Counselling and

Learner Support
STUD-COUNS-0016
 Published by the Institute for Open Learning
Windhoek, Namibia

© Institute for Open Learning 2015

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission from publishers.

Study Guide compiled and revised by:

J.C. Swart
2015

Date of next revision of syllabus: 2019

Institute for Open Learning

Windhoek

Telephone: +264 61 270 9100

E-mail: info@iol.na
Website: www.iol.na
 COUNSELLING AND
LEARNER SUPPORT
STUD-COUNS-0016
STUDY The practice of good
UNIT 6 discipline with children

The impact of some

STUDY key challenges that
UNIT 5 learners experience and
counselling for it
STUDY Nutrition, nutrients and
UNIT 7 related health disorders

How to counsel and

STUDY support learners
regarding some Life
UNIT 4 Skills and self-esteem
The prevention and
STUDY treatment of learners
UNIT 8 affected and infected
with HIV and AIDS

The holistic approach

MY MODULE
STUDY
UNIT 3
to learning support and
motivation issues
BLUEPRINT

7 8
STUDY Basic counselling and
Namibian referral 6
UNIT 2 procedures
5

7 8 9
6 10
STUDY Approaches to and
5 11
phases of counselling of 2
3
4 12

13
UNIT 1 learners
2 14

1 15
1
 Learning Styles Why use a Mind Map? Referencing Recipes
Go to this link to test and see what learning style suits you best: It is proven to be one of the most
effective study methods! WHAT IS REFERENCING? Reference list: Online journals
http://www.educationplanner.org/students/self-assessments/learning-styles-quiz.
Referencing is the method used to give credit List these separately in your reference list In-text referencing option 1:
shtml It uses your individual
to or to acknowledge the author of the ideas, according to the book referencing recipe. Berry and Kingswell (2012) claims tat “students
particular encoding words, images or concepts that you use in your differ in how they cope with and manage stress
strategy to organise academic writing. associated with university life.”
Chapter in a book – when chapters have
the information, In academic writing, referencing needs to different authors: In-text referencing option 2:
making recall so much appear in two places:
In-text referencing option 1: From their study it is clear that “students differ
more effective. 1. In your text (where you use it) in how they cope with and manage stress
Verbal Visual Joiner (2013, p.103) is of the firm belief that the
Musical / Auditory 2. In your reference list or bibliography textbook saga needs to be resolved as soon as associated with university life”
Words are your You prefer to use Physical / Through the use of correct referencing, you can possible. (Berry and Kingswell, 2012).
You prefer sounds avoid plagiarism! In-text referencing option 2: Reference list:
strongpoint! You pictures, diagrams, Kinesthetic
or music or even
prefer to use images and spatial You retain... Referencing is like using a recipe. Just follow The textbook saga needs to be resolved as Berry, K. and Kingswell, S. 2012. An Investigation
rhythms to help You use your these easy steps to ensure a good end result. soon as possible (Joiner, 2011, p.103). of Adult Attachment and Coping with Exam-
words both in understanding to
you learn. hands, body and Reference list: Related Stress. British Journal of Guidance &
speech and in help you learn.
sense of touch to 10% BOOKS Counselling. [e-journal] 4(4). Available through:
writing. Joiner, LR. 2013. The textbook saga in Limpopo. Ebscohost database [16 June 2013].
help you learn. You Cited In: Mbeki, H. ed. The sate of Education in
might act things Book with one author South Africa. Pretoria: Juta, pp.103.
of what you read
out. In-text referencing option 1: IMAGES/DIAGRAMS
In a study by King (2012, p13) it was found that Book with an editor:
20% mistakes were frequently made on board the Pictures from websites
navy vessel. In-text referencing option 1: In-text referencing:
In-text referencing option 2: In a recent publication by Human (2012, p.95) it When comparing the iPad mini Wi-Fi to the
of what you hear turned out that drinking milk is indeed healthy.
Mistakes were frequently made on board the iPad mini Wi-Fi + Cellular in the figure below, it
navy vessel (King, 20102, p.31). In-text referencing option 2: is clear that the main difference is in weight.
Social Solitary 30% Reference list: From recent studies it turns out that drinking
Logical / Combination milk is indeed healthy (Human, 2012, p.95).
You like to learn You like to work King, EJ. 2012. The History of Naval Vessels. 3rd
Mathematical Your learning style Reference list:
edition. Oxford: Miller Publishing.
new things as alone. You use of what you see
is a combination Human, B. 2012. ed. Health diaries. New York:
Learning is easier part of a group. self-study and Keystone.
for you if you use of two or more of Book with two authors
Explaining your prefer your own
logic, reasoning, understanding to a company when
these styles. 50% In-text referencing option 1:
systems and group helps you to learning. In a study by Fraser and Jones (2011, p45) it WEBSITE/WEB ARTICLE Figure 1: iPad mini size and weight. (apple.com,
2013)
sequences. learn. was clear that pink was the new black for that
of what you see & hear fashion season. Reference list:
Website/web article with author
In-text referencing option 2: iPad mini size and weight. 2013. [image
In-text referencing option 1:
online]. Available at: http://www.apple.com/za/
Manage your time efficiently 70% It was clear that pink was the new black for that In her study, Jones (1995) found that there were ipadmini/specs/ [Accessed 26 June 2013].
fashion season (Fraser and Jones, 2011, p.45). various reasons why different individuals watch
by eliminating all time Reference list: television.
talking about it to Diagrams from manuals
wasters (social media /
others Fraser, EJ. and Jones, FK. 2011. The History of In-text referencing option 2:
internet browsing / TV etc.) Colour in Fashion. 2nd edition. Pretoria: Juta. In-text referencing:
There are various reasons why different
individuals watch television (Jones, 1995). The diagram below shows how the process
Remember planning is key!
Use this to track 80% flows from left to right.
Book with three or more authors: Reference list:
your progress and
keep up to date with In-text referencing option 1: Jones, DM. 1995. Why People Watch TV.
of what you experience
In a study by Kingsley, Beard and Herbst (2010, [online]. Available at http://www.aber.ac.uk/
projects, tests and
Consult your module p.86) the evidence is clear that there was no media/Students/dzj9401.html [Accessed 19
modules leading up June 2013].
guide to see all the warning before the blast.
to the exams. 70%
icons used and their In-text referencing option 2:
meanings. The evidence is clear that there was no warning Website/web article without author /
teaching organisation as author
before the blasts (Kingsley, Beard and Herbst, Diagram 1: Activities in parallel. (IIE,2013,p.18)
others
2010, p.86). In-text referencing option 1: Reference list:

STUDENT BLUEPRINT OR you could apply the following method: In a

study by Kingsley et al (2010, p.86) ...
According to Apple (2013) the iPad mini has
Bluetooth 4.0 wireless technology.
IIE. 2013. Higher certificate in business
principles and practice. PRAD5112 Project

TO SUCCESS Reference list:

Kingsley, EJ, Beard, ML and Herbst, DG. 2010.
In-text referencing option 2:
The iPad mini has Bluetooth 4.0 wireless
Administration Year 1. The Independent Institute
of Education: unpublished.
The Hiroshima Bombings. 2nd edition. Pretoria: technology (Apple, 2013).
Juta. Reference list: INTERVIEWS
Apple, 2013. iPad mini. [online]. Available at:
Time Management Two or more sources in one sentence or http://www.apple.com/za/ipadmini/specs/
In-text referencing option 1:
paragraph [Accessed 19 June 2013].
Go to this link to learn more about time management: According to Xozwa (2013) “most students use
In-text referencing option 1:
technology on a regular basis”.
http://www.apsi.edu.au/7-time-management-tips-students/ There is agreement amongst authors such as Wiki
In-text referencing option 2:
Willemse (2001, p.103), Skosana (2009, p.24) This is not considered an academic source and
and Thembi (2009, p.24) that education in “Most students use technology on a regular
it is not advisable to use content from this site.
JAN the country needs to be reviewed as soon as basis” (Xozwa, 2013).
possible. Reference list:
In-text referencing option 2: Xozwa, SB. 201. Lecturer. Varsity College
Education in the country needs to be reviewed Midrand. Personal communication. 27 June
as soon as possible (Willemse, 2001, p.103; 2013.
Get organised Schedule Get a good Eliminate Be focused on Use a calendar Use a checklist Skosana, 2009, p.8; Thembi, 2009, p.24)
rewards night’s sleep distractions the task at hand
MODULE
overview
WORD OF WELCOME
Welcome to the world of teacher education and
Counselling and Learner Support in particular. To
be able to work with children is a most fulfilling
occupation. To be able to help learners-in-need is
not just a privilege but also a big responsibility. We
assume that – as a teacher - you are truly concerned
about the well-being of children and adolescents.
Therefore, we hope you will find the subject and the
study material interesting and informative and that
it will inspire you to make a contribution in your own
unique way to the optimal development of learners.
J.C. Swart
HOW TO USE THIS STUDY GUIDE
Although the units in this module address different
issues, these issues are not necessarily separated in
the classroom reality. You should thus integrate the
knowledge of the different units to achieve a holistic
view of teaching practices. All kinds of factors
impact on effective learning. Educational institutions
need to counsel and support learners in many areas
to promote circumstances, emotions and skills that
enable learners to benefit most from their education.
Counselling and support services help the learner to
understand him or herself better, discover personal
abilities and develop goals.
Each unit consists of a table of contents and an
introduction provides an overview of the unit. The
attention of the reader is then gained and focused by
means of the objectives. Activities – covering the text
of the learning outcomes - are listed at the beginning
of each unit and are aimed at creating interest
and critical thinking skills regarding the content.
The answers, or guidelines how to attempt these
activities, are found under the feedback session in
each unit. During completion of the activities it is
important to reflect about the content but also to
try and relate it to the specific context that each
student finds himself/herself in at that stage. Content
discussed in the module is explained in more detail
in the recommended additional literature. Students
are also encouraged to read other sources such
as newspapers, journals and Ministry of Education
reports and relate the reality with the theory that is
discussed in the module.
Please enjoy this module and good luck with the
assessment through assignments and examination
that is part and parcel of your studies! Perseverance
is the hard work you do after you get tired of doing
the hard work you already did!
TIME REQUIRED
The module carries 10-12 credits, depending on the
qualification you are registered for, which will take
roughly 100-120 hours of notional study to complete.
Commit yourself to work consistently through the
module and to hand in your assignments on time.
EXIT LEARNING
OUTCOMES:
The different units of this module
address the following exit learning
outcomes:
1. Discuss approaches to and phases of counselling
of learners.
2. Evaluate basic and career counselling skills and
Namibian referral procedures.
3. Examine the holistic approach to learning
support and motivation issues.
4. Analyse how to counsel and support learners
regarding some Life Skills and self-esteem.
5. Discuss the impact of some key challenges that
learners experience and counselling for it.
6. Propose how to practice good discipline with
children.
7. Analyse basic ideas about nutrition, nutrients and
related health disorders.
8. Examine the prevention and treatment of learners
affected and infected with HIV and AIDS
STUDY SUPPORT AVAILABLE
The prescribed materials have been provided to
you. It is essential that you will devote sufficient
time to these sources to ensure that you have
good knowledge of what they are about and how
to use them to facilitate the learning of the subject
material. Please ensure that you spend enough time
reading the prescribed materials and to follow the
instructions carefully so as to ensure that you do not
waste unnecessary time and effort.
• You have received all the materials needed to
successfully complete the module.
• Take time to first acquaint yourself with the
content of the module by reading through the
material carefully.
• Read the assignment carefully so that you will
know what is required of you.
• Read the expected learning outcomes.
• The learning outcomes are there as a guide so
that you will know what is expected of you to
know or to be able to do at the end of each unit
and what the competencies are that you are
expected to master.
• When you are sure that you know what you have
to do you should plan your time so that you
have enough time to do everything that you are
expected to do and still have time to do revision.
• You are strongly advised to ensure that you
complete ALL the exercises given and not to
cheat on the learning activities. First complete it
on your own and then use the answers provided
to mark your answers. Ensure that you follow all
the guidelines given.
• Note that reference to the recommended books
will be made by the author throughout the
module (See References in IOL centres).
• Other support involves contact classes, IOL
resource centres and feedback on assignments.
• Once you understand what it is that you
are expected to do, you are ready to start.
Enjoy your studies.
MODULE ASSESSMENT POLICY
• Assessment per semester module consists of
one assignment of 120 marks for modules of
10-12 credits.
• A 50% semester mark is required for admission
to examinations.
• Where practical work is applicable, a 60% pass is
required and such work could account for 50% of
the semester mark.
• The duration of the examination for 10-12
credits is one x 2 hours written examination of
120 marks.
• A final pass mark of 50% is required, calculated
by 60% of the examination mark and 40% of the
semester mark. sub-minimum of 50% must be
attained in the examination.
• The setting and marking of examination papers
are moderated.
VERBS’ THINKING PROCESSES
ACTION VERBS: Meanings and thinking levels of
verbs for teaching and assessment.
The following table of verbs found in tests and
examinations provides examples of the thinking
involved in each verb.
VERB MEANING / THINKING REQUIRED
Examine information in detail
to discover the main ideas
/ components / patterns or
Analyse relationships. Show why they are
important and how components
are related and what theories they
reflect.
A numerical answer from given
figures or information is required –
Calculate
the process or method leading to
the answer must be shown.
Describe something and discuss
Comment briefly by giving the positive and
negative points.
Indicate similarities / resemblances
and differences of phenomena
regarding particular criteria. Draw
a conclusion about the similarities
and differences, emphasising
Compare
the similarities. Very often a
table format is used to compare
phenomena. A description of one
phenomenon after the other is
not a comparison.
Show how things are different
or opposite regarding particular
Contrast criteria. Look only for differences,
not for similarities too as in the case
for ‘compare’.
Give a reasoned judgement of
something after careful weighing of
facts, information or perspectives.
Criticise
Provide positive and negative
points – do not only emphasise the
negative side. Draw a conclusion.
Use the information provided, e.g.
reference to a law, principle or
Deduce
context, to come to a conclusion
after reasoning about it.
Give the precise, brief meaning
of something, often referring to
Define etymological roots of concepts.
Indicate what features are included
and excluded.
Perform the necessary operations;
Demonstrate
show by example.
Provide detailed features of an
issue or stages of a process in a
logical sequence, using numbers
Describe and headings and proper sentences.
It is not necessary to discuss the
subject by referring to arguments
for and against.
Use the information given to work
Determine
out the answer.
Give a clear description and then
argue about features by pointing
Discuss
out positive and negative features,
arriving at a conclusion.
Describe two phenomena /
things according to relevant
Distinguish /
criteria. Clearly point out the
differentiate
differences between the two sets.
Same as contrast.
Provide a reasoned projection
or hypothesis; an evaluation
Estimate of dimensions; the impact of
something or the numerical
calculation of something.
Determine the value / worth /
Evaluate quality / success of something
according to certain criteria.
Describe something and indicate
relationships between things,
Explain
making clear the why (reasons) and
how (examples) of features.
 A general term that means PLAGIARISM
Find
calculate, determine or measure.
ASSIGNMENTS ARE INDIVIDUAL TASKS AND
Identify Recognise and name / list features.
NOT GROUP ACTIVITIES. (UNLESS EXPLICITLY
Describe by giving examples or INDICATED AS GROUP ACTIVITIES.)
Illustrate
making drawings.
Copying text from other students or from other
Describe something, explain the sources (for instance the study guide, prescribed
meaning, significance or impact material or directly from the internet) is not allowed
Interpret
of it or explain the meaning of – only brief quotations are allowed and then only if
graphic information. indicated as such.
Identify detailed features You should reformulate existing text and use your
of something / problem
Investigate / own words to explain what you have read. It is
systematically and discuss them
examine not acceptable to retype existing text and just
according to a given directive,
drawing a conclusion. acknowledge the source in a footnote or in the

The aim of the assignments is not the reproduction

Present a list of names, facts,
List / state of existing material, but to ascertain whether you
objects, etc. in a certain order.
have the ability to integrate existing texts, add your
Give an overview of and indicate own interpretation and/or critique to the texts and
Outline the main features of something in a offer a creative solution to existing problems.
concise and systematic manner.
Be warned: students who submit copied text will
Make a logical deduction either obtain a mark of zero for the assignment and
from your own knowledge or from
disciplinary steps may be taken by IOL. It is also
Predict the information given and suggest
unacceptable to do somebody else’s work, to lend
what may happen, based on the
available information. your work to them or to make your work available
to them to copy – be careful and do not make your
Indicate and describe work available to anyone!
Relate the relationship /
connections between variables.

Give a brief account of the essence REFERENCES IN IOL CENTRES

of a matter through the main ideas –
Summarise Corey, G. 2013. Theory and Practice of Counselling
no details or examples – focusing on
connections and meaning. and Psychotherapy. 9th Ed. Belmont: Thomson,
Brooks/ Cole
(Adapted from: Study methods, UCT; Quia verb
Culley, S. & Bond, T. 2011. Integrative counselling
definitions, 2004; CUE action verbs, 2004; Definitions
skills. London: Sage
of behavioural verbs, 2004)
Van Niekerk, E. & Hay, J. (editors) 2009. Handbook
You will recognise that the verbs above cover
of youth counselling. 2nd edition. Johannesburg:
mainly the different levels of Bloom’s cognitive
Heinemann.
taxonomy. You should also realise that the highest
level verbs encompass the meaning of the lower You can visit the IOL centre where applicable
verbs, for example, to evaluate something involves and ask for help and support with regard to extra
knowledge, understanding and analysis of ideas to information to be used in the preparation of
be able to judge / evaluate according to criteria. assignments and examinations.
Verbs associated with the affective and psychomotor
domains of learning include the following: Affective
verbs: look, show, discuss, appreciate, evaluate,
value and display.
 ICONS USED IN THIS STUDY GUIDE
The following icons are used in the Study Guide in an
attempt to provide you with clear signals of what is
expected of you.

Activity

This icon indicates learning activities

that you must do. Use a separate
exercise book for this purpose
and use it throughout the year –
especially when you start doing
revision for the examination

Learning Outcomes

This icon indicates learning

outcomes for a specific unit.

Activity Feedback

This icon indicates feedback on

learning activities. Feedback tells
you what you should have done in
the activity, or what is done in the
activity, or where you can find more
information on the activity.

Prescribed Textbooks/Reading

You are encouraged to read many

different books and magazines
about child education to find
out more with regard to upper-
primary education.

PRESCRIBED
TEXTBOOKS

There are no prescribed books for this module,

but students are encouraged to do some wider
research on their own as any additional and
applicable information will be credited in the
assignment and examination.
 The Person-
1.2 centred approach
The problem-
1.3 solving approach

The Holistic approach to

1.1 counselling The Behavioural
1.4 approach
Features of the
beginning, middle and
1.5 ending stage of the
counselling process

The steps for crisis Characteristics

1.7 counselling 1.8 of a good
counsellor
Features and
counselling techniques
1.6 of the psychodynamic
counselling approach
Attitudes,
knowledge and
1.10 skills of cross-
cultural counsellors The counselling
1.11 rights of learners

1.9
Do’s and don’ts
for a counsellor
STUDY Approaches to and phases
UNIT 1 of counselling of learners

1.12 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 1 1
Approaches to and phases of counselling
of learners

INTRODUCTION We start this module with various theories and techniques that can be
used in a range of services and professions. Educators who are dealing
with a diversity of learners, who may need assistance and guidance in
difficult circumstances and in their problem-solving processes, may
especially find the different approaches helpful. For the discussion on
each of the approaches in the unit, images are used to indicate:
• the founders and history of the approach,
• its objectives of what it wants to accomplish in the counselling process,
• the application of the theory, and
• how the teacher may implement it in the classroom.
Teachers often have to facilitate counselling to learners-in-need. This unit
covers the necessary basic skills of communication and the phases of the
counselling process to prepare the teacher for the effective facilitation of
counselling. The characteristics, skills, and need for educators to display
an attitude of care and sincerity, as part of becoming good cross-cultural
counsellors, are discussed. Finally, the counselling rights of learners
are described.
Most of the study material of Unit 1 is covered in Theory and Practice
of Counselling and Psychotherapy by Gerald Corey. (Refer references in
IOL centres) The book also covers the practices of the contemporary
therapeutic systems and ethical and professional issues in the counselling
practice and therefore provides rich information to those who want to
learn more about the counselling processes.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Discuss the Holistic approach to counselling

• Discuss the Person-centred approach
• Analyse the Problem-solving approach
• Evaluate the Behavioural approach
• Examine the common features of the beginning, middle and ending stage of the counselling
process
• Examine the features and counselling techniques of the psycho-dynamic counselling approach
• Analyse the steps for crisis counselling
• Clarify the characteristics of a good counsellor
• Compile a list of the Do’s and Don’ts for a counsellor
• Clarify the attitudes, knowledge and skills of cross-cultural counsellors
• Describe the counselling rights of learners

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Use a separate exercise book for this purpose and use it throughout the year – especially
when you start doing revision for the examination.
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
STUDCOUNS0016

at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible

UNIT 1 | 9
 1. Explain why the following statements are not true:
1.a. Freud’s psychoanalytic view developed a spiritual approach to finding meaning in life.
1.b. Gestalt therapy focuses on moment-to-moment awareness of what is happening, thus
concentrating on past events that lead to the current moment.
1.c. Blocked energy is another form of aggressive behaviour.

2. Explain why the following statements are incorrect:

2.a. As an alternative to the directive and non-directive approaches, Rogers developed what
was known as interpretive counselling.
2.b. Non-directive counsellors share a great deal about themselves so that clients can feel at
liberty to reflect on their verbal communications.
2.c. Person-centred therapists are in agreement on how to help clients achieve the counselling
goals of openness to experience trust between the counsellor and client, external source
of evaluation and a willingness to continue growing.
2.d. The person-centred approach of incongruence, conditional positive regard and empathy
is difficult to understand intellectually but easy to put into practice.

3. Using the example of working in groups and how the teacher can implement the 7-step problem-
solving cycle in the classroom (refer learning outcome 1.3), complete the work sheet provided
to illustrate possible suggestions and outcomes of what the class may have generated.

1) Problem :
___________________________________________________________________________

2) Define :
___________________________________________________________________________

3) Strategies 4) Organise information 5) Results

6) Allocating resources:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

7) Monitoring progress:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. Match the descriptions with the criteria for attentiveness.

CRITERIA DESCRIPTIONS
Body posture Eye contact, smiling, genuine interest, serious expression
Facial expression Modulation, tone, pitch, smoothness, enunciation, variation
Voice qualities Relaxed, respectful, uneasy, bored, anxious, puzzled

10 | UNIT 1
 1
5. Find someone who is willing to share this exercise with you. Ask him/her to tell you something
while you practise your listening skills. You do not have to say anything while listening, but pay
attention to how you are responding to what the person is saying.
6. After you have studied learning outcome, 1.9 compile a table where you list the do’s and don’ts
a teacher-counsellor should keep in mind when consulting a learner.
7. List the four principles forming the foundation for all children’s rights.

1.1 The Holistic approach to counselling

The term “holism” was created by the philosopher and former South African prime minister, Jan Smuts.
His book Holism and Evolution appeared in 1926. The term stems from the Greek word ‘holos’ meaning
all, complete, whole, entire, totality. This encapsulates the idea that natural systems such as physical,
biological, social, economic, mental, etc. - as well as their properties - should be viewed as wholes, not as
collections of parts. This is exactly what the Holistic approach entails. It looks at the whole picture.
According to this approach to examine the isolated parts of something, is to not understand the whole of
the concept. Therefore, in counselling, when dealing with a client, all factors that have an influence on the
individual are taken into account. Thus counsellors that use the holistic approach realise the importance
of the interdependence of a person’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour, as well as his/her interaction with
others and the environment. They investigate the individual’s creativity, free will and potential and believe
that people are inherently good.
Although the holistic view has roots in the ideas of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322BC), it was
only during the twentieth century that psychologists more and more became interested in the uniquely
human issues, such as the self, self-actualisation, health, creativity, individuality, etc. Both Carl Jung
(1875-1961) and Alfred Adler (1870-1937) became unpopular with Freud when they dared to challenge his
theories. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic view all behaviour can be explained in terms of underlying
unconscious drives present in a person.
Jung, in contrast to this, made a choice to focus on the unconscious and developed
a spiritual approach to finding meaning in life. He maintained that as humans we are
constantly developing, growing, and moving toward a balanced and complete level
of development. Adler believed that an individual function as a whole. Therefore, if
you properly want to understand a personality, you cannot just study some
components of the personality. In his holistic view of a person, Adler was strongly
influenced by the philosophy of Jan Smuts and by the Ganzheit and Gestalt
approaches in German psychology.
The origin of the humanistic psychology in the mid-fifties of the twentieth century was in reaction to
psychoanalysis and behaviourism, and became known as the “third force psychology”. Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970) is regarded as the founder of this movement. Together with Carl Rogers (1902-1987), their
humanistic personality theories are classified as person-oriented theories. They see humans as proactive
beings involved in their own functioning and not simply manipulated by unconscious internal forces or
external environmental factors (Meyer, Moore, & Viljoen, 2008). Humanistic psychology includes several
approaches to counselling and therapy. Some of them are theories of:

Abraham Maslow: emphasised a

hierarchy of needs and motivations

Rollo May: acknowledged human choice and the tragic aspects

of human existence

Carl Rogers: focused on the client’s capacity for self-direction and

understanding of his/her own development

The Gestalt therapy: attends to the here and now, and focuses on how the present
is affected by the past.

Gestalt therapists not only pay attention to the obvious, but also to non-verbal content underlying the
client’s message. Like building a puzzle, they fit all these parts together with how the individual interacts
with others and the environment, as to form the bigger picture of the person in totality.
STUDCOUNS0016

UNIT 1 | 11
 The Search
for Authenticity

(James Bugental, 1965)

Human beings cannot be reduced to components

Human beings have in them a uniquely human context
Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of
other people
Human beings have choices and responsibilities
Human beings are intentional - they seek meaning, value and
creativity

The Holistic approach to counselling addresses the person’s mind, body and spirit. It nestles close
to the core principles of humanistic psychology as summarised in “The Search for Authenticity”.

An individual consists of more than his gender, age, culture or nationality. Each individual is unique in
his/her composition of physical, psychological and spiritual aspects. The purpose is to actualise the real
self, by empowering individuals to be true to the authentic self instead of unconditionally conforming
to a culture, system or technique. They accomplish this by finding and using their natural and available
strengths and then to apply this in their interaction with others and the environment. The holistic approach
sees the body and spirit as equal to the mind; and emotion as equal to thinking. Therefore, the individual
needs to be aware of his/her inner knowledge and capability to solution-finding as opposed to relying on
outside authorities for answers. The Gestalt approach attends to one basic goal, namely to assist clients
in becoming more self-aware, and with it, to expand their capacity to make choices.
The holistic approach to counselling is process based and therefore does not entail stipulated techniques.
Gestalt therapy focuses on moment-to-moment awareness of what is happening, thus concentrating on
the ‘here and now’. What is occurring now is important.
Gestalt therapists believe in ‘being in the present moment’ when dealing with changes. Of importance
is the whole of an individual’s awareness of his/her experience – their thoughts, feelings and actions. As
part of a diverse society, learners are encouraged to each develop his/her potential in every way, rather
than striving to become what they think they “should be”. It may happen that an individual is stuck in the
concept of what should be done and is unconsciously blocking his/her own creative potential on what
they can become. These blocked energy is a form of defensive behaviour (Corey, 2013) of which the
individual should become aware. To help lower these defences relaxation and drawing exercises can be
used as ice-breakers in individual sessions and in classroom set-up. Automatic and free drawing form part
of the methods discussed in Unit 2 - under Music and Art Therapy (point 10) - in learning outcome 2.3.
Together the therapist and client create experiments that will promote the client’s awareness of the self.
These experiments can be anything from writing and creating patterns with objects to role-playing and
lead to new insights and fresh emotional awareness.
Teachers are responsible for providing a secure, caring and stimulating environment for learners to
develop emotionally, intellectually, physically and socially so they can reach their full potential. Each child
– as part of a diversity of learners in a classroom - is to be treated as an individual with his/her own unique
needs and difficulties. In realising this, experiential learning - where learners are actively partaking in the
learning process - is encouraged.

12 | UNIT 1
 The most important task of the teacher in dealing with the troubled learner is to listen attentively to what
they have to say. Encourage them to take their time to feel any emotions that may arise as they speak. By
verbalising these emotions, they may come to a better understanding of their problem and how to find
possible solutions of handling the situation. The teacher also pays attention to the “body language” the
1
learner portrays. A child who says he is feeling ecstatically happy, but presents a sad picture of drooped
shoulders and staring at the floor, may not be willing to convey his true feelings. It may be that he is
trying to hide his true self or it may even be that he is not aware of his own deeper feelings. The teacher
does not tell children what he/she thinks they are feeling. Remember that each individual is the expert
on his/her own life. Rather encourage them to express the emotions they are experiencing in their own
words. By increasing their awareness of how they experience a present situation, they come to realise
they have a choice. They are empowered to make decisions of how they want to accept or change their
circumstances.
The holistic approach, where the whole is seen as a composite of different parts, fits in with the Namibian
concept of an inclusive educational system consisting of a diversity of learners. This does not mean
the unconditional conforming to a culture, system or technique, but instead to actualise the real self
by creating and developing one’s true authentic self. As part of a diverse society, individuals have their
unique needs, motivations, choices and responsibilities. The holistic approach accepts people to have
the capacity to make choices. As individuals, they need to be aware of their thoughts, feelings and
actions and their capability to solution-finding. Teachers can facilitate the learner’s self-awareness by
encouraging direct experience and actions, for example through role play, instead of just talking about
conflicts, problems and feelings.

ADDITIONAL READING

For enrichment and better understanding on the Holistic approach read Gerald Corey’s Theory and
Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy: - p 192-216 on Gestalt therapy

1.2 The Person-centred approach

In learning outcome 1.1 of this unit we were introduced to approaches that hold a holistic view of the
human being. One follower of the humanistic psychology was an American psychologist, Carl Rogers
(1902-1987), who lived his life in accordance to his theory. He developed a person-centred approach to
counselling that altered the traditional directive and interpretive practice of therapy. Rogers believed
that all humans are essentially trustworthy and have the capacity of improving their lives through self-
directed growth to their fullest potential. He preferred the term ‘client’ to ‘patient’ because he perceived
the therapist and the person that receives counselling as equals in their counselling relationship. He
sees the client as the best expert of him/herself and therefore the counsellor steps back from being the
authoritative figure giving directives.
Even after decades of developing and practising this
client-centred approach that revolutionised the
traditional way of counselling, Rogers never
presented his theory as fixed or completed and
remained open to research and change. He originally
developed the person-centred therapy in the 1930s
while working at a children’s clinic. The therapy could
be used for individuals or group and family settings
and play therapy is often used with young children.
In person-centred therapy the focus is on the person
rather than the problem. Two primary goals of this
approach are to increase the client’s self-esteem and
to foster greater openness to experience. Rogers
believed in the inherent goodness of people and
their ability of self-directed growth in developing
towards their full potential. However, life experiences can bring one down to a state of incongruence.
The role of the therapist is to reverse this situation by increasing a person’s self-worth and reducing the
level of incongruence between how the person wants to be (the ideal self) and how the person normally
behaves (the actual self).
The person-centred approach differs from the traditional approaches in that it assists clients in their
growth process in order to better cope with the problems they experience. The client is responsible for
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improving his/her life. Unlike psychoanalysis and behavioural therapies where the patient is diagnosed
and treated by a doctor, Rogers believed that the clients decide for themselves what is wrong and
what should be done about it. The therapist, through listening and encouragement, merely provides
the opportunity of developing a sense of self wherein they can realise how their attitudes, feelings and
behaviour are affected by outside influences.

UNIT 1 | 13
To Rogers, of the utmost importance, was the close personal client-therapist relationship necessary for a
positive outcome of the therapeutic process. The therapist creates an environment where the client feels
safe and not under judgement. This prepares the client to experience and accept more of who they are as
a person, and to reconnect with their values and sense of self-worth. In contrast to theories that view the
therapist’s techniques as essential for change in a client’s life, the person-centred approach enables them
through their reconnection with their inner resources to find their own way to move forward.
Person-centred therapists agree on the matter of not choosing specific goals in what clients need to
change. Rather they facilitate the opportunity for clients to define and clarify their own goals and finding
their own solutions to problems. They are encouraged to focus on their subjective understanding in
the here-and-now rather than the counsellor’s interpretation of the situation. This places much of the
responsibility for the treatment process on the client, with the therapist taking a non-directive role.
Behaviourists have criticised this approach for lacking structure as opposed to a directive approach where
the therapist deliberately steers the client in some way. Directive behaviours include asking questions,
offering treatments, and making interpretations and diagnoses. Despite the critique it has proven to be an
effective and popular treatment, used by many different types of counsellors and therapists.
You may wonder how the person-centred approach can help the
client if the therapist does not offer any suggestions or advice.
The foundational belief of this approach is that people normally
tend to move toward growth and healing. An individual’s self-
actualisation is priority in the person-centred approach. It focuses
on human strengths and is all about the client having the capacity
to find their own answers. However, Rogers was of the opinion
that self-actualisation can be blocked by a negative or unrealistic
self-concept. The counsellor does not decide on what needs to
change and how to do it, but instead provides the accepting and
understanding climate for clients to explore the issues that are
most important to them.
A non-directive and non-judgemental approach suits many a
client who at least gets to keep control over the content and pace
of the therapy. As they become more open to their experiences
and the process evolves, they eventually recognise alternative
ways of thinking that will promote better self-esteem and
personal growth.
The person-centred approach works well in the classroom and can be implemented with individuals as
well as groups. Techniques used by the teacher are attitude-based and involves: listening, accepting,
understanding and sharing. In class discussions the teacher, after listening attentively to the learners,
reflects on the discussion through summarising what has been said. The learners may then confirm
whether they have been understood correctly or they may come to a deeper understanding of their
own insights. Generally, the class/learner will respond by elaborating further on the thoughts expressed.
As long as the teacher creates a comfortable, non-judgemental environment for learners they have the
opportunity to speak freely without the fear of someone laughing at them or thinking less of them.
Person-centred counselling has moved away from a directive approach where the counsellor or facilitator
is the knowledgeable person giving advice to the client who finds himself in a state of incongruence.
Rogers believed that all humans have the capacity of improving their lives through self-directed growth
and achieving their potential. The approach has gone through stages of development from non-directive
counselling expanding to a diversity of uses in, for instance, education, family, business and even politics.
It can be used effectively with individuals as well as groups and can be implemented in the class situation
where the teacher can actively practise the basic skills of listening, accepting, understanding and sharing.

ADDITIONAL READING

For enrichment and better understanding on the Person-centred approach read Gerald Corey’s Theory
and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy: - p. 158 – 175.

14 | UNIT 1
 1.3 The problem-solving approach
Problem-solving can be defined as a mental process that involves
discovering, analysing and solving problems. Being regarded as one of the
1
highest forms of thinking, it is only natural that as a psychological approach
it is a key component of cognitive behaviour therapy. Although the
cognitive behaviour approaches are quite diverse, they share the idea of a
close relationship between therapist and client. During the generally time-
limited treatment they strive to locate thoughts causing psychological
distress and to modify inaccurate and dysfunctional thinking, thus bringing
about positive change in affect and behaviour. Through cognitive behaviour
theory the client learns to build an adaptive, problem-solving perspective.
The three-phase behaviour modification model of Meichenbaum and the
7-step problem-solving cycle are covered in this learning outcome.
Ellis, known as the “grandfather of cognitive behaviour therapy”, and Beck
each developed an approach independently more or less at the same
time during the 1950’s. Ellis developed REBT (rational emotive behaviour
therapy) and Beck developed a cognitive therapy (CT) well-known for
treating depression and anxiety in a short time. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) was developed by
Meichenbaum who also used the therapeutic approach of constructivist narrative therapy. They all were
of the opinion that emotions could be regulated and behaviours modified through the thinking process.
Problem-solving therapy was originally introduced by D’Zurilla and Goldfried in the early 1970s when the
emphasis was on applying cognitive mediation for the facilitation of behaviour change and self-control.
Problem-solving was formulated as a set of necessary skills, containing a sensitivity to human problems,
the ability to generate alternative solutions, the capacity to conceptualise, the means to achieve a given
solution, and sensitivity to consequences and cause-effect relationships in human behaviour. These still
are the basic skills present in a variety of problem-solving and behaviour modification models.

The ultimate goal of the Problem-solving approach is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best
resolves the issue. This includes providing symptom relief, assisting clients in resolving their most pressing
problems, and teaching them strategies to prevent relapse. Specific cognitive procedures help clients
with depression to evaluate their assumptions and beliefs and to create a new cognitive perspective
that can lead to optimism and changed behaviour. Problem-solving therapy also enhances the positive
well-being of individuals through helping them cope more effectively with stressful problems. As part of
cognitive behaviour treatment, it has been successfully applied with both children and adults.
The Problem-solving approach strives for the client to cope effectively with his/her daily problems in
life, through –

Achieving a goal they set out to do

Removing conditions that lead to avoidance of desired activities

Resolving conflict
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Reducing emotional distress generated by a situation, for example, making

something good come from the problem, and/or reducing physical tension, etc.

UNIT 1 | 15
There is a variety of models for applying the problem-solving approach. We will be looking at
Meichenbaum’s three-phase behaviour modification process and the 7-step problem-solving cycle which
includes developing strategies and organising knowledge.

Meichenbaum’s three-phase cognitive behaviour modification

According to Donald Meichenbaum, the opinion a person has of him/herself influences their behaviour.
Therefore, in order to change their behaviour, the clients have to observe and notice how they think, feel
and behave and how it impacts on others (phase 1). Clients are taught to make self-statements and to
modify instructions to themselves (phase 2), that can help them cope more effectively with the problems
they encounter. These self-instructions and desirable behaviours are practiced in role-play situations
during treatment sessions with the therapist, and problem situations in the client’s life are simulated
(phase 3). The aim is to acquire practical coping skills for problem areas such as impulsive and aggressive
behaviour, and fear of taking tests or speaking in public. Meichenbaum was of the opinion that this
process was to be implemented as a unit and that focusing on one phase only will not prove sufficient.

The 7-step problem-solving cycle

Our emotions can influence the ways in which we implement the problem-solving cycle. The ability to
identify emotions in others and regulate emotions in the self – characteristics of emotional intelligence –
is positively associated with problem solving. Motivation also greatly affects how we solve problems and
whether we ever complete them (Sternberg, 2009).
Although the problem-solving cycle is presented sequentially, the steps can change order, steps can be
skipped or added up, or one can go back and forth until the desired solution is found.

STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING CYCLE

Identifying the problem

Problem solving starts with the recognition that a problem exists. Identifying a situation
as problematic may be more difficult than thought for the following reasons:

Step 1: • The wrong source may mistakenly be identified for a problem

• Failure to recognise a goal
• The path to a goal is obstructed for example when we do not recognise that the
solution we had in mind does not work
• Reluctance of client to admit the real problem
Defining the problem

Step 2: After a problem has been identified, it needs to be fully defined. This step is crucial to
the understanding of how to solve the problem. If the problem is inaccurately defined
and represented, this may hinder the process in solving the problem.
Forming a strategy
Once a problem has been accurately defined, a strategy on how to solve the problem is
necessary. The approach used depends on the unique preference of the client and the
situation. The strategy may involve:
• Analysis - the problem is broken down into manageable parts
Step 3: • Synthesis - various parts are arranged to form a meaningful solution
• Divergent thinking – an assortment of possible alternative solutions to the problem
is generated
• Convergent thinking – narrow down multiple possibilities to a single best answer
To solve problems in real-life you may need both analysis and synthesis and both
divergent and convergent thinking. There is no set menu for addressing a problem
through a single ideal strategy (Sternberg, 2009).

16 | UNIT 1
 1
Organising information
This is critical to the problem-solving process where one has to realise what knowledge
was gained and how it fits together. Before coming up with a solution, the available
information must first be organised. References – and own ideas – are collected, and
all the information needed to effectively solve the problem are integrated. A list of
assumptions or questions is compiled and each item is tested systematically. Examples
of questions may include:
• What do I know about the problem?
• What do we not know?
• What did the client already try in solving the problem?
• Why were previous attempts fruitless?
• Was there anything else they could have tried?
Step 4:
• Explore possible solutions through asking:
• What will this particular solution bring about?
• How will it change the problem situation?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages?
• What will the cost be when implementing this solution?
These questions will help brainstorming different ideas and possible solutions even
though there are no definite answers yet. The more information one has on a problem
situation, the better the chances of coming up with an accurate solution. By taking action
and trying out the options, the effectiveness of a possible solution can be tested. Of
course it may happen that with trying out a potential solution, other problems surface.
You can again deal with each of them until a satisfactory solution is found. By assessing
each solution one can establish an effective outcome for the problem (Grieve & Van
Deventer, 2005).
Allocating resources
Resources are the things necessary for the solution to realise, such as time, money,
Step 5: equipment, and space. Resources are often limited and one should plan when to allocate
which resource. Prioritise problems. The solving of important problems generally needs
more resources.
Monitoring progress
Effective problem-solvers regularly monitor their progress as they work towards the
Step 6: solution. If there is too slow progress towards reaching the goal, reassessment is
necessary. When the process is not on track, one needs to start from the beginning again
to find a new direction and explore new strategies.
Evaluating the results
Just as you monitor a problem while in the process of solving it, you need to evaluate
your solution after you have finished. It is important to evaluate the results to determine
whether it is the best possible solution to the problem. Some evaluation may occur right
away, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or
it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy programme after several
months of treatment.
Step 7:
Advances may occur through the evaluation process, for example:
• new problems may be recognised
• the problem may be redefined
• new strategies may come to light
• new resources may become available
• existing resources may be used more efficiently
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UNIT 1 | 17
 Problem so g
lvin

Problems can also be solved in various ways by exploring different strategies, for instance:
The trial and error approach – involves trying out all possibilities in no specific order
Heuristic strategies – based on understanding, the likeliest solution is tried out first,
followed by alternatives in reduced order
Splitting up the desired goal into smaller sub-goals (be as concrete as possible)
Considering whether the solution to a similar problem will work for
present problem

The problem-solving cycle is completed when it leads to new insights and begins anew.

The following practical example of the 7-step problem-solving cycle according to (Sternberg, 2009) can
be illustrated as follows:

Step 1 Identifying the problem: Step 2 Defining the problem:

If your problem is the need to write a While preparing to write your term paper,
term paper, you must first identify a question you hae to define your topic well enough to
that your paper will address. determine the reasearch you will gather and
your overall strategy for writing yor paper.

Evaluating the Step 7 Allocating resources: Forming a strategy: Step 3

results:
After drafting your term
paper, for instance, you
probably will evaluate
your draft. You will want to
revise and edit it quite a few
timesbefore turning in your
paper.
Monitoring progress:
If you are writing a term
paper, you will want to be
monitoring whether you
are making good progress.
If you are not making good
progress, you will want to
figure out why.
Step 6
By spending more in time in
advance deciding what to do,
effective students are less
likely to fall prey to false starts,
winding paths, and all kinds of
errors. When a person allocates
more mental resources to
planning on a large scale, he/
she is able to save time and
energy and avoid frustration
later on. Thus, when writing
your term paper, you probably
will spend much of your time
conductng your research,
organising your notes and
planning your paper.
Step 5
In defining the topic
for your paper, you first
use divergent thinking
to generate many topics.
You then use convergent
thinking to select the most
suitable topic that interests
you.
Step 4 Organising
information:
If your problem is to
organise the information for
your term paper, you may
use an outline to organise
your ideas. If your problem
is to find a location, you wil
use a map.

18 | UNIT 1
 The problem-solving approach is a practical way of teaching children how to resolve their daily struggles.
Teaching them how to solve problems allows children to gain confidence in their ability to find solutions
as opposed to feeling hopeless. It works well with groups where different views are put on the table
and different skills are incorporated in the process of finding a solution to a common problem. How the
1
problem-solving process can help learners to solve many problems of life is discussed in Unit 4 – Learning
outcome 3: The problem-solving process to solve many problems in life.
Although the focus of Problem-solving therapy is often on the individual, working in groups has proved
effective for treating a wide range of emotional and behavioural problems. Following is an example of
how the teacher can implement the 7-step problem-solving cycle in the classroom: (Just keep in mind
that real-life problems seldom follow the steps sequentially.)

In a school set-up where a specific class feels they are treated as the scapegoat, the issue they want to
resolve is becoming the show class instead. The class, as a whole, can try to find a solution, or they can
be divided into smaller groups, each group having their own discussion. Together they draw up a table to
write down what they can do (possible strategies) in order to accomplish their goal.

Identifying the problem

Teacher: So… what is the problem? What is it you want to eliminate or change?
Step 1:
Learners: We are always seen as the worst class in the school, Miss. That is so unfair. We
want to be the show class of the school.
Defining the problem
Teacher: You see it as a problem that you are not the show class of the school?
Learners: Yes, teacher.
Teacher: Let us write down our problem first before we decide on possible solutions for
solving it and how we are going to do that. What is the problem?
Learners: Our class being the scapegoat.
Teacher: Why would that be the problem?
Learners: We do not want to be the scapegoat.
Step 2:
Teacher: What would you rather be?
Learners: We want to be the show class of the school.
Teacher: Am I correct if I say that the issue is not being the scapegoat but rather not
being the show class of the school?
Learners: We suppose so.
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Teacher: What is our problem then that we want to resolve?

Learners: We want to become the show class of the school.
Teacher: Let’s put that in wording: - - - - -

UNIT 1 | 19
 Forming a strategy
Step 3: Suggestions on how to solve the problem are made and all the workable options are
written down.
Organising information

Step 4: The known facts and ideas are put together and sorted. Questions like “Why were we
not successful in the past?” or “How will this change the situation?” are listed and each
tested systematically. More information may generate more options to solutions.
Allocating resources
Step 5:
What is needed for the implementation of the plan – time, money, place?
Monitoring progress
Step 6: Regular monitoring of the process assures that the plan is in progress. Is there feedback
from others? How are they sticking to their intentions?
Evaluating the results
What is the feedback from others? What changes have resulted? How far from reaching
the goal?
Teacher: Class, I am proud to announce that you are fast becoming the show class of
Step 7: the school. Remember, sometimes it takes time to solve a problem. It may happen that
new obstacles appear, for instance other classes may also now like to be the best in the
school. Then we will find a new way of finding another solution.
Learners: Teacher, we can divide in smaller groups where each group has to come up
with a solution of how to make our classroom the best in the school.

Of course in a classroom setting a variety of strategies and examples can be generated. The above is just
a guideline of what can be done in solving a problem as a group.
Lecturers and clinical psychologists found the following measures to be stimulating to the thinking
processes of learners in the classroom (Barnard, 1971):

Enough light Fresh air Little noise Regular intervals

Also:
• Facts and methods (accurate and inaccurate) should be checked
• Prioritise: concentrate on the most important facts and ignore the less important ones
• Prior knowledge of problem helps distinguish between what is important and what not
• How well the problem is formulated has an influence on how quick the problem gets resolved
• Make sure that all the necessary information is at the disposal of the learners
• Concepts, like “Human nature” for instance, should be defined clearly.
Logical thinking is hampered by intense emotions. Feelings of, for example, anxiety, anger or guilt, may
lead to the distortion or avoidance of a problem.

20 | UNIT 1
 Problem-solving, a key component of cognitive behaviour therapy is a valuable skill that can be taught
to learners. The thinking processes of discovering, analysing and solving problems can however be
influenced by an individual’s emotions and motivation. High emotional intelligence – where a person has
the ability to identify emotions in others and regulate emotions in the self - is positively associated with
1
problem-solving.
Meichenbaum suggests a three-phase model where clients first have to become aware of their own
thoughts, feelings and behaviours in order to start with the process of modifying the person’s behaviour.
Cognitive behaviour therapy teaches clients an adaptive problem-solving perspective in facing adversities.
The 7-step problem-solving cycle provides a practical model of finding solutions to problems.

ADDITIONAL READING

For enrichment and better understanding on the Problem solving approach read Gerald Corey’s Theory
and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy: - p 264-268, 286-288 and 374-383

1.4 The Behavioural approach

Whereas the person-centred approach focuses on the person, and the
problem-solving approach on the thinking process, the behavioural
approach emphasises the learning process and the altering of external
influences to facilitate change in behaviour. Behaviour therapy is based
on scientific methods and empirical evaluation; their focus being on
directly observable behaviour, assessment and evaluation. The counsellor
functions as a teacher or mentor in helping the clients learn more
effective behaviour. Goals for the outcome of treatment are set by the
client, assisted by the counsellor who needs to help clients assess the
possible consequences. It has been criticised in the past that too little
emphasis is placed on feelings and that it does not provide insight.
However, in the classroom situation where learners often need a more
directive facilitator, the behaviour approach to discipline and goal-
directed tasks can be of great help to the teacher.
B.F. Skinner, considered the father of the behavioural approach, is known for his interest in the concept of
reinforcement. Positive and negative reinforcements are educational concepts often used in the learning
process and punishment. Albert Bandura maintained that people were not merely shaped by environmental
forces (as was emphasised by Skinner) or internal impulses (as proposed by the psychoanalytic approach)
but that they, as self-regulating human beings, can learn from the behaviours modelled by others. He
explored the thinking abilities (cognitive) and emotional (affective) influences on human behaviour.

ADDITIONAL READING

For enrichment and better understanding on the Behavioural approach – the founders thereof and
historical background, read Gerald Corey’s Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy: -
p 225-235. More about the Multimodal Therapy: Clinical Behaviour Therapy by Arnold Lazarus can be
found on p 246-248.

Learning is fundamental to changing behaviours. The general goals of the behavioural approach are to
create new conditions for learning and to increase personal choice. People can choose how to respond to
external events in the environment. Behavioural therapy aims to build people’s skills so that their options
for responding can be increased. The therapist and the client therefore work together in formulating the
personal therapeutic goals of the client.

The goals of the behavioural approach can be summarised as follows:

• To change misbehaviour and instead learn more effective behaviours
• Identify the factors influencing the problematic behaviour and ways to counteract these behaviours
• To encourage the client to actively take part in deciding what can be done about an undesired
situation and the evaluation of the process.
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UNIT 1 | 21
 At the outset of therapy, assessment is done by the therapist
to determine a treatment plan. Treatment goals are to be
agreed upon by both the therapist/counsellor and the client.
The effectiveness of both the assessments and treatment
goals are evaluated throughout the course of the therapy
sessions. Most behavioural practitioners – in contrast with the
person-centred and holistic approaches – accept attributes
of the counsellor such as warmth, empathy and so forth as
necessary but not enough for behavioural change to occur.
Techniques often used include contracts and homework
assignments.
As a teacher-counsellor it is essential that you should
become acquainted with techniques applied in behavioural
therapy. More information on this topic can be found in
Gerald Corey’s book Theory and Practice of Counselling and
Psychotherapy where the use of techniques such as, operant
conditioning (including positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement), progressive muscle relaxation, systematic
desensitisation, social skills training and self-directed
behaviour and self-management programmes are discussed.
Though the client decides on what behaviours need to
change, it is the therapist taking the lead on how it should
be done. Behaviour therapists should be knowledgeable
about the wide variety of therapeutic systems. In designing
a treatment plan, they have to choose techniques and
procedures suitable for the unique needs of their clients.
Operant conditioning techniques are the methods used to change overt behaviours. These techniques are
often shown in the teacher exercising discipline in his/her class. (Ways of acceptable and unacceptable
discipline practices are discussed in Unit 6 The practice of good discipline with children of this module).
Reinforcement techniques are used to increase desired behaviours. Positive reinforcement may include
praising or rewarding a learner for good work or behaviour, which may inspire them to persevere and
even improve their achievements. With negative reinforcement, instead of working to earn a positive
consequence, the learner works to distance him/herself from an aversive consequence. Behaviours are
strengthened by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome. A class may be told that in order to
complete the syllabus in time, there will be compulsory extra classes in the afternoons, unless they decide
to give up fifteen minutes of their lunch break for a week. The negative reinforcement here is giving
up fifteen minutes of their lunch break for a week in order not to stay behind school in the afternoons.
Negative reinforcement (the removal of something for the purpose of strengthening a behaviour) should
not be confused with punishment (something is removed in order to weaken a behaviour). Reinforcement
and punishment can be illustrated as follows (Standridge, 2007):

REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
(Behaviour Increase) (Behaviour decrease)
Positive reinforcement Positive punishment

POSITIVE Something is added to increase Something is added to decrease

(Something is added) desired behaviour, e.g. Smile and
compliment a learner on good
performance
Negative reinforcement
NEGATIVE Something is removed to increase
(Something is desired behaviour, e.g. No homework
removed) if all assignments are handed in on
time
undesired behaviour, e.g. Give a
learner detention for failing to follow
the class rules
Negative punishment
Something is removed to decrease
undesired behaviour, e.g. A learner
cannot go on an excursion for not
following the class rules

Ignoring as an extinction discipline strategy nearly always proves to be worthless if there is no real loss
mentioned and the effect thereof is often counteracted by some learner across the room giggling at the
misbehaviour the teacher is trying to ignore. An example may be one of a child reprimanded for being
out of his seat and continuing to do that for the attention he receives – even though this may be negative
attention, such as getting scolded. Extinction may occur when the learner is ignored when he is out of his
seat and the teacher praises and attends to him when he is in his seat working.
The use of muscle relaxation can be applied as an introduction to a lesson on, for example, the body, where
they then become aware of their breathing, muscles, movement of eyes and so forth. It can calm down
learners after group or physical activities or quiet them after coming in from their lunch break. Relaxation
exercises and systematic desensitising can be taught to learners and may result in them feeling calmer
before writing an examination paper or delivering oral in front of the class.

22 | UNIT 1
 Effective interaction with others in social situations is a desired and important life skill that contributes
to the social and emotional development of a child. Learners can be taught how to deal with situations
like speaking to the principal, talking to a peer about things that are not right and so forth through role-
play. In learning assertive communication children become more self-aware and confident and are able
1
to stand up for themselves. How assertive remarks differ from aggressive or submissive remarks can be
illustrated by the following examples:

Assertive (strong)
Aggressive (mean) “I’m reading this book now. You
may have it when I’m finished.”
“Give that book, or I’ll hit
you with this bat.”
Submissive (weak)
“You can have my book. I can
read it tomorrow.”

Thus being assertive does not mean being aggressive. Learners who foster assertiveness recognise their
rights whilst still respecting the rights of others.
Influences on behaviour and learning experiences that bring about change, are concepts highly valued
by the behavioural approach. To the behaviourist, what is of the utmost importance, is finding out what
factors determine human behaviour. Therapists are not so much interested in what happened in the past
that causes the behaviour, but how these causes can be eliminated or decreased.
Behaviour therapy constitutes of a variety of techniques and applications from which the counsellor
chooses the procedures most suitable for the client’s unique needs. The client formulates the desired
outcomes of the therapy and, together with the therapist, decides on a treatment plan. The therapist/
counsellor takes on a directive role in assessing the possible consequences and evaluating the process
throughout the therapy sessions. This approach - being goal-directed and behaviour-focused – is suitable
for use in the classroom especially as part of discipline management.

1.5 Features of the beginning, middle and ending stage of the counselling process
Just as one person differs from another, so will their counselling sessions be different from each other.
Rogers was of the opinion that people receiving counselling go through a process of changing and
growth, moving forward through stages. This process does not progress at the same speed for everyone
and the counsellor has to acknowledge the uniqueness of each client and that the therapeutic process
will vary from one client to another. The counsellor therefore stays with the needs of the client and does
not strictly follow a recipe set in ink. This does not mean, however, that there is no plan set out for the
counselling process. It so happens that as the process evolves, counselling can be seen to progress through
different phases. We will be looking at 5 phases – which we shall call the EASIT-process of counselling -
namely: establishing relationship, assessment, setting goals, intervention, and termination. The first phase,
establishing relationship, is the beginning of the counselling process, while the termination phase is the
ending stage. Assessment, setting goals and intervention form part of the middle stage of the process.

First impressions are vital. When meeting for the first time, the counsellor has to make
sure that the way he greets and introduces himself puts the client at ease. It is important
for the joining process to create a warm, non-threatening atmosphere where at first the
Phase 1: ESTABLISHING

conversation is no more than a brief social dialogue, for instance about the weather. The
office reflects the idea of openness and attentiveness when the chairs are arranged to
RELATIONSHIPS

face each other. Clients are invited to sit anywhere they choose.
Beginning

To create a comfortable situation, the counsellor informs the client about what can be
expected of the helping process. He strives to create a climate that will facilitate change.
Matters such as legal rights, the counsellor’s orientation, setting goals and appropriate
expectations are discussed. Clients are encouraged to ask questions about any
procedures and practicalities about the sessions they do not understand or feel unsure
about. They get to decide what they want to talk about. The counsellor does not take up
the role of expert, advice giver or problem solver. By listening attentively and showing
respect towards the client, a relationship of trust is established. This may create a sense
of psychological comfort which in itself acts as a curative agent.
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UNIT 1 | 23
 Assessment is a lengthy process and during this phase the sessions become more

Phase 2: ASSESSMENT
intense. The client explains why he has sought counselling and emotions may run high
as he communicates what he perceives as being the problem. The counsellor asks
questions where clarification is needed, or offers a restatement to make sure that the
Middle client is understood correctly. In this way the counsellor collects information and the
client seeks to clearly state his/her problem. The purpose is not to instruct or guide, but
through using his training, the counsellor facilitates the process so that the client comes
to think differently about himself and his situation.
The counsellor helps clients discover their strengths and unused resources and enables
them to deal with their problems more constructively.
The major purpose of this phase is to provide direction to the counselling process. At
this point the desired outcome is considered. It involves making commitments to a set of
conditions, a course of action, or an outcome.
As more information becomes available during the assessment phase, underlying
issues may be recognised. These issues need to be tackled, and by giving expression to
cropped-up emotions, meaningful change can take place. Clients may find the opening
up of their emotions and sharing with the facilitator an intense experience. However,
once they are able to name the problem, the healing can begin.
Phase 3: SETTING GOALS

Although the counsellor does not give advice, he may offer a degree of confrontation or
challenge. These can be seen as goals. While facilitating the defining of the therapeutic
goals, the counsellor will consider the life experiences and cultural values of his
client. The challenge may also be for clients to formulate their own goals and they
Middle

are encouraged to think in terms of a range of possibilities. Because assessment is in

essence an ongoing process, defined goals can also change or may need refinement
throughout the intervention period.

The following should be kept in mind when setting goals:

• Goals must be attainable. They must be realistic and sustainable.
• Goals must be specific. This will help to establish how attainable the outcome will be.
• Goals should state an outcome rather than activities. Thus, state why the activities are
important. What is to be accomplished by the activities?
• Goals must have a time limit. They must be achieved within a reasonable time frame.
• Goals should be challenging. They must lead to substantial change.
Setting goals helps to establish the effectiveness of the therapy and when counselling
has served its purpose.
After setting the goals the question to ask is: “How shall we accomplish these goals?”
The answer is constituted by the problem, the individual and the approach used by
the counsellor. Clients are assisted in finding their strengths. These may be personal
characteristics, assets they possess, or any unused opportunities or resources. They
may rely on coping mechanisms they successfully used in the past to solve similar
Phase 4: INTERVENTIONS

difficulties. The approach of the counsellor and how he applies his knowledge and
training determine what intervention strategy is used. Gestalt therapists, for example,
use experiments and exercises to enhance an individual’s capability to self-regulation.
The behavioural therapist uses empirically- based strategies for specified problems.
Middle

For the treatment of anxiety, strategies such as relaxation training, systematic

desensitisation, and exposure therapy may be introduced. Initially the client is
given outcome measures and progress in the implementation thereof is monitored
throughout the treatment period. Solution-focused therapists believe that solutions
can be generated without any assessment of the nature of the problem. It is of critical
importance that the counsellor should be aware of the client’s behaviour and feelings
at all times. If an individual’s expectations are not met, or he does not feel comfortable
with the way the therapy is conducted, the facilitator should review his methods as to
accommodate the client’s wishes. The choice of intervention is a process of adaptation
and the counsellor should change the intervention when the previous selected
intervention is not working.

Although counselling may see to the unique needs of an individual or group, and thus differs from one
client to another, certain stages can generally be distinguished. These stages start with the establishment
of a working relationship between counsellor and client; continues through the assessment of the problem
situation, setting goals for positive outcomes, intervention to facilitate the attainment of goals and ends
with the termination of counselling sessions once the goals have been attained and the problem has
been resolved. The counsellor’s focus is on the needs of the client and, after gathering the necessary
information to assess the problem situation he guides the client through the process of finding new ways
to address the cause of the problem.

24 | UNIT 1
 1.6 Feature and counselling techniques of the psycho-dynamic counselling
approach
How psycho-dynamic factors such as the role of the unconscious and the modifying of one’s basic
1
character, can motivate behaviour, was brought to light by Sigmund Freud – the originator of
psychoanalysis. His views continue to influence contemporary practice (Corey, 2013) as many theories
of counselling and psychotherapy have been influenced by psychoanalytic principles and techniques.
Where classical psychoanalysis is grounded on instincts and intra-psychic conflicts (the id segment of
personality), contemporary psychoanalysis is based more on ego psychology - acknowledging the role
of intra-psychic conflicts - but more so that current problems are not simply the result of “repetitions of
unconscious conflicts from early childhood” (Corey, 2013). Well-known theorists that worked closely with
Freud and who extended or bent his doctrines in some way were Erik Erikson, the developer of the theory
of psychosocial development, Carl Jung and Alfred Adler (see the history paragraphs in learning outcome
1.1 The Holistic approach to counselling).
According to Freudian psychoanalytic view, the human personality consists of three systems: the id, ego
and superego. The id – ruled by pleasure – is the person’s untamed drives and impulses that need a reality
installed by the ego, the seat of intelligence and rationality, to control and regulate the personality. For
internalised social morals the super-ego – representing the traditional values and ideals of society as
handed down from parents to children (Corey, 2013) - determines whether an action is right or wrong,
good or bad.
The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to reduce
problematic symptoms and the resolution of conflicts.
By assisting clients to achieve self-awareness, honesty
and more effective personal relationships they increase
their awareness of ways to change. When clients gain
insight into their problems and learn to deal with
anxiety in a realistic way, they gain more control over
their lives.
Contemporary psycho-dynamic therapists involve
themselves more emotionally with the client to create
connection and the focus is more on the here-and-
now. Therapeutic techniques are aimed to increase
awareness and insight into the behaviours of the client
and to understand the meaning of the symptoms
experienced by the client. Techniques used include
the following:

A standard pattern and routine of the therapy sessions are kept as far as possible. This is for the a.
client to become familiar with the process and to put them more at ease.

b. Free association where the client speaks about anything that comes to mind, regardless how
painful or embarrassing, is encouraged. Often through this process the recollection of past
experiences releases blocked feelings that may serve as anxiety-arousing cues.

Interpretation may bring more clarity. The therapist – in collaboration with the client – point c.
out and explain the meanings of behaviour manifested in, for example, free association,
dreams or resistance.

d. Dream analysis is believed to help uncover the unconscious and give the client insight into some
areas of unresolved problems.

Resistance, where the client is reluctant to deal with his/her hidden feelings, thoughts and e.
experiences, hampers the progress of therapy. Clients tend to resist exploring their unconscious
to protect themselves against anxiety and their fear of change. The therapist strives to interpret
these fears and helps clients to become aware of the reasons keeping them from dealing with it.

f. Clients may carry over feelings of distorted earlier relationships and experiences to the therapeutic
situation. The expression of these feelings can help the client become aware of the reasons for their
current behaviour. Through therapy they achieve here-and-now insight of how past experiences
influence their present functioning and they may start to gradually change some of these long-
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standing behavioural patterns.

UNIT 1 | 25
Psycho-dynamic therapy strongly emphasises trust between a client and counsellor. The therapy is
relationship-centred, powered by the learner’s interactions with close friends and family. Learners who
trust the teacher-counsellor may be open to examine past experiences and release negativities associated
with these earlier events that they still hold. Once they understand the root cause of their problems and
issues it equips them with knowledge how to cope with further difficulties they may encounter.
In the classroom the psycho-dynamic approach offers a conceptual framework for understanding the
history of a diverse group of learners and it offers a way of thinking about how their past is affecting them
now in the class group and in their everyday lives (Corey, 2013)

1.7 The steps for crisis counselling

To a large extent, our

life is the result of the choices we make at each
turning point in our lives.
Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson added a psychosocial dimension to the stages of development proposed

by Freud. His theory of development holds that over his/her entire life span, a person
must maintain a balance between the self and the social world while going through
the different stages of life. Each new stage presents a specific crisis to be resolved.
He argues that a crisis is equivalent to a turning point where the person can either
resolve his conflicts or fail to master the development task, thus the person has the
potential to move forward or regress (Corey, 2013). Crisis also refers to “an upset in
the steady state” (Roberts & Ottens, 2005).
Apart from a crisis experienced due to a developmental task something may happen that causes an
acute disruption of homeostasis leaving the person feeling distressed and/or functionally impaired, such
as an illness, unwanted pregnancy, loss of a loved one, and more. Roberts has developed a Seven-Stage
Crisis Intervention model that can be applied across a broad spectrum of crisis situations. These steps
are sequential and sometimes overlapping in the process of crisis intervention and are set out in the table
below (Roberts & Ottens, 2005):

SEVEN-STAGE CRISIS INTERVENTION MODEL

Assessment

Step 1: Assess the emotional, cognitive and behavioural aspects of a crisis reaction. The counsellor
establishes a solid understanding of the client’s situation and the client, in the process,
feels as though he/she has been heard and understood.
Rapidly establish rapport
Step 2: The counsellor makes psychological contact - instil trust and confidence in the client –
and rapidly establish the collaborative relationship.
Identify major problems or crisis precipitants
Step 3: Focus is on the client’s current problems, which are often the ones that precipitated the
crisis.
Exploration of feelings and emotions
Step 4: In dealing with feelings and emotions allow the client to express feelings, to vent and heal,
and to explain her or his story about the current crisis situation.
Alternatives
By now the client has probably worked through enough feelings to re-establish some
Step 5: emotional balance. Now, together with the counsellor they generate and explore
alternatives and new coping strategies to resolve the problem causing the crisis. It is
important that the client feels comfortable with the alternatives selected.
Action plan
Implementing an action plan is critical for restoring balance in the client’s psychological
Step 6: well-being. “Working through the meaning of the event is important for gaining mastery
over the situation and for being able to cope with similar situations in the future” (Roberts
& Ottens, 2005).
Follow up
Step 7: Follow-up and booster sessions are planned to evaluate the status of the client and to
ensure that the crisis is on its way to being resolved.

26 | UNIT 1
 1.8 Characteristics of a good counsellor
All individuals are unique. Therefore, even with similar academic education, counsellors differ in their
manner of practice. Certain personal qualities are significant in creating a therapeutic alliance with clients
1
(Corey, 2013), but while a counsellor may prove to be a brilliant therapist it would be unrealistic to expect
of him/her to possess every trait described in the book.
Following is Corey’s list of ideal characteristics - as supported by research - of therapists making a
difference in the lives of others. According to him effective therapists –

Corey’s list of i
deal characteristics

(Corey, 2013).

know themselves – who they are, what they want in life and what they can become
respect and appreciate themselves – ‘they feel adequate with others and allow others
to feel powerful with them’
are willing to change and work to become the person they want to be
make choices that are life oriented and are willing to revise them if
necessary
are authentic, sincere and honest in their professional as well
as their
personal life
have a sense of humour
admit when they have made a mistake, and while not taking their errors lightly choose
not to dwell on it
are able to experience and be present with others in the “now”
appreciate the influence of culture
have a sincere interest in the well-being of others, based on
respect, care and trust
have good interpersonal skills and create collaborative relationships with others
derive meaning from their work
are passionate, radiate a sense of energy and pursue their dreams
are able to maintain healthy boundaries between their care for their
clients and their own personal life

It cannot be expected of any therapist to at all times have all the above characteristics listed, but the
willingness to become as good a counsellor as possible should be a priority to every professional.

CV of a good teacher-counsellor

Shows interest in what the other person is saying

Listens carefully

Has a warm facial expression

Encourages the person to talk by reflecting his or her feelings

Asks if the learner would like to talk about the problem

Asks how the learner feels about the situation

Uses an “I” or “me” message

Is neutral – do not agree or disagree

Counsels rather than advises

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Tries to have unconditional acceptance of the person

Expresses open-mindedness even toward irrational attitudes

UNIT 1 | 27
Respects the right of the other person to express different values and preferences from own

Provides correct information

Teaches skills

Is a facilitator

Is a good model

Makes sympathetic remarks when necessary

Refers when necessary

Has empathy

1.9 Do’s and don’ts for a counsellor

A learner who feels troubled in some way primarily needs someone who is willing to listen. The counsellor
is someone who listens – really listens! The counsellor does not solve the problem of the client (learner),
nor does he/she give advice or make decisions/choices on behalf of the client, or takes responsibility for
the outcome on behalf of the client.

In the counselling process the teacher-counsellor and learner-client play an equal role. The counsellor
may have more training and knowledge, but the learner is the expert on his/her own life. Counsellors in
giving support to the client is not superior but may have more experience in helping people come up with
solutions to their problems, or new ways of looking at them. The counsellor always has to remember that
the counselling session is all about the client (learner) as an individual who should not be categorised
or boxed.
From the start the counsellor creates an environment where the learner-client can feel safe to share his/
her thoughts and feelings. The counsellor practices an attitude of empathic care and being with the client
while listening to what the client shares with him/her during their conversations. As the facilitator he/she
shows the client how they can use their available strengths and resources to plan possible solutions to
their problem. The counselling process is most successful when the client becomes actively involved and
builds a positive relationship with the facilitator. For clients to return for further sessions and to follow
through on the counselling process, they need to trust the therapist.

The counsellor should have attitudes

such as optimism and respect, curiosity
and persistence... Collaboration, compassion,
reflection and discovery characterise the
therapeutic relationship.
(Corey, 2013)

28 | UNIT 1
 When a learner-in-need also displays misbehaviour in the classroom, the teacher-counsellor should
keep in mind that counselling is about helping a person changing his behaviour. It does not mean the
misconduct of the learner is to be defended and to let him/her get away with inappropriate behaviour. 1
1.10 Attitudes, knowledge and skills of cross-cultural counsellors
We have seen before that one of the characteristics of an effective counsellor is their appreciation of
the influence of different cultures. They realise that they bring to the table their own culture and that in
the world we are living arise unique differences out of social class, race, sexual orientation and gender.
It sometimes may be hard for the facilitator in the therapeutic process not to judge the client, and
counsellors therefore have to examine their expectations, attitudes, biases and assumptions about the
counselling process and about clients from diverse groups (Corey, 2013).
Becoming a competent cross-cultural counsellor is an ongoing process and involves challenging the idea
that one’s own set of values holds for everyone else. To skill oneself, monitoring one’s functioning as a
facilitator through consultations, supervision and further training is essential. Arredondo and colleagues
developed a conceptual framework according to which counsellors can evaluate their competencies in
accommodating the values of diverse clients (Corey, 2013). The framework consists of 3 areas: attitudes,
knowledge and skills.
The counsellor realises that individuals, including him/herself holds their own beliefs and attitudes
and as a professional they should not let their own beliefs interfere with their ability to work with the
client. However, knowing oneself and one’s values helps to identify biased feelings towards the client
that may prove detrimental to establishing collaborative helping relationships (Corey, 2013). Effective
cross-cultural counsellors are comfortable with the differences in, for example, race, ethnicity, culture and
beliefs between themselves and their clients.
For a counsellor to establish a collaborative relationship with diverse cultural clients, he/she must have
knowledge about his/her personal cultural heritage but also must learn more about the world view and
cultural background of their clients. Counsellors do not impose their values and expectations on their
clients, but instead give the client the freedom and respect to share their background, traditions and
values during the counselling process. The counsellor seeks resources to assist them and strives to become
knowledgeable about the institutional barriers their clients are facing and about the characteristics and
support services available in their community.

To accommodate cultural differences, effective counsellors are innovative and adapt their intervention or
they acquire the necessary skills to work with culturally diverse populations. They educate their clients
about the therapeutic process, including setting goals, legal rights, the orientation of the therapist and
what they can expect from the sessions. They keep the goals in line with the life experiences and cultural
values of the client. Skilled cross-cultural counsellors know not to force their client into an unfit counselling
technique and they communicate verbal and non-verbal messages accurately and appropriately. “They
are willing to seek out educational, consultative and training experiences to enhance their ability to work
with culturally diverse client populations” and discuss issues about referrals with other multi-culturally
sensitive professionals (Corey, 2013).

1.11 The counselling rights of learners

Counselling services in schools include psychological, mental, emotional, educational and/or career advice
and support given to learners by knowledgeable professionals. Human rights relate to domains such as
health, education and religion. As a population group, children also have certain rights to empower and
protect them. Teachers should be aware of the fundamental rights for learners as to protect them from
not getting the proper, primary education and support they are entitled to. The following four principles
form the foundation for all children’s rights:
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No child may be discriminated against on the basis of race, colour, The right to equality
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth or other status.

UNIT 1 | 29
The best interest of the child has Whenever decisions are being taken which may have an impact on
to prevail children, the best interest of the child has to be taken into account
at all times.

Access to health care, education, and protection from economic and The right to life and
social exploitation has to be provided. Children’s development should development
be safeguarded by a healthy environment that supports development
and learning.

Respect for children’s own views Children should be respected and taken seriously and they should be
involved in decision-making processes according to their age and
maturity.

The 4 principles stated above underlie some of the

stipulation lauses of the Namibian Constitution,

a. The right to
equality forms the
basis of Article 10 stating
that all persons shall be
equal before the law and
that no person may be
discriminated against
on the grounds of sex,
race, colour, ethnic origin,
religion, creed or social or
economic status
Example
b.
Article 15
consentrates on the
rights of children specifically,
and the principles of taking
into account the best
interest of the child and the
right to ife and development
are the uderlying foundation
thereof
c.
Finally, the ground rule
of respect for children’s
own views can be found in
Article21(1) stating that all
persons shall have the right to
freedom of thought, conscience
and belief, and the freedom to
practice any religion.

It is natural for children to have emotional needs.

They need acceptance, stability and boundaries and
require someone to help them understand the
changes that happen to them as they grow up. If a
child’s life has been disrupted by factors, such as
poor health, failure by their parents to provide school
materials or HIV and AIDS that leave them vulnerable
and/or orphaned, they may grow up without the
support of a more knowledgeable person and need
someone they can trust with their personal fears and
insecurities.
Often teachers not only identify these vulnerable
children by the more obvious signs such as, hunger
or neglect, but also by their disruptive behaviours in
the classroom. As a result of their ongoing interaction
with learners, teachers can listen to their learners’
concerns and support them in the form of basic
counselling. One way of support is for the teacher
to know where and how to refer the learner for
help – be it for example, emotional, educational or
career counselling.
The Constitution of Namibia has made provision for the rights of learners in that all children under the age
of sixteen are compelled to scholastic education. The law and policies set in place see to the protection
of learners so that no individual is to be discriminated against on the grounds of vulnerabilities, such
as being from an indigenous minority, orphaned, neglected or abused, or being HIV-positive. Learners
all have the right to have teachers who can effectively develop problem-solving and social skills of the
learners and who can impart knowledge and support when needed. Counselling services are provided at
schools to establish support and to protect them from stigmatisation.

30 | UNIT 1
 SUMMARY
1
In this unit the link between sociology and philosophy is discussed
regarding the relations in the classroom, teacher, curriculum etc..
The classroom should be a centre for quality teaching and academic
performance, the efficiency of the teacher; the size and ethnic
composition of the classroom are all important social influences on the
life of the learners. The interpretations and judgements of social relation
in the classroom are shaped by learner culture and sub-culture.
As a teacher, you cannot operate effectively without using your
sociological and philosophy skills. Within the teacher/ learner circle
there must be a good relationship among freedom, responsibility and
accountability; every individual in the educational system must know
their rights and the role they play in the classroom.

FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

1. Freud’s psychoanalytic view was that all behaviour can be explained in terms of underlying
unconscious drives present in a person. Jung decided to focus on the unconscious and
developed a spiritual approach to finding meaning in life.
2. Gestalt therapy focuses on moment-to-moment awareness of what is happening, thus
concentrating on the ‘here and now’.
3. Blocked energy is another form of defensive behaviour.

Learner activity 2

Explain why the following statements are incorrect:

The answers below can be found in Corey’s book Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy
1. Rogers developed non-directive counselling as alternative to the directive and interpretive
approaches. (p. 160)
2. Non-directive counsellors avoid sharing a great deal about themselves. They instead focus
mainly on reflecting and clarifying the clients’ verbal and non-verbal communications. (p. 160)
3. Person-centred therapists are in agreement on the matter of not setting goals for what
clients need to change. They differ on the matter of how to help clients achieve their own
goals. (p. 165)
The characteristics of the kind of person that emerges from counselling actualise in the client
in the following ways:
Openness to experience
A trust in themselves
An internal source of evaluation
A willingness to continue growing
4. The person-centred approach of congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathy is
easy to understand intellectually but is very difficult to put into practice. p173
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UNIT 1 | 31
 Learner activity 3

Using the example of working in groups and how the teacher can implement the 7-step problem-
solving cycle in the classroom (refer learning outcome 1.3), complete the work sheet provided to
illustrate possible suggestions and outcomes of what the class may have generated.
The given answers are guidelines on what your worksheet would include on the 7-step problem-solving
cycle, as applied to the example posed in learning outcome 1.3.

