore, equation is y = ‒x + 3

1 The letter s (4 times)
2 34 throws (16 + 18)
3 a) 33 (11 + 8 + 7 + 4 + 1 + 2)
b) 28 (9 + 8 + 11)
1
100 eggs are measured. The number of eggs is found by adding the frequencies
1 + 8 + 17 + 40 + 26 + 8 = 100
2
1 a) It is an odd number of scores, so the median is the middle score after the scores
have been arranged in ascending order:
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8
The median = 5.
b) It is an even number of scores, so the median is the mean of the two middle
scores after the scores have been arranged in ascending order:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
3 + 4
Median = 2 = 3,5
2 a) Mode = 5 (appears the most - 5 times)

b) Mode = 2 (appears the most - 3 times)
3 a) Mode = 0
30 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 + 31 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 1+ 1
b) Median = = 2 = 1
2
c) Total number of letters
= (0 × 28) + (1 × 21) + (2 × 6) + (3 × 3) + (4 × 1) + (5 × 1) = 51
51
Mean = 60 = 0,85
4 a) Modal class is (0 – 2)
b) 11 learners (8 + 3)
c)
Hours per week Frequency, f
0 - 2 11
3 - 5 4
6 - 8 6
9 - 11 8
12 - 14 3

1 Total number of balls = 10
2 1
a) Number of red balls = 2, hence, P(red ball) = 10 = 5
b) Number of balls which are red or white = 5
5 1
Hence, P(red ball or white ball) = 10 = 2
c) If the ball is neither red nor black, it must be white. Number of white balls = 3
3
Hence, P(ball neither red nor black) = 10
5 1
2 a) P(blue ball) = =
20 4
1 1
b) P(red ball) = . This means that 5 of the balls in the bag are red.
5
1
Hence, the number of red balls = 20 × = 4
5
3 a)
Number of matches 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Frequency 5 3 4 3 4 0 1
b) The number of boxes that contain more than 40 matches = 4 + 3 + 4 + 0 + 1

= 12
12 3
Hence, P(box contains more than 40 matches) = 20 = 5

1 Triangle A. Reason: Trigonometric ratios are only applicable to rioght-angled
triangles.
15 8 15
2 a) (i) sin 𝜃 = (ii) cos 𝜃 = (iii) tan 𝜃 =
17 17 8
5 12 5
b) (i) sin 𝜃 = (ii) cos 𝜃 = (iii) tan 𝜃 =
13 13 12
𝑟 𝑓
3 a) cos 350 = b) tan 510 =
𝑞 𝑒

1 a) 𝑥 2 = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25
x = 5 units
b) 132 = 122 + 𝑥 2 = 16 + 9 = 25
Therefore, 𝑥 2 = 132 ‒ 122 = 169 ‒ 144 = 25
x = 5 units
2
a) Let the distance that the ladder reaches up the
wall be x units.
𝑥
Then, sin 700 =
4,8
Hence, x = 4,8 sin 700
= 4,5 units (to 1 decimal)
4,8 m x
b) Let the distance that the ladder reaches up the
wall be y units.
𝑦
y Then, cos 700 =
4,8
Hence, y = 4,8 cos 700
= 1,6 units (to 1 decimal)
1 a) tan 18,50 = 0,3346 = 0,335 (to 3 significant figures)
b) cos 67,40 = 0,384 = 0,4 (to 1 decimal place)
2 P
320
6m
Q d R
∠QPR = 900 ‒ 320 = 580

𝑑
Now, tan 580 =
6𝑚
d = 6 tan 580 = 9,6 m
The gate is 9,6 m from the building.
65 m 65 m
55 m
𝜃
Let the angle of elevation of the top of the pylon from the foot of the wires be 𝜃 .
55
Then, sin 𝜃 = 65 = 0,846
Hence, 𝜃 = 0,846 𝑠𝑖𝑛‒1 𝜃
= 57,80
The angle of elevation of the top of the pylon from the foot of the wires is 57,8 0.

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EDUCATION IS THE GREATEST EQUALISER

Type equation here.

Diploma in Junior Primary

Numeracy and Mathematics 3

Study Guide revised and re-written by:

© Institute for Open Learning 2015

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or

Date of next revision of syllabus: 2018

Institute for Open Learning

Telephone: +264 61 275 4700

II. How to use this module

Each unit consists of a table of contents and an introduction provides an overview

III. Time required

IV. Exit learning outcomes

V. Study support available

VI. Module assessment policy

VII. Verbs’ thinking processes

VERB MEANING / THINKING REQUIRED

6  Write as equal quantities (e.g. X = Y).

7  Replace one quantity by another.

8  Sit passively and listen - do not talk back.

9  Write over word-for-word.

10  Commit to memory so that you can recall it without effort.

13  Comment on something in your own words. This often requires

17  Say what you think is going to happen on the basis of available

19  Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/

20  Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of

21  Describe something, explain the meaning, significance or impact of

22  Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law, principle or

23  Systematically seek and bring together.

24  Give an orderly structure to.

VIII. Prescribed textbooks

1. Courney-Clarke M. and Coulson, M. 2008. Maths for life. Grade 10

IX. References in IOL centres

Charlesworth, R. 2012. 6th edition. Experiences in Math for young children.

Suffolk, J. 2004. Teaching Primary Mathematics. MacMillan: Malaysia.

XI. Icons used in this study guide

This icon indicates the learning outcomes for a specific unit.

This icon indicates feedback on learning activities. Feedback tells

You are encouraged to read many different books and magazines

1.1 How to represent numbers in standard form

1.2 Direct and indirect proportion

Feedback on learning activities

Proportional reasoning follows next and the idea is to develop an understanding of

1. Courney-Clarke M. and Coulson, M. 2008. Maths for life. Grade 10

1.1 How to represent (write) numbers in standard form

Specific objective for this section

In this section you will learn how to

 Very large numbers: Let’s use the number 3 000.

We know that 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1 000.

2 But to get back the original number of 3 2 3 000 = 3,0 × 103

Example 1: Large numbers

Solution: 5 120 000 000 = 5,12 × 109

 Very small numbers:

Example 2: Small numbers

Solution: 0,000 001 3 = 1,3 × 10‒6

We can formulate a rule to write numbers in standard form:

To write a number in standard form we use the form A × 𝟏𝟎𝒏 , where

1 Write each of the following numbers in standard form:

2 Write each of the following numbers in standard form:

3 Write each of the following numbers as ordinary numbers:

Feedback on this learning activity is provided at the end of this module.

1.1.2 How to use the calculator to convert numbers in standard form