1) Problem: Bad reputation as class

2) Define: Change reputation by improving selves

3) Strategies 4) Organise information 5) Results

Good manners Greet teachers politely Teachers now actually smile
at us!!
Let girls and older persons
enter/exit the room first
Obey school rules
……. etc.
Do homework Every day During assembly the
principle praised us for no
….. etc.
one being sent to his office
for punishment
Personal care Balanced diet Feels so much better about
ourselves
Clean clothes
Neat appearance
….. etc.

6) Allocating resources:
Time: Practise good manners, do homework and see to personal care everyday
Place: Practise at school, as well as at home
Money: Good manners cost nothing. Budget for personal care products?
etc.
7) Monitoring progress:
Are we improving ourselves daily? Are we getting positive feedback from the teachers and
principal? Are we still being scolded by teachers? If so, what are the reasons?

Learner activity 4

Match the descriptions with the criteria for attentiveness.

Body posture <=> relaxed, respectful, uneasy, bored, anxious, puzzled
Facial expression <=> eye contact, smiling, genuine interest, serious expression
Voice qualities <=> modulation, tone, pitch, smoothness, enunciation, variation

Learning activity 5

Find someone who is willing to share this exercise with you. Ask him/her to tell you something while
you practise your listening skills. You do not have to say anything while listening, but pay attention
to how you are responding to what the person is saying.
You had to attend to your way of listening to the person. Did you display an open, friendly attitude?
Were you forming your own ideas, or did you accept this person’s manners and words positively without
judgement? Did you strive to see through the other person’s eyes, stand in their shoes (figuratively)
and enable them to revise their thoughts and feelings?

32 | UNIT 1
 Learning activity 6
1
List the do’s and don’ts a teacher-counsellor should keep in mind when consulting with a learner.

Counsellor DO’s Counsellor DON’Ts

• Listens to what the learner has to say • Does not solve the problem on behalf of
• Treats learners as experts on their own life the learner
• Realises that the learner is the most • Does not give advice, make decisions/
important person in the counselling choices or takes responsibility for the
session outcome on behalf of the learner
• Supports • Does not pretend to be the expert on the
learner’s life
• Empathises
• Does not defend misconduct of
• Creates an environment where a learner
learners and/or let them get away with
can feel safe to share his/her thoughts
inappropriate behaviour
and feelings
• Comes up with solutions to learners’
problems, or new ways of looking at them
• Shows learners how to use their available
strengths and resources to plan possible
solutions to a problem
• Builds a relationship of trust with learner
• Keeps in mind that the purpose is to help
the learner changes his/her behaviour

Learning activity 7

List the four principles forming the foundation for all children’s rights.
The four principles forming the foundation for all children’s rights can be found in learning outcome
1.11. They are:
• The right to equality
• The best interest of the child has to prevail
• The right to life and development
• Respect for children’s own views

NOTES
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UNIT 1 | 33
 The identification of
2.2 children in need of
counselling Basic counselling
2.3 skills

An overview of the
Referral
2.1 Namibian guidance and 2.4 procedures in
counselling policy
Namibia
Competencies modern
2.5 employers expect
from employees

Choosing a career - Principles of

2.7 guidelines for learners 2.8 Holland’s career
choice theory

2.6 The concept ‘work ethics’

The use of a
‘personality Career guidance
2.10 instrument’ to resources for
discover possible 2.11 counselling learners
careers about future careers

The use of a ‘finding

Basic counselling and
2.9 your passion’
instrument
STUDY Namibian referral
UNIT 2 procedures

2.12 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 2
Basic counselling skills and Namibian
referral procedures
2
INTRODUCTION After completion of the first unit where a number of approaches to
counselling were covered and more about the counselling process were
discussed, Unit 2 takes a look at basic counselling skills and the Namibian
guidance and counselling policy. In the realisation of Education for All,
schools are to form counselling support groups that can assist learners
in resolving their problems and that can refer learners with more special
needs. Teacher-counsellors need to be trained in identifying learners
who need help and counselling. They are to learn some basic counselling
skills such as listening and paraphrasing and how to facilitate change by
guiding learners in the process of problem-solving and decision-making.
These skills can effectively be applied to guiding learners in their choice
of relationships or a career. The concept of work ethics and what modern
employers expect from their employees are clarified.
Learners are taught that, in the process of making choices, it helps to
be informed in order to make the right decisions. For these purposes
professional career instruments of measurement and other resources are
used to establish a person’s most prominent interests, passions in life,
and personality traits. Learners who need more specialised guidance in
career choice, who display behavioural problems due to medical reasons,
or present learning disabilities are referred to specialist counsellors.
Cases of learners with severe learning problems or special needs that
cannot be accommodated by mainstream education are evaluated and
referred for alternative programmes to ensure their optimal development
and achievement. In providing every learner the opportunity of access to
quality education two major goals of Education for All are met.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Give an overview of the Namibian guidance and counselling policy

• Examine how to identify children in need of counselling
• Evaluate some basic counselling skills
• Clarify referral procedures in Namibia
• Clarify the competencies that modern employers expect from their employees
• Analyse the concept ‘work ethics’
• Propose guidelines that learners need to know when choosing a career
• Discuss the 6 principles that underpin Holland’s career choice theory
• Examine the use of a ‘finding your passion’ instrument in discover possible careers for learners
in absence of professional career instruments
• Examine the use of a ‘personality instruments’ to discover possible careers for learners in
absence of professional career instruments
• Identify career guidance books and Internet sites to be used to counsel learners about future
careers

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
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at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!

UNIT 2 | 35
 1. Discuss the importance of a Counsellor Support Group in the school.
2. How can you identify learners who need counselling?

3. Match the descriptions with the criteria for attentiveness.

CRITERIA DESCRIPTIONS
Body posture Eye contact, smiling, genuine interest, serious expression
Facial expression Modulation, tone, smoothness, variation
Voice qualities Relaxed, respectful

4. Name the 4 categories taken into consideration in the provision of specialised education for
learners with special disabilities.
5. Name and briefly describe the competencies modern employers expect from their staff.
6. Compile a career portfolio commencing with your biographical and personal detail for a CV
and information such as your qualifications, work experience and achievements.
7. Name and briefly describe the personality types of Holland’s’ RIASEC model.

2.1 An overview of the Namibian guidance and counselling policy

For the realisation of Education for All and to improve the performance of the holistic approach in schools,
positive attitudes towards special education and persons with disabilities are necessary. However, the
diversity of learners in a classroom leads to more children needing specialised guidance and attention. A
support system is necessary for the successful implementation of guidance and counselling. To enable
teachers to attend to learners in need they are trained in counselling skills and, as part of a counselling
support group (CSG) at the school, assist these learners in resolving their problems. School clusters,
groups formed by CSGs from neighbouring schools, improve the teachers’ counselling skills through their
shared experiences and mutual support of each other.

According to the Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture “teacher-counsellors, in collaboration
with every teacher in the school, are expected to support, guide and counsel learners-in-need”. The
holistic approach of Education for All brought a diversity of learners to the classroom. Children with
special needs (physically, academically and psychologically) are now all incorporated into the application
of one curriculum. The guidance and counselling policy for schools generally recommends specific
attention to the needs of vulnerable learners, like orphans, children affected by abuse or HIV/AIDS, and
others, to be provided as necessary by specialised staff such as educational psychologists. However, for
the majority of learners who need less specialised help, counselling services are provided at schools and
other educational institutions. For this purpose, selected class teachers and remedial teachers form a
Counselling Support Group (CSG). They are trained by Regional School Counsellors (RSCs) in providing
basic counselling skills in the schools.

36 | UNIT 2
 These measures not only address problems immediately but also support and protect children who
are vulnerable in some way, such as having a disability or an HIV/AIDS infection, from stigmatisation.
School clusters – neighbouring schools grouped around a larger nucleus school – provide a framework for
collaboration between schools and teachers. The RSC appoints a cluster facilitator who, amongst other
duties, regularly submits a report on all proceedings of meetings to the RSC. The ranking authority in the
support system can be illustrated as follows:

Ministry of Regional Regional School

Counselling
2
School Cluster Support Group
Education Counselling Office Counsellor (RSC)
(CSG)

The Counselling Support Group (CSG)

For learners who need help because they have problems, such as difficulties at home or feeling rejected
by their peers, immediate attention may help to diffuse the problem or guide them on how to find a
solution to the problem. Inappropriate behaviours and poor academic performance often are indicators
of children who need psychological help. When teachers are trained in basic counselling skills they can
effectively provide support to learners who have special emotional needs.
Establishing a CSG is done by the school management. The teachers who are selected for the
support group should be someone the learners have the courage to speak to, must be willing
and available for counselling sessions, and who can be trained in counselling skills. The list of
names is then forwarded to the Regional School Counsellor (RSC) who facilitates the training
Structure

of the selected group. Depending on the number of learners in a school, two to seven teachers
can be appointed including amongst them the life skills teacher, remedial teacher and special
class teacher as first choice. The principal or a member of the school management, as well as
someone from the community and/or school board also attends the CSG meetings. A member of
the CSG is not allowed to serve on the disciplinary committee but may attend their meetings as
a spokesperson for the learners.
When a learner is referred to the CSG by the class or subject teacher, it should first be established
whether the learner would rather prefer counselling by another teacher – in which case the CSG
assists the teacher involved with the process – and consent for counselling should be gained
Activities

from the primary caretakers. There may be times when a learner does not want his/her primary
caretakers to know or to be involved. The CSG then has to anonymously and confidentially
discuss and decide what should be done.
Counselling of learners may take place individually or in a group. The school management should
be kept informed at all times on the work done by the CSG.
• Supports and counsels learners with emotional and behavioural problems.
• Establishes liaison between teachers and learners when problems arise.
Responsibilities

• Assists school management in dealing with severe cases of misconduct by learners or teachers.
• Promotes enthusiasm, responsibility and initiative amongst learners and teachers.
• Raises awareness of existence of CSG in school and importance of a culture of care.
• When necessary - refers learners to specialists in the field of help needed.
• To draw in individual or group involved in supporting learners in need; to support or strengthen
the CSG and/or individual learner.
Catholic Aids Action (CAA) was founded in 1998 by dr. Lucy Steinitz and sr. dr. Raphaela Händler, through
the Namibian Catholic Bishop’s Conference as Namibia’s first church-base response to the country’s HIV/
AIDS crisis, which had already reached pandemic proportions. It has since grown to be the largest NGO
responding to AIDS in Namibia, currently operating 14 offices in 9 of the 13 regions.
Working closely with local parishes and faith communities, the work and mission of Catholic AIDS Action
has four principal focuses: home-based family care and counselling, youth education and prevention,
care and support to orphans and vulnerable children, and voluntary counselling and testing. Services are
available to all, irrespective of religion, race or background with a preferential option for the very poorest
affected by this pandemic.
Source: http://www.caa.org.na/
All discussions and reports are treated with the utmost confidentiality. Discussing a case outside the
counsellor-learner counselling relation is unprofessional and will damage mutual trust in the relationship.
It is therefore preferred that no names are mentioned when cases are discussed during CSG meetings.
A school cluster is a group of neighbouring schools which are as accessible to each other as possible and
linked together for management and teaching purposes. Counselling support groups gather at a nucleus
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school to exchange knowledge gained through experience and discuss ways of improving guidance and
counselling skills. They form effective networks in the pooling of resources and lending mutual support.

UNIT 2 | 37
A cluster facilitator is appointed by the Regional School Counsellor who is to be informed of the proceedings
of meetings held by the school cluster. Cases of which the teacher/counsellors have uncertainties about
should be given through to the RSC. During meetings to-date information about circles of support are
circulated to all the members of the CSG’s within the cluster.
Circles of support are individuals or people attached to institutions or organisations that assist schools
in rendering help to learners-in-need. Examples are: local social workers, community members trained
in Home Base Care, the local pastors, members of the Catholic Aids Action and the Woman and Child
Protection Unit. Issues of concern or the need for further training as established at the cluster meetings
are reported for the attention of the RSC and regional head office.
The school management – particularly the principal - and the RSC, the regional offices and directors,
are responsible for creating the ethos of care and support in the whole school. They support the CSG
in all possible ways and ensure that all school personnel are aware of their own responsibilities and the
procedures of referring learners-in-need to the counselling support group. Class teachers should work
in close relation with the CSG especially when the learner prefers counselling done by the teacher who
is not a member of the CSG. The school management has to make sure that all learners are aware of the
services provided by the CSG.
Learners must all have the opportunity to get help and support when they need it. Therefore, it has
become necessary to train teacher-counsellors who can attend to these learners-in-need. A selected
group of teachers from a school is trained by the Regional School Counsellor in the use of basic counselling
skills. Together with counselling support groups from neighbouring schools they form a school cluster.
Meetings held by the school cluster enable the CSGs to share their ideas and to further their knowledge
and training. When they are not sure about the means of intervention, the case should be referred to the
Regional School Counsellor (RSC).

2.2 The identification of children in need of counselling

Unfortunately, there is no formula for determining children in need of counselling and no one cure-recipe
for all. As children grow up they may experience more loss and trauma and are thus confronted by
feelings of anxiety, fear and anger. Some learners will show overt signs of their need for help, while others
do not like to disclose their feelings or do not know how to share their problems in an appropriate way.
There are warning signs though, that teacher-counsellors can be on the look-out for and they should be
aware of how to identify learners in need of counselling.
People often think of childhood as a carefree time full of play
and enjoyment, but that is not always true for all children. As
children grow up in their expanding world of coming in
contact with other people and circumstances, they experience
negative feelings such as anxiety, fear and anger the same
way adults do. Some children may have experienced more
traumatic circumstances of death, violence, abuse, or neglect.
The prevalence of HIV/AIDS leads to many children orphaned
at a young age and no close family to care for them. Some
learners may not be able to keep up with their school work
because they struggle to care for sick or disabled parents or
siblings at home. Being the youngest in a large family, and
having to fight for any attention in their home, can lead to
misconduct due to feelings of neglect.
Children who are abused sometimes run away from home
and consequently drop out of school. Learners may feel they
don’t really fit in at school, or are being bullied. They may give
in to peer-pressure, or through other ways engage in habits
and activities they do not really want to be involved in but do
not know how to change.
Everything a person experiences has an effect on his being. The way people perceive the things that
happen to them impacts on their emotions and behaviour. Learners who experience some negative
influences in their lives may have feelings, or display behaviours, that are warning signs of the need for
intervention. Emotional warning signs are often not easy to notice. Sometimes learners do not say what
is on their mind, or they do not know how to verbally express their feelings, therefore making it difficult
to recognise to what extent they are able to cope with their problems. Signs of emotional disturbance
may include:

38 | UNIT 2
 persistent feelings of sadness or hopelessness

persistent worry, anxiety, or fearfulness

irritated or constant anger

feeling depressed and pessimistic 2

feelings of guilt

an inability to concentrate, think clearly, or make decisions

experiencing regular nightmares

More serious signs of emotional disturbance would be the child being preoccupied with physical illness
or their own appearance, the fear that someone is controlling their mind, or that they are ‘out of control’,
hearing voices that aren’t there, and expressing thoughts of suicide.
Behavioural signs can easily be mistaken for deliberate misconduct but often is a cry for help. The
change of behaviour patterns and forms of acting out that are warning signs of learners who need help,
may include:
• the tendency to overreact to situations
• alcohol or drug use/abuse
• dieting obsessively, or binging followed by vomiting or taking laxatives
• an inability to sit still
• a sudden, unexplained drop in grades at school
• a loss of interest in activities that were once enjoyed
• changes in patterns of sleeping or eating
• lack of personal hygiene
• reclusiveness, preferring to be alone rather than in the company of friends or family
• performing routines obsessively throughout the day, such as washing hands or cleaning things
• stealing; telling lies
• taking part in violent acts such as setting fires or killing animals

The educator has a vital role in identifying possible maltreatment by observing children’s behaviour
at school and recognising physical signs of maltreatment or neglect which may include deep bruises,
broken bones, or malnutrition. Signs of abuse, sexual trauma or neglect may, in addition of the above
warning signs, include sexual promiscuity through vocabulary, play, behaviour and/or drawings not age-
appropriate. Rape trauma may lead to stuttering or stammering more than usual, or being very alert and
watchful. Overt physical signs may include difficulty in sitting or walking and scratching of the genitals or
anal area. Educators who identify possible incidents of child abuse should follow procedure by:
• gathering information consistently and documenting the information,
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• discussing suspicions and gathered information with the counselling support group and regional
school counsellor,
• ensuring confidentiality by keeping the information file locked away,
• remaining objective at all times and not to make an allegation of child abuse before a proper
evaluation was done.

UNIT 2 | 39
Learners who are exposed to continuous physical abuse should best be referred.
However, not all children who have negative life experiences are in need of counselling. When learners
are emotionally prepared and know how to solve problems through decision-making processes, they
can successfully work through some painful circumstances and setbacks. However, children are still in
the process of mental and emotional maturing and when they experience life events as overwhelming,
they need the attention and support of others who are able to assist. Young people who often need
counselling are:

Children who may have experienced trauma brought on by death, violence, abuse, or neglect a.
and may be susceptible to emotional problems and/or disorders such as depression, anxiety and
thoughts of suicide.

b. Children who find it particularly difficult to recover from bereavement and loss and who cannot
return to their normal life as before. They need counselling in coping with their loss and preventing
consequent emotional problems such as depression or anxiety.

Some children may feel angry and may display aggressiveness towards others or harm themselves c.
because they feel the whole world is against them. They may be bullying somebody else but don’t
know how to stop.

d. Learners that may have a low self-esteem, feel that nobody is listening to them and have no real
sense of their place in the world.

Learners whose school performance is negatively affected and who withdraw from extra-mural e.
school activities.

f. Learners who pertinently ask for assistance.

Attending to these learners in time and supporting them in working through their feelings or finding
ways of solving their problems, may save further heartache and teach them coping strategies for future
adversities. Therapy is recommended for children with such problems as anxiety, depression, bipolar
disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and conduct disorder. Teacher-counsellors who
suspect a learner suffering from a disorder should refer them to a professional psychologist.

2.3 Basic counselling skills

Teacher-counsellors not only need to know when but also how to assist a learner-in-need. In order to do
so they must have knowledge of what counselling is and how to apply it. Counsellors have to provide a
safe environment for the client and to assure the confidentiality of disclosures.

to empathise (be
able to put
themselves in
The client wants the shoes of
to be heard and the client)
to change,
to facilitate
counsellors change by
need to guiding them in
practice the their process of
skills necessary problem-solving.
to listen,

In this learning outcome we look at some basic counselling skills teacher-counsellors should equip
themselves with. A listing of some techniques is illustrated below:

40 | UNIT 2
 Listening and Paraphrasing and
observation
1 2 clarifying the problem

12 3
Working with Sending signals of
parents acceptance

Metaphors and
other skills 11 4
Questioning and
summarising
2
Music and art Being concrete
therapy 10 5 and specific

Story telling / Using the open-

narrative therapy 9 6 ended sentence

“What if” game 8 7 Play therapy (toys/role

play/simulation)

1. Listening and observation

Listening
Tools

Ears – words, language and the way in which things are said (e.g. stuttering)
Eyes – facial and bodily expressions
Head – understanding the intended message
Heart – emotions of client and self
Spirit – intuitive wisdom
Cultural knowledge – cultural practices and implicit
connotations of what has been said
Listening is the number one skill in counselling and it takes time and practise to learn how to do it
properly. People need to know that someone is actually listening to what they are saying. Sometimes
when you discuss a problem you have with someone, you often find the other one telling you about a
similar problem they experienced, or they tell you everything will turn out fine. You know they are just
trying to make you feel better, but you still have the unsatisfied feeling of not being heard. It may happen
that a troubled learner just needs someone to listen to what he/she has to say. Throughout the active
listening process, a counsellor makes use of different listening tools, being his/her ears, eyes, head, heart,
spirit and cultural knowledge.
Verbal communication takes up about 33% of a message, the rest being information conveyed without
using words. Thus understanding non-verbal behaviour and body language correctly is crucial to good
communication. When a facilitator listens to someone else, he attends to and observes that person’s
verbal and non-verbal messages. The acronym SOLER is generally used to sum up the body language of
a counsellor showing attentiveness:

S Sit opposite client facing him/her – no barriers, such as a desk, in between

O Open posture – head up, uncrossed arms and legs

L Leaning towards client – indicate involvement and interest. Too close is obtrusive.

E Making eye contact – without staring (Eye contact is not acceptable in all cultures).

R Relax and be natural – will help put client at ease.

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UNIT 2 | 41
 The counsellor however should be careful not to concentrate too much on
the right posture and movements while side-tracked from the message
conveyed by the client. At the core of counselling lies LISTENING. A teacher
who really listens to a learner will probably automatically display the
“SOLER” characteristics. He/she not only listens to the facts of the message
as stated in the words but also to the underlying feelings sometimes more
clearly portrayed by body posture.
The listening skills applied by the counsellor do not come naturally and
takes time to learn and practice. Teacher-counsellors that feel they have not
conducted a session with a learner according to the book do not need to
beat themselves up about it. Being sincere in listening to the child-in-need
is what really counts. Sometimes learners need to get things off their chest
– all they want is to know that someone is lending them an ear.

2. Paraphrasing and clarifying the problem

Two prominent elements related to listening is hearing and understanding. Hearing is an automatic,
physiological process in which auditory stimuli are received. But if you can hear the speaker perfectly,
and you do not pay attention to the meaning of the words, you are not listening. Interpreting the meaning
of what you have heard brings us to the second important element of the process of listening, namely
understanding. To truly understand a message, is to receive it as it was intended by the person who
sent it. Therefore, for a counsellor or teacher to correctly understand the problem experienced by the
client or learner is to listen carefully to what is being said and to clarify any possible uncertainties and/
or misunderstandings. Clarifying questions are asked when the counsellor is not sure what the client is
saying – what the client means or the meaning of a word or expression. The client must know, by the
tone of the counsellor’s voice that he/she really is trying to understand and not disagreeing or picking an
argument. The purpose of clarification is to check accuracy of understanding, to clarify what was said, or
to seek elaboration. Examples of clarification questions are:

“Are you saying…”

“What did you say?”
“Do I hear you say…”
“Can you tell me what you mean by…”

Sometimes it may be hard for a counsellor to keep quiet but often silences help the client to clarify his/
her thoughts. They may rephrase what they were saying and in doing so redirect their way of thinking.
Paraphrasing means to repeat what the client was saying in order to encourage them to continue talking
and to let him/her know that you heard what was said. The counsellor can use synonyms but does not
change the meaning of what the client has said or add any of his/her own ideas. The counsellor focuses
on the facts – conveyed by the content of the message. Paraphrasing is about clarifying the facts by
making a statement (not asking a question) and does not add or subtract anything from the client’s
message. The counsellor does not respond to the client’s feelings, neither does he/she put their own
feelings or interpretation into the response. The purpose of paraphrasing content is to help the client to
focus on the facts and encourage them to talk. An example of paraphrasing may be:

Learner: “It’s bad. My mother is gone.”

Teacher: “Your mother has left.” or “Your mother went away.”

By reflecting feelings, the affective part of the client’s message is rephrased. As with the paraphrasing
content the paraphrasing when feelings are reflected is done as a statement (not a question). The purpose
of reflecting feelings conveyed by the message is to encourage the expression of feelings and to help the
client be aware of his/her feelings. In using the same example as above, we now focus on the affective
part of the message:

42 | UNIT 2
 Learner: “It’s bad. My mother is gone.”
Taecher: “You feel terrible” or “You are saying you feel awful.”

2
3. Sending signals of acceptance
It is important that the counsellor / teacher– as the receiver of the message - understands the client /
learner correctly by being attentive and non-judgemental. Although the facilitator has to become familiar
with the client’s view and experiences, it does not mean he/she adopts the view of the client. The client’s
behaviour should be understood and such understanding must be communicated to the client. In the
process of a learner communicating with a teacher-counsellor he/she should feel accepted.

You are listening to me when you

• share my world and let me be myself
• really try to understand me even though
• what I am saying makes no sense to you
• accept my point of view even if you do not agree
• realise that listening to me will tire you
• let me make my own decisions even if you think it may not be the right one
• leave the responsibility of my problem in my own hands
• restrain from giving me advice
• do not give me religious solutions when I am not ready for it
• sincerely accept my appreciation

The purpose of probing questions is to get the client to talk more

4. Questioning and summarising
Questions in the therapeutic scenario form part of the dialogue between the counsellor and the clients.
More than the gathering of information, it is used for the purpose of discovering and exploring the options
that may bring about a change to the situation in a way that the client gets a sense of preferred direction.
Probing Questions are follow-up questions intended to get more information on a response. It is not
questions asked because the counsellor is nosy. How a parent was murdered is irrelevant if the learner’s
concern is that they will not be able to cope financially. Probing is about asking relevant How, Where,
When, Who and What questions in a sensitive manner from a position of respect and openness. Questions
are derived from what the client is telling and aim to progressively discover or construct the learner’s
experience. No other facts or statements from outside the counselling conversation are quoted. The focus
is on what the client is saying and feeling. Why questions are to be avoided as the client does not know
the answer to those most of the time and may just say something they think the counsellor wants to hear.
Only one probing question is asked at a time and the client gets the chance to respond to that before the
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conversation is carried on.

UNIT 2 | 43
 Questions are always asked from
a position of respect, curiosity and openness.
Therapists ask questions from a not-knowing position,
meaning that they do not pose questions that they think
they already know the answers to.
(Corey, 2013)

To summarise is to sum up the facts and the feelings of what the client has said during the conversation.
The purpose of summarising what has been said can be –

To tie a number of elements together

To identify common patterns

To get focus when the client is rambling

To review progress

To prepare to stop if time is nearly up

To demonstrate that you are listening to what has been said

An example of summarisation is:

“You have said that your mother wants you to finish school, but you feel you can contribute to
the income of the family if you start working on the farm full time. However, you will miss your
friends at school and the rugby team you are playing for.”

5. Being concrete and specific

As people who care for others and want to offer help where needed, it is not easy to refrain from giving
advice, especially when asked. In counselling, to refuse will be insensitive and not what the client expects
of the facilitator. So, what should be done? If the counsellor assumes that the client is experiencing anxiety
and uncertainty, he/she may respond as follows: “You are asking me what to do and you sound uncertain”
and/or “It appears as if you have lost confidence in yourself/your own decisions”. This shows your clients
that you understand them and provides them with the opportunity to elaborate on themselves and their
experiences or fears (Grobler, 2007).
Listening skills are used throughout the counselling process. With listening skills, the counsellor does not
add information, interpret or voice their own feelings. For some learners it may be enough to just say what
was troubling them, but more often they need guidance in solving their problem and making decisions
on what they can do to alleviate their difficulties. Then counselling becomes more concrete and specific
and the process has to go a step further by the counsellor applying action skills to help learner-clients to:

Action skills help

learner-clients to...

understand their own feelings,

relieve their feelings safely,
make their own decisions based on good information,
take action steps,
plan follow-up activities.

The effectiveness of action responses depends on the continuous and correct use of the listening skills,
a trusting relationship and by constantly focusing on the client’s needs (not the needs or feelings of the
counsellor). The different action skills are probing (as discussed under previous heading), confrontation,
interpretation and information sharing.

44 | UNIT 2
 The purpose of confrontation is to highlight contradictory or conflicting messages
The effectiveness of action responses depends on the continuous and correct use of the listening skills,
a trusting relationship and by constantly focusing on the client’s needs (not the needs or feelings of the
counsellor). The different action skills are probing (as discussed under previous heading), confrontation,
interpretation and information sharing. Confrontation does not mean to argue or to be aggressive. Rather
it is used when the client makes two statements that are contradictory. The contradiction may relate to
the facts, to the feelings, or both. The counsellor has to pay attention to his/her tone of voice when using 2
confrontation and be sure the client is ready to face conflicts. Once a conflict has been brought to the
surface, the client is allowed enough time to respond and the counsellor follows through on the response.
An example of confrontation is:

Learner: “I cannot live without my friends. They mean the world to me.”

Counsellor: “Earlier you mentioned that you hate your friends because they make you do
things you do not want to do. Now you say you cannot live without them. Can you tell me
more about it?”

Interpretation is when the counsellor repeats what the client has said; adding a little of his/her own
thoughts. It does not mean pulling some explanation from out of the blue. The counsellor summarises
his/her own under-standing of the client’s message, while including the unstated or implied part(s). The
client normally confirms when the correct interpretation was done, or may elaborate on how it differs
from their intent.

The purpose of interpretation is to find out how the client’s message and
behaviours relate.

The following examples apply:

Client: “I attend all the netball practices but never get elected to play for the team.”

Counsellor: “You are wondering why you should bother to practice when you do not get to
play for the team any case.”

The last action skill discussed in this learning outcome is Information sharing. This does not include
irrelevant information about the counsellor or somebody else that is of no meaning to the client. The
counsellor provides relevant, concrete and specific information and it is the responsibility of the client to
take it, or leave it. Information sharing presents what a client could consider or might do or think about.
It is not giving the client advice on what he should consider or must do or think about. It is a process by
which the client gets to evaluate the information and develops alternatives. Time is needed for trying out
the possible alternatives and follow-ups are necessary to attain the outcomes.

The purpose of information sharing is to provide information and address the

established problem.

An example of information sharing may be as follows:

Client: “I do not know where to go for further studies on becoming a lawyer.”

Counsellor: “I know a lawyer. Perhaps we can speak to him and find out about
institutions where they teach law.”
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UNIT 2 | 45
6. Using the open-ended sentence
Open-ended sentences are used with the intent of getting a long answer by keeping the client talking
in order to gather lots of information. Open-ended questions have no correct answer and require an
explanation of sorts. Again the How, Where, When, Who and What questions are preferable to “Why”-
questions because some people may find the latter threatening and/or overwhelming. Some examples of
open-ended questions that do not demand a specific answer include:

What brought you in here today?

Do you have an idea about why this keeps happening?

What is your Plan B?

How does that make you feel?

7. Play therapy (toys, role play, simulation)

Younger children often use toys to voice what they cannot say. Watching them play can give the teacher
a better understanding of their emotional or mental health issues. Different types of play help the
child figure out feelings and how to express them. It can help them dealing with feelings of anxiety
and depression in times of bereavement and loss. While toys are often used in therapy with the young
child, older children need techniques such as role play – where the learner acts as someone else in a
given situation - and simulation. Situations where any role-playing can be done, by the teacher, class, or
combination of teacher and class, are ideal. And learners working autonomously on tasks can be defined
as simulations if the content reflects real life.
Play therapy is often used for preschoolers and middle school learners that have not yet developed the
abstract reasoning abilities and verbal skills. It helps children to become aware of and express their feelings,
manage anger, improve self-control, reduce fear, anxiety and depression and increase empowerment by
enhancing their problem-solving skills. When children are involved in games their defences are reduced
and they are more likely to talk about their feelings. The teacher always sits at the same level as the learner.
The following examples of play therapy were derived from Fifteen Effective Play Therapy Techniques, an
article published by the American Psychological Association.

46 | UNIT 2
 The Power Animal Technique
In play therapy children can
often play different characters.
The Power Animal Technique:
Internalising a positive symbol
The Mad Game
Was created by P. Davidson,
and allows children to verbally
and kinaesthetically express
anger as a common, acceptable
The Worry Can
Was created by D.S. Jones
and helps children to identify
and discuss their worries with
others. When children keep the

of strength was created by
D.A. Hickey (Hall et al., 2002).
Children who are referred
often have a low self-esteem,
relation problems with peers
and adults, and poor problem-
solving skills. The Power Animal
helps them to articulate their
strengths and enhance their
coping skills. The child gets to
create his own animal (it can
be a drawing, a mask or a clay
structure) and imagine what
the animal might do in certain
situations and how it might
solve a specific problem. “By
regularly consulting with the
animal the therapist will help
the child move deeper into an
internalization of the strengths
and attributes the child projects
onto the animal” (Hall et al.,
2002).
2
feeling. It can also be used for things that worry them bottled
the expression of feelings of up inside them, it may become
sadness or anxiety and is suited the root of their presenting
for individuals or group therapy. problems, such as fears, peer
A tower is built from wooden conflict and separation anxiety.
or plastic blocks. The teacher The children draw or write down
and learner each get a turn their worries on separate pieces
to place a block on top of the of paper which they place in
previous one, while expressing the “worry can”. They then can
something that makes them share some worries with the
angry or something that is not therapist or, if in a group-setting,
fair. It does not matter whether with the other children.
it sounds silly, every statement
is acceptable. The teacher, in the
beginning brings up less serious
problems, and progress to the
issues the child is struggling
to cope with, for example, “It
makes me angry when adults
hit children”. Once the tower is
completed the teacher asks the
child to think of one thing that
really makes him/her angry, to
make a ‘mad face’ and to knock
down the blocks (Hall et al.,
2002).

8. ‘What if’ game

The “What if”-game is applied when the learner cannot see a way out of his/her situation and there seem
to be no change in their behaviours. The teacher can encourage the child to change his way of thinking
and seek solutions in several ways. The example of the girl that goes to every netball practice but never
gets to play a match is taken to illustrate the different techniques.

The learner has to remember and tell about times when he/she did not feel this way. What was a.
different then? Example: When she started playing netball, did she want to be in a team? Did she
start playing netball for the fun of it? How did she enjoy practices then?

b. The learner has to imagine what things would be like if a miracle happened and the problem was
no more a problem. Example: What would you do if you are elected as the captain of the team
tomorrow at practice? What will you do differently?

The learner has to rate him/herself on a scale from zero to ten – low scores indicate negative c.
feelings, and the higher the score the more positive the way they feel. They rate themselves at the
beginning of a session and at the end of the session again. Even if they only move up one score,
it means that there was improvement. Example: The learner can rate herself before and after each
practice. Questions on the ratings may include: What did you think when you realised that you
rated yourself much higher after the practice even though you did not know whether you would
play for the team on Saturday?

Faces - instead of numbers - can be used, especially for preschoolers.

STUDCOUNS0016

UNIT 2 | 47
9. Story telling / narrative therapy
To address the problem, the learner has to know what it is. When they have established what the problem
is, they can give it a name. As soon as the problem has a name, it is externalised and can be separated
from the learner as a person. The problem can result from a variety of causes, such as the effects of illness,
something the child is struggling with, loneliness, being unsure, the loss of something or someone, fear or
stress. The learner gives the problem a name – one that defines the essence of the problem and that he/
she identifies with. A child that has been abused may think the problem is being afraid of getting bruised
or not enough sleep, while the problem deeper down may be fear of the abusive person(s).

“It is not the person that is the problem, but the

problem that is the problem.”

Questions asked by the counsellor guide the learner to tell or write the story about how they experience
the problem and how they can overcome it. Narrative therapists believe in writing the story (it can be in
the form of a letter to someone) that the client can at a later stage read again and get re-inspired as they
are reminded of their strengths and abilities. In the following example of questions used to help learners
identify their problem and construct a possible outcome, [problem] can be replaced by the name the
learner has given to his/her problem.
a. When has it [problem] started/become a problem? Where does [problem] come from?
b. How big a part of your life (percentage of daily life) has been taken over by [problem]? Why do
you say that?
c. What effects result from the presence of [problem]?
d. Who/what are [problem]’s friends?
e. What does [problem] tell you?
f. What is [problem] stealing from you?
g. What triggers [problem] to take control of your life? When does [problem] prevail most?
h. When does [problem] disappear or become small or weak?
i. What have you done in the past to conquer [problem]? Why – in the case of being unsuccessful
- do you think it did not work?
j. What would you like to do to [problem]?
k. What can you do to conquer [problem]?
l. What do you need to fight or get rid of [problem]?
m. Who are [problem]’s enemies?
n. What would your life be like without [problem]?
o. Why is [problem] a problem for you?
p. Who or what are your support systems?
q. What strategy will you use in fighting [problem] in future and what tools do you need to do that?
r. What are you going to do in the event of [problem] continuously wanting to come back?
s. What do you want to say to [problem] now?
t. What do you need at this moment to ‘close the case’ on [problem]?
Young children may be asked to draw [problem] and then give it a party hat or draw a superhero that
turns [problem] from mean to nice. Story telling for smaller children can be done by asking them to tell a
story about an event, for example attending a funeral. The teacher can also show them a picture and ask
them to tell a story about what they see. A third option may be to remove the dialogue in comic strips
and ask the learner to add words to the pictures.
Children can be asked to tell their own story. The teacher can then add on to the story by changing the
negative events in the story to a positive outcome. Using a picture like the example below, the teacher
can demonstrate to the child that there are significant others that will support him/her and they can get
rid of all the trouble illustrated as loading it on a truck and tip it at a refuse dump.

48 | UNIT 2
 Problems

Support
system

ADDITIONAL READING

For enrichment read the part on Narrative Therapy p 374-383 in Gerald Corey’s Theory and Practice of
Counselling and Psychotherapy.

10. Music and art therapy

Music therapy can be used to unburden negative emotions and trauma, relaxation, pain relief and stress
relief and can benefit learners with depression and feelings of anxiety. The goals and objective of the
counselling can be generally facilitated through four types of music-based interventions.

MUSIC BASED INTERVENTIONS

The learners just have to relax and listen to the music or they are Receiving or Listening.
encouraged to move to the rhythm and sound of the music. Other
alternatives include doing a lyric analysis of the music or writing a
paragraph on what the music (no lyrics) is telling them.

Performing or Playing. This may include singing or instrument playing.

This includes taking the above a step further. Improvising means creating and Improvising.
performing music on the spot and without preparation. Themes around emotions,
such as anger, or happiness versus sadness, can be explored.

Composing. The individual learner that finds the process of song writing soothing and creative
will benefit by this exercise. The process of writing about how they feel, and how to
overcome their problems, may be as simple or complex as needed

By using music therapy, the learner is allowed to express him/herself in other ways than speech. Learners
who are inclined to be kinaesthetic and musical intelligent will find this way of discharge especially
beneficial.
Art therapists use countless approaches and techniques when working with individuals and groups. Art
therapy works well with children and adolescence that are in search of personal growth or are struggling
with personal issues. There are mainly two approaches to arts therapy, namely the emotional journey of
discovery and actualisation of the self, and secondly the product of a person’s conscious or unconscious
expression. Because children may not have the words to express how they are feeling, it is very beneficial
to use art as a mode of expression. Exploration tasks encourage the learner to let go of conscious thoughts
and controls and to express themselves as freely and spontaneous as possible. Examples of exploration
STUDCOUNS0016

tasks include:

UNIT 2 | 49
 Automatic drawing.
This is basically scribbling and the learner is asked to relax and to draw free lines without
lifting the pen or pencil from the paper. This provides an excellent way for them to let
down their guards and thus is a good starting point for a counselling session.

Free drawing.
The learner is encouraged to express him/herself freely without planning the picture.
Often the images that are created are reflections of their present problems, strengths
and weaknesses. At the end of free drawing, they are asked to share and explain the
contents of their drawing.
Life time-line.
They draw a river representing their life. Significant others and episodes that have left an impression
can be indicated on the banks. Rapids and waterfalls indicate the changes they had difficulty in coping
with. Afterwards they may share these experiences with the counsellor.

There are many different techniques that can be used in art therapy and as every case is unique, the
teacher-counsellor should establish first whether a specific technique will fit the learner and his/her
situation. The decision on what counselling skills and techniques to apply must at all times be done with
great care and not be preferred because it, for instance, seems easy or exciting. The learner-client must
at all times feel safe and comfortable with the choice of technique. Counsellors have to remember that
counselling is never about themselves; always about the client and the problem-situation.

11. Metaphors and other skills

A metaphor is a figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not
literally applicable. According to Aflow (1979) metaphors are used when one attempts to distance oneself
from powerful, potentially overwhelming, affective experiences (Strong, 1989). In counselling where the
client may find it hard to express his/her feelings, the use of metaphors can effectively communicate how
they are feeling and how they view the world. These, often non-intentional metaphors, can be presented
in a variety of verbal and non-verbal ways and can be like opening a door to the client’s inner world
through which the counsellor can enter. Together they can work out the meaning of the metaphor.

examples of methaphors used by clients

A client who likes to play video games saying “he feels he is on pause and unable to
move forwards”.
A client describing a physical symptom e.g. a “pain in the neck” may have a somatic
response to a stressful interpersonal relationship.

50 | UNIT 2
 Metaphors should be considered as an effective strategy used by the counsellor for promoting clients’
growth and change. According to Strong, counsellors has to develop the art of attending to the relevant
subtle disclosures by clients –

“The Rogerian
method of reflecting back to clients, in their
language, what has been heard, has been proven to be an 2
effective means of promoting better rapport, greater self-disclosure
and deeper self-exploration. The counsellor should listen for patterns in
topics, non-verbal emphases of certain words and phrases (evident in changes
in vocal inflection, gestures, etc.), incongruences in the expression of
experience, avoidance of certain issues relevant to given topics of
discussion, and, of course, the more direct metaphors, similes,
and analogies used to describe situations
(Strong, 1989)

Following are three basic strategies that can be employed by the skilful counsellor when using metaphors
in counselling:

Explicating what is implicit.

This involves reflective listing to promote greater self-disclosure and, as a result, enhanced self-awareness
of what previously had been unconscious. By carefully attending to the verbal and non-verbal expressions
of the client, the counsellor chooses relevant forms of expression (described image, gesture, somatic
complaint, etc.), and builds on it by helping the client get fully in touch with these experiences. Should
the client be willing and comfortable to delve into these metaphors, it brings the client into fuller contact
with the experience that was hitherto expressed indirectly – almost unconsciously - only.

Extending or modifying the metaphor.

This is where the counsellor – through different forms of guided imagery - assists the client to alter the
problem experience as it was represented in metaphor. Skilled counsellors are required for helping clients
develop their images, sounds and feelings and then to assist clients to modify them.

Creating and delivering therapeutic metaphors.

With this solution-in–metaphor or connecting strategy the counsellor meets the client’s non-intentional
indirect communications with his/her own intentional indirect communication that is capable of facilitating
change. Skilled counsellors know how to carefully listen for the ways that clients adjust metaphors to the
different elements of their problems. The counsellor notices the sequence, nature and proportions of
experience through the ways clients use metaphors in their conversations for what they see relevant to
their situation. As facilitator, he/she builds upon this information and offers a restructuring of problem
in a way that the metaphor suggests new understandings of the problem. Using analogies, humour and
anecdotes, the counsellor constructs the metaphor using words which facilitate the client’s use of their
own internal experience to construct meaning to the metaphor.

12. Working with parents

Parents can play the key role in initiating and generating
behaviour change in their children. Working in partnership with
both parents and their child can enhance the counsellor’s
potential to promote successful outcomes for the learner. Parents
are experts on their children, the family’s interests and strengths.
They can tell what strategies have been tried before and which
ones have and haven’t worked in the past. The parents’
involvement and suggestions are encouraged and together the
counsellor and parents work on strategies that best fit the
family’s specific characteristics.
Parents are equipped in making their own plans and decisions
STUDCOUNS0016

in the future instead of just following guidelines set out by the

counselling staff. Parental involvement is crucial to achieve
success in behavioural changes of the child. For example, work
done on anger management during a counselling session at
school needs to be backed up by the parents at home.

UNIT 2 | 51
Parents react differently to counselling sessions on their child depending whether they are voluntary or
involuntary clients. Some may be defensive, suspicious, angry, scared or confused. Respect for the parent
and child is essential for encouraging positive relationships. The following are suggestions on how the
counsellor should go about dealing with parents of the child who receives counselling:

The first meeting with the parent is of the utmost importance. Creating a warm and
welcoming office conveys a supportive atmosphere. Positive first impressions increase the
likelihood of them returning for follow-up meetings.
Explain why they have to attend the counselling session.

Be clear and assist the parents as clients to feel at ease in discussing the issues that have
come about in their family.

Explain the counselling process to take away any unknown fears and suspicions and to pave
the way to honest communication and trust.

Clients must be aware of the boundaries of confidentiality and of the counsellor’s legal and
ethical obligations to the community, the law and him/herself.

From the start discuss the expectations of the process.

Clarify what is expected from both the parents and the counsellor.

Indicate an action plan.

Reduce any form of distractions, such as phone calls or walk-ins, and as far as possible give
the parents your uninterrupted attention.

2.4 Referral procedures in Namibia

School personnel should be aware of how to detect learners with disabilities at an early stage. They should
be knowledgeable about the intervention for the appropriate care and placement of impaired learners
and the arrangement for compensatory/remedial education. Alternative programmes to accommodate
learners with severe learning needs, for example learners with mental impairments, ensure the provision
of appropriate extra care and attention for learners with special educational needs so that they can
develop and achieve optimally. Learners in mainstream education sometimes need to be referred for
remedial lessons, guidance (for example when making career choices), or when they display behavioural
problems. These cases are mostly dealt with internally by the counselling support group of the school.

2.4.1 Learners with learning difficulties / special education needs

The Namibian policy of inclusive education encourages learners with special educational needs to be part
of the ordinary settings of school and society. However, the needs of learners may be so great that they
cannot benefit by attending mainstream schools. For these learners provision of specialised education is
made, taking into account the specific disability or challenge. In accordance to the following categories -
special schools cater for the different needs of learners

Needs ca
tegories

with sensory-motor disabilities (learners who have visual impairment, hearing impairment,
speech impairment, or movement impairment, including learners with cerebral palsy).
who are mentally challenged (including Down’s syndrome, neuropsychological
problems, autistic or mentally challenged in other ways).
with behavioural difficulties (socio-emotional behavioural problems
chronically or acutely affecting learning; children declared as learners in need
in terms of the Children’s Act).
who are educationally disadvantaged and/or have specific or severe
learning difficulties.

52 | UNIT 2
 Special Education provides for learners with the above needs as follows:

Remedial education
For learners with specific learning problems in mainstream schools. They follow the mainstream syllabuses,
but are assisted by the class teacher during ordinary lessons with a variety of methods, or by a trained

2
remedial teacher during remedial education sessions. Gifted children are often neglected and are also in
need of special attention in the form of enrichment programmes in addition to their formal schoolwork.

Special classes
Smaller class groups in mainstream schools for learners with severe learning difficulties who cannot cope
in ordinary classes. Due to an intellectual impairment or severe learning problems they benefit from
separate, smaller class groups.

Special schools
For learners who are mentally challenged, as well as for those with multiple disabilities. Mental retardation,
or a delay or failure to progress in a specific area of skill acquisition or multiple areas of normal development,
leads to impairment in the acquisition of cognitive, language, motor or social skills.

Senior special schools

For learners older than 14 years with learning disabilities, but who are potentially able to function
independently in society. These schools provide an approved Vocational Training Certificate after
completion of training and an opportunity for learners to take their rightful place in society.
Special schools for the hearing and visually impaired – academic and pre-vocational subjects are adapted
according to the needs and impairment of the learners.

Special schools for the hearing and visually impaired

academic and prevocational subjects are adapted according to the needs and impairment of the learners.

Industrial schools
For rehabilitation to mainstream life, provision is made for learners who have been identified by court
of law as in need of care. Their social and emotional needs, as well as educational needs, including pre-
vocational training, are considered. Learners enrolled in industrial schools are learners with behavioural
difficulties and/or with compound learning difficulties. Much attention is given on an individualised basis
and group-work according to ability.
STUDCOUNS0016

UNIT 2 | 53
The Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture (1999) states that referral may be on the basis of the
following criteria:
• Specific or global learning impairments
• Other medically diagnosed disabilities
• Learning disadvantage
• Socio-emotional behavioural problems
Special
Special
schools for
schools
REFERRED BY mentally
Senior for visually
Remedial Special impaired Industrial
special and
education classes learners/ schools
school hearing
develop-
impaired
mental
learners
disorder
Promotion
committee in school X X X
Regional school
counsellor X X X X
Special education
professional from X X
Head Office
School principal
and/or Head of X X
Department
Directorate of
special Education X X
Programmes
Medical personnel X X
Psychologist X X X
Social welfare X
Other special
schools X
Special class teacher X
Remedial teacher X
School counsellor X X
Court of Law X
According to the Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture (1999:9) “the function of special education
is to ensure that the appropriate extra care and attention is given to learners with special educational
needs so that they can develop and achieve optimally according to their aptitudes and abilities. The
principle for progression in special education is the same as for Basic Education as a whole: that each
learner achieves what s/he can at each stage and goes on to the next. Re-admission to mainstream
classes may occur after teacher observation and well recorded progress and testing prove the learner
shows aptitude to cope in mainstream. A learner leaves special education when he/she:
• returns to mainstream and do not need remedial education,
• reaches the age limit for school attendance or as set by a court for the individual,
• no longer needs special education,
• can no longer benefit from special education due to acute physical or mental illness.

2.4.2 Learners with needs other than special education needs

That every learner

That every with a big problem
learner with a will have someone
problem will who can support...
have someone to
talk to...

54 | UNIT 2
 Vision for counselling in Namibia
All learners should be aware of the counselling support group at their school. Learners who have the
need to talk to someone or who need guidance and support in resolving their problems should have the
courage to ask for help from their teachers. However not all learners can pluck up the courage, or see the
need to make an appointment with a teacher-counsellor. Sometimes learners need to be referred by a

2
class or subject teacher because of poor academic performance or misbehaviour.
The counselling support group sometimes needs to refer the child to someone who is an expert in the
specific field, for example, when misbehaviour is caused by medical problems (substance abuse, for
instance needs medical intervention) or a child needs career guidance (if he wants to be a policeman, it is
helpful to speak to policemen about that type of work). When a learner’s problem stems from a situation
in the community, the problem within the community can be addressed through for example, the Circles
of Support.

Teacher-counsellors would refer children to a specialist in the field when they need a:

medical doctor (specialist or general practitioner)

psychologist or professional counsellor

home based caregiver

social worker

representative of Child Welfare

When the CSG is unsure of who should intervene or how to go about it, they can liaise with the Regional
School Counsellor for assistance.
Inclusive education promotes all learners with and without disabilities and special needs to be taught
the same curriculum and to all be part of the ordinary setting of school and society. However, the needs
of some learners may be so great that they cannot benefit by attending mainstream schools. Alternative
programmes are for learners who can physically and mentally not cope in mainstream education, and who
need a special school where they can develop and achieve to the best of their capabilities. Learners in
mainstream education also need to be referred because of poor academic performance or misbehaviour.
The counselling support group sometimes needs to refer the learners to experts in their specific fields, for
example, in the case of misbehaviour caused by medical problems or a child who needs career guidance.
The focus remains on supporting learners to individual optimal development.

2.5 Competencies modern employers expect from employees

For people to be successful in their careers, they need to apply their competencies and with more
changes experienced in job tasks and the environmental influences nowadays, they need to exhibit a mix
of skills to be successful. Many new occupations require that workers combine traits in a different way
than has traditionally been done, possess more adaptive skills, and have the ability to learn quickly to
adjust to new environments. Skills beyond educational degrees, certificates or licenses are often required.
Highly service orientated organisations, such as the tourism industry, need employees who can handle
customers professionally and who are pro-active and able to solve problems.
Modern employers therefore expect their staff to not only have the right qualification but to have
employability skills as well. These are the skills and attitudes that enable employees to build positive work
relationships, solve problems, make critical decisions, develop respect and ultimately become an asset for
the organisation. Employability skills are the key competencies or soft skills an employer looks for in his
personnel, the basic skills needed for getting, keeping and doing well in a job. In this learning outcome we
categorise these competencies into 4 groups:

Include the ability to read with understanding and are 1. Basic Skills
fundamental to successful employment. Many jobs require
reading as part of the duties. There are reports, memos,
Examples of basic skills:
emails and safety requirements that are part of day to
day functions of the job. Listening skills and basic math »» Reading
skills are essential for good employability. Employees are »» Writing
expected to communicate well both orally and in writing.
»» Math
Being able to convey your thoughts verbally and on paper
help co-workers to understand you better. In this way better »» Oral communication
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relationships can be built in the work environment. »» Listening

UNIT 2 | 55
 Critical thinking skills Involve decision making and problem solving. An employer
who can gather information, evaluate a variety of solutions
Critical thinking skills are e.g.: and select the best option, is an asset to the work place
and can save the employer time and money. People who
»» Learning demonstrate these skills are especially sought-after in
»» Thinking creatively customer service positions where, for example, an angry
»» Reasoning customer needs to be dealt with. To get a job done and
done correctly critical skills such as planning and organising
»» Decision making
are important. Creative thinkers offer perspectives from
»» Problem solving another angle and find new ways of doing things that add
»» Organising value to the work environment and serve customers more
»» Planning efficiently. Workers that are willing to learn new and better
ways of doing things on a continuous basis so as to stay
ahead of the competition are valued employees.

Such as leadership, showing team spirit, social skills and self- Personal qualities
management are highly recommendable. For employers it is
important to have workers that are responsible, on time, cooperative
and motivated. Some occupations, where routine is changed on a
daily basis, require employees who are adaptable, flexible and patient.
Personal qualities include being/having:
»» responsible »» adaptable »» well groomed
»» honest »» flexible »» good work attitude
»» self-confidence »» team spirit »» cooperative
»» self-control »» self-directed »» leadership
»» social skills »» punctual & efficient »» self-motivated
»» integrity

Technology skills Are becoming more relevant by the day and employers increasingly
are requiring that employees become familiar with a wide variety of
computer applications and other electronic devices.

2.6 The concept ‘work ethics’

Work ethics entail the set of moral principles an employee uses in his/her job. These include moral
principles such as integrity, responsibility, quality consciousness, discipline and teamwork.
a. Integrity fosters trusting relationships with client, co-workers and supervisors. Clients trust the
employee’s advice, co-workers value his/her ability to give honest feedback and supervisors rely
on the employee’s high moral standards, such as not stealing material or intellectual property.
b. Employees with a sense of responsibility feel personal responsible for their job performance; are
on time and put in their best effort to complete projects to the best of their ability.
c. Someone who puts cares about the quality of the work produce great work and improves the
company’s overall quality.
d. Discipline takes a certain level of commitment to do your part every day. Workers with good
discipline stay focused on goals and are determined to finish their tasks, indicating a high level of
dedication to the company.
e. A sense of teamwork where co-workers collaborate, respect each other and help where they can
help the team to reach the goals and deliver quality work.

2.7 Choosing a career - guidelines for learners

Choosing a career involves a process. This process of growth is referred to as a career-path. A career-
path may include change(s) of occupations and/or in developing individuals. People throughout their
lifetimes may follow different careers or may have more than one job at a time, for instance someone may
simultaneously be a lawyer and an actor. Choosing a suitable career means
1. knowing oneself,
2. the occupation and
3. how to bring the two together. Sometimes it may take hard work and lots of time for a person to
establish his/her career of choice.

56 | UNIT 2
 1. The person - knowing oneself
Keeping a portfolio is good career development practice. It also helps you to get to know yourself better
when it comes to deciding on whether a possible certain occupation would be a suitable career choice.
Hence, before seeking a possible career, you can benefit from a portfolio commencing with your personal
details. Documenting your type of personality, aptitudes, values and interests, can be of tremendous help

2
in future when it comes to writing cover letters and putting a CV together.

What characteristics of mine distinguish me from other people?

Personality
Personality is the set of characteristics that makes you different from all
other people and determines how you think and behave. The different
What type of person
personality types, according to John Holland, and how they apply to
am I?
career choices are discussed in learning outcome 2.8.
What a person finds exciting or holds his/her attention. Often people
become good at the things that excite their interests. It also can be
Interests speculated that people become interested in things they are good at.
Interest may change as people and their aptitudes develop. A learner may
show interest in the field of humanities (welfare, performing arts, etc.), the
What do I love or like
natural and biological sciences, the commercial sciences or an interest in
to do?
outdoor life. Sometimes people have to try to distinguish between those
interests which offer good career possibilities and those which make
satisfying hobbies.
The specific innate and acquired potentialities and abilities of a person. A
Aptitude talent in fields such as music, drama, fine art and so forth, is seen as a special
aptitude. Skills such as being able to play the piano, is a practised ability.
What am I good at? Even if one does not have a talent for something, like playing international
What are my natural tennis, you could work at acquiring a skill, such as hitting a ball over the net
abilities satisfactorily.

Values The beliefs and moral principles which determine how a person understands
and sees the world. The value categories that play a role in the consideration
of a possible career are security, status, social values, money and outdoor
What defines my
life or enjoying oneself. The concept of values is covered in more detail in
beliefs and actions?
learning outcome 4.4 of this module.

2. The career - getting to know an occupation

Small children often want to become firemen, teachers or circus artists when they are grown up. They
fantasize about these future careers on what they have learnt through stories and films. So, how does
one get to know more about different occupations? Information about job opportunities is found in
the media, on the internet, in educational institutions and by talking to knowledgeable people. Before
a learner decides on a career choice he/she should first make sure of what the job entails. Gathering
more information and learning what the job is all about includes taking part in job-shadowing, going to
exhibitions, reading up about it and talking to people in the field. It is important to establish the areas
with possibilities for the future (electronics, services, etc.) and fields that are more or less saturated. They
should also consider the levels of skills necessary for a job and whether the acquired skills are transferable
to other career choices.

3. Bringing individual and occupation together

A learner, who has decided on a career, has to weigh the different options and information. Whether
someone wants to become a pilot, a hairdresser, a franchise manager or a psychologist, there are a
number of questions to look at before making the final choice. If one is afraid of heights or do not take
mathematics at school, becoming a pilot would not be a proper choice of career. Someone who acquired
the skill of a hair stylist, but do not want to be around other people and working indoors all day, should
consider cutting other people’s hair as a hobby and not as an occupation. In other words, does this career
choice fit in with the individual’s personality, interests, abilities and values? In the event that it does, more
questions need to be asked:

Are further studies needed? When, where, duration?

What school subjects or other qualifications are needed?

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Are there funds available for further studies? What about bursaries and/or a loan?

Is it possible to work while busy with studies?

Can training be done in the workplace?

UNIT 2 | 57
Learners need to be sure of the compatibility between themselves as individuals and their choice of
career. However, they should also be aware that people change and develop and so do careers and that
a change of career may happen and sometimes may be inevitable. Keeping an up-to-date portfolio can
make life much easier for the person who needs to apply for a job, has to write a cover letter for the
application and has to compile a CV (curriculum vitae).

Thus, to summarise, we find that there are many different factors that have an influence on a person’s
career choice. One part of it is to get to know as much as possible about oneself and to match personality
traits, aptitudes, interests and values with what a specific career has to offer. Before a final decision is
made, all possible information on the choice of career should be gathered, such as what further education
or skills are needed, as well as possible advantages and limitations of the job. It also should be kept in
mind that for optimal job satisfaction the individual and the type of work have to be compatible. However,
people mature and progress along their career path, sometimes thriving on change. The keeping of a
personal career portfolio enables them to be reminded of who they are and what they have accomplished
in their careers.

2.8 Principles of Holland’s career choice theory

John Holland, an American psychologist, in his theory of careers and vocational choice, differentiated
between six categories of personalities which he described in terms of possible types of occupations. He
found most people to be one of six personality types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising
and Conventional. These categories, referred to by some as RIASEC, match the six basic types of work
environments. People search for environments where they can use their skills and abilities and express
their values and attitudes while taking on enjoyable problems and roles. If the work environment is similar
to their personality type, they are more likely to be successful and satisfied. For example, an artistic
person who chooses to be a dance teacher, and find the school - where creative abilities and expression
are highly valued - a compatible work environment, will experience greater success and satisfaction in
her career.
Behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. How one acts and feels
at work depends to a large extent on your environment. If you are working with people with personality
types that are compatible to yours, you will feel most comfortable with them. The RIASEC model is often
portrayed by a hexagon placing the more compatible personality and work environment types closer to
each other and the more extreme types opposite each other.

Inquisitive

Realistic I Artistic
A A

C S
Conventional Social
E
Enterprising

58 | UNIT 2
 Different areas can b
e described as follows:

2
The realistic type – a “hands-on”, practical person who prefers working with hand tools,
machinery, animals and/or plants.
The inquisitive type – a problem-solving, intellectual and analytic person, who
probably would like research and the academic/scientific fields.
The artistic/creative type – likes to create something, generally in the field of
language, fine arts, music and performing arts.
The social and serving type – prefers communication with other
people and renders a service to others.
The enterprising type – prefers to take the lead, manage and
persuade others in order to reach goals.
The conventional type – needs order and procedures,
prefers activities where clerical skills are needed.

To find out more about the different areas, key skills, occupations and their subjects needed, you can
download Holland’s RIASEC model from https://www.careers.govt.nz/educators-practitioners/career-
practice/career-theory-models/hollands-theory/
Holland’s theory takes a problem-solving and cognitive approach to career planning. His model has been
very influential in career counselling. It has been employed through popular assessment tools such as
the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory and the Strong Interest Inventory (Holland’s
theory, 2015).

2.9 The use of a ‘finding your passion’ instrument

Qualified career counsellors use standardised measures in testing an individual’s personality, aptitudes,
interests and values to give an indication of what type of career would be suitable for him/her to follow.
This sometimes can be done non-scientifically as well through questionnaires and interviews.
Finding one’s passion can be quite daunting. You may feel like you have a lot of passions. How do you
marry them to find one suitable career that will give you the opportunity to not just be successful but
also to enjoy what you do? What do you see for yourself luring on the horizon? First find the direction to
where you want to go. In the absence of professional career instruments, numerous interest scales can
be found on the internet. Generally, they pinpoint your field of interest by the categories where you rate
your level of interest, such as:
• Dealing with people
• Science and technology
• Artistic and creative activities
• Facts and figures
• Communicating, words and ideas
• Making or fixing things with your hands
• Working out-doors
For a career decision, take a look at what interests are closer to your heart, values and abilities. Do research
on what options there are to explore and the viability (the chances of working out successfully) thereof.

Some careers suggested for each category are listed below:

Interests Occupations
Psychologist, doctor, lawyer, nurse, preacher, receptionist,
Dealing with people
shopkeeper
Airline pilot, engineer, chemist, mathematician, microbiologist,
Science and technology
pharmacist, technician
Actor, draughtsman, fashion designer, hairdresser, jeweller,
Artistic and creative activities
musician
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Accountant, actuary, bookkeeper, data processor, quantity

Facts and figures
surveyor, bank teller
Architect, broadcaster, editor, librarian, poet, reporter, salesperson,
Communication, words and ideas
educator

UNIT 2 | 59
 Making or fixing things with your
Dress designer, florist, graphic artist, mechanic, watchmaker
hands
Builder, farmer, forester, gardener, geologist, policeman, soldier,
Working out-doors
sports coach

2.10 The use of a ‘personality instrument’ to discover possible careers

Since Isabel Briggs Myers created the sixteen personality types with the help of her mother, Katharine
Briggs, and the theories of psychologist Carl Jung, much research has been done into how each type
functions at work, at home, and in relationships. The combination of one choice from four pairs of personality
preferences make up the personality type that seem to suit your characteristics. The preferences are:

Source of energy by Extraversion (E) vs Introversion (I)

Receiving of information by Intuition (N) vs Sensing (S)

Making decisions by Feeling (F) vs Thinking (T)

Personal life view by Perceiving (P) vs Judging (J)

Today there are many websites hosting the 16 Personality Types test. A website where the Jung Typology
test can be completed for free is found at http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp .
The test takes about 20 minutes to complete, is scored automatically and the explanations of the sixteen
different personality types is set out with, amongst other, career choices and learning styles.

2.11 Career guidance resources for counselling learners about future careers
Careers are a changing phenomenon. Occupations have become more specialised and so has training and
education. For a successful journey on your career path, you need to continuously expand and update
your knowledge and skills in order to stay competitive in the job-market. As an educational student being
aware of resources to keep your skills and training as up-to-date as possible is of the utmost importance.
Following are a few career guidance books and internet sites you can use to counsel learners about future
careers, but stay aware of the fact that trends in the workplace and job market never stay the same. Once
qualified as a teacher who gives guidance to learners about future careers, try to stay on top of new
information by attending seminars, reading up on the topic or returning to colleges presenting courses
on the subject. Although the resources listed below may be published abroad, the general information
applies to Namibian careers as well.

Books / Handbooks
The Top 100 – The fastest-growing careers for the 21st century – 4th Edition; published in 2009 by
Ferguson. Find it at https://books.google.co.za/books?isbn=1438129130
Report on effective career guidance edited by Nora Gikopoulou; published in 2008 by Socrates/Comenius
3. It can be downloaded in pdf-format from: www.career-guide.eu/uploads/cg_handbook_low.pdf

Internet sites
http://www.careeronestop.org/StudentsandCareerAdvisors/StudentsandCareerAdvisors.aspx
http://www.iseek.org/

60 | UNIT 2
 2

SUMMARY Teacher-counsellors, as part of a counselling support group, are trained

to attend to learners-in-need. Together with CSGs from neighbouring
schools they form a school cluster where ideas on intervention and
mutual support are shared during meetings. Sometimes cases have
to be referred to and evaluated by the Regional School Counsellor.
Teacher-counsellors are of great value in assisting learners who find
themselves in a situation where they do not know what to do or how
to cope with the problem. The teacher should be aware of the warning
signs displayed by learners in need of strategies and skills to help them
cope with adverse circumstances and problems in their daily life. They
guide learners in finding ways of problem-solving and decision-making.
Teachers should be able to apply the basic counselling skills of listening
and paraphrasing, and know ways of intervention appropriate to the
situation and beneficial to the learner. To support individual learners,
who cannot cope in mainstream education due to physical and mental
disabilities, alternative programmes are provided to see to their severe
learning difficulties and special needs and to enable them to optimal
development and achievement.
Schools have a major role to play in guiding learners in the proper
way of gathering information and how to approach choices that exert
important influences on their lives. They, for example, have to learn
about the expectations of modern employers on what skills and attitudes
they would like to see in their staff. Learners also have to understand
the concept of work ethics and the moral principles it entails. Where it
comes to making a decision on what career to pursuit, teachers have to
be knowledgeable in the various measurements and resources available,
such as Holland’s RIASEC-model that describes personality in terms
of possible types of occupation, and professional measures – but also
less formal questionnaires - testing personality, aptitudes, interests and
values. Also, the keeping of a personal career portfolio, for example,
helps to facilitate the process of finding a career that will suit them best.
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UNIT 2 | 61
 FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

Discuss the importance of CSGs in the school.

Your answer may include the following:
A CSG (Counsellor Support Group) consists of a team of teachers from the school and is known to the
learners. They are often specially trained teachers, such as remedial teachers or special class teachers.
Teacher-counsellors – in collaboration with every teacher in the school – support, guide and counsel
learners-in-need.
They address problems (like inappropriate behaviours and poor academic performance) immediately
– the problem therefore is solved before it becomes more serious. This includes problems such as
difficulties at home or feeling rejected by their peers.
They support and protect children who are vulnerable (e.g. learners with a disability or an HIV/AIDS
infection) from stigmatisation.
When teachers are trained in basic counselling skills they can effectively provide support to learners
who have special emotional needs.
The support group is accessible and familiar to learners who need someone to speak to.
They support and counsel learners with emotional and behavioural problems.
They establish liaison between teachers and learners when problems arise.
They assist school management in dealing with severe cases of misconduct by learners or teachers.
They promote enthusiasm, responsibility and initiative amongst learners and teachers.
They raise awareness of existence of CSG in school and importance of a culture of care.
When necessary - refer learners to specialists in the field of help needed.
They involve individuals or groups who assist in supporting learners in need - to support or strengthen
the CSG and/or individual learner.

Learner activity 2

How can you identify learners who need counselling?

Learners who need counselling would be children who-
• experience serious trauma
• find it difficult to cope and recover from bereavement
• show aggressiveness
• have low self-esteem and a sense of not belonging
• show decline in school performance and extra mural activities
• ask for help
The complete answer can be found in learning outcome 2.2 under the heading When do learners need
counselling?

Learner activity 3

Descriptions of attentiveness.

CRITERIA DESCRIPTIONS
Body posture Relaxed, respectful
Facial expression Eye contact, smiling, genuine interest, serious expression
Voice qualities Modulation, tone, smoothness, variation

62 | UNIT 2
 Learner activity 4

Name the 4 categories taken into consideration in the provision of specialised education for learners
with special disabilities. (Refer learning outcome 2.4)
• sensory-motor disabilities (learners who have visual -, hearing -, speech -
impairment, including learners with cerebral palsy)
or movement
2
• mentally challenged (including Down’s syndrome, neuropsychological problems, autistic or
mentally challenged in other ways)
• behavioural difficulties (socio-emotional behavioural problems chronically or acutely affecting
learning; children declared as learners in need in terms of the Children’s Act)
• educationally disadvantaged and/or have specific or severe learning difficulties

Learning activity 5

Name and briefly describe the competencies modern employers expect from their staff.
• Basic skills - the ability to read with understanding
• Critical thinking skills - involve decision making and problem solving.
• Personal qualities - such as leadership, showing team spirit, social skills and self-management
• Technology skills - familiar with a wide variety of computer applications and other electronic
devices

Learning activity 6

Compile a career portfolio commencing with your biographical and personal detail for a CV and
information such as your qualifications, work experience and achievements.
Everyone’s portfolio will be personalised, but the following are generally included in a personal portfolio
1. Biographical details
2. Personality traits
3. Interests
4. Aptitudes
5. Values
6. Academic & vocational training/qualifications/achievements (awards)
7. Extramural qualifications / achievements
8. Work experience
9. Letters of referral
10. CV

Learning activity 7

Name and briefly describe the personality types of Hollands’ RIASEC model.
For a description on the Realistic, Inquisitive, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional personality
types, refer learning outcome 2.8
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UNIT 2 | 63
 Barriers to learning and The
The ecological perspective
3.1 of Bronfenbrenner
3.2 the holistic approach to multidimensional
learning support 3.3 model of human
development

The medical and

social model of
3.4 disabilities and
“Motivation is
learner support
3.5 the first step in The neuroscience
learning” 3.6 of motivation

Behaviour motivation Cognitive

Signs of high
theory and how it motivation
3.7 motivation in 3.8 can be applied in the 3.9 theory and how
learners
classroom it can be applied
in the classroom

Maslow’s motivation
3.11 theory based on Intrinsic motivation
Humanistic motivation needs
theory and how it 3.12 characteristics and
3.10 can be applied in the how to develop it
classroom

How motivation of boys STUDY The holistic approach

3.13 to learning support and
and girls differ
UNIT 3 motivation issues

The principles for

3.14 planning learner
support programmes

The features and steps of

3.15 the individualised model
(IEP) of learner support

3.16 Summary
7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 3
The holistic approach to learning support
and motivation issues

INTRODUCTION As we have learnt in the first learning outcome of Unit 1 a holistic

approach refers to an individual in his/her totality. An individual is a
complex composition of thoughts, feelings, behaviours, body, memories
3
and dreams. In dealing with the child as learner, we look at three domains,
namely the physical, the psychosocial and the cognitive domains. With
the holistic approach to learning support we strive to focus on the
different dimensions of the individual, as well as how he/she functions
in his/her environment. But what exactly does learning support entail?
We will discuss this while looking at human development and the bigger
picture as introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner. We will see how disabilities
and learner support collaborate and how barriers can influence a holistic
approach to learning support. One such barrier to successful learning
is the lack of motivation. Motivation issues result when learners have
no interest in the learning material or cannot see any benefit in the
achievement of that which is expected of them. Although there are
many similarities too, motivation of boys and girls differ and individuals
differ in their approach, depending on whether the motivation is intrinsic
or not.
In this unit we look at several motivation theories and how a teacher can
apply it in the classroom. Knowledge about a learner and his difficulties
is only one part of learning support. Therefore, as educators in the
making, you will be introduced to planning support programmes and the
individualised model (IEP) of learner support.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Discuss the ecological perspective of Bronfenbrenner

• Relate the barriers to learning to a holistic approach to learning support
• Examine the multidimensional model of human development
• Evaluate the medical and social model of disabilities and learner support
• Discuss the statement: ‘Motivation is the first step in learning’
• Clarify the neuroscience of motivation
• Identify signs of high motivation in learners
• Examine the Behaviour motivation theory and how a teacher could apply that in the classroom
• Examine the Cognitive motivation theory and how a teacher could apply that in the classroom
• Examine the Humanistic motivation theory and how a teacher could apply that in the classroom
• Evaluate Maslow’s motivational theory based on needs
• Examine the characteristics of ‘intrinsic motivation’ and how to develop it
• Clarify how the motivation of boys and girls differ
• Examine the principles for planning learner support programmes
• Examine the features and steps of the individualised model (IEP) of learner support

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
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at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!

UNIT 3 | 65
 1. Identify the systems that have been omitted. Then discuss the contexts relating to each system.

Individual
Microsystem
_____________
_____________
Macrosystem

2. In picking from the list who will be the most probable person assisting Anne in the following
situation?
School counsellor, psychologist, class teacher, school principal, remedial teacher, medical
doctor, parent, Grade 7-learner

A reading problem was identified and it was decided that Anne should get
help
It was decided that Anne has to have a 10 minute reading session each
morning before school
As the sessions did not seem to improve the reading, Anne had to go for
reading lessons two afternoons per week
Because she was worried of what will become of Anne, she wanted to know
what she could do to give support
It was suggested that Anne get help for the trauma she had suffered because
of a car accident a year ago
After listening to everyone’s rapport, it was decided that Anne should be
referred to outside professional help
Anne drew a picture about the car accident and they talked about how she
experienced it
Anne was physically examined and it was found that due to the car accident
she had a hearing impairment

3. Explain why you think a holistic approach to learner support in a class of 30 or more learners
can / cannot be realised. What role is played by the learner, the teacher, learning material and
the classroom where it comes to facing barriers?

4. Choose the correct answer and explain why the other two are not the correct options.
4.a. The fact that Lila got her beautiful brown eyes from her father is the direct result of…
4.a.a. her family
4.a.b. hereditary
4.a.c. cphysical development
4.b. Poverty and how and where a child is raised are aspects of the following:
4.b.a. physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains
4.b.b. physical environment, contextual influences and maturation
4.b.c. family, neighbourhood and community

5. Explain the differences in the medical and social models in their approach to a learner suffering
from an invisible disability and how they will assist the child. Use any of the possible disabilities
listed in learning outcome 3.4 as an example.

6. Discuss how motivation affects learners. Refer learning outcome 3.7

7. Name and explain one limitation of Maslow’s theory. (Refer to learning outcome 3.11)

66 | UNIT 3
 8. Refer to learning outcome 3.14:
›› identify the principles for planning learner support programmes.
›› relate how each member of a programme support group contributes to the planning and
implementing of a learner support programme.

9. Name and explain the steps utilised in the IEP of a learner with disabilities. (Refer to learning
outcome 3.15)

3.1 The ecological perspective of Bronfenbrenner

There are different perspectives on human development. Two earlier examples are Freud’s psychoanalytic
3
perspective, and the learning perspective from the behaviourists and social-cognitive theories. More
recent is the contextual perspective of which Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory forms part of.
According to the contextual perspective an individual’s development can only be understood in the social
context from which it is inseparable.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), an American psychologist, developed the bio-ecological theory
describing the interacting influences that have an effect on a developing child. “According to
Bronfenbrenner, development occurs through increasingly complex processes of regular, active, two-way
interaction between a developing child and the immediate, everyday environment – processes that are
affected by more remote contexts of which the child may not even be aware” (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
To understand the processes of the Bronfenbrenner’s bio ecological theory, we need to study the
various contexts in which they occur. Bronfenbrenner proposes five contextual systems. Ranging from
the most intimate to the broadest, they are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem. These contextual systems continually interact as levels of influence and although we look
at them separately, they are interconnected and the boundaries between them are fluid.

Mesosystem - Interconnections among Exosystem - Distal systems that

two or more Microsystems (e.g. influence the individual indirectly
interactions among family members though their impact on meso- and
and teachers). Expands as Microsystems (e.g. education
individual enters new settings over policies, program components).
time. Impacts individual indirectly
through his/her interactions withi
the microsystem. Macrosystem - Includes the
norms and values of cultures
Microsystem - Activities, roles, and subcultures (belief systems,
relations in a defined setting where ideologies, societal structure,
the individual interacts directly with gender role socialisation, national
others (family, peers, etc.). and international resources, etc.

Individual

Chronosystem - Changes in systems over time via a process of mutual accomodation.

Source: Based on Bronfenbrenner (1989; 2006) https://ici.umn.edu/products/prb/211/default.html

The microsystem forms the inner, most intimate circle of an individual’s relations. This is where a child
interacts daily with his parents, siblings, peers and other people of significance at home, at school, in the
church and neighbourhood.
The mesosystem is where two or more microsystems interact. It may be the family and friends or between
home and school. A child may successfully prepare and learn an oral topic at home, but becomes tongue-
tied as soon as he has to present it in class.
An exosystem, like the mesosystem, involves the linkage between two systems, but now at least one
of the systems does not contain the child. The company where a father is employed, may reward their
managers by paying in part for their children’s studies, thus indirectly affects the child’s further education.
Examples of influences in the exosystem are the religious, educational and transit systems, as well as the
mass media, commerce and industry, and government agencies.
The macrosystem consists of cultural patterns like values, beliefs, customs, and economic and social
systems. These influences filter through in the child’s life on a daily basis. Growing up in a nuclear or
extended-family household is strongly influenced by a culture’s macrosystem.
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UNIT 3 | 67
The chronosystem forms the outer circle and often the individual does not realise the impact of influences
they experience from this system. Here the dimension of how things change or stay the same over time is
added. Changes in the way a family is composed, where they live, or the parents’ employment play a role,
as do larger events such as war and economic change.
How well a child does in school is often the result of influences from the different contextual levels of his/
her life. Inputs from the immediate family or messages children receive from peers and the larger culture
(for example “It is not cool to be smart”), affect their outlook and the way they approach their studies.
Bronfenbrenner is of the opinion that a person’s development is not influenced by his environment only, but
that people can affect their own development through their biological and psychological characteristics,
talents and skills, disabilities and temperament.

3.2 Barriers to learning and the holistic approach to learning support

What is the goal of education? Have you ever asked yourself that question? For educators it is a
fundamental directive as to what they want to accomplish in the classroom. The holistic educator aims
at helping learners be the most that they can be, that is, to reach their potential. This can become quite
a challenge when some barriers obstruct the way to the goals we set for ourselves. Teachers should be
aware of these barriers and educate themselves in how to find the best solutions in lending support to
their learners.
The holistic approach to learning support finds learners, as part of a school-community, to form a diverse
group from different age, gender and cultural backgrounds and with different physical, emotional and
social needs and behaviours. Education with a holistic perspective is concerned with the development of
every learner’s intellectual, emotional, social, physical, artistic, creative and spiritual potentials. Holistic
learning encourages personal and collective responsibility. Rather than defining human possibilities
narrowly, the individual in all his facets is seen as developing and interwoven with others, nature and values
such as compassion and peace. Thus through applying a holistic approach to learning, each individual
gets the opportunity to utilise his education the best he can.
What is learner support, who needs it, and who is responsible for giving support? Learner support is given
to any learner who, for some or other reason, cannot utilise his/her full potential. It may be because of
physical, emotional or social strain, due to any number of factors. A learner in need can get support from a
range of people. Apart from significant others, like parents, peers and teachers from school, professionals
in the medical field - for instance occupational therapists, speech therapist, etc. – as well as the use of
technological aids can be of assistance.
Children have different learning styles, strengths and abilities. Through the holistic approach teachers
support their learners emotionally, socially and academically in the classroom. Thus, in supporting the
diversity of learners, one should address the question of what children need to learn. In tying together all
of the above, a curriculum of studies can be built on the following four needs:

...to face challenges, to ...about

overcome difficulties, and how
to ensure long-term success –
thus resilience.
Learning...
...about self-
respect and self-
esteem
relationships with
others
...about the beauty and
wonder of life and what they
experience around them

68 | UNIT 3
 Holistic education promotes some strategies of how people learn:

Knowledge is constructed by the context in which a person lives. Reflection

Therefore by reflecting on how or where we got the information from;
understanding and evaluating how it all fit into the world we live in,
makes it more personal and easier to accommodate.

Connection The various aspects of life and living are integrated and connected
therefore in the learning process different contexts for example, different
subjects, careers and personality traits may be integrated in a teacher’s
presentation, demonstrating the interdependency between our world
and ourselves. Also, in the world, things are all connected somehow. 3
Children find it easier to learn about things that are meaningful to them. Meaning
It is therefore better to start a topic with something that is familiar to
them.

Community The aspect of community is vital in the learning process, because

it is through our relationship with others that we come to a better
understanding of ourselves. Forbes states: “Frequently people are first
interested in holistic education through the perceptions that we need
to learn to live together much better and that our social ills cannot be
solved without new community building skills. In holistic education
the classroom is often seen as a community, which is within the larger
community of the school, which is within the larger community of
the village, town, or city, and which is, by extension, within the larger
community of humanity” (Forbes, 1996).

But there are times when learners cannot fully participate in their learning, due to change in circumstances,
emotional trauma and a variety of other factors. Anything that may stand in the way of effective learning
can be seen as a barrier to learning. Educators must be fully aware of social, emotional, physical and other
barriers encountered by their learners. Children rarely have only one specific barrier to learning. When
applicable, a combination of two or more obstructions needs to be identified and addressed.
Remember that barriers do not necessarily exist all the time and also that they can arise suddenly. In
categorising types of barriers, we broadly divide them into four groups, namely:

Societal barriers

Systemic barriers

Pedagogical barriers

Medical barriers

Although various factors can play a role and cause a variety of difficulties, for the purpose of this module
a general overview of barriers to learning will be sufficient.

Barriers to learning
All communities are not the same and therefore barriers that exist in the respective communities
may differ. However, corresponding properties of some communities result in distinct societal
barriers. Children may encounter one or more of the following issues:
• Poverty is found to have a widespread impact because of its ripple-effect of consequences.
Extreme poverty results in under-nourished learners whose basic needs, such as nutrition
and shelter, are not met. Not being able to concentrate prevents them from effectively taking
Societal barriers

part in the learning process.

• Lack of access to basic services like transport, for instance, especially in rural areas - where
they live far from an educational centre - makes it difficult for children to go school. If a
child with a chronic illness does not have access to basic medical treatment, it may result in
hospitalisation with the result that he/she miss long periods of school.
• Lack of early intervention programs, often found in poverty-stricken communities, prevents
young children from getting help and stimulation in good time to increase their capability
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to learn.
• Natural disasters, like floods and fires, can cause obstacles for children attending school.
The emotional stress coupled with these barriers may in itself hinder the child to effectively
attend to his studies.

UNIT 3 | 69
 • Epidemics, like the HIV-Aids epidemic, may leave children orphaned and with no one to look
after them. Having to fend for themselves and look after siblings, may cause a child to drop
out of school prematurely.
• Abuse of children – verbally and/or sexually – cause learners to stay out of school frequently
or drop out of school, because of physical and emotional damage.
• Substance abuse by any member of a family causes increased emotional stress. In the event
of a family breakdown some children may leave home and become street children.
• Teenage pregnancy leads to absence from school for a period. Due to unsupportive structures
that make it almost impossible to stay in school and fear of being stigmatised when going
back, a learner may decide to leave school.
• Gender issues in cultural groups and society may expect from girls to fulfil their traditional
role in their community which may exclude the necessity for a school education.
Societal barriers

• The lack of safety in a neighbourhood and at home due to violence and gang intimidations
disrupts learning.
• As opposed to poverty neglect of learners from wealthier households can also cause barriers
to learning.
• Late enrolment of individuals may cause these learners feel alienated from the rest of their
class.
• Attitudes that are negative and harmful lead to labelling gifted learners, learners with
disabilities and children with HIV-Aids.
• Societal barriers have an effect on what happens to learners in a classroom. In poor
communities, educational facilities often offer classrooms that are overcrowded and under-
resourced, and personnel that are inadequately trained. Unaccommodating facilities, for
instance public transport that cannot accommodate a child in a wheelchair, may be the cause
why a learner frequently miss coming to school. Learners missing school for long periods of
time, find it increasingly difficult to re-enter the school system again on the same level than
their age cohorts. Individuals getting labelled because of negative attitudes towards them
may develop a negative self-esteem and not partake in educational activities. Children get
pushed aside by their peers because of negative assumptions and lack of knowledge about
their apparent shortcoming.
In the school system there may be conditions that obstruct the availability of educational
resources and the way to effective learning in class. Problems that contribute to these conditions
are:
• Lack of basic and appropriate learning support materials, like text books
• Lack of assistive devices, for instance, overhead projector, blackboard, etc.
Systemic barriers

• Inadequate facilities at school, for example, no proper rest rooms, playground, etc.
• Overcrowded classrooms
• Lack of mother tongue educators
Learners receiving school education in a second or even third language may face the following
barriers to their learning experience:
• Low expectations of performance and abilities
• Lack of peers from same culture
• Being discriminated against by fellow learners
• Parents that cannot read or write the language of teaching cannot assist the learner with
homework and projects.
Pedagogical barriers have to do with difficulties experienced in the educational material
Pedagogical barriers

and the teaching personnel. As a facilitator of knowledge a teacher should be careful not to
block a child’s learning experience by passing moral judgment on their behaviours or feelings,
stereotype them, or minimise an issue that is of importance to them. Apart from insufficient
support from educators, unfair and irrelevant assessment procedures can cause barriers to
learning. Components in an inflexible curriculum may exclude learners from other cultures,
or children with disabilities, from effective learning in the classroom. Learning styles, tempo
of teaching, content of material, and the management and organisation of the classroom are
some of these components and will be dealt with under the heading of Crossing barriers.

70 | UNIT 3
 We will not go into detail with the last group of barriers. Medical difficulties acting as barriers
to learning are better dealt with by trained professionals in the different fields of specialisation.

Medical barriers
Nonetheless, we do get learners with some medical difficulties in mainstream education.
Some of which may not be aware of these barriers constructing the way to effective learning.
Impairments that pose barriers to a child’s learning may be:
• Sensory disabilities (eg. hearing loss; visual impairment)
• Neurological disabilities
• Physical disabilities
• Cognitive disabilities

The need to crossing the barriers arises. Some

barriers to learning, but not all, are caused by
3
traditional teaching and learning and some barriers
call for a holistic approach as a positive outcome.
Barriers caused by traditional teaching result
in certain learners being marginalised. In a
directive class presentation, children are to listen
to the teacher as the knowledgeable person,
and memorise given facts as set out by a fixed
curriculum. All pupils are to complete a topic
within a given time limit. Learners have no input
in what they learn and how they accumulate
the relevant information. The power lies with
the educator who knows all, judges all, and who
decides what and how the class should learn.
Learners who are emotional traumatised through
what they experienced in or out of the learning
environment, or learners who cannot concentrate
due to physical or emotional reasons, and
learners who missed long periods of schooling
due to unforeseen circumstances, may not keep
up or catch up with the rest of the class.

This may lead to dropping out of school because

of a low self-esteem (think they are not able to
master the material), teasing (others label them as “loser” or “drop-out”), or financial implication (state
pays only till the age of sixteen, or after completion of primary education). The same holds for learners
who have to deal with a language barrier. Traditionally there is not real support for an individual with
learning difficulties or impairments. Often learners as individuals become no more than just a number in
an overcrowded classroom.
Through holistic learner support an effort is made to see to the needs of the child – in what he learns
and how he learns. Most children want to be known, liked, respected, and made to feel part of a group.
Through reflecting on what they are being taught, they get to a better understanding of the self and
community. When learners experience learning or emotional difficulties, additional tuition individually or
in small groups is provided. Sometimes a support team is needed to address various difficulties a learner
may experience. A support team consists of members like for instance the teacher, a remedial teacher, a
parent, and a counsellor.

The teacher, as facilitator of what needs to be learned, is less seen as a person of authority who leads and
controls, but still knows when to be directive. The teacher, as a motivator, is involved with his/her class and
helps children to deal with problems and challenges and thus empower the learner to self-actualisation.
Holistic educators come to class well-prepared and with a clear goal of what is to be accomplished that
day. To give each learner the opportunity to make the best he can from his learning activity, all learning
styles are accommodated.
New learning material is hooked on to what a learner knows about a topic and how he understands its
relevance to the world he knows, thus learning becomes more meaningful. Subject choices balance out
vocational and life skills, and in so doing fully develop the learner’s intellectual and emotional capacities.
Also there is no exclusion from any subject on the grounds of gender, religion or physical disability.
Cooperation is the norm, rather than competition. Each individual gets to work at his own pace ensuring
that no one feels left behind or frustrated because of not moving fast enough. Feedback on progress
is given regularly. Holistic school classrooms are smaller, neat and well-planned with defined areas for
the day’s work. It consists of learners of different ages and abilities. As a small community, children as
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a diverse group of scholars, learn to understand themselves better in interacting and working together,
preparing them for the bigger community outside the walls of the educational institution.

UNIT 3 | 71
3.3 The multidimensional model of human development
Each individual consists of a complex composition of developmental domains, such as physical, spiritual,
and more. As living beings our development is influenced by various conditions, for example, genetics,
life experiences, society and time. Developmental scientists suggest three separate, yet interrelated,
domains, namely the physical, cognitive and psychosocial developmental domains. How we develop as
human beings depends largely on influences such as inborn characteristics, experiences and changes
throughout our lifespan.
In the previous learning outcome, you had to do an exercise on Anne, the girl with a reading problem,
who was sent to various people for help and support. In the process the different domains of Anne’s
development were attended to. The teacher could not really establish a cognitive cause for the problem
and thought that she needs help in the psychosocial domain. Thus Anne was sent to the counsellor (and
then to a psychologist) to see to her emotional health. In the end it was the medical doctor who found a
physical problem (hearing impairment) as the root of her problem.
The domains of development are each separately explained, but they are all interrelated. How they affect
each other, can be illustrated as follows:

Physical
body & brain, health,
sensory & motor skills

Psychosocial Cognitive
learning, memory, language,
personality, emotions,
thinking, moral reasoning,
social relationships
creativity

The physical domain has The word “cognitive” is The psychosocial domain covers a
to do with the physical derived from the Latin word wide area of what can actually be seen
and biological growth “cognescere”, meaning “to as two fields, namely the “psycho”
of the body. Throughout know”. Therefore, the cognitive and the “social” areas. The “psycho”
this process changes domain comprises of mental part has to do with emotions and
occur to the body itself abilities such as reasoning, a person’s personality. The “social”
(e.g. the brain, senses, thinking, memorising, learning, part points to human interaction,
muscles and bones), and and gathering information. It including relationships with parents,
the way a person utilises includes aspects like perception, peers, and others in an individual’s
his body. Babies have to language, intelligence, problem world. According to Papalia et al,
learn how to use their solving and creativity. The “Anxiety about taking a test can impair
legs in walking, thus cognitive development closely performance. Social support can help
developing their motor relates to physical, social children cope with the potentially
skills. Major hormonal and emotional growth. Even negative effects of stress on physical
changes affect the slight hearing loss (physical) and mental health. Conversely, physical
developing sense of self can have a negative effect on and cognitive capacities influence
in an adolescent. Health communication (cognitive), psychosocial development. They
and aging also form part behaviour and social contribute greatly to self-esteem and
of this domain. relationships (psychosocial). can affect social acceptance” (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Bronfenbrenner’s exobiological theory postulates that a range of interacting influences affect a
child’s development either by supporting or stifling it. According to him, development occurs through
increasingly complex processes of regular, active, two-way interaction between a developing child and
the immediate, everyday environment – processes that are affected by more remote contexts of which the
child may not even be aware (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Each person’s experiences of others and
the world around them differ. The development of identical twins may seem similar from the outside, but
on closer investigation we shall find two totally different human beings who even though they may have
had the same experiences, have incorporated it differently. Factors that have an influence on the way a
person interprets his/her experiences and affect their development in totality, are heredity, environment,
maturation and contextual influences.

72 | UNIT 3
 By heredity is meant things inherited from biological parents; the a. Heredity
genes in your DNA. These genes determine the gender and fixed
features of what you look like (colour of hair and eyes, shape of
nose), and your physical development (e.g. height, build). Genes may
also have an influence on a person’s personality and intelligence.

b. Physical environment Another group of factors that has an impact on the development
of a human being are the influences from the physical environment.
Unlike endowed hereditary factors, these influences from the

3
environment are experiential. Each individual incorporates his
experiences in his unique way, which in turn affects his development.
Physical environmental factors relate to things like over-population,
the climate, temperatures not too extreme, availability of food and
oxygen, and the presence of toxic gases in the atmosphere.

The developmental process is influenced greatly by the things individuals c. Maturation

experience over time. These may include changes having an impact on their
health and well-being. If a woman takes drugs or consumes a lot of alcohol
during her pregnancy, the foetus may show ill effects or suffer from Foetal
Alcohol Syndrome. A perfectly healthy person may suffer from brain damage
or be paralysed after a car accident. People may become unemployed during
a recession or lose their homes and/or families during a war or natural disaster.
These physical and contextual changes may all result in emotional distress that
influences their behaviour and affects the way they incorporate their experiences.

d. Contextual The environment also has social factors influencing the development of an
influences individual. In a person’s daily life of work and play, school, church-going,
recreation, and socialising he comes in contact with other people. Contact
with the world outside the self is communicated through social conversation,
education, reading material, and the media. Influences from the social
environment, like sport activities, various art forms, and cultural products
also contribute to how a person is formed. The contextual perspective
sees the individual as inseparable from the social context and according to
Bronfenbrenner a range of expanding social factors plays in on the development
of a child. “For an infant, the immediate context normally is the family; and
the family in turn is subject to the wider and ever-changing influences of the
neighbourhood, community and society” (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).

Let us take a closer look at some these ever-changing influences:

Family
People from different backgrounds have different views on what a family entails. Traditionally in Western
societies the nuclear family was the norm. This would mean that a family consisted of two parents with
their offspring. Today many children may grow up with two households because of their parents being
divorced. In the case of a parent getting married again, that household now also includes a step-parent
and maybe step-siblings. The modern family may consist of single and childless adults, unmarried parents,
or homosexual alliances.
In Africa and other parts of the world the traditional family form is the extended family. This means “a
multi-generational kinship network of grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant relatives”
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). The dynamics of an extended family differ from the nuclear family
in that members are less individualised and share more responsibilities, for example bread-winning
and in raising the young ones. Due to industrialisation resulting in migration to urban areas, people in
the developing countries are fast becoming westernised and the historical form of extended family is
becoming less typical.
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UNIT 3 | 73
Neighbourhood
How and where a child is raised have a great impact on his/her development. Neighbourhoods where most
adults are employed and/or educated, access to good quality of nutrition, schooling, and medical care -
tied with other opportunities – normally leads to positive developmental outcomes. On the other hand,
children in poor neighbourhoods with large numbers of unemployment, low skills-level or education, and
possibly a high crime rate, may lack effective social support. According to Evans poverty is harmful to the
physical, cognitive and psychosocial well-being of children and families. Brooks-Gunn confirms that poor
children are more prone to emotional, behavioural, and cognitive problems, and their school performance
suffers even more. This is not to say that children from more affluent households grow up scot-free of
these developmental outcomes. Luther maintains these children to have high rates of substance abuse,
anxiety, and depression when under pressure to achieve or left on their own because of their parents’
busy lives (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).

Community and society

Although poverty normally has a detrimental effect on a child’s development, the society in which he/she
is raised contributes greatly in how they incorporate these experiences into their lives. Society is what
we call people living in a community. A community constitutes a group of people sharing a religion, race,
and sometimes a profession, living together. How poverty is perceived and acted on by the community
will have an influence on the development of a child. In so happening that parents with good education
becomes unemployed as the result of some occurrence they had no control over, it does not necessarily
mean their children will suffer of physical, behavioural or cognitive harm.
But communities are rarely monotypic and often society
consists of a diversity of people from different cultures. Parke
states that cultural patterns may influence the composition of a
household, its economic and social resources, the way its
members act toward one another, the foods they eat, the games
children play, the way they learn, how well they do in school –
and even the way they think and perceive the world (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006). This suggests that identical twins who
were split up and raised in different cultures may have opposite
world views due to different factors or influences, for example
religion, politics, education, and recreation.
Thus we see the ongoing process of development is affected
by many conditions, like genetics, society and life experiences
through the course of time. Human beings develop in three
interrelated domains, namely the physical, cognitive and
psychosocial domains. With all the influences from the
environment and society combined with the inner domains of
a self, the composition of needs and outcomes of each person
differs from another.

3.4 The medical and social model of disabilities and learner support

ADHD Hereditary
(Attention Deficit Cancer
fructose
Hyperactivity intolerance
Disorder) Personality AIDS
Anxiety disorders / HIV
Sleeping Possible invisible disorder
disorders disabilities learners may
suffer from: Diabetes Depression

Epilepsy Fibromyalgia
Visual /
Hypoglycaemia hearing disability or
Dyslexia Chronic impairment
Food pain
allergies Colour Autism
blindness

74 | UNIT 3
 The medical and social models differ in their outlook on disabilities in that the medical model views a
disability as the problem of the disabled individual alone while the social model suggests that society is
the cause of people being regarded as disabled. There are two sides to disability, namely people who are
clearly handicapped and have to make use of certain aids, and the invisible disabilities that sometimes
go unnoticed by others. Inclusive education takes care of seeing to the needs of learners with disabilities
and to support them effectively.
What constitutes a disability? Disability can be defined as a physical or mental condition that limits a
person’s movements, senses, or activities. If a person carries a white cane, or is in a wheel chair, or has
obvious signs of Down’s syndrome, we can respectively identify them as having disabilities of visual
impairment, physical impairment, or mental retardation. However, a vast number of disabilities are
invisible at first sight, for instance learning difficulties and some chronic illnesses. Individuals with learning
disabilities for instance can effectively participate in non-academic activities without being labelled as
“disabled”. Also a visual impairment for example, can be seen as an invisible disability when the person
3
is colour blind or is wearing lenses. Chronic pain can be caused by a variety of conditions, such as back
problems, bone disease, or physical injuries, and may not be noticeable at the first glance. Inner ear
problems may cause chronic dizziness leading to impairment when walking, sleeping or doing some
common tasks. Many people living with an invisible physical or mental disability are still able to effectively
carry on with everyday life and be active in their work, sports, and hobbies.

Medical Model Social Model

The medical model views disability as a difficulty
experienced by the individual involved. They see
disability as the result of a physical condition
which is a part of the individual’s own body.
The disability causes clear disadvantages to the
individual and reduces their quality of life. It is the
role of the medical professional to diagnose the
problem by analysis of symptoms and then decide
on a method of treatment. This approach creates
the impression that a person with a disability is not
normal and that both the person and the course
of the condition should be altered. The role of
society according to the medical model is to invest
resources in health care and related services so
as to assist people with disabilities to improved
functionality and a more “normal” life.
The social model came into existence in reaction
to discrimination practices faced by people with
disabilities. It views a mean society as the main
contributory factor in disabling people through
systemic barriers, negative attitudes and exclusion
from “normal” activities. They maintain that even
when physical, sensory, intellectual or psychological
factors cause impairment or functional limitation
to an individual these do not necessarily suggest
a disability. People are actually disabled when
they are excluded from involvement in public
life activities on the grounds of their impairment
or illness. A person can be identified as disabled
by the medical model when in a wheel chair. The
social model however does not view the wheel
chair as the disabling factor, but instead see the
lack of user-friendly access to places of concern as
the disabling barrier. The picture below shows that
according to the medical model the wheel chair is
the problem when encountering a flight of stairs.
On the other hand, according to the social model,
the steps (as a barrier imposed by an inconsiderate
society) cause a person being viewed as disabled.

Model

Social Medical

Barrier Problem

Learner support to disabled learners:

The medical approach to disability is to “fix” the problem as best as possible. The rest is up to the
individual himself. A professional practitioner can prescribe glasses for a visual impairment, a hearing aid
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for someone who is hard of hearing, or medication to control symptoms of a disorder or chronic condition
of illness. However, how the disabled person partakes in public life is entirely up to him. The social model
suggests a society who tends to the needs of the disabled. Inclusive education strives to accommodate
learners with disabilities who can benefit from being part of mainstream schooling.

UNIT 3 | 75
Educational institutions that provide learning support tend to the specific needs of their scholars.
Support in mainstream facilities may be in the form of assistant teachers in the classroom, extra time for
written work or during examination, extra tuition, adapted learning material, technical aids (e.g. using a
computer), and counselling services. The teacher may assist a child with a visual impairment by handing
them notes with a bigger print, or a PowerPoint printout of a planned lesson to a dyslexic learner. In the
planning of non-academic activities learners with disabilities can be asked for suggestions on how they
can be accommodated. However, the needs of learners who are physically or mentally incapacitated call
for support from specialised institutions.
Sometimes learners with invisible disabilities, for example children with ADHD, may be perceived as
attention-seeking or looking for special favours. A learner with chronic pain or some kind of sleep disorder
may be accused of imagining or faking their disabilities. More than often children with invisible disabilities
look like everyone else and they walk, run, and participate in sports in the same ways their peers do. Thus,
a learner showing no visible impairment, but who cannot keep up academically may be perceived as
being lazy in the classroom. An educator should be aware of possible disabling factors that can influence
a learner’s performance in class.
Some schools have programmes where a team consisting for example of the class teacher, a remedial
teacher and a counsellor, supports the child with a learner disability.

Support for inv

isible disabilities:

Teachers can support learners with invisible disabilities in the following ways:
Attend to the specific needs of the learner with a disability
Do not force them to talk about the disability if they do not want to share it with
someone
Ask if and how you can assist in helping them
Learn about their specific type of learning disability
Know the child’s skill levels and keep work demands at and
just above this level. This will keep them challenged without
reaching the frustrating, shut-down stage. This also will help
in evaluating the child’s effort realistically.

3.5 “Motivation is the first step in learning”

Motivation can be defined as the force that compels us to action. It influences our
behaviour and our ability to accomplish goals. There are basically two main ‘forces that
compel’ someone to take action: intrinsic motivation where emotional needs for outcomes
such as power, success, love, attention, and so forth play a role, and extrinsic motivation
where the need for rewards, such as better clothing, housing, position, etc. drive one to
do better. You learn best when you are convinced of the need for knowing the information
– being it to survive, excel or for new directions in life.
The level of motivation often determines the degree of success in learning. The need to
be successful is a huge motivator. Some learners are motivated to learn because of their
interest in the subject and the satisfaction of getting to know more about it. Others are
motivated to perform well and get a good grade. It is important that teachers should try
to convince their students that learning rather than grades are the purpose of academic
work. This can be done by emphasising the interest value and practical importance of the
material that the students are studying and by de-emphasising grades and other rewards.
Often the mastery over information or a skill can change the external motivation of maybe getting a
trophy or being admitted to a prestigious educational institution to an internal motivation of learning
because of the enjoyment of a sport or the satisfaction of knowing more about the topic of interest.
Having no interest in the subject or activity and seeing no sense in becoming more knowledgeable or
skilled leave little room for motivation. Therefore, the teacher needs to figure out what motivate the
learners and then use that angle to lure them into the course. Once learning becomes meaningful to them
they will become motivated.

76 | UNIT 3
 3.6 The neuroscience of motivation
In understanding motivation, we have to understand how the brain has evolved to detect biologically most
noticeable stimuli and to respond with the best-fit action. Neuroscientific research illustrates that a set
of hard-wired neural systems motivate avoidance and approach to stimuli (Mobbs & McFarland, 2010). In
its core motivation systems manifest as approaching (in the form of exploration associated with reward
processes) or avoiding (when a threat of some form activates a set of distinct neural systems resulting in
defensive avoidance). In neuroscience rewards typically are placed into a primary category (e.g. food) and
secondary rewards (e.g. money). “Wanting” is seen as the motivational drive to pursue a potential reward.
At the basic level of primary rewards, physiological needs like food activate the brain rewards circuitry.
The need of safety – as proposed by Maslow’s hierarchy – can activate the reward circuity during the
avoidance of punishment. Thus to escape punishment in itself can be rewarding. At the highest level of
the hierarchy of needs are cognitive rewards such as curiosity and the desire for knowledge (Mobbs &
3
McFarland, 2010). (More about Maslow’s motivational theory based on needs is discussed in learning
outcome 3.11.) People can have expectations that motivate them to act and when these are blocked, they
get frustrated and demotivated, resulting in avoidance of further involvement.

In most popular video games players’ moves are incorrect up to 80% of the time when they are playing
at the appropriately challenging level, yet they persevere and use the feedback to adjust their play. This
is the result of intrinsic motivation stimulated by the reward system of the brain. Increased levels of
dopamine being released result in the experiences of pleasure, reduced stress, increased motivation and
perseverance. Two of the most powerful activators of dopamine release are in response to accurate
prediction or achieved challenge by the player.
(Wills, 2014)

In the classroom expectations are frequently blocked by boredom and frustration. Boredom can come
from lessons that have little personal relevance and from instruction and drills of skills learners have
already mastered. Frustration can result when a learner does not understand the instruction and feel
incapable to succeed or to access the support needed to succeed. When stressed, the brain interprets the
stimuli as a threat reacting with the primitive fight, flight or freeze response of survival. These involuntary
reactions to stress can manifest as “acting out” or “zoning out” and learning becomes almost impossible.
Failure to be able to remember what they have learnt, cause learners to lose confidence that the efforts
they applied to the study will have positive results. Feeling unable to succeed they become even more
demotivated and spiral further into effort withdrawal and school alienation.

3.7 Signs of high motivation in learners

affects cognitive
directs processes such as
behaviour toward paying attention and the
particular goals, such as when processing of learning
a learner has to decide on choice material
of subject or whether to spend an leads to
evening on a challenging homework increased effort and
assignment or playing videogames energy and determines
with friends whether they pursue a
task enthusiastically and
wholeheartedly or carelessly

Motivation
increases initiation of
and persistence in activities
that they actually want to do determines which
– affecting their learning and consequences are
achievement reinforcing and punishing.
often Consequences of their efforts put
enhances into something of their interest,
performance. Learners such as making the team or
who are most motivated to achieving academic success may
learn and excel in and outside be highly important
the classroom tend to be the
highest achievers
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UNIT 3 | 77
Motivation to do something can come about in many ways. It can be part of one’s personality makeup
or a stable long-standing interest in something. How motivated a learner is often reflects in their striving
for success and goal orientation. Motivation in a learner can be seen in his/her personal investment and
in cognitive, emotional and behavioural engagement in school activities. While virtually all learners are
motivated in one way or another, they are not motivated by the same interests. Some may have a keen
interest in the subject matter presented in the classroom, participate actively in class discussions and
earn high marks on assigned projects. Others may be more concerned with the social side of school,
interacting with classmates frequently and attending extracurricular activities regularly or they may excel
in sport and physical educational classes. There may also be the learner who is motivated to avoid all
forms of academics, social situations or athletic activities.

Motivation determines the specific goals learners set for themselves and how their behaviour is directed
accordingly. It affects the choices they make such as between video games or school assignments.
Motivation energises, directs and sustains behaviour. It gets learners moving, points them in a particular
direction and keeps them going. Signs of high motivation in learners are reflected through their:
• close attention in class
• eagerness to participate whenever they can
• interest they show in the learning material
• enthusiasm about an assignment
• willingness to accept a challenge, take risks and make errors
• belief that you have the control over the outcomes of your efforts
• goals, such as when planning a career

3.8 Behaviour motivation theory and how it can be applied in the classroom
Behaviour motivation theory rests on the behavioural learning theories of B.F. Skinner and focuses on the
reinforcement of desired behaviour through the use of extrinsic rewards. The motivation for behaviour
modification therefore is the result of effective reinforces and manifests through observable behaviour, not
internal psychological processes. The following approaches may be seen as affecting people’s behaviour
- encouraging them to strive for positive outcomes and avoid negative outcomes:

Positive reinforcement Punishment Extinction Negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement Punishment, for As opposed to Negative reinforcement
such as praise and example, when punishment that applies occurs, for example,
recognition motivates reprimanded, may a negative event to the when learners are
a person to repeat the stop the behaviour behaviour – extinction scolded for being late
behaviour. but in itself it does not withdraws a positive for class and they try to
motivate a change of event, e.g. when the “escape” the negative
behaviour direction. class is encouraged not event by showing up
to laugh at a disruptive for class on time in the
learner’s behaviour. future.
Accepting the idea that behaviours that have been rewarded in the past will be more likely repeated in
the future, it can be expected that past experiences will motivate a learner to perform in future ones.
People may even adjust their behaviours when they observe the consequences for others’ actions. They
may identify with or imitate someone (live models or from books or movies) demonstrating interest and
enthusiasm in a field and becoming successful as a result of their commitment.

78 | UNIT 3
 Critics of behavioural views of motivation are of the opinion that reinforcing practices cause learners to
focus more on rewards than on learning. The excessive use of extrinsic forms of motivation such as praise
and rewards may undermine intrinsic motivation in learners if they – more than increasing their own
competence – want to please the teacher or avoid punishment. Critics also point out that using extrinsic
forms of rewards for more than correct or desired responses only may send learners the wrong message
about learning. They feel that an incomplete explanation for motivation is provided because behavioural
approaches treat motivation and learning as identical.
Nevertheless, the use of rewards can increase intrinsic motivation in learners if they enhance competence.
When teachers stimulate a learning-focused instead of performance-focused environment in their
classrooms, learners are more motivated to learn. They then select the option of becoming more
knowledgeable about a topic because they want to, not just because someone else expects them to
study. When learning is valued for its own sake motivation becomes intrinsic. 3
3.9 Cognitive motivation theory and how it can be applied in the classroom
Cognitive theories of motivation emphasise intrinsic motivation and focus on learners’ beliefs, expectations
and need for order and understanding. The cognitive theories of motivation include the Expectancy
theory and the Goal-Setting theory. The Expectancy theory of motivation explains why an individual
prefers certain options, and how the way learners pay attention and try to understand learning material
instead of just memorising it in a parrot-like manner, is affected by motivation. Facing a problem causes
learners to recognise gaps in their thinking which they will want to fill by solving the problem. Their
beliefs about the capability of completing specific tasks motivate learners to accept a challenge and to
persevere. The Goal-Setting theory of motivation states the importance of creating goals in motivating a
person. This theory, which was proposed by Edwin Locke in the 1960s, explains that task performance is
influenced by goal setting. Poor task performance may result from easy or vague goals whereas specific
and challenging goals will more likely motivate learners and lead to the better execution of a task.
Motivation determines the specific goals towards which learners strive and affects the choices they make,
such as whether to enrol in an art class or physics or whether to attend the school’s rugby final game or
complete the assignment that is due the next day.

Goal-setting should be :
SMART in its application

Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Realistic
Time-bound

Learners bring a variety of goals into the classroom, such as learning goals and performance goals.
As with the behavioural motivation theory, where a learning-focused environment is preferred to
performance-based, intrinsic motivation prevails more with learning-focused goals that lead to more
sustained motivation and higher achievement than is the case with performance-focused goals.

Teachers can apply the cognitive motivation theories in the classroom and increase motivation for
learning by:

A Focusing on the learners’ B Helping learners set and

beliefs, expectations and monitor challenging
their needs for order and but attainable goals to
understanding of increase their beliefs
their experiences about their capabilities
of accomplishing
specific tasks
Providing instructions
that take learners’ prior
knowledge into account Frequent C
assessment
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and opportunities for

learners to repeatedly together with detailed
perform similar, but not D feedback to help learners
identical tasks. understand their performances
and how to improve

UNIT 3 | 79
 ADDITIONAL READING

Strategies that teachers can apply in assisting underachievers can be found under the heading
Cognitive interventions p 362 in Handbook of youth counselling by Van Niekerk & Hay. [Reference in
IOL centre]

3.10 Humanistic motivation theory and how it can be applied in the classroom
People want to fulfil their total potential as human beings and this is the premise upon which the humanistic
view of motivation is based. The Humanistic approach focuses on the development of the whole person
and examine the relationships among physical, emotional, intellectual and aesthetic needs. Two prominent
psychologists in the field of the humanistic approach were Abraham Maslow, who stressed the focus on
the positive qualities of people, and Carl Rogers, one of the founders of the humanistic approach. Rogers
emphasised the importance of unconditional positive regard in the pursuit of becoming self-actualised.
Self-actualisation – where the individual has reached the fulfilment of most of all human needs – is also
at the peak of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (Refer to learning outcome 3.11 for more on Maslow’s needs.)
Maslow’s hierarchy, beginning with survival and safety needs, progressing through belonging and esteem
needs, and ending with intellectual and aesthetic needs, reflects the “whole person” that is central to
humanistic views of motivation.
Because people’s personal, social and emotional needs precede their intellectual needs, it is essential
that educators treat the learners in their classroom as people with individual needs. As soon as a teacher
relates to learners with unconditional positive regard, they start to separate their behaviours from their
intrinsic worth. Humanistic views of motivation encourage a positive classroom climate and a caring
teacher-learner relationship. Creating a safe and orderly learning environment in the classroom motivates
learners to believe they can learn and that they are expected to do so.

3.11 Maslow’s motivation theory based on needs

SELF-
ACTUALISATION
pursue Inner Talent
Creativity, Fulfillment

SELF-ESTEEM
Acievement, Mastery, Recognition,
Respect

BELONGING - LOVE
Friends, Family, Spouse, Lover

SAFETY
Security, Stability, Freedom from Fear

PHYSIOLOGICAL
Food, Water, Shelter, Warmth

Abraham Maslow, a follower of the Humanistic view, had his own ideas on understanding
the human mind and called his new discipline humanistic psychology. He suggested
that people are motivated by their individual needs to accomplish natural concerns
affecting their lives. These concerns – internal to an individual – can be ranked
hierarchically in terms of importance:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - Source: Robie Benve

80 | UNIT 3
 Physiological needs are the most basic human
needs such as hunger, thirst, and shelter. Safety needs
refer to the desire to find a safe and secure physical environment.
Belongingness needs allude to an individual’s desire to be accepted by his
peers, while esteem needs refer to the desire to have a positive self-image and
to receive recognition from others. Self-actualization needs are at the top of the
pyramid and represent the concern for the development of full individual
potential.

3
(Brennen, n.d.)

People are motivated to do something that can satisfy

their basic needs as to have a reasonable good life. As each
need, in succession is met or satisfied substantially, it no
longer motivates, and the next need becomes dominant
(Mobbs & McFarland, 2010). Therefore, in the educational
setting, learners will be led to seek development of self-
esteem and self-actualisation once their basic needs for
food and shelter, safety and belongingness have been
satisfied. In the classroom for learners to satisfy some basic
needs they need a climate of fairness, honesty and the
freedom to investigate and learn. At the highest level of the
hierarchy of needs are cognitive rewards such as curiosity
and a desire for knowledge (Mobbs & McFarland, 2010).
One limitation of Maslow’s theory is that, although teachers
may be in a key position of creating stimulating learning
environments, they may not know which of the basic
needs of a learner are not satisfied. Even if they know, they
might not be able to fill that need. One way of bridging the
way to enhance a learner’s self-esteem is by creating a classroom environment that will increase learners’
achievement through an attitude of intrinsic motivation.

3.12 Intrinsic motivation characteristics and how to develop it

Where extrinsic motivation refers to motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end, intrinsic
motivation is the wanting to get involved in an activity for the sake of the activity itself. Many aspects
determine whether a person is high in both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, or low in both, or high in one
and low in the other. Motivation can change over time and how motivated a person is also depends on the
context they find themselves in. Praising a learner’s ability and hard work seems to be effective to develop
intrinsic motivation. When they are interested in the work itself they tend to do better than when they
merely seek grades or the approval of their parents (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Also finding the
academic activities worthwhile can encourage learners to get the intended learning benefits from them.
Other sources of intrinsic motivation include challenge, control, curiosity, fantasy and aesthetic value.
Strategies to enhance intrinsic motivation in learners need to be applied individually and changed
frequently to keep them from becoming ineffective through over use. Following are a few strategies from
a list proposed by Theroux as can be found at http://www.davidsongifted.org/db/Articles_id_10648.aspx:
• Assignments should not be too easy. Learners need to be challenged with intellectual risks to give
them the opportunity to discover the relationship between effort, success and motivation.
• If learners have the opportunity to build on their strengths first, they get to improve others skills
as they grow in confidence and competence.
• Learners that are offered different choices learn to value their own decision-making ability which
fosters responsibility and the acceptance of ownership and control of the results.
• It is essential for a learner to deal with failure in order to develop motivation and successful
learning. This can be done by providing him/her a secure environment where they are permitted
to fail without fear or penalty.
• Learners can be taught how to make their tasks more manageable by breaking it down into
smaller parts and prioritising the steps.
• As soon as learners feel they no longer have personal control it has a negative influence on their
intrinsic motivation. Rewards (and punishment) should therefore be used with caution.
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• Help learners develop an internal locus of control where they believe that their success is the
result of their own work and not by outside influences.

UNIT 3 | 81
3.13 How motivation of boys and girls differ
Generally, boys and girls seem to have different preferences to what type of learning material motivate
them. Context enhances learning for most girls, but often just bores the boys. While the interest of boys
can be stimulated by focussing on the properties of numbers, girls want to know how it relates to the real
world. Differences between gender motivations in specific domains tend to show boys more centred on
math (including e.g. economics and technology), science and sports, while the verbal areas (language
arts) are more seen as a female interest. In the field of social studies, history seems to be more an interest
of girls. Boys show more motivation in tasks, as well as higher levels of performance goals. Differences in
reading preferences are more because of different individual interests than based on a gender variety of
preferences. Fundamental differences in the factors motivating girls versus the factors motivating boys
consistently show girls are more concerned with pleasing parents and teachers than boys. Most boys, on
the other hand, are more motivated to study if they find the material itself interesting enough.

However, one must be careful in drawing conclusions about gender differences in motivation. Even where
these differences often are observed, in general they tend to be relatively small. Increased interest in both
boys and girls were found where teachers break away from traditional teaching methods and textbook-
based teaching practices, and instead create a more interactive and learner-oriented classroom. Learners’
motivation benefits in an environment where they are given the opportunity to debate, organise, problem
solve through critical thinking and work cooperatively with subject content.
To accommodate both boys and girls a classroom with alternating and balanced focuses of study and
evaluation methods should motivate all learners. In these conditions all learners can be motivated, gaining
interest at times, challenging their skills at times and helping them to feel self-efficacious at times.

3.14 The principles for planning learner support programmes

Learners with learning disabilities often find it hard to keep up with what is expected from them in
mainstream education. Inclusive education maintains that as the school can be seen as a community
within a larger community, it is beneficial for disabled children to stay in mainstream schooling if possible.
Thus, when a scholar with learning difficulties is identified as eligible for special educational services, a
support group is put together to assist the child in his/her learning process. The support group normally
consists of the learner’s parents, teacher and people knowledgeable of the specific difficulties the child
experiences. They create a plan uniquely put together to comply with the special needs of the child. In
planning a learner support programme certain principles have to be kept in mind, for example who should
be involved and what procedure should be followed in developing the programme.

Special educational services

Once it was established that a learner is eligible for special education services, who is to provide these
services? Inclusive education suggests learners with disabilities can be supported through collaboration
with the child’s primary custodians (normally the parents), and a number of whole school structures and
classroom-based approaches.

82 | UNIT 3
 Parents
The parent, or sometimes it may be a guardian or carer, is the primary source of knowledge about the
learner. Involving the family in a child’s learning process may promote communication and establish
positive relationships. Sometimes it may happen that the request for a child being evaluated and assisted
is initiated by the parents.

Classroom teacher
Teachers are responsible for planning and implementing the curriculum for their learners. Within the

3
classroom environment they aim to meet the needs and goals of all the learners. When a child is in need
of special education services, the teacher, together with the parent and education professionals, develop
criteria for agreed understandings about a learner’s behaviours, needs, communication skills, learning
styles and preferences.

Whole school structure

Learning plan
An inclusive approach to education incorporates the belief that all scholars can learn and progress and
that there should be a collaborative relationship between the learner, family, school and the community.
For learners with disabilities the school identify key concepts from the learning focus of the whole school
plan. Relevant skills, behaviours, and knowledge are identified for setting goals and developing a learning
plan as to provide alternative learning pathways for the achievement on the relevant domain.

Learning environment
Positive learning environments promote social inclusion and participation in school activities. An evaluation
of the general layout of the school and classroom settings may result in modifications to ensure a person
with a disability access and to provide learning opportunities equal to their classmates.

Learning support
In lending support to a learner with disabilities, the school forms a collaborative partnership with the
child and his/her parents to form a support group. Staff from the school may for instance include the
class teacher, a remedial teacher, and a counsellor, who then together with the rest of the group develop
a learner support programme. The purpose of the programme is to develop a pathway plan for the
educational progress of the learner. Together with the classroom teachers an assessment is made of what
achievements are required of the learner and together they formulate short-term and long-term goals for
the accomplishment thereof.
a. Who should be involved in the planning of a learner support programme?
Apart from the special educational services provided in the school environment, the expertise of
medical practitioners (physical and mental) and others is called upon in formulating a learning
program for an individual with learning disabilities. As a team they form the program support
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group (PSG) which plans and develops a support program for the learner. They may include the
following members:

UNIT 3 | 83
 Parents/care givers/guardians of
child with disability

Not less than one regular education teacher (if the child is
attending mainstream education)

Not less than one special education teacher or special education

provider (for example remedial teacher, counsellor)

Special education administrator

At discretion of parents, other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise

regarding the child (for example the child’s medical practitioner, psychologist, etc.)

When appropriate, the learner

with a disability

Duties of the special education administrator may include: The parents and class teacher
are the persons closest to the
• Working with the program support group in planning
child. They probably know best
the meeting, developing the agenda, and identifying
what the needs and skills of the
desired outcomes
learner are. Special education
• Managing the agenda and the time clock for the teachers know how a child
meeting; adapting as needed with specific disabilities can
• Listening to participants, clarifying and summarising, be assisted. Experts who have
connecting and organising themes knowledge about the disabilities
• Understanding and clearly communicating tasks of the individual provide the
information of the child in
• Managing the group process and keeping the group
relation to his disability. The
focused
special education administrator
• Asking appropriate questions makes decisions about the
• Ensuring that the thoughts of all participants are course of the programme based
heard, and that no one individual dominates on information provided by the
• Building rapport multiple sources mentioned
above and other administrators,
• Managing conflict
the school board and
• Working with other administrators and educational community organisations.
institutions, analyse the process and report back to
participants.
b. What should be considered in the planning of a learner support programme?
After the key participants are identified, a learner support team is assembled. Time is set aside
to meet and they share their knowledge and information on the skills level and needs of the child
and how he/she is to achieve the standards as set by the curriculum. In drawing on the available
information, strengths and weaknesses are identified. Decisions are made about priorities on
which aspects to concentrate their support. The members formulate objectives for the support
programme for the individual with disabilities and develop an action plan. In planning the learner
support programme certain principles are to be kept in mind:

Members of the support group are to be in a close living or working relationship with the
learners, or have specialised knowledge about the individuals and their specific disabilities.

The learners’ skills, needs, and learning

styles are to be kept in mind.

In formulating short-term and long-term goals for the development of the learners’
social, academic and life skills, expectations of learners and parents are considered.

The programme is confluent with

the whole school curriculum.

The programme process provides structures ensuring that the learners

with disabilities are not excluded from the classroom curriculum.

The learning plans provide a pathway for learners

to accomplish the expected achievements.

84 | UNIT 3
 The programme has to be flexible and to be reviewed if
necessary in accordance with the needs of the learners

Learners are recognised as valued individuals and their self-determination

and positive growth are promoted.

Ethical conduct includes confidentiality of sensitive issues and medical records; and
complying with privacy of learners and their families.

Regular meetings are to be scheduled for the team members to report back on the progress
of the program, to review the program and to adjust the program if necessary.

Some programmes are designed exclusively for the support of an identified learner with disabilities
3
and is called the Individual Education Plan (IEP). The features and steps of the IEP are dealt with
in the next learner outcome 3.15.

3.15 The features and steps of the individualised model (IEP) of learner support
Learners with disabilities have special needs. If a child in mainstream education is identified as a candidate
for special education services, it may result in the forming of a support group comprised by the persons
who live in close contact with the learner and/or have knowledge of the child and the specific disability.
This support group as a team draws up a plan of action to support the learner in his coping and learning
skills. They formulate long-term and short-term goals so as to evaluate the child’s involvement and
learning progress in the general curriculum. Each learner support program is uniquely shaped around the
needs and circumstances of an individual and is known as the individualised education program (IEP).
The IEP’s are characteristically compiled by a knowledgeable team formulating a plan of action for the
learner with disabilities. The implementation of the plan progresses consecutively according to steps laid
out in the writing of the IEP.

The writing of an IEP takes time as all relevant information has to be gathered and put together in compiling
a plan that will benefit the learner. The participants share their experiences and knowledge of the child
and the specified disability. In designing an IEP the support group - generally the special education
administrator – makes sure that the program abides to the requirements as set by the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
a. What is an IEP?
An IEP can be defined as follows: “An individualised education program (“IEP”) is the process put
in place under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (“IDEA”) to determine the programs
and services that should be provided to meet the education needs of a child with disabilities. An
IEP must be developed to address a child’s specific and unique needs and is not a “one size fits
all” program” (Procter, 2011:1).
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UNIT 3 | 85
 b. What are the basic requirements for an IEP?
According to Goodwin Procter the IEP of an individual should include the following particulars
(Procter, 2011):
›› A description of the learner’s current status in school in the areas of -
»» Physical ability
»» Behaviour
»» Cognitive skills
»» Emotional behaviour
»» Linguistic ability
»» Social skills;
›› An annual meeting to discuss the learner’s needs and progress, unless it is determined that
changes to the program is necessary;
›› Based on the meeting(s) a written plan is developed which detail the –
»» Measurable annual academic and functional goals for the learner
»» Appropriate instructional setting or placement for the learner (including a particular
school class or classroom setting)
»» Related support services, such as developmental, corrective or supportive services,
necessary for the learner
»» Details of how such services (mentioned above) will be provided (i.e. amount, duration,
learner to provider ratio, and qualifications of provider)
»» Any accommodations the learner will receive for testing or other assessments
»» A transition plan (if the learner is to change schools)
»» Any other pertinent items, such as a particular curriculum or methodology to be
utilised;
›› A summary of how the learner’s participation in the general curriculum is affected by the
disability, and how he/she will be involved in the general curriculum, extracurricular and non-
academic activities and with children with and without disabilities;
›› How members of the support team will be regularly informed of the learner’s progress;
›› The learner’s participation in country-wide assessments of learner achievement and any
necessary modifications or accommodations;
›› Transitions services to be provided for the learner after turning 16 years of age;
›› How – if appropriate- the learner’s need for assistive technology or any specific teaching
methods or particular class subjects will be met.

In complying with the IEP requirements a structured programme and truly individualised document are
designed. It is important that each member of the support team pools their knowledge, experience,
and commitment in implementing the IEP to assure quality education for the learner with a disability.
To accomplish this certain steps of the individualised model (IEP) of learner support are implemented.
The IEP for a learner with disabilities is written after the child was identified as eligible for special education
services. But the process of the individualised model starts earlier when the request is made for a special
education eligibility evaluation. The steps for the IEP introduced in this module are adapted from the
example as presented by Goodwin Procter (Procter, 2011). The process as it develops can be illustrated
as follows:

Request a special
eligibility initial IEP monitoring
education eligibility re-evaluation
evaluation meeting progress
evaluation

a. Request a special education eligibility evaluation

If a learner is believed to have difficulty in school a formal request can be made for the child to
have a special education evaluation. The request can be initiated by the parent, the school or even
a medical practitioner. The evaluation can be arranged by the school or the special education
administrator, or a private evaluation by a medical practitioner can be requested. The parents’
consent is necessary for an evaluation to be conducted.

86 | UNIT 3
 b. Eligibility evaluation
It is helpful to gather all relevant information prior to the evaluation, for example school and
medical records of the learner. The evaluation should be completed within 60 days of the request
and parents’ consent.

Assessment of the learner’s characteristics includes:

›› General intelligence
›› Reading comprehension
›› Psychological states
››
››
Social development
Physical abilities
3
›› Interfering behaviours
All persons concerned, for example the parents and class teacher, are given an explanation of the
tests and the learner’s results.
In compiling all relevant and informative particulars the following documents and information are
included:
›› Reports from teachers and parents
›› Evaluations by experts
›› Letters from the counsellor and/or psychologist, and/or learner’s doctor
›› Evidence of school performance
›› Prior assessments and evaluations
›› A conclusion regarding learner’s eligibility for special education and a recommendation of
how to meet the individual’s needs
c. Initial IEP meeting
The school normally schedules and conducts the IEP meeting. The meeting is scheduled at a time
and place agreeable to the parents and the school. A staff member from the school, such as the
principle, class teacher or counsellor, contacts the participants of the support group. The parents
in particular are informed of the time, location and purpose of the meeting, who will be attending,
and that they may invite people to the meeting who have knowledge or special expertise about
the learner.
Ideally all members of the support team attend the meeting. All documents of school and medical
reports, assessments and research done, and correspondence are filed together with the learning
support plan. During the meeting concerns are voiced and notes are taken. The initial IEP meeting
results in a written learning support plan that is to be approved by all the members of the team.

Sections of the IEP include:

›› The present levels of performance
›› Annual goals
›› Specifics on special education and related services
›› Participation with non-disabled learners
›› Accommodations and alternative assessments
›› Educational progress
A copy of the IEP is given to the parents and the school makes sure that the learner’s IEP is being
carried out as it was written. Each of the members of the support team has access to the IEP
and knows their specific responsibilities for the implementation thereof. This includes the support,
accommodations and modifications that must be provided to the learner. If the members are not
in agreement a letter of rejection can be handed in at the school proposing a re-evaluation or
modification of the initial support plan. Should the members be in agreement, the IEP
starts promptly.
d. Monitoring progress
A meeting is held at least once a year to update a learner’s IEP. If there is need for an IEP to be
updated sooner or there are special issues to be addressed, more frequent meetings can be
arranged. Progress toward the annual goals, as stated in the IEP, is measured by reviewing the
work done by the learner and identifying areas where he is excelling or struggling. The parents
are regularly informed of the child’s progress and whether the progress is enough for the learner
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to achieve the goals by the end of the year. If necessary, additional testing is done and the IEP is
revised following the same meeting procedures as during the initial meeting.

UNIT 3 | 87
 e. Re-evaluations
According to the US department of education a child is to be re-evaluated at least every three
years. This evaluation is often called a ‘triennial’. Its purpose is to find out if the child continues
to be a child with a disability, as defined by IDEA, and what the child’s educational needs are.
However, the child must be re-evaluated more often if there is a change in conditions or if a
re-evaluation is requested by the learner’s parents or teacher. In the case of the parents being
dissatisfied with the practice of the school, they may request a private evaluation.

SUMMARY Inclusive education strives to approach the learner in its totality and
therefore not to exclude anyone that does not apparently fit into the
norm. Each individual is seen as a complex being, developing, according
to Bronfenbrenner, within an expanding range of interactional systems
from close relations with family and friends to wider experiences and
changes throughout his lifespan. These contextual indexes greatly
influence the development of the individual as a physical, psychosocial
and cognitive being. Given all the different combination of influences
on a person’s life, it becomes clear that each individual is unique and
constantly developing. Often a child’s learning is hindered by barriers of
societal, systemic, pedagogic, or medical origin. The holistic approach to
overcoming barriers is to integrate expertise and available structures in
supporting learners in their learning experience.
The social model of disabilities proposes society being the cause of
people seen as disabled in that they exclude them from what is seen
as normal public activities. Inclusive education provides for learners
with difficulties to stay in mainstream schooling through individualised
support programmes. The lack of motivation is a barrier to optimised
learning. Where there is no reward to pursue, there often is no drive to
accomplish a task. Intrinsic motivation that compels a person to action
include the fulfilling of emotional needs such as success, love and
attention, while the focus of extrinsic motivation is more on outcomes
such as physical comfort and the drive to do better. According to
Maslow’s motivational theory based on needs, learners may strive for self-
actualisation once their basic needs for food and a safe family home are
met. In the classroom expectations frequently are blocked by boredom
and frustration, and feelings of being incapable of success cause a learner
to become even more demotivated so that eventually they may withdraw
from all school activities.
However, the other side of the coin presents learners who are intrinsically
motivated to be successful in their learning environment. In learning
outcomes 3.8 to 3.10 the behaviour, cognitive and humanistic motivation
theories are examined and ways in which teachers can apply these
approaches in the classroom are suggested. The IEP (individualised
education programme) – as part of holistic education - is uniquely
shaped around the needs and circumstances of learners with special
physical or emotional needs. Working as a team, everyone involved in
the education of learners who encounter some sort of barrier, helps to
improve the learning environment and empowers learners in actualising
their potential.

88 | UNIT 3
 FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

3
Identify the systems that have been omitted. Then discuss the contexts relating to each system.
The systems – after you have filled in the missing parts – should read consecutively from the most intimate
to the broadest outlay as: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
The following are contexts examples for the different systems:
Microsystem – any pattern of activities, roles, and relationships within a setting, such as the home,
school, workplace, or neighbourhood, in which a person functions on a first-hand, day-to-day basis.
Mesosystem – the interaction of two or more microsystems that contain the developing child, such as
home and school, family and friends, school and peers.
Exosystem – the interaction of two or more microsystems where at least one of the systems does not
include the child but the interaction of the systems has a indirect influence on the child.
Macrosystem – cultural patterns that have an influence on the individual’s life, such as dominant values,
beliefs, customs, as well as economic and social systems. An example may be the household a child
grow up in – whether it being a nuclear or extended-family, depends on his culture. Wealth is seen as
how much money a person has, or how many belongings, or how much he has to eat.
Chronosystem – the way things change or stay the same over time. Examples in the inner circle may
be changes in a family composition, home (where and how you live), parents’ employment. In wider
contents, examples may include war, economic cycles (recession or time of prosper in the economy),
and migration (due to for example war, famine, drought).

Learner activity 2

The most probable person to assist Anne in the various situations.

A reading problem was identified and it was decided that Anne should Teacher
get help
It was decided that Anne has to have a 10 minute reading session Grade 7 learner
each morning before school
As the sessions did not seem to improve the reading, Anne had to go Remedial teacher
for reading lessons two afternoons per week
Because she was worried of what will become of Anne, she wanted to Parent
know what she could do to give support
It was suggested that Anne get help for the trauma she had suffered School counsellor
because of a car accident a year ago
After listening to everyone’s rapport, it was decided that Anne should School principal
be referred to outside professional help
Anne drew a picture about the car accident and they talked about Psychologist
how she experienced it
Anne was physically examined and it was found that due to the car Medical doctor
accident she had a hearing impairment

Learner activity 3

Explain why you think a holistic approach to learner support in a class of 30 or more pupils can /
cannot be realised.
Your answer may consist of some of the following guidelines.
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UNIT 3 | 89
 Why a holistic approach can be
realised in a class of 30 or more
learners
Can be encouraged to make the best
of their education, to understand what
it is they are learning, and in making it
meaningful to themselves connect it to
something they are familiar with.
They learn that in the classroom they
Learners
Why a holistic approach cannot be realised
in a class of 30 or more learners
Too many children in a class cause
marginalisation of individuals who cannot
keep up with the rest of the class, or those
who exceed the general pace of progress.
Active participation is rarely the case – it is
easy to just “disappear” in the mass.

are part of a community which forms

part of a bigger community (society).
Strive to know each learner and stays
open to any change in behaviour or
speech of the individual.
Show learners how to deal with
problems and challenges, thus
empower them to future difficulties.
When a child has an emotional
problem, he gets referred to a
counsellor.
Class divided into smaller groups
Teachers
All have to comply with the same
requirements for the norm – no
individualisation of abilities or preferences.
Facts are to be memorised clinically
– no time for reflection and individual
meaningfulness.
Classes too big for individual input of what
and how they want to learn.
Big classes make it impossible for teachers
to get involved with learners personally.
Too many individual problems to attend to.
Too many learners for one teacher to
accommodate everyone’s emotional well-
being.
Dividing learners into smaller groups leads
to increase of noise level during discussions
and working sessions, which can be
disturbing to some individuals and other

can more easily attend to individual classes.

difficulties of learners.
Individual personalised feedback on work
Assistants to teachers e.g. a parent, done is impossible to give.
student, volunteers, help with the
practical side of lessons like with
handling apparatus, tending to
individual needs of learners, etc.
The teacher plans lessons –
accommodating the different learning
styles of learners
As facilitator of knowledge shows
the way for learners to explore new
information
Class-discussion can share how the Cannot be hooked on to each individual
material connects to their experiences learner.
as individuals and/or members of a
Facts to be remembered cannot in a
group.
diverse group be synchronised with every
Learning material

Input from a diversity of religion, individual’s understanding of the topic

cultures, age, gender and social
Flexible curriculums not suitable for big
backgrounds leads to increased
classes.
knowledge of society lived in.
Subjects cannot provide for everyone’s
Diverse members can apply knowledge
need.
to their unique circumstances.
In a big group competition, rather than
Extra tuition be organised for learners
cooperation, may evoke better motivation
experiencing obstacles, such as
for learning. Holistic approach promotes
language barriers, disabilities, learning
cooperation.
difficulties, etc.

90 | UNIT 3
 Classroom – time management – Holistic approach prefers smaller classrooms
time given for the quick learner to where defined areas are set out for a day’s
investigate deeper in to given topic and work.
slower learner to get additional help.

Classroom
Classrooms are overcrowded.
On good days classroom can be
extended to the outdoors.
Working in groups and sharing the
space available, teach learners the art

3
of living in harmony with others in the
same community.

Learner activity 4

Choose the correct option and explain why the other options are not correct.
Although Lila’s father is part of her family (option a) it is not the right answer. Family is one of the social
factors of contextual influences on a person’s development. Physical development is a developmental
domain and not an influence on the process of development. Therefore, option (c) is incorrect.
Hereditary means the things people inherit from their biological parents like physical development and
fixed features, like the colour of one’s eyes. Option (b) is thus the correct answer.
The physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains (option a) are part of every human being and
constitutes the areas of development, whereas poverty and the manner and place of a child’s education
influence the individual’s development. Option a is thus incorrect. Although option b lists some of the
influences on the development of a person, only part of the answer, namely contextual influences, is
correct. Option b therefore is not the best answer. Option c is the correct answer in that it lists the
contextual influences on a child’s development.

Learning activity 5

Explain the differences in the medical and social models in their approach to a learner suffering from
an invisible disability and how they will assist the child.
In explaining the differences between the medical and the social models of disabilities we first explain
their different perceptions of what it means to be disabled. The medical model states that a person is
disabled when he is physically and mentally impaired and has to make use of an aid in order to function.
According to the social model disability lies in the fact that a society in its lack of consideration disables
a person when his needs (due to impairment) are not met.
The approach of the medical model to any of the given invisible disabilities would be to attend to the
problem clinically. Aids to increase effective functioning may include anything from glasses to medication.
The social model strives to accommodate the disabled person by ensuring accessibility to everyday
life activities. This model is used in inclusive education. Children are supported in their learning process
by the teacher who attends to their special needs, for example by adjusting the format of learning
material, using computers as resources, referring to remedial teacher, etc. Children suffering from
physical or mental disabilities that cannot be accommodated by mainstream schools are cared for by
specialised institutions.
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UNIT 3 | 91
 Learning activity 6

Discuss how motivation affects learners.

• Is reflected in their striving for success and goal orientation
• Can be seen in their personal investment and in cognitive, emotional and behavioural
engagement in school activities
• Not motivated by the same interests
• Some may have keen interest in the subject matter presented in the classroom, participate
actively in class discussions and earn high marks on assigned projects
• Others may be more concerned with the social side of school, interacting with classmates
frequently and attending extracurricular activities regularly
• Some may excel in sport and physical educational classes
• Some may be motivated to avoid all forms of academics, social situations or athletic activities
• Motivation determines the specific goals learners set for themselves and how their behaviour
is directed accordingly.
• It affects the choices they make such as between video games or school assignments.
• Motivation energises, directs and sustains behaviour. It gets learners moving, points them in a
particular direction and keeps them going.

Learning activity 7

Name and explain one limitation of Maslow’s theory. (Refer learning outcome 3.11)
Although teachers may be in a key position of creating stimulating learning environments, they may not
know which of the basic needs of a learner are not satisfied. Even if they know, they might not be able to
fill that need. One way of bridging the way to enhance a learner’s self-esteem is by creating a classroom
environment that will increase learners’ achievement through an attitude of intrinsic motivation.

Learning activity 8

Relate how each member of a programme support group contributes to the planning and
implementing of a learner support programme.
Your answer should include the persons listed in learning outcome 3.14 under the heading (a) Who
should be involved in the planning of a learner support programme? and the reasons as follows:
Parents/care givers/guardians of child with disability > they have a close living relationship with the
identified learner
Not less than one regular education teacher (if the child is attending mainstream education) > they
have a close working relationship with the learner and know his/her skills, needs, preferences, learning
styles, etc.
Not less than one special education teacher or special education provider (for example remedial
teacher, counsellor) > specialised in their fields and deals with invisible disabilities. Remedial teachers
know the school curriculum; counsellors deal with social and life skills development.
Special education administrator > put together all the gathered information and see to the formulation
and implementing of the programme while acting as a link of communication between the support
group and outside organisations.
At the discretion of parents, other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise regarding
the child (for example the child’s medical practitioner, psychologist, etc.) > knowledgeable on the
disability, the prognosis thereof and the capabilities of persons suffering from the specific disability
When appropriate, the learner with disability > personal input of needs, preferences and abilities.

Identify the principles for planning learner support programmes.

The principles for planning learner support programmes are listed in learning outcome 3.14 under the
heading (b) What should be considered in the planning of a learner support programme?

92 | UNIT 3
 Learning activity 9

The steps utilised in the IEP of a learner with disabilities, are:

1. Request a special education eligibility evaluation
2. Eligibility evaluation
3. Initial IEP meeting
4. Monitoring progress
5. Re-evaluations
The feedback does not contain detailed answers; you would include the following points:
3
1. Request a special education eligibility evaluation
Parents, the school, or medical practitioner may request an evaluation to establish whether a
learner is eligible for special education. Parents’ consent is necessary.
2. Eligibility evaluation
Should be completed within 60 days. Includes evaluation of learner’s characteristics. Support
team is given explanation of tests and results. All relevant information gathered.
3. Initial IEP meeting
Scheduled and conducted by school. Every member of support team gets informed, and
especially the parents. All members attend the meeting. All available information put together.
Concerns are raised, notes are taken and the IEP is written with sections including annual goals
and the learner present level of performance. Everyone concerned receives a copy of the IEP
and knows their responsibilities in implementing the plan. Disagreements are put in writing and
may result in re-evaluation or modification of the IEP. Otherwise implementation of the plan
starts with immediate effect.
4. Monitoring progress
If not sooner a meeting is held once a year to monitor the progress of annual goals toward the
end of the year. This is done by reviewing the learner’s work and identifying areas where he
excels or struggles. The parents are informed of the progress on a regular basis. If necessary,
more tests are done and the IEP is revised.
5. Re-evaluation
Learners are to be re-evaluated at least once in every three years as to establish whether
they are still eligible for being disabled. The purpose of re-evaluations is also establishing the
learner’s educational needs.
Members of the IEP team must agree to changes made in the IEP.
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UNIT 3 | 93
 The problem-
How to counsel learners
solving process
4.2 on managing emotions 4.3 to solve many
and interpersonal conflict
problems in life

Emotional intelligence and The elements of

the features of high and self-esteem and
4.1 low emotional intelligent
Values and their role how to develop
in self-esteem, peace 4.5 a positive
behaviour
of mind, interpersonal self-esteem in
4.4 relations, social learners
acceptance and status and
staying out of trouble

Smart ‘consumer
4.8 skills’
How to manage one’s
4.7 money via budgets
Reasons, consequences
4.6 and treatment of alcohol
and drug abuse

Choosing a date or
relationship partner
4.11
4.10 The ‘mature adult’ – guidelines for
learners

The ‘building up
learners’ role of the How to counsel and
4.9 teacher inside and
outside the classroom
STUDY support learners
UNIT 4 regarding some Life Skills
and self-esteem

4.12 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 4
How to counsel and support learners
regarding some Life Skills and self-esteem

INTRODUCTION In unit 3 we have learnt about the ecosystem and its effects on the
developing child. Young people today come in contact with a wide
variety of influences from other people in their immediate circle of family
and friends, as well as society. As adults in the making, the child has a
lot to learn and many changes to undergo. They may fall prey to a lot of
societal ills if they are not empowered in becoming independent young
adults setting goals for themselves and knowing how to make the right 4
choices for a healthy lifestyle.
Self-awareness is the first step to higher emotional intelligence
behaviour and enables the adolescent to start managing his/her
emotions especially in conflict situations. Learners with a positive self-
esteem have self-respect. By being in control of the self, knowing how to
solve life problems, and fostering positive values, it becomes easier for
the adolescent to be what they set themselves out to be and to resist
pressures from peers to, for example, become involved in undesirable
behaviours and/or the use and abuse of substances such as alcohol
and drugs. Generally, the child sees having a say in their own money
matters as part of becoming independent. Part of growing up entails
dating and choosing romantic partners. The school plays a big part in
educating learners in the appropriate ways of choosing a partner and
how they should be knowledgeable about cultural beliefs and upbringing
of the other person. Teachers and parents contribute to the development
of a child by setting the example of smart consumer skills, forming
relationships that complement their values and teaching them the skills
of becoming well-balanced and healthy young adults.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Describe what ‘emotional intelligence’ entails and the features of high and low emotional
intelligent behaviour
• Analyse how to counsel learners how to manage emotions and interpersonal conflict
• Analyse the problem solving process to solve many problems of life
• Examine the key values and their role in self-concept, peace of mind,
• Interpersonal relations, social acceptance and status, and staying out of trouble
• Analyse the elements of self-esteem and how to develop a positive self-esteem in learners
• Clarify the reasons, consequences and counselling / treatment of alcohol and drug abuse
• Explain to learners how to manage one’s money via budgets
• Analyse what smart ‘consumer skills’ entail
• Discuss the ‘building up learners’ role of the teacher inside and outside the classroom
• Clarify the concept ‘mature adult’, analyse guidelines that learners need to consider when
choosing a date or relationship partner

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
STUDCOUNS0016

answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!

UNIT 4 | 95
 1. In your own words define emotional intelligence, including the 5 elements as suggested by
Goleman. (Refer to learning outcome 4.1)

2. Choose the option that is not the correct answer:

2.a. Several factors may play a role on the emotion regulation of children. Individual influences
that affect them are…
2.a.a. conduct problems
2.a.b. depression
2.a.c. environmental opportunities
2.a.d. maltreatment
Choose the correct answer from the options given:
2.b. Disputing intervention and effective philosophy are components of:
2.b.a. the A-B-C model
2.b.b. interpersonal conflict
2.b.c. emotional intelligence

3. D
efine a problem you would like to solve and write down your plan of action according to the
steps provided in the working sheet.

PROBLEM SOLVING WORKSHEET

Identify the problem Write down your problem:

Step 1

List all possible Pros Cons

solutions
Alternative 1:
Step 2

Alternative 2:
Alternative 3:
Alternative 4:
Alternative 5:

Evaluate options and Cross out solutions that

rank them – choose best are unsafe or against rules/
Step 3

Rank order
option regulations. Write down
your choice of the three best
options from step 2.

Take action Date/Time Names What are needed?

Step 4

What is your plan of When are you Whom are you e.g. documents,
action? going to start/try going to contact/ apparatus
this plan? talk to?

Evaluation How do you How do you Any other actions

know? feel about the to finish solving
Step 5

outcome? this problem?

Is the problem solved?

96 | UNIT 4
 4. Referring to learning outcome 4.4:
4.a. Evaluate the following values in terms of the consequences they may have for a person.
4.b. Decide which of the given values you would like to change in your life and which to leave
as is.

Values Possible consequences Changes

Contribute to community
To be in control
Make a lot of money and
become wealthy
Recognition from others

4
Excitement and taking risks
Personal achievement
Independence
Status
Perfectionism
Family
Spiritual growth
Healthy lifestyle
Leadership
Caring for others and
environment
Security

5. Referring to learning outcome 4.6 - Illustrate the consequences of substance abuse using the
following diagram:

Consequences of
substance abuse

Physical Emotional Social

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________

6. Describe how you will draw up a budget for yourself in using the nine step process. (Refer to
learning outcome 4.7)

4.1 Emotional intelligence and the features of high and low emotional intelligent
behaviour
Howard Gardner identified a spectrum of intelligences as follows: linguistic, logical-mathematical,
musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, naturalistic and personal intelligence. Emotional intelligence forms part
of personal intelligence which is seen as “to experience and admit your feelings, to be able to control
them, to motivate yourself, and to establish and maintain social relationships” (Le Roux, 2006). To this
Daniel Goleman adds the ability to empathise. In displaying these abilities in a way that has a positive
influence on his behaviour, a person can be seen as having high emotional intelligence. Learners with
developed emotional skills may be more assertive in choosing options that are beneficial for their
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personal well-being.

UNIT 4 | 97
4.1.1 What is emotional intelligence?
Is it something you inherit and are born with? Or is it something one can be taught? There are several
theories of emotional intelligence. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences suggests that intra-
personal intelligence includes knowledge of one’s own emotions and thoughts. From several theories
emotional intelligence has been defined in different ways. Some examples include:

“Emotional intelligence is the

learned ability to think constructively
and act wisely”
(Cox, et al. 2008).

An assortment of non-cognitive skills, capabilities and competencies that influence a person’s ability to
succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.

“Emotional intelligence refers to emotional

awareness and emotional management skills which provide
the ability to balance emotion and reason (moods) so as to
maximise long term happiness”
(Val, 2009).

As cited by Daniel Goleman: “Emotional intelligence is a master aptitude, a capacity that profoundly
affects all other abilities, either facilitating or interfering with them” (Prasad, s.a.).
So, what can be derived from the definitions above? We know emotions have to do with feelings. Thus,
to sum it up, it seems that emotional intelligence is the way we use our feelings in collaboration with
our thoughts to influence our behaviour in a positive way. Write down in your own words what your
understanding is of emotional intelligence.
Could we say that emotional intelligence equals the intelligent use of our feelings? If so, how do we use
our feelings intelligently or wisely? Daniel Goleman, a Harvard psychiatrist, suggests five basic elements
or components of emotional intelligence (Rovenger, 2000), namely:

1 Self-awareness as the ability to recognise and identify a feeling.

Managing emotions as the ability to handle anger, fear, pervasive worrying or anxiety,
2
and sadness in an appropriate manner.
Motivating oneself as the ability to delay gratification, to be emotionally self-controlled
3
and to expect success.

4 Empathy as the recognition of and sensitivity to other people’s feelings.

5 Social skills or handling relationships as the ability to interact effectively with others.

Implementing these five elements into one’s life and decision-making processes implies high emotional
intelligent behaviour.

4.1.2 Features of high and low emotional intelligent behaviour

People who successfully apply the elements of emotional intelligence in a positive way in their daily life
experiences display high emotional intelligent behaviour. As opposed to this we find people who are not
aware of their feelings and who cannot express them. Some people experience their feelings intensely
and often express them inappropriately. People who are not in touch with their feelings, and/or cannot
control and express them, display low emotional intelligent behaviour.

98 | UNIT 4
 From the authors Stream and Prasad presentations on emotional intelligence we can compare the
outcomes of high and low emotional intelligent behaviour in the table below:

High emotional intelligent behaviour Low emotional intelligent behaviour

Generates positive feelings like autonomy/
independence, self-rule, self-awareness, peace,
hope, contentment, happiness
These positive feelings result into general
happiness
Sees the situation under which a behaviour takes
place in the right perspective
Right perception leads to rational behaviour
Displays the same behaviour he/she expects
from others towards them
Thus the person is an asset to society
Generates negative feelings such as anger,
fear, disappointment, frustration, guilt, failure,
emptiness, victimisation, bitterness, dependence,
lethargy, loneliness, depression
These negative feelings result into general
unhappiness
Sees the situation under which a behaviour takes
place in the wrong perspective
Wrong perception leads to a person interpreting
the information based on emotions rather than
reality 4
Acts with emotions and becomes self-centred
Thus the person is a liability for society

According to Le Roux and De Klerk (Le Roux, 2006) people who are not emotionally proficient, display
poor communication and conflict resolution skills, low self-confidence and low self-acceptance. “These
people may experience problems in establishing and maintaining relationships. They may have few goals
and little motivation to do anything about it. This may give rise to alcoholism, drug abuse, eating problems
(e.g. anorexia and bulimia), marital problems, depression and other difficulties.”

The advantages of high emotional intelligence according to Prasad (s.a.) can be listed as follows:
• Improves interpersonal relationships
• Enhances decision-making
• Helps a person to take responsibility for him/herself
• Improves the ability to handle criticism
• Enhances listening skills
• Improves communication
• Helps sustain both mental and physical health
• Stimulates motivation
• Reduces stress
• Improves abilities like memory, clarity of thinking, and creativity
From the above it is clear that having high emotional intelligence holds benefits for the individual where
it comes to the demands and pressures of everyday life. For an adolescent who is still in the process of
finding an identity, improving his emotional skills can help him to resist temptations of getting involved
with activities that is not beneficial to his well-being, like alcohol and drug abuse, crime, and misspending
of time and/or money.
To be more aware of one’s feelings leads to a better self-knowledge. Motivation and management of
emotions help with self-control, and the establishment of attainable goals, empowering people to
solve many problems they may encounter in life. Empathy and social skills are building blocks for good
interpersonal relationships. Some of these characteristics and life skills will be discussed in more detail in
the units to follow in this learning outcome.

4.2 How to counsel learners on managing emotions and interpersonal conflict

The effective and wise management of emotions is one of the elements of high emotional intelligence.
However, people are not born with high emotional intelligence and the knowledge of how to manage
one’s emotions depends on several factors. As children grow older their abilities increase and they learn
ways of regulating emotions. A vast combination of influences plays in on the emotional development of
a person which determines how they manage their emotions and how they will handle interpersonal
conflict. Improving the level of emotional intelligence in an individual can be taught through
cognitive restructuring.
Self-awareness, a component of emotional intelligence, is the ability to recognise and identify a feeling.
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A child of about 4 years of age has little explicit awareness of pride or shame, while adolescents are
increasingly able to express their emotions and understand feelings of others. Alongside the increasing
awareness of the emotions of the self and others, comes the necessity of being able to regulate these
feelings. Managing emotions is the ability to handle anger, fear, sadness and anxiety, or pervasive worrying
in appropriate and proportional ways (Rovenger, 2000).

UNIT 4 | 99
According to Brenner and Salovey emotions can be divided into three parts (Salovey, 1997), namely:

1. 2. 3.
Cognitive Behavioural Physiological-
experiential expressive biochemical
Consisting of thoughts and Consisting of domains such The physical state: reflects
awareness of emotional as speech, facial expression, measures of brain activity,
states (feelings) body movement, gesture, heart rate, skin response, and
and posture hormone levels

Self-awareness and the awareness of the feelings of others increase as the result of the development
of the cognitive experiential domain. As children develop cognitively their knowledge about emotional
experiences grows (Salovey, 1997). They have an increased ability to:
• discriminate and verbalise different emotions (e.g. fear, anger, sadness),
• determine others’ emotional states,
• describe the simultaneous experience of different emotions, and
• know what emotional expression is expected (display rules) in their culture.

The effectiveness of how well a person regulates his/her emotions is mainly the result of how the
behavioural expressive domain was mastered. For adolescents the better they manage their emotions, the
better their coping outcomes which in turn may produce better psychological outcomes in the long term.
According to Steinberg & Morris “early adolescence is a time of transition during which the individual
experiences not only profound physical, emotional and cognitive changes, but also changes in terms of
societal expectations regarding appropriate behaviour patterns and preparation for taking on adult roles”
(Downey, 2010).
Lazarus and Folkman as cited in Downey et al, state that “Coping refers to a variety of cognitive and
behavioural strategies that individuals use to manage their stress (Downey, 2010). Matthews and Zeidner
claimed that ‘‘adaptive coping might be conceptualised as EI in action, supporting mastery of emotions,
emotional growth, and both cognitive and emotional differentiation, allowing us to evolve in an ever-
changing world’’ (Downey,2010). As children grow (physically, emotionally and cognitively) they have to
learn how to adapt to different and changing situations. How they do that depends on factors such as
their frame of mind and/or examples set by significant others. Each individual is a complex being and in
coping with problems in everyday life may incorporate a combination of basic strategies.
Coping strategies can be internal, external, social or solitary.

100 | UNIT 4
 Internal coping External coping Social or solitary coping
An internal coping strategy An external coping strategy is The social coping strategy
entails the turning of negative used when the child for example involves others and may be
thoughts into positive thoughts takes part in sport or other for example going to a party
resulting in reduced sadness. physical activities in order to or being part of a team sport.
It involves the cognitive reduce anxiety or tension. The Another coping strategy that
experiential component of child decides to do something increases with development is
emotions in that it has to else in order to cope with the the use of solitary strategies,
do with the thoughts of the situation. This behavioural where the child may work out a
person. The child may think of strategy of coping is problem- problem on his own, for instance
something else so as to make focused. Both the coping keeping to himself or watch
the self feel better. This method strategies are incorporated television on his own.
of coping is emotion-focused when for instance the external
and increases throughout the method is used in writing down
development of the young child. the reasons for the feeling
The development in the use
of internal coping strategies is
experienced. In finding positive
thoughts and outcomes, the 4
normally in place by the age of internal method is employed.
10 years
The frequency of how the different strategies are used may depend on the gender of the child. Girls, for
instance, would more likely seek support and guidance from others (social), and are more likely to use
emotion-focused (internal) strategies, while boys are more likely to use physical exercise (external) as a
coping strategy.
Various influences can play in on the emotion regulation of children. People, who probably exercise
the biggest influence on how children perceive the world around them and how they respond to
things happening to them, are parents and teachers. The emotional development of children and the
strategies they use in managing emotion can be influenced directly, indirectly, individually, and through
environmental opportunities.

By teaching and coaching children parents and teachers have a great a. Direct influences
influence on how a child learns to regulate emotions. A 5-7-year-old
child who is encouraged to do a difficult task shows more enthusiasm
and less frustration than a child who is left to himself. Parents who
encourage their children to express emotions in socially appropriate
ways have more empathic, emotional expressive children (Salovey,
1997). Children often build on the coping strategies displayed by
their parents.

b. Indirect influences Parents and teachers socialise emotion by indirectly exposing

children to their interaction with other people around them. The
child indirectly learns how to regulate emotions by observing the
behaviours of significant others and by modelling what they have
learnt.

The opportunities regulated by parents and teachers, like the games and c. Environmental
activities they take part in, the television shows they are allowed to watch opportunities
and the friends they are allowed to play with have an influence on how
children learn to manage their emotions. When a child is left on his own
because his parents are working long hours, or if the parents for some
reason do not have control over the situations their child is exposed to,
it may result in maladaptive ways of regulating emotions. Children who
are exposed to violent films or sexually explicit material are especially
vulnerable of developing maladaptive ways in the regulation of emotions
because without the assistance of an adult they do not understand and
learn how to manage emotions derived from these situations.

d. Individual influences Some individual influences on emotion regulation include: depression,

conduct problems, and maltreatment.
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UNIT 4 | 101
 Apart from the indirect influence Children with conduct problems Children who has been
parents with depression may use angrier and aggressive physically abused or neglected
exercise on the development strategies in coping with may display - as is the case with
of a child’s emotive regulation, difficulties. They tend to being children with conduct problems
children who are clinically defiant, lie, and choose to fight - aggressive emotion regulation
depressed and generally when they perceive things as strategies. They may vent their
dissatisfied with things may not going their way. Studies anger in a physical and verbal
have difficulties in managing showed that preschoolers aggressive manner. To cope with
their feelings of distress. They with conduct problems show distress maltreated children
find it hard to reduce the more hostile facial expression may also show the tendency to
undesirable effects of negative when confronted with adults withdraw from a situation and
moods or to maintain positive in distress. They display less to avoid their peers when they
moods as well as non-depressed insight in emotional effects and have the choice to do so.
children. are for instance less accurate
in identifying facial expression
(Salovey, 1997).
Positive influences playing in on the development of the child’s managing of emotion lead to the
development of positive intervention strategies. The research of Bartek, Krebs, and Taylor suggests that
a lack of adaptive coping techniques is predictive of problem behaviour in adolescents (Downey, 2010).
Conflict arises when people do not agree with each other. How an individual perceives a situation of
conflict may depend on a number of factors, such as how important the matter is to him, what values are
portrayed, how threatening the situation may seem, how well he can sense the moods and feelings of the
other person(s), etc. An individual’s reaction in a conflict situation may be the result of how well he has
learned to manage his emotions. If a person has not accomplished the skill to regulate emotions, a conflict
situation may result in aggravated physical and verbal expression and misconduct.
According to Petrides, assessment of adolescent emotional intelligence may be able to offer a window to
predicting, understanding and reducing problem behaviours (Downey, 2010).

In social coping care should be taken in differentiating

the positive or negative outcome of such a coping strategy in that
although it may result in feeling better, it may not always be for the good
of the individual’s well-being. Children belonging to a street gang may
therefore demonstrate social coping strategies as to feel better about
themselves.

It was found that learners with a low emotional intelligence are more likely to have been expelled
from school. They often do not understand the consequences of their behaviour or the ability to plan
appropriate actions which can assist them in making intelligent social decisions. Surveys of high school
learners reported many of them being unaware of effective methods for solving social conflict (McLin,
2006). If a learner ‘acts up’ because of his limited ability to alter his emotional response in a conflict
situation, his ability to repair the negative emotional state he is experiencing will be inadequate as well.
According to McLin emotion and the role it plays in interpersonal problems raise the possibility that
emotion management can be used to restructure thinking, thereby reducing one’s risk for inappropriate
social functioning (McLin, 2006).
For a person to be able to manage his/her emotions there must first be an awareness and understanding
of these emotions. Then, by using emotion management skills, thoughts can be restructured to implement
correct or appropriate behaviour, thereby increasing appropriate social functioning. When a person feels
good about himself and has faith in his own capabilities, he can learn how to overcome difficulties and
resolve interpersonal conflict in an assertive way.
Central to Albert Ellis’s REBT (rational emotive behaviour therapy) – see learning outcome 1.3 – we find
the A-B-C Framework of emotion management. By implementing this model, a person is taught how to
function on a higher emotional intelligence level. The A-B-C model can be illustrated as follows:

102 | UNIT 4
 C
Consequences emotional &
A B
behavioural
Activating Belief Because she has a negative perception of the
event/attitude/ The daughter
activating event (her father’s refusal to let her
behaviour believes that the
go out with the young man), the daughter
believes he is doing it on purpose. She feels he
The way A is father does not
does not love her and does not want to see her
perceived depends on want her to go out
happy. Feelings of anger and rebelliousness
B and results in C. with the young
take control. She may resign to an aggressive
man because
A father forbids his emotion regulation strategy by yelling and
he is jealous, or
15-year-old daughter crying (verbal aggression), and slamming the
domineering, or
to go out with a door to her room (physical aggression).
that he does not
working young man.

4
trust her, etc. She By implementing the following steps skills to a
What is the daughter’s perceives his action higher emotional intelligence level are formed.
reaction to that? in A negatively.

D E
Disputing intervention Effect
(effective F
B is challenged by D through the disputing process
of detecting, debating, and discriminating; and philosophy) New
establish E, resulting in F. The daughter
feeling
Alone in her room the daughter thinks about what decides by Much calmer
has just happened and her father’s reasons for not blaming her now, the
letting her go. She remembers that he was happy father for her daughter realises
when a classmate accompanied her to a school disappointment that she is feeling
function the week before, and realises that her belief while he was at peace because
about her father not loving her was irrational. What acting in her she feels safe in
he said about her not fitting in with working people best interest the knowledge
now starts to sound reasonable and she decides was wrong. She that her father
that she was overreacting. Her disappointment was should trust his loves her and
misjudged as anger which she directed towards her judgment in always will
father, actually proving that she is not grown-up future. protect her from
enough for going out with a man in his twenties. any harm.

4.3 The problem-solving process to solve many problems in life

In learning outcome 2 of this unit we have learnt about strategies children may use in regulating their
emotions. We were introduced to the A-B-C model of the rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
that makes use of restructured thinking to change a person’s self-defeating thoughts to new rationalised
beliefs. The model makes use of meta-cognitive skills in that it implements higher thinking skills like
debating and judging and the individual enters a process of self-regulation and understanding of his
feelings. People face situations in life where obstacles are obstructing the path to a solution every day.
Applying these learned cognitive skills can assist a person in the process of problem solving.
What and when is something a problem in life? A problem is something we do not want in our lives,
maybe because it can harm us in some way or because it obstructs our path towards something we
would like to accomplish.
Deciding how to overcome a problem involves higher forms of thinking which is called meta-cognition.
To plan how to overcome an obstacle one must be aware of what the problem is and what needs to be
done to find a solution. It often happens that we are aware of a problem but are not really sure what to
do about it. It then helps to follow a set plan in deciding what to do.
The problem-solving cycle includes problem identification, problem definition, strategy formulation,
organisation of information, allocation of resources, monitoring and evaluation. We will be looking at five
steps in the process of problem solving.
The basic steps in our module are fit for everyday use, for individuals with problems, as well as for
groups. It can be used in the classroom and with children with disabilities. The five steps are identifying
the problem, list all possible solutions, evaluate the options and select the best option, take action, and
evaluate. The process can be illustrated as follows:
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UNIT 4 | 103
 No

Evaluate
List all
Identify the and select
possible Take action Evaluate
problem the best
options
option

Yes

Identify the problem

Step 1: Problem solving starts with the realisation that a problem exists. The first step involves
defining the problem, naming the reasons for it being a problem. Will the matter cause
harm? Is it obstructing efforts to reach your goal?
List all possible options

Step 2: Make a list of as many options as possible. Be creative and look at the matter or task from
all angles. If the problem solving is done by a group, this step is the ideal opportunity for
brainstorming. Write down all the ideas that are generated from the members of the group.
Evaluate and select the best option
Each possible option that was listed is now evaluated. Several aspects have to be
considered, for example, what are the advantages and disadvantages of the specific
Step 3: option? How will it change the problem situation or what will the cost of it be? What
possible solution might or might not work? After the consequences of each alternative
were evaluated, the list is narrowed down by eliminating any options that are unsafe or
against any rules or regulations.
Take action
This is not always an easy step. Motivation and the willingness to take responsibility
Step 4: are important components in putting a decision to practice. Often reinforcement and
support from others are of great help. When problem-solving is done in group set-up,
members support each other through follow-ups and they report back to the group to
share results.
Evaluate
It may happen that each potential solution you try gives rise to other problems, but you
can again deal with each one until you find a satisfactory solution. You have to assess
each solution to find out whether it has solved the problem effectively (Grieve, 2005).
During this step the person decides whether the problem has been solved efficiently
or whether it needs to be re-evaluated. He/she reflects on why the solution has or has
Step 5: not been successful. Reflection encourages students to think critically and to generalise
problem-solving skills. Classroom peers also benefit from learning about successful
and unsuccessful attempts at problem solving (Kolb, 2005). A learner who has solved
a problem successfully may experience a sense of empowerment and an affirmation of
his/her ability to successfully engage in the process again. When a learner does not think
that the problem was solved, the reasons for why the chosen solution did not work can
be shared with the group. The teacher will encourage the group to go back to the model
and select a different solution.

104 | UNIT 4
 During the different stages of the problem-solving process, different ways of approach are used. Some
strategies used during the evaluation of the different options may be the trial and error approach or the
heuristic strategies. By using the trial and error approach, a person will try out the selected options more
or less randomly until a suitable solution is found. The heuristic approach is based on understanding what
alternatives would be the likeliest solution and then to try them out first. According to Grieve and Van
Deventer the heuristic approach increases the odds of success, but does not guarantee a solution (Grieve,
2005). Some examples of heuristic strategies are:

working backwards from the desired goal to the current situation,

to determine how the current situation differs from the desired goal and how to reduce the difference,

to consider solutions to similar problems in the past that was applied successfully, and

to list all possible assumptions, questions and suggestions and test each one.

In the final stage of the problem-solving process, a reflective approach is used in the evaluation of the
outcome of the action that was taken.
4
Solving problems in one’s life does not always go smoothly and you are bound to bump into barriers
from time to time. Sometimes the answer to a problem may appear suddenly and as if out of the blue. As
Coon was cited: “This is called gaining insight into a problem. It often happens when we re-organise the
elements of a problem, selecting elements that are relevant and ignoring the things that are not relevant,
or selectively combining bits of useful information that may not seem related at first. Insight also involves
the comparison of new problems with old information or information about problems that have already
been solved (Grieve, 2005)
Unfortunately, most problems are not solved immediately and often another alternative is needed as
a possible solution. Even then it may not lead us to a successful solution and we may feel stuck in our
thinking. Sometimes we cannot think of alternatives and just cannot decide on what next to do. As
suggested by Grieve and Van Deventer (2005) there are several barriers preventing us from finding
suitable solutions to a problem:

The tendency to evaluate a problem situation in a particular way and a. Fixation

to stick to that evaluation, otherwise known as restricted thinking.

b. Emotional barriers Emotions like fear, anger, or anxiety may get in our way of thinking clearly.

When a person does not try new alternatives besides the ones previously c. Learned barriers
learned.

d. Perceptual barriers A person sees only one aspect of a problem and ignores the
others.

When cultural values keep a person from exploring other ways of e. Cultural barriers
problem solving, e.g. the belief that reason and logic are all that is
needed for finding solutions and that fantasy and play are a waste
of time.

4.4 Values and their role in self-esteem, peace of mind, interpersonal relations,
social acceptance and status and staying out of trouble
Our values have a great influence on the way we perceive things. What we think of something, defines
how we feel about it and how we behave within a situation. People create their value system according
to the way they live and the way they experience society. The lack of clear-cut values may result in a
purposeless and maladjusted lifestyle.
The values people abide by influence their lives in everything they do. Their whole lifestyle is based on
their value system. Thus, if a person believes that being wealthy is important, he/she will value money
a lot. Someone who believes that family comes first, values family life highly. If something is in conflict
with a person’s value system, they will perceive it as being wrong. The way a person values an activity as
STUDCOUNS0016

right or wrong often depends on how and where he was raised. The value systems of cultures may differ
with regard to time, work ethic, how people present themselves and so forth. To show tolerance of other
people’s values, is an indication of emotional maturity.

UNIT 4 | 105
Values are learnt early in life and from various influences. Children obtain values in different ways, for
example they can be:

Learnt Determined Modelled Copied

Parents/teachers By age, sex, The child The deliberate
teach a child how to upbringing, religious unconsciously attempt to follow the
behave beliefs and culture follows the example example set by a role
set by the parents model or hero.

People that influence the forming of a learner’s value system may be:
• parents
• other family members
• friends, peers and school mates
• figures of authority e.g. teachers
• community members
• religious affiliations
• political affiliations
• other influences, e.g. a celebrity, Nobel prize winner, etc.

The influences do not always resolve in healthy values and you have to decide for yourself what values are
“right” or “wrong” and what values should be prioritised. To be part of a peer group, a child is expected
to accept its values and behavioural norms, and even though these may be socially undesirable, children
may not have the strength to resist (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Adolescents on the other hand are
more capable of realistic opinions. With the development of their cognitive skills comes the ability of
abstract and critical thinking skills, as well as the knowledge of what is good or bad and right or wrong.
They now understand the workings of cause and effect and may foresee the consequences of the choices
they make.
The search for meaning, purpose, and values are part of the human condition (Corey, 2009).

The values people hold :

determine the following

their view of life and the world

what is important to them
what they regard as right and wrong
what they regard as good or bad
what kind of person they would like to be
the way they behave, think, feel, experience and
understand.

106 | UNIT 4
 Depending on how a person prioritises values, they may have a positive or a negative influence on a
person’s life. Following is a list of some values:

Academic achievement Exploitation Perfectionism

Acceptance Expression Performance
Achievement Fairness Perseverance
Admiration Freedom Popularity
Aggressiveness Friendliness Power
Appearances Friendship Prestige
Appreciation Good manners Reality
Approval Happiness Recognition
Attention
Authority
Hard work
Harmony
Relationships
Religion 4
Avoidance of pain Health Respect for others
Balance Honesty Responsibility
Care for others Image Security
Cleanliness Independence Self-control
Communication Independent thinking Self-devotion
Compassion Integrity Self-discipline
Competition Justice Self-fulfilment
Conformity Knowledge Selfishness
Co-operation Logic/reason Sensitivity
Courage Loyalty Stability
Education Material wealth Success
Efficiency Mercifulness Suspicion
Egotism Mistrust To make a difference
Entertainment Others’ view/opinion Trustworthiness
Equality Unconditional love

“Values which you can control (giving and being), give you more pleasure, as you are not dependent on
someone else giving them to you. On the other hand, those values that you cannot control may result
in more negative feelings. If you value recognition from others, you may often be disappointed as other
people are in control of giving that to you. It is a fact that people do not give recognition easily” (Le Roux
& De Klerk, 2006).
Some key values that form part of a person’s value system may have a broad impact on the way learners
perceive themselves and how they fit into their world.

The role of values in self-esteem

A person’s self-concept is the image he/she has of the self, the total picture of their abilities and traits.
What people think of themselves, their self-esteem, determines how they feel about themselves and
guide their actions. The self-concept develops and becomes clearer as the child grows older and
cognitive development takes place. The sense of self also has a social aspect: children incorporate into
their self-image their growing understanding of how others see them (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Learners who value academic achievement but struggle to get the marks they would like to have, may
see themselves as not clever or good enough to further their studies and may even think that because of
that they are good for nothing and/or does not fit in anywhere. Acceptance of the self is a key value for
a positive self-esteem.

The role of values in peace of mind

Often teenagers rebel against their parents and society because reality in life does not meet their ideals.
Adolescent rebellion is not as common as was thought in the past. Though they may defy parental
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authority with some regularity, they do not normally break with parental and societal standards (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Though adolescence is maybe the time young people experience more family
conflict, depression or risky behaviour, it is possible to have peace of mind if the right key values are
learned. Accepting values like family, communication, caring for others and appreciation as an important
part of their lives may help settle uneasiness and rebellious feelings.

UNIT 4 | 107
The role of values in interpersonal relations
Interpersonal relations are the interactions a person has with other people. The relationship with others
depend a great deal on how much of a social being an individual is, what he/she expects from the
significant people in his/her life, and what is expected in return. Children in middle school normally have
friends of the same age, gender, culture and shared interests. Values like academic achievement, caring
for others, competition and aggression can become part of a child’s value system through copying or
learning it from their friends. Doing things with their peers create a sense of belonging and they learn
to value friendship, commitment and loyalty. With their friends, children learn to communicate and co-
operate (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006) Adolescents normally have interpersonal relations with their
parents, siblings, peers, friends, educators, and maybe a romantic partner who all have an influence on the
forming of their values. Even as adolescents turn to peers for role models, companionship, and intimacy,
they look to parents for a secure base from which they can try their wings (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman,
2006). Incorporating values like appreciation, harmony, honesty, loyalty, respect and unconditional love in
a family where parents and siblings provide a safe haven in times of emotional stress.

The role of values in social acceptance and status

Social skills deal with an individual’s ability to interact effectively with others in various social situations.
It involves being able to communicate with others in a way that is both appropriate and effective (Corey,
2009). In being able to do this, learners are normally socially accepted by their peers and significant adults
like their parents, family members and teachers. Key values that play a role in their social acceptance
would be for instance communication, co-operation, friendliness, good manners and so forth.
People who lack social skills frequently experience interpersonal difficulties at home, at work, at school,
and during leisure time (Corey, 2009). They may foster values like competition, egotism, exploitation,
self-fulfilment and performance and may get angry or upset if their needs or ambitions are not realised.
If learners strive for popularity the wrong way, they may start acting immature or anxious, or even
aggressive, which may result in them being quite unpopular. Learners who like the thought of having
status will probably value achievement, academic achievement, power and appearances.

The role of values in staying out of trouble

When a learner can distinguish between “right” and “wrong” values, he/she most likely will be able to
stay out of trouble. Popularity as seen above does not seem like a good or right value to have, but for an
artist or employer to value popularity it may imply that he strives to fulfil the needs of others. Learners
that highly value their appearance may for instance fall in the trap of eating disorders, but if they value
their health even more, they may decide on a balanced diet. For most adolescents it is a priority to be
accepted by their peers and in trying to keep their friendship they may be persuaded giving in to the
pressure of alcohol abuse or other undesirable activities. However, learners who value a balanced lifestyle,
independent thinking and self-control may choose to avoid situations that can harm them in any way.

4.5 The elements of self-esteem and how to develop a positive self-esteem

in learners

Self-esteem ….
is

what someone thinks of his or her own worth

someone’s attitude towards him/herself
shaped by one’s thoughts, relationships and experiences
the feeling I have about my self-concept

People with poor self-esteem often rely on how they are doing in the present to determine whether they
feel good or bad about themselves. They constantly have negative feelings about their disposition and
need positive external reinforcement, such as compliments from others, to make them feel better about
themselves. A lack of positive self-esteem can cause people to not reach their potential, to tolerate
abusive situations and relationships and/or to become depressed.
People with a positive self-esteem have self-respect and a favourable impression of themselves.
Successfully choosing to be the type of person one wants to be, builds self-esteem.

108 | UNIT 4
 Self-esteem boils down to 2 very important ingredients:
a. Am I unconditionally loved?
b. Am I competent?
Positive self-esteem can be developed through the practice of positive behaviour, the pursuit for the
ideal self and making the choice of self-responsibility and taking the next step rather than just promising
oneself to “change”.
We now look at five components found in individuals with high self-esteem and the “building blocks”
teachers can use while developing a positive self-esteem in learners.

Component Building blocks

Sense of security
Feeling assured, comfortable and safe Build a trusting relationship

Knowing what is expected
Being able to depend on others and situations
Comprehending rules, goals and limits
Identity / self-concept
A feeling of individuality
Acquiring self-knowledge
Accurately and realistically describe oneself
Know and accept one’s strengths and limitations
Feeling of belonging
An affiliation (relatedness) with particularly
people of significance
Feeling accepted
Feeling approved of, appreciated and respected
by others
Sense of purpose
Having purpose and motivation in life
Self-empowerment through realistic and
achievable goals
Taking responsibility for consequences of one’s
decisions
Sense of personal competence
Feeling of success and accomplishment in things
regarded as important and valuable
Awareness and acceptance of strengths and
weaknesses
4
Set reasonable goals and limits
Set rules that are consistently enforced
Create a positive and caring environment
Reinforce (more) accurate self-descriptions
Get to know roles, attributes and physical
characteristics
Build an awareness of unique qualities
Enhance ability to identify and express emotions
Create safe and structured environment
Promote inclusion and acceptance within class
group
Provide opportunities to discover interests,
capabilities and backgrounds of others
Increase awareness and skills in making friends
Encourage peer approval and support
Enhance ability to make decisions, seek
alternatives and identify consequences
Map present and past academic and behavioural
performances
Teach steps to successful goal-setting
Provide encouragement, positive reinforcement
and support
Opportunities to increase awareness of own
competencies and strengths
Record and evaluate progress
Feedback on how to accept weaknesses and
profit from mistakes
Self-praise for accomplishments

4.6 Reasons, consequences and treatment of alcohol and drug abuse

Why would anyone want to abuse alcohol and drugs when it is clearly not a healthy habit? What makes
a person do something so self-destructing? In looking at the consequences of alcohol and drug abuse,
we do not deal with dependency. However, the abuse of a substance endangers a person’s physical and
psychological well-being and can lead to substance dependence (addiction). Teachers have to distinguish
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between, for example, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependency. For a learner who is dependent on alcohol
and drugs it would be best to get professional help. In this learning outcome however we will see how
teachers (and parents) may help with possible prevention and treatment procedures for adolescents
abusing alcohol and/or drugs.

UNIT 4 | 109
Substance abuse is the umbrella term used for the excessive use of alcohol and drugs. The term according
to the American Psychological Association (APA) can be defined as a poorly adaptive behaviour pattern
lasting more than one month, in which a person continues to use a substance after knowingly being
harmed by it or uses it repeatedly in a hazardous situation, such as driving (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman,
2006). Rice and Dolgin define alcohol abuse as the use of alcohol to a degree that causes physical
damage, impairs physical, social, intellectual or occupational functioning; or results in behaviour harmful
to others (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Alcohol is the most prevalent substance used and many people do not think of it as a drug because of the
common use thereof in society. Adolescents may get exposed to binge drinking (drinking several drinks
in a row) when initiated into a group or because of peers encouraging them to more “excitement”.
Cigarettes are the second most commonly used substance among adolescents (Mash & Wolfe, 2010).
Early smoking can be a warning sign that the child may be inclined to risky behaviour such as taking
part in harmful activities and using inhalants and/or marijuana. Often the use of marijuana leads to more
serious drugs like MDMA (Ecstasy), opiates, cocaine, and crack (Mash & Wolfe, 2010).
The use of inhalants entails chemical vapours that adolescents sniff to get high. They often mix common
household products such as glues, solvents, gasoline, butane, and aerosols. Because they are inexpensive
and easy to obtain, they are most often used by younger adolescents

Why would anyone want to abuse substances of any sort?

There is a variety of reasons why adolescents turn to the use of alcohol or drugs and individuals may have
their different reasons for abusing these substances. The diagram below illustrates some of the reasons
as grouped into the contexts of the individual, the family, friends and peers, and other reasons. Although
these factors may connect mutually, for this module we will stay with the groups.

Individual
Peers/Friends
relaxing
experiment
reduce inhibition
to be liked
minimise self-consciousness
conform
sensation
access
personality
glamorise
Reasons
for substance
Family/ abuse Other
Parents media
low involvement overwhelming problems
history of substance abuse false consensus
poor communication rebellion
conflict society ills

a. The individual
Adolescents are in a time of their life where they experience many physical changes accompanied by
heightened awareness of body sensations. Small quantities of alcohol taken, has a relaxing effect that
may accentuate these bodily sensations; reducing sexual inhibitions and self-consciousness. On the
other hand, large quantities of alcohol may alter perceptions of reality, which makes adolescents more
willing to take risks (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Experts agree that the tendency to seek out sensation - a personality characteristic that may have a
biochemical basis - is also influenced by socialisation. According to Martin et al as cited: “Regardless
of whether sensation seeking is a personality trait or learned behaviour, it has a clear link to adolescent
substance use” (Mash & Wolfe, 2010) and has been linked to many high-risk behaviours. Generally,
adolescents using substantial amounts of alcohol and/or drugs are discontent with life. They want to
be autonomous and to experiment with adult “privileges”. Some are seen as children with a “difficult”
temperament, inclined to behaviours displaying aggressiveness, rebelliousness, alienation or poor
impulse control. They may perceive substance use as beneficial and acceptable. In contrast with learners
who feel positive about school and who predict a lower risk for use of substances, adolescents who lack
a commitment to their education report higher levels of risk taking behaviours and substance abuse
(Mash & Wolfe, 2010).

110 | UNIT 4
 b. The family/parents Many adolescents from broken homes abuse alcohol or drugs but
adolescents from loving, caring families also may fall into substance
abuse. How children perceive what their parents’ expectations for
them are (for example that they have to abstain from alcohol)
and how involved or absent they are, plays an important role in
the adolescent’s use of alcohol. Brown and Abrantes state that
“the lack of parental involvement and parent-child affection,
inconsistent parenting and poor monitoring, and negative parent-
child and inter-parent interactions are all factors that increase the
risk of substance use (Mash & Wolfe, 2010). Other family influences
may be the parental history of substance abuse, their acceptance
of drugs or distant family relationships.

Peer influence plays an important role in the beginning of drug abuse. c. The peer group and
Adolescents want to fit in and be liked by their friends and others
(Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Alcohol use is often influenced by peer
pressure to conform. Many adolescents engage in binge drinking, which
friends
4
they perceive as risky but somehow acceptable within the peer context
(Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). They choose to adopt similar beliefs
than their friends which may be supporting drug use, and through their
affiliation with these peers they have more access to substances. Peers
may glamorise substance use, hence encouraging teens to use alcohol
and drugs as a way of ‘fitting in’ (Mash & Wolfe, 2010). Apart from the fear
of rejection by the peer group, risk factors for drug abuse are associating
with drug users and the early initiation into drug use.

d. Other factors

Society’s ills, including moral permissiveness, a misguided concept of freedom and the break-up of the
family unit, all produce fertile ground for drug addiction (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). According to
Papalia et al., children are influenced by the omnipresence of substance use in the media (Gouws, Kruger,
& Burger, 2008) and out of curiosity or the desire to escape from overwhelming problems (Papalia, Olds,
& Feldman, 2006). “In addition, the idea of a false consensus (i.e. the belief that everyone is doing it)
exerts pressure on youths to engage in substance use.” (Mash & Wolfe, 2010)

The consequences of substance abuse can be divided into physical, emotional and social effects. These
effects are widespread and can be short-term and long-term, endangering a person’s present and future
health. We focus on the consequences as prevalent in adolescence.
Physical consequences of alcohol abuse include impaired intellectual and thought processes, perception
and sensory-motor co-ordination and hence prevent the individual from normal functioning (Gouws,
Kruger, & Burger, 2008). The degree of intoxication may be determined by body weight, amount of food
present in stomach, drinking rate over time, prior drinking experience, heredity, personality factors and an
individual’s environment and culture (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Substance abuse may lead to malnutrition or
various physical illnesses, mental illness, suicide or accidental death due to an overdose. It can negatively
influence perception, alertness, attention span, judgement, and the motor skills needed to drive a car and
may result in serious and fatal road accidents. Cigarette smoking is a health hazard and may cause lung
cancer, cardiac arrest and respiratory problems (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Marijuana can damage
the brain, heart, lungs, and immune system and cause nutritional deficiencies, respiratory infections and
other physical problems.
Drugs seen as harmless, such as aspirin and cough mixtures, may poison the body, resulting in failure of
the heart, kidneys and liver (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Sniffing can damage hearing, brain, bone
marrow, liver, and kidneys and can also cause oxygen depletion, heart failure, and death (Papalia, Olds, &
Feldman, 2006). When using unsterilised needles for the injection of drugs into the bloodstream, it may
cause secondary infection, such as hepatitis, blood poisoning or HIV/AIDS. The use of drugs increases the
probability to engage in high-risk sexual behaviour which may lead to unwanted pregnancies, sexually
transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Emotional consequences of alcohol abuse include happiness and loss of inhibitions because alcohol
depresses the inhibitory brain centres, poor judgment, and reduced concentration. However, depending on
the situation or context in which drinking occurs, other effects, such as negative moods and anger, may also
be experienced. Long term effects may be anxiety and hallucinations (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). The heavy
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use of marijuana may lessen motivation and interfere with schoolwork and other activities (Papalia, Olds,
& Feldman, 2006). The excessive use of substances may end in psychological and physical dependency.

UNIT 4 | 111
Social consequences lead to impaired psychological and social development, and poor peer and family
relationships. It affects the user’s ability to maintain meaningful social relationships or to fulfil major
role obligations at work, school, or home (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Academic difficulties as the result
of substance abuse may cause absenteeism, a decline in grades, truancy and even school dropout or
suspension. The abuse of substances may cause legal problems (e.g. illegal activities to support a drug
habit) or jeopardise the safety of the user or others (such as driving while intoxicated).
Teachers that are well trained and knowledgeable about the drug and alcohol abuse among learners will
be able to judge the level of expertise necessary in the treatment of substance abuse. They may take up
the role of facilitator through active listening, referring the child to the school counsellor, or to a social
worker. In the case of addiction, the learner would be referred to a professional such as a medical doctor
or psychologist.
Adolescence often is a time of turmoil for the learner, with all the physical, emotional and social
transitions and changes they experience. Nowadays more prevention programmes on substance use at
elementary and secondary school levels bear fruit of successful transitions in areas such as romantic and
peer relationships, sexual behaviour and healthy lifestyle choices. These in turn reduce various possible
problem outcomes in later life. According to Botvin and Griffin Life Skills Training emphasises building
drug resistance skills, personal and social competence, and altering cognitive expectancies around
substance use (Mash & Wolfe, 2010). Prevention programmes include some level of parental involvement
and education, and through the family-based approach seek to modify negative interactions between
family members, improve parent-child communication about substance use, and develop effective
problem-solving skills to address areas of conflict (Mash & Wolfe, 2010).

“Treatment of substance abusers and addicts depends on both the individual user and the type of drug
being used. Most alcohol and drug treatment programmes have two phases: first, the removal of the
abusive substance, and second, long-term maintenance without it” (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Programmes
are generally administered by professional practitioners.
According to reality therapists, clients choose their behaviours as a way to deal with the frustrations
caused by unsatisfying relationships (Corey, 2013). They teach their clients to clarify their unmet needs
and prioritise what it is they want. Through the counselling process they explore their behaviour and
evaluate how effective these behaviours have been in trying to get what they want. “Reality therapists
believe that people are motivated to change (1) when they are convinced that their present behaviour is
not getting them what they want and (2) when they believe they can choose other behaviours that will
get them closer to what they want” (Corey, 2013). Robert Wubbolding states that clients can learn that
they are not victims at the mercy of others, but that they can control their own choices (Corey, 2013).
Children with a problem of substance abuse may be led to explore what their needs are and what it is
they want and hope for in their world and life. They take a look at the control they have over their choices
of behaviour, how their current behaviours are helping or not helping in getting what they want, and
eventually setting goals in how they can rectify behaviour that is not bringing them closer to what they
would like to accomplish. The WPED system can be successfully applied to group counselling as well. In
dealing with the satisfying of their basic needs, it is an ideal system to be applied to the class as a whole
as well as to the individual learner within the group setting.

Gerald Corey conceptualised the WDEP system as an extension of the theory and practice of reality
therapy.

W= D= E= P=
wants direction and doing evaluation of the self planning and action

This practice of reality therapy is described in his book Theory and Practice of Counselling and
Psychotherapy p 314-318.

4.7 How to manage one’s money via budgets

As part of life skills learners come in contact with how to spend and save money. They have to learn to
manage their own finances through the process of budgeting. The learners are taught how to handle
information wisely, how to identify priorities and how to plan effective use of their pocket money. They
learn to evaluate the consequences when making financial decisions and how to effectively address
consumer issues.

What is a budget?
A budget is a plan for an estimate of income and expenditure for a set period of time. It is a tool that
helps you take control of your money. For learners a budget may be the plan on how they can manage
their pocket money.

112 | UNIT 4
 Why budget?
Why is it helpful to have a budget? It helps a person to manage his/her money wisely. For learners it is
important to manage their pocket money effectively. If they have mastered a way of how to budget their
pocket money, they will most probably be able to manage their salary or business income effectively
one day. Planning a budget gives a better picture on the flow of your money – how, when and how much
money you get in and when, how much and on what it is spent. A brain map of the reasons for a budget
may look something like this:

Income vs
expense
needs &
keep track
wants

Why budget? 4
wasting prioritise

warning pay bills

signs

Budgeting helps you:

• ensure that expenditure does not exceed income
• keep track where your money is going
• prioritise – buying things you really need first
• have money available to pay bills
• get early warning signals of over-spending
• see whether you are wasting your money
• decide what you need and want and plan how to obtain money to get it.

Planning a budget
From the reasons given above it seems as if budgeting offers a lot of advantages in the effective
management of a person’s money. What then can learners do to manage their pocket money effectively?
Anyone can benefit from drawing up a money planner and it can be done in a few steps as
illustrated below:

Pick a time What is total Income vs

Total expenses
frame income? expenses

Budget plan Track spending

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Need any
Avoid debt Save Set goals
change?

UNIT 4 | 113
 Pick a time-frame. For example, a learner receiving an allowance on a monthly basis may
Step 1: decide the time-frame to be more or less 30 days. A time-frame of one week will be a
good option for learners who receive their pocket money maybe every Friday.
Determine total income. A learner may receive pocket money from his/her parents, but
also do chores for extra money, or generate an extra income by for instance designing
Step 2: and/or selling jewellery. In the case of varying total income per time-frame, learners
should be careful not to over-estimate their total income which may result in planned
expenses outweighing the income.
Outline total expenses (essentials and extras). Write down all usual and planned necessities
for the period, for example toiletries or materials needed for the making of the jewellery.
Step 3:
Then write down extra expenses like magazines, going out with friends. Estimate the
costs and add up the total.
Compare income with expenses. How does the total of the income compare with the total
amount of the expenses? The planned expenses have to be adjusted if they are more than
Step 4:
the outcome, like deciding against buying the magazine, or invite friends over instead of
going out to the movies.
Track your spending on a regular basis. Sometimes costs have a nasty habit of escalating
Step 5: faster than was estimated. Keeping track of the money spent, may lead to adjustments of
the money plan halfway through the time-frame.
Set goals you want to achieve. When a person knows what it is he/she wants to achieve or
wants to buy, his money planner may accommodate his goals. Learners who put money
Step 6:
aside for something they have planned to buy or do, will more easily refrain from spending
money on something that is of no use to them.
Set aside some of the income for savings. Money saved may be a great help in the case
Step 7:
of an unexpected expense or opportunity.
Avoid getting into debt. Spending more money than what was received, inevitably results
Step 8: into borrowing money. The paying back of a loan adds to the pressure of trying to save a
budget that does not seem to balance the expense with the income.
Evaluate the budget and make necessary changes. Learners have to learn how to be
realistic and not make financial plans they cannot achieve. When the money plan does
Step 9: not work efficiently and the income just does not match the expense, a new budget
plan has to be drawn up. Either the expenses need to be cut, or more income needs to
be generated.

Drawing up a budget may not be easy at first. There are many things that are not considered in the
beginning and that are only realised halfway through the time-frame. Some expenses are difficult to
estimate beforehand. It can be very frustrating when some unplanned expense capsizes the budget-boat.
There are advantages and disadvantages to writing out a budget plan as the following table shows:

Pros & cons of a written budget

Pros
It is easier to prioritize (needs, then wants)
You can plan how you will buy expensive items
You may estimate how much you can save
You have a permanent record
Cons
It takes time to plan a budget and keep record of
expenses
It’s not always easy to plan ahead. Sometimes
extra expenses crop up and you will have to deal
with them immediately

Sometimes people may stop budgeting altogether for the following reasons:
• Their budget plan is too complicated, so it takes too much time to work out
• They give up because they cannot keep record what they have done with the money
• The budget may be too rigid
• They have become used to their cash flow and no longer feel the need to budget
However, people have to be responsible in the way they manage their money. Learners too should
recognise how to make use of their pocket money wisely. In doing so it is necessary to identify their
priorities in planning their budgets.

114 | UNIT 4
 To successfully execute a budget plan, it is important to know how to manage one’s income and expenses.
Learners have to understand the meanings of income and expense, and the difference between a need
and a want when planning their finances.
Income can be described as the total amount of money received from all sources,
including pocket money, wages, commissions, bonuses, government or
retirement benefits, compensation claims, interest and dividends on investments.
Income differs from the one person to the next and changes as people go
through the different stages of their life-cycle. Young children’s only and first
income may be their pocket money. They learn how to use the same amount of
money over fixed periods of time. As they grow older they may generate extra
money by doing chores at home for which they get paid, or by starting their own
small business of buying and selling, or producing and selling. They may get
awarded for outstanding academic or sport achievements, or a bursary to
further their studies. Thus they learn that an income can be a fixed amount
regularly received, like a salary; or it may be an income paid as needed or as
earned, for example a study loan payment or money paid for contract work. Not
knowing beforehand what the exact amount of income will be makes the
planning of expenses more complex.
4
Expenses can be seen as the things people spend their money on: for example, clothes, books, magazines,
DVDs, hairdressing services etc. Expenses may be very unpredictable, therefore while budgeting, it is best
to start with a list of everyday expenses. The next step will be to distinguish between the “needs” and the
“wants” in the list. “Needs are goods and services that people “must” have: e.g. teenagers need money
for textbooks and school transport. Wants are goods and services that people desire but can probably
do without: e.g. teenagers often want new clothes when they already have what they need for different
situations in their life” (Dolceta, 2011). It is necessary to distinguish between needs and wants in order to
identify priorities to be taken into account when planning a budget. Only after provision was made for
the “needs” the “wants” can be considered. For the proper management of a budget one has to assess
whether the income and expenses are balanced. If the expenses are greater than the sources of income,
a re-evaluation of the financial plan is done and the necessary changes are made.

4.8 Smart ‘consumer skills’

People who have to earn a living generally have to manage their money responsibly. They learn that
there are various ways of buying what they need and want; and there are different ways of “storing” their
earnings. A person, as a consumer, has the responsibility of making sure he/she goes about a transaction
the right way.
A consumer also has rights to protect him/her from any form of malpractice. The material used in this
unit was taken from - and is covered in more detail - on the web page of Dolceta Online Consumer
Education (www.dolceta.eu).

a. Who is a consumer?
A consumer is someone who buys –
»» goods like books, food, clothes, games from a shop or other outlet or source
»» a service, usually from a specialist (e.g. beautician, hairdresser, mechanic, electrician or bus driver)
»» goods or services for personal use
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UNIT 4 | 115
 b. The responsibilities of a consumer

Being a consumer brings certain responsibilities. Consumers have to be sure that their purchases are
genuine and legitimate. In doing so they may prevent a potential crime from realising and they affirm their
own rights of being protected from intentional misconduct.

Some consumer problems may be avoided by following these simple guidelines:

»» Always get several estimates for any major purchase or service contract. Shop around before you
decide.
»» Never sign a contract without reading it first. Do not sign a blank contract that a salesperson says
will be completed later. If there is anything which you do not understand, insist that it is explained
to you. You can always ask to show the contract to a friend for advice before signing.
»» Always keep your receipts, guarantee, contract, etc. They will be vital if problems arise.
»» Always check the product thoroughly at the shop before buying it or when it is delivered to your
home.

c. The rights of a consumer

Consumers acting and purchasing goods in a legal and moral way are to be treated with respect and
honesty. Advertisers and salespeople are obligated to stick to rules that protect the consumer from
being harmed in any way. All consumers are protected by law - no matter their age - by the same basic
rights which include the following:
1) The right to satisfaction of basic needs. To have access to basic, essential goods and services:
adequate food, clothing, shelter, health care, education and sanitation.
2) The right to safety. To be protected against products, production processes and services which
are hazardous to health or lives
3) The right to be informed. To be given the facts needed to make an informed choice and to be
protected against dishonest or misleading advertising and labelling.
4) The right to choose. To be able to select from a range of products and services, offered at
competitive prices with an assurance of satisfactory quality.
5) The right to be heard. To have consumer interests represented in the making and execution of
government policy and in the development of products and services.
6) The right to redress. To receive a fair settlement of just claims, including compensation for
misrepresentation, shoddy goods or unsatisfactory services.
7) The right to consumer education. To acquire knowledge and skills needed to make informed and
confident choices about goods and services, while being aware of basic consumer rights and
responsibilities and how to act on them.
It may happen that a person, in buying an item or using a service, does not get what was expected.
As a result, he/she will need to take action to get the product replaced or to get a better service.
The unsatisfied customer identifies the best method of redress suited for the situation. He can make a
complaint in person, by telephone or in writing.

d. Consumer skills

Consumers can learn more about how they can manage their expenditures by knowledge of different
ways of payment and identifying where they can get the best value for their money for products and
services delivered. They assess potential risks, safety and their own responsibilities in doing transactions.
They distinguish between what they need and what they want. The consumer decides on where to go for
the products or services needed.

Reasons for buying at a specific place may be any of the following:

»» Most things required, are in the store
»» Within walking distance
»» Low prices
»» Can use a variety of means to pay and store has more than one cash point
»» Use fast lane if buying less than ten items
»» Shelves are low and the assistants helpful
»» Disabled parking available and wide, automatic doors

116 | UNIT 4
 Consumers have to be aware of the advantages and disadvantages when choosing a method of payment
to use when purchasing an item. They can pay by cash, cheque, bank cards or electronic payments. A
bank may issue a client a debit or credit card which the supplier of goods or services may accept as a
means of payment.
To pay with a debit card a client needs to have money in his bank account.
Whenever a client pays with a credit card he is borrowing money from
the bank. Both cards can be used at Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
to withdraw cash. In the case of a credit card, the client is withdrawing
money ’’on loan’’ from the bank, which will in turn start charging interest
straight away. In the case of a debit card, the client withdraws cash from
funds available in his bank account.
Consumer skills not only entail the spending of money but also the knowledge of what to do with their
savings. They have to learn about investments like savings accounts, bonds, shares, life insurance policy

4
and so forth. When a person decides to invest in property but do not have the capital, he/she may need
to take out a mortgage over a long period of time. As responsible consumers people make sure that they
have appropriate knowledge about the paying of loans and possible adversities like lost or stolen cards
or cheque books, bounced cheques and misuse of credit cards. They are aware of precautions on how to
keep their money and cards safe, not giving their PIN number to anyone, or giving their card details to
any unauthorised person over the phone or internet.

4.9 The ‘building up learners’ role of the teacher inside and outside the classroom
The role of the teacher is not just to stand in front of a class and teach their learners about subject matter.
Their purpose is not to cram the learners’ heads with facts, but mainly to prepare them for life. Teachers
sometimes carry the hat of counsellor, surrogate parent, nutritionist – in short being someone who has
the best interests of every child at heart. They show care and concern for the learners and maybe make a
child’s day or build a learner’s self-esteem.
Teachers build the integrity and character of the future generation by choosing to do the right thing.
This task sometimes seems daunting as inside the classroom we find a mixed selection of learners based
on their level of intelligence and abilities. Lots of patience, innovation and motivation are required from
teachers inside and outside the classroom.
Some strategies a teacher can employ in ‘building up’ a child and bringing out the best in each learner,
include:

Treat each learner as an individual learning in different ways (visual, audio,

kinaesthetic, etc.) and at different speeds.

Positive feedback on efforts and positive behaviour

Frequent praise and encouragement

Trust in their opinion and judgement - involve the learners in decision-making

Focus on their strengths

Presenting help when notice that learner is struggling

Connect with previous knowledge before

starting with something new

In assignments: allow for study/team buddies, start with easier parts, teach them
time management and how to break up task in smaller, more manageable parts.

Set reasonable goals for learners to achieve

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Offer plenty of models, samples and demonstrations

Help them see the connection between effort and success

UNIT 4 | 117
Teachers need not be perfect in their skills and abilities, but by setting a good example every day,
appraising the class’ worth, they can inspire and motivate their learners in a way that lead them to feel
good about themselves.

4.10 The ‘mature adult’

Definition:
Mature: Having reached full natural growth or development www.thefreedictionary.com/
The definition of mature we find above is one of many. Basically we can say that a mature adult is
someone who has grown a lot in all facets of life and who behaves in a responsible and amendable way.
Mature adults understand the difference between their rights and their responsibilities. They take
responsibility for their own lives - even when there are parts of it they do not like or did not choose.
Another part of maturity is the understanding of oneself and what matters to you, together with knowing
how you work and what you want out of life.
Learners who display maturity are likely to identify their responsibilities and make informed decisions in
life. This needs to be instilled into learners, so that they can understand and take responsibility for their
own learning.

4.11 Choosing a date or relationship partner – guidelines for learners

Teenagers are in the process of becoming sexually mature. Through primary school they prefer to associate
and play with their own gender, but during adolescence they increasingly become more interested in the
opposite sex. Often young people are uninformed or misinformed about romantic relationship issues and
they may engage in partnerships that they have not given much thought to or that may be harmful to
their person. Teachers can play a big role in preparing learners on how to approach present and future
romantic relationships.

A relationship can be defined as the way in which two or more people or things are connected. As human
beings we form good relationships with a wide variety of people. This is necessary for a happy life and
allows us to develop our characters to the fullest. The child, through his years of development, has an
expanding circle of other people with whom they get in contact with. At first there is the parent-child
relationship, then the siblings, the peer and the teacher-learner relationships, and earlier in this unit we
have worked with the counsellor-client relationship. Friendship is a vital relationship. Very often friends
have a considerable influence on a person. People may be friends throughout their lives, offering each
other significant help, encouragement and support. Good friendships need to be taken care of. In the
exercise underneath you have to match the type of friend with its definition.

Definitions Answer Type of friend

a. someone you know to a certain extent and will possibly nod to
say hello to. You don’t usually choose to spend much time with Close friend
them and you do not have any strong feelings about them.
b. Someone you care a lot about and who is concerned about
you. There is trust between the two of you, and you both
Ordinary friend
support each other. You share your thoughts and feelings and
are willing to stay friends, even if you have your disputes.

118 | UNIT 4
 c. Someone you like and most likely see regularly because
you have mutual friends. You may not feel very close to this Best friend
person.
d. A person you know well and are fond of. You meet him/her
often and feel that you can trust him/her and rely on him/her Acquaintances
to help you out if you’re having difficulties.
Answers to the exercise can be found under Feedback on learning activities at the end of the unit.

Your friend is an important person in your life. He or she knows you very well, cares for you and will be
there for you in both good and challenging times. Friends are ready to forgive each other. Friends share
good values like trust, loyalty and acceptance.

The identification with one’s gender identity happens at an early stage of a person’s life and middle school
children mostly prefer to interact with same gender peers. Adolescence marks the start of heterosexual
relationships which is one of the main aspects of their social development. “The initial awkward attempts
of early adolescence gradually change and adolescents begin to communicate with each other in a more
4
sophisticated way.” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008) During this period the dating process begins, which
is the precursor of more serious romantic relationships.
a. Guidelines in choosing a date

I am an educated, hard I’m just your average girl I am an honest, reliable

working person that enjoys
the finer things in life. I am
very social and would like
to share with someone
special who appreciates..
that is looking to explore
and experience new stuff.
I am not desperate to
jump into a relationship,
just want to have fun.
and trustworthy person. I
am an outdoor person and
enjoy life. I like to laugh
and do things impulsively.

To be attracted to the opposite sex is a normal part of development during adolescence. Often though
young people are influenced by the media and peers, who sometimes present ideas of what a date should
be like, in many distorted ways. They are exposed to explicit movies on television; and the internet offering
dating sites ranging from ‘for professionals’ to ‘one-night-stands’. Adolescents need to be prepared for
and informed on how to date a member of the opposite sex. Cultural factors often affect the way people
view relationships with others. First relationships are formed in the family where tradition and culture may
play an important role.
Learners who want to ask someone out on a date should know what they are looking for in the other
person. Do they want someone they can talk to about the things that interest them, have a lot of fun with,
can show off to their friends or can bring them in contact with someone they desperately want to meet
and impress? The items on the following list can be rated on a scale (e.g. 1 when not important to 5 when
it is very important) to show them what they are looking for in a partner they want to ask out on a date.

“In choosing a date for the evening I would like him/her to…”
• be someone I have known for a while
• be from the same culture than me
• be talkative
• be sexy
• have money
• depend on my lead
• be hard working
• be someone who travels a lot
• share my interests
• like flirting with the opposite sex
• be intellectual
• be jealous of my attention
• be the most popular kid in the school
• have sexual intercourse with me
• introduce me to influential people
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Does this give them a better picture of what they are looking for in a partner for one evening? If the
answers were those of someone rating them as a date, how would that make them feel? How would they
like the other party wanting them to be the most popular kid in the school (if they are not), or to have
money (if they barely survive on their pocket money), or to be jealous of their attention (when actually
they want to be adored themselves).

UNIT 4 | 119
 NEW
haircut Ironed
clothing
Brushed
teeth

Showered
Shaved
Trimmed
& clean
nails Deodorant,
cologne,
aftershave

HER ASKING HIM OUT ON A DATE HIM ASKING HER OUT ON A DATE
Ask him out in person – rather than by email Gauge her interest. Is she making eye contact,
1
or text. smiling/talking to you?
Do not constantly touch her if she does
2 Take the time to get to know him better. not touch you in return – it may scare or
intimidate her.
When she talks to you LISTEN and look at her
3 Do not overcrowd his space.
face (not her body).
On the day you plan on asking him out, wear an Help her when she needs assistance. If she does
4
outfit that gives you confidence. not want to be helped, leave it be.
Walk up to him slowly (don’t creep him out), When popping the question make sure you look
5
and introduce yourself, or make small talk. and smell nice and compliment her.
Make eye contact, compliment him and maybe
6 Relax, pretend it is no big deal.
touch him lightly on the arm.
Ask him non-intrusive questions about himself If she asks if you are asking her out on a date,
7
(choice of food, sport, interests, etc.) say yes.
8 Make sure you are alone before asking him out. Be prepared for rejection.
Ask him out. If he says no – respond with a
9 good-natured grin and give him space. He may Keep your cool. Respond gracefully and move on.
just want to call you back sometime.
Asking someone out on a date involves being considerate towards the person you want to take out on
the date. It is essential to keep in mind that shared values and interests, as well as personal qualities, form
the basis of pleasing relationships.
Unfortunately, many pressures exist among young people to engage in sexual relationships. Most of
the time, these sexual relationships are unplanned, unprotected and can cause a lot of problems. Being
unprepared and uninformed puts young people at risk of unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted
infections, including HIV/AIDS, and emotional stress. In some cultures, women play hard to get, usually
turning down a man numerous times before accepting an invitation. “No” may actually be considered part
of the courting game. Girls should be strong and forceful when saying no to a sexual advance in order to
make it absolutely clear that they do not want to partake in sexual intercourse.
Young people may confuse physical attraction for love. This can result in unexpected let downs and
feelings of being hurt. On the other hand, “in time the relationships become more serious, intimate and
permanent, leading eventually to the choice of a life partner” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
b. Guidelines in choosing a relationship partner
There are certain similarities and differences between close friendships and romantic relationships. Two
people may feel attracted to each other because they live close to each other, like each other, like the
other one’s looks and/or have mutual interests. At times, some friendships grow and develop into romantic
relationships where two people care deeply for one another. Going back to the list in (a) Guidelines for
choosing a date (for one evening), how would adolescents this time rate a romantic partner in a serious
relationship? Are there differences worth mentioning in their viewpoint of what they would like to find in
their partner?
Intimate relationships generally consist of passionate attraction and mutual expectations. Because of
these intense emotions romantic relationships frequently are a source of heartache, pain and stress
for the individuals. Intimate relationships “also hold the danger of early sexual activity, premarital sex,
pregnancy, sexual promiscuity and sexually transmitted diseases” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). A
loving relationship does not necessarily mean having sex. There are factors that a couple should consider
when making decisions about whether or not to be involved in sexual activity. The decision on whether to
engage in a sexual relationship can involve:

120 | UNIT 4
 when to start a sexual encounter

nature of the sexual activity

types of contraception

use of safe sex

possibility of pregnancy

HIV/AIDS and other STIs (sexually transmitted illnesses).

Most of the time, sexual relationships between adolescents are not planned or protected. This may result
in numerous difficulties. With little knowledge and lack of readiness their actions may result in adolescents 4
being at risk of catching sexually transmitted illnesses, having unwanted pregnancies and suffering from
emotional stress.

Sexually Transmitted
Illnesses (STIs)…
Infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse or
close body contact. Examples include gonorrhoea, syphilis,
genital sores and herpes. Antibiotics generally are
necessary for the treatment of STIs.

Much has been written about romance and love. People differ in their perspectives on what can be
expected from a close romantic relationship partner. Cultures have different views and traditions on
people getting married. Basic principles about love include:
• Actions speak louder than verbal promises of love and devotion – it is not the person you love but
what he/she does for you.
• Love requires a reciprocal investment from both partners – like a business relationship, you have
to invest in the relationship so as to benefit from its rewards.
• Love needs management – like a business.
• Do not expect to be ecstatically happy all the time – the goal is to be just reasonably content.

And for a compatible relationship the following can be added:

• Respect the other one’s wishes, values and beliefs – what he/she wants to achieve in life.
• Common interests and doing things together.
• Being equals intellectually - and not having to communicate with a dull or insensitive person.
• Make sure the other person knows what principles you follow.
However, learners have to realise that choosing a relationship partner is not about following rules according
to the book. People are unique and people change. Respect, care and friendship, together with love, will
go a far way though.
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UNIT 4 | 121
SUMMARY In teaching children life skills, the teacher concentrates on the child as an
individual first of all and how they can develop their skills and potential
as best as possible. To be able to do this, an individual must know him/
herself. Self-awareness and the ability to apply problem solving skills
in life are important factors of emotional intelligence. Typical of high
emotional intelligence behaviour are the abilities of self-control, self-
motivation, empathy and the establishing and maintaining of good social
relationships. Ineffective methods for solving social and interpersonal
conflict may lead to misconduct and aggravated physical and verbal
expression of emotions. The A-B-C model of the rational emotive
behaviour therapy helps people to reconstruct their thoughts and to
increase their ability to manage emotions and behaviour, which in turn
leads to more appropriate social functioning.
Life skills cannot be taught without the confirmation of values and the
role they play in the emotional and social well-being of the developing
young child. The role of the educator is not just to teach but also to
care for a child by building a learner’s self-esteem, bringing out the
best in each individual. When learners develop a positive self-esteem
they have self-respect and a favourable impression of their own person.
Knowing the self and knowing what they need and want from life help
adolescents to resist or decide against the abuse of alcohol, drugs and
other substances. Children who know what they need and want in life
and know how to manage their own finances and learn the skills, rights
and responsibility of being a consumer, are empowered in the process
of becoming independent young adults. Learners who display maturity
are likely to identify their responsibilities and make informed decisions in
life. In choosing a date or a relationship partner the learner should know
what he/she expects from the relationship and they should be aware
of dangers posed by unplanned actions, which may lead to high-risk
behaviours such as substance abuse and unprotected sexual activities.

FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

Emotional intelligence, including the 5 elements as suggested by Goleman.

Your answer should state the relation between feelings, thoughts and behaviour. High emotional
intelligence implies the learned ability to positively handle the everyday demands from environmental
influences. The 5 elements suggested by Goleman are self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating
oneself, empathy, and social skills (the ability to handle relationships).

Learner activity 2

Choose the correct answer:

a. Influences playing in on the emotion regulation of children may be direct, indirect, environmental
opportunities, and individual that includes depression, conduct problems and maltreatment.
Thus although environmental opportunities have an influence on the way children learn to
manage their emotions, it is not part of an individual’s disposition. Therefore, option c is the
correct answer.
b. The correct option is a The components of the A-B-C model are: activating agent, belief,
emotional and behavioural consequences, disputing intervention, effective philosophy and
new feeling. Option b is not correct because disputing intervention and effective philosophy
form part of the process of restructured thinking and not of the interpersonal conflict situation.
The A-B-C model is a tool used by rational emotive behaviour therapy that assists people in
managing their emotions. The ability to manage emotions effectively is an element of emotional
intelligence, not the model itself. Therefore, option c is not correct.

122 | UNIT 4
 Learner activity 3

Define a problem you would like to solve and write down your plan of action according to the steps
provided in the working sheet.
There are no set answers for this exercise. In practising problem solving, you should use a problem
you have encountered. Write down as many possible options to a solution you can think of before you
start eliminating the ones that are not suited for the specific problem. Choose the option that seems to
offer the likeliest solution and decide on how you will implement that. After the plan was put to action,
evaluate the outcome. Did it solve the problem satisfactorily? If not, select another alternative and
re-evaluate its possibility to offer a solution and how this can be done.

Learner activity 4

a. Evaluate the following values in terms of the consequences they may have for a person.
4
Values Possible consequences
Contribute to community Normally a positive value
To be in control Not necessarily a negative value, but not good if obsessive or
want to control other people
Make a lot of money and Often a negative value; not good if it outshines everything
become wealthy else, or when it induces harm on others
Recognition from others Not necessarily a negative value, but often disappointing for
others do not readily give recognition
Excitement and taking risks Not necessarily a positive value – can be dangerous if not
well planned and supervised
Personal achievement Normally a positive value if not obsessed with it
Independence Normally a positive value, but may become lonely if
independent to a point where help and friends get pushed
away
Status Not necessarily a negative value, although mostly it may
involve greed and egoism
Perfectionism Not necessarily a negative value, but may hamper
relationships with others
Family Mostly a positive value
Spiritual growth Mostly a positive value
Healthy lifestyle Mostly a positive value
Leadership A positive value if caring for others
Caring for others and Mostly a positive value
environment
Security Mostly a positive value

b. Decide which of the given values you would like to change in your life and which to leave as is.
There are no right or wrong answers as the choice on changing certain values is a
personal matter.
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UNIT 4 | 123
 Learner activity 5

The consequences of substance abuse:

Consquences of
substace abuse

Physical Emotional Social

Thoughts, perception, Happiness, loss of Poor peer and family

sensory -motor,
malnutrition illnesses
e.g. lung cancer, cardiac
arrest & respitory.
Damaged organs, bone
marrow hearing, hepatitis,
oxygen depletion.
inhibitions, Poor
judgement, Reduced
concentration, Negative
moods, Anger, Anxiety,
Hallucinations, Less
motivation.
& social relationships.
Reduces functioning,
Absenteeism, Grade
declines, Truancy, School
dropout, Suspension,
Legal problems,
Jeopardise own & other
safety

Learner activity 6

Your budget must include the following steps:

Step 1 – Pick a time frame. Here you specify the period of time necessary for the budget, for example,
a month, week, etc.
Step 2 – Determine total income. Add up all your means of income for the period specified in step 1.
Step 3 – Outline total expenses (essentials and extras). Write down all the expected expenses and
prioritise them according to the needs and wants.
Step 4 – Compare income with expenses. How does the total of the income compare with the total
amount of the expenses? If the expenses outweigh the income, you have to decide on cutting back on
the expenses.
Step 5 – Track your spending on a regular basis. What have you spent money on and how much?
Keeping track of the money spent, may lead to adjustments of the money plan.
Step 6 – Set goals you want to achieve. What are your personal goals? Are you putting money aside to
accommodate these goals? Maybe you can name incidences where you have refrained from spending
money on unnecessary products.
Step 7 – Set aside some of the income for savings.
Step 8 – Avoid getting into debt. Payments on loans would be part of the needs in Step 3.
Step 9 – Evaluate the budget and make necessary changes. Make sure your expenses do not exceed
your income.

124 | UNIT 4
 NOTES

4
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UNIT 4 | 125
 Reasons for and
5.1 prevention of learners Factors that cause anxiety
dropping out of school The impact of
5.2 in learners and the
counselling thereof single parent
5.3 families on learners’
lives and learning
The impact of socio-
economic deprivation
5.4 (poverty) on learners’ lives
and learning

The reasons for and

impact of substance
5.5 abuse on learners’
lives and learning and
counselling in abuse cases
The reasons for suicide
5.6 and pregnancy amongst Interpersonal
adolescents relationships and
5.8 learners’ lives
Counselling interventions
5.7 for possible suicide cases and learning

General characteristics
5.9 of underachievers

Counselling
5.10 interventions for How to counsel
underachievers learners about
5.11 effective study
methods

How to counsel
learners about
5.12 preparing for and
The impact of some
writing exams STUDY key challenges that
UNIT 5 learners experience and
counselling for it

How to advise parents

on answering children’s
5.13 questions of a sexual
nature

5.14 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on
Learning Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 5
The impact of some key challenges that learners
experience and counselling for it

INTRODUCTION Learners, as developing beings, experience many physical, psychological

and social changes. Adolescents are at a vulnerable age where, in a process
of finding their own identity, they often have to deal with challenges
caused by circumstances they find themselves in. Learners may drop
out of school because they feel no connection with the educational
system, or they feel obliged to help support the family and leave
school to find a job. Learners may suffer from anxiety because of their
circumstances. The extent to which they experience anxiety is influenced
by factors such as their genetic disposition, their medical condition, the

5
environment they live in, and more. Children from single parent families
may be more exposed to anxiety provoking circumstances as well as
poverty, which can result in negative school performance. In households
where the single parent is involved in his/her child’s activities and the
home atmosphere is warm and stimulating, it does not seem to affect
a learner’s performance and abilities. Socio-economic deprivation has
a negative influence on the learner’s school performance, as well as
physical and psychological development.
Poverty is but one of the reasons why adolescents, in trying to escape
from their realities, may experiment with the use of alcohol and drugs. In
turn, the abuse of drugs can lead to high-risk behaviours such as sexual
promiscuity. Children who feel their life to be out of control may see
suicide as the only solution. As the child matures, he/she increasingly
associates with others in the environment and their world changes and
expands continually as they come in contact with other members of
their society.
Unit 5 deals primarily with these key challenges that learners experience
and provide guidelines to teacher-counsellors on how to support learners
with anxiety, who abuse substances and who may be possible suicide
cases. Additionally, learning problems are addressed and we look at
interventions for underachievers, guidelines for effective study methods
and for the preparing and writing of examinations. Finally, advice on the
answering of children’s questions of a sexual nature to their parents,
are proposed.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Examine reasons for and prevention of learners dropping out of school

• Examine factors that cause anxiety in learners and propose counselling for it
• Discuss the impact of single parent families on learners’ lives and learning
• Discuss the impact of socio-economic deprivation (poverty) on learners’ lives and learning
• Discuss the reasons for and impact of substance abuse on learners’ lives and learning and
counselling in abuse cases
• Analyse the reasons for suicide and pregnancy under adolescents
• Propose the counselling interventions for possible suicide cases
• Debate the impact of interpersonal relationships on learners’ lives and learning
• Examine the general characteristics of underachievers
• Analyse counselling interventions for underachievers
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• Propose how you would counsel learners about effective study methods
• Propose how you would counsel learners about preparing for and writing exams
• Clarify how to advise parents on answering their children’s questions of a sexual nature

UNIT 5 | 127
 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!

1. Summarise the role of the school in the prevention of school drop-outs.

2. Choose the correct answer from the given options:
2.a. The belief that too much research was being conducted on anxiety, hostility and neuroses
and too little on joy, creativity and self-fulfilment was posed by
2.a.a. Albert Ellis
2.a.b. Abraham Maslow
2.a.c. Carl Rogers
2.b. Anxiety according to the humanistic approach is too much accentuated by Existentialism
and more emphasis should be placed on concepts such as freedom, choice, values, and…
2.b.1. assertiveness
2.b.2. self esteem
2.b.3. meaning
2.c. An unhealthy belief is a ………… factor causing anxiety.
2.c.1. cognitive behaviour
2.c.2. heredity
2.c.3. psychological
3. Summarise the effects poverty may have on children from a single-parent family.
4. Discuss the impact of poverty on a learner’s learning ability and school performance.
5. Identify the physical, emotional, cognitive and social symptoms of the use of marijuana (dagga)
that a teacher should look out for in a learner.
6. In reading the news report from “The Namibian” as reprinted in this module, distinguish
between the incidences of suicide between the teenager and the three family members. Name
the possible reasons that may have preceded their actions as discussed in the six groups of
causes under 5.6.1 Reasons for suicide amongst adolescents as the clinical psychologist Shaun
Whittaker cited in the report.
7. Give an outline on the influence of the peer group on the self-concept formation, self-
actualisation and socialisation of the adolescent.
8. Explain how you would counsel a learner who is an underachiever because of his inability to persevere.

5.1 Reasons for and prevention of learners dropping out of school

Preventing school dropout poses a significant challenge for the educational system. Although it may be
reasonably easy to identify at-risk learners, they disengage from their educational environment and drop
out of school for a variety of reasons for which there is no single solution. The decision not to complete
their school education may be the result of a history of circumstances from early education and the
process of events building a negative attitude towards attending school.
There are numerous reasons why children drop out of school. Many registered learners fail to attend
classes or they fail to learn, or fail to progress and drop out of school. Often it is the combination of reasons
that causes learners to leave school. A major cause for children to leave school before they graduate, is
poverty. Due to financial difficulties they cannot pay their school fees, accessories and transport, and have
to work to support the family or do house chores and look after siblings.
We can roughly divide learners that do not complete their school education into two groups: some of
them are discontent with what the school offers them and the other group are children who for some
reason feel compelled to discontinue their studies.

128 | UNIT 5
 Discontent learners Learners who find it hard to stay in school
A great number of school children decide not to Some learners may feel obliged to drop out of
complete their school education because they school due to circumstances they feel they have
may feel: no control over.
• they have no connection to the school Academically they are failing; they get poor
• school is boring grades and perhaps were retained more than
once. Their repetition and low achievement
• that what they have to learn has no relevance
may be because of a lack of remedial programs
to their lives
offered by their school. They may have entered
• graduation requirements are too difficult high school without being properly prepared by
• they cannot keep up with school work their earlier schooling. Some may feel their lack
• the school does not do enough to help of academic success is the result of inadequate
educational provision by the school such as
• teachers are not available for extra help
teacher’s absenteeism or the safety of attending
• the interaction between teachers and learners learners. Parents not being informed due to poor
are poor communication between the school and parents
• they do not get any support (from teachers, may be unsupportive or uninvolved with their
class mates, parents) child as school attendant. It seems that parents
• they are being discriminated against (because with some education themselves are more
of e.g. race, disability, etc.)
• the school lacks discipline
supportive of their child getting an academic
education. In a society where a culture of failure
has become normative, the child who struggles to
5
• unmotivated and uninspired to work hard perform academically will have no motivation to
• they have missed too many days and cannot further his education.
catch up
Absenteeism of the learner also contributes
• they rather spend time with peers who engage to low grades. Missing too many days makes it
themselves in non-school activities. difficult if not impossible to catch up. Learners
These feelings of discontent are often spurred with disabilities may miss school because of
on by the schooling system being unable to a medical condition. Feeling excluded from
accommodate the learners effectively. The extramural activities and becoming disengaged
teachers may be inexperienced and often from their educational environment, they would
teach subjects for which they are not qualified. rather stay away and may eventually decide to
The school as educational environment may drop out of school.
be unaccommodating in that the facilities are
Other reasons for being absent include personal
inadequate, the classrooms overcrowded, the
matters such as ill-health, malnutrition, having to
teachers being absent and the language of
care for a family member who is old or infected
instruction inappropriate. The school lacks order,
by HIV, or being an orphan themselves. Poverty
discipline and rules; or may fail to ensure the
has a wide-spread effect in that apart from not
safety of the learners. They do not inspire their
being able to keep up with the costs involved for
students or demand more from them hence
items such as school uniforms and stationary, it
the learners have no motivation to achieve
may be expected of the child to work and earn
academically or to take part in extramural
income for the household. When the requirement
activities and functions.
for working hours starts making attendance at
Learners who are not happy generally display school difficult, the job often wins. The location of
emotional and behavioural misconduct and may the school forces a learner to walk long distances
have negative social interactions with both peers every day or to make use of transport that may
and school personnel. They find the academic be either hard to obtain, expensive or unsafe.
work challenging, often have been retained or
Becoming a parent often compels a learner to
failed more than once; and they hardly take part
drop out of school and to get a job to support the
in extracurricular activities. They prefer to spend
new family. Being a parent is a job in itself and
time with people who are not interested in school
girls who fall pregnant are generally not allowed
and easily skip classes to join in activities outside
back in school for a year.
of school or may leave school to find a job.
There are a number of reasons why school drop-out must be prevented. Society suffers when young
people do not finish school. Drop-outs are more likely to be unemployed or to have low incomes, to end
up on welfare and to become involved with drugs, crime and delinquency. In addition, the loss of taxable
income burdens the public treasury (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Many learners only realise the seriousness of their decision to drop out of high school in later life. With
the highest drop-out rate being from age 16 to 18 years, it leaves them with about two years short of
their high school education, an important requirement for entering the labour force. Full time work is a
risk factor for dropping out of school (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006), but with less than the minimum
qualification, learners who have not completed school often have no purpose and generally feel negative
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about life. They have no access to a regular income, are home-bound, become street children, try to make
a living through informal trading, and are easily recruited by criminals. Barbara Pytel (2006) states that
drop-outs are more likely to be:

UNIT 5 | 129
unemployed

in prison

living in poverty

receiving government assistance

less healthy

divorced

single parents

While most of the school drop-outs have had little academic success, they could often have succeeded in
school if they had more support from parents and teachers and if they were more motivated and aware
of the importance of a school education in the work market.
Just as there are numerous reasons for learners dropping out of school, there are a variety of interventions
for the prevention of school dropout. While most learners that dropped out blame themselves some feel
that if the system and teachers were more accommodating and supportive academically, they may have
been more motivated to complete their school education. In her article Why do students leave high school
without a diploma? Barbara Pytel cited some recommendations for practices that could have induced
them to stay (Pytel, 2006):

better teachers

more alternatives offered

schools should offer real-life opportunities

more help with learning problems

tutoring

more school counsellors

summer school

more supervision

more school-to-home communication

better mentoring between students and teachers.

Hence precautions to decrease school drop-outs are necessary and the learner, the school as educational
establishment, as well as other institutions that are part of the educational system can all take the
necessary steps in assisting children to complete their school education.

a. The school
If learners feel that the school has contributed to their decision of not completing their education, how
then can the school as educational institution be more accommodating towards scholars? To combat the
high failure rate, at-risk learners must be identified early and immediate intervention such as remedial
instruction or counselling and crisis intervention can prevent them from failing a grade (Papalia, Olds, &
Feldman, 2006) or assist children with disabilities. Smaller classes as opposed to overcrowded classrooms
with insufficient learning materials, provide more individual attention to learners and better teacher-
child interrelations. More supervision and discipline build a school climate that foster academics and
limit disruptions in the classroom. Better communication between parents and schools are essential for
keeping learners in school.

130 | UNIT 5
 Learners need to see the relevance between what they are learning and the world they live in. School
curriculum’s that enhance the connection between school and work are more engaging and if they provide
opportunities for real-life learning such as job-shadowing, technical training and other learning projects,
it improves the chances of learners completing their school education. Secondary school principals
reported that vocational training provided an environment for students who are struggling academically
to be successful. In addition, they reported that students with learning disabilities who participated in
vocational programs tended to stay more engaged in school because they perceived more relevance in
their educational program (Kemp, 2006).
Although no research has been conducted to empirically validate extracurricular activities as a method of
preventing learners from dropping out of school (Kemp, 2006), it has been found an effective prevention
strategy. This is encouraging as learners who are not involved in extramural activities tend to become
disengaged from their educational environment which in turn increases the risk of them dropping out
of school.
Sabates, Akyeampong, Westbrook & Hunt suggested in their paper on School Dropout: Patterns, Causes,
Changes and Policies that flexible schooling hours and systems, together with multi-grade and multi-age
teaching approaches and appropriate language of instruction, can help to reduce dropout rates (Sabates
et al., 2010). According to them many children, particularly those from rural, agricultural areas often have
to work during normal school hours. Especially during harvest times they get pulled away from school
which often leads to dropping out of the educational system.
Kane proposed that schooling times be adjusted during peak harvest periods or when local economic
activity is highest. To limit interference with children’s work duties, shift systems and evening classes
5
might be introduced.
The annual school programme may also be shifted so that those involved in seasonal tasks are not
excluded (Sabates et al., 2010). Flexible schooling hours however call for well-planned measures and in
schools with a diversity of learner population it may be hard to accommodate the needs of both the vast
number of learners and educators.
Some school principals are of the opinion that counselling is a most effective strategy to decrease dropout
rate for both learners with and without disabilities and that it may help negate some of the consequences
of academic failure and poor attendance (Kemp, 2006:246).

b. The educational system
Compulsory school attendance to the age of 18 years will limit
dropout numbers of children who leave school at the age of 16
when they often have two years left to complete their school
education. Teachers who are under-qualified limit a child’s
learning opportunity, and the availability of resources to teachers
for training and supporting learners should be a priority. In their
article on school drop-outs, Panday and Arends suggest an
increase of investment in early childhood development and the
foundation phase to ensure readiness for school and to prevent
early repetition – a demoralising factor creating negative feelings
towards the school.
They also are of the opinion that improved counselling services
should be available to learners both within the schooling system
and through parallel support services such as churches and youth
structures (Panday & Arends, 2008). “Health interventions in
schools should contribute to dropout reductions and should be
planned and delivered with collaboration between government
departments engaged in health and/or education service delivery.
School feeding programmes that aim to provide nutritious meals
to children are likely to have the double benefit of improving
attendance and general well-being of children” (Sabates et al.,
2010).
Alternative pathways would be a liable option for young people who
want to obtain their matric but are hampered by circumstances
or learning disabilities. Learners should have the opportunity to
further their education and develop their skills through training and
other vocational programs.

c. The learner
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As stated by Finn prevention programming should focus on increasing a student’s participation in school
programmes and begin in early elementary school (Kemp, 2006). According to Papalia et al. dropout
prevention should start early. Preschool experience – or the lack of it – may set the stage for high school
success or failure (Papalia et al., 2006).

UNIT 5 | 131
Learners should be encouraged to active engagement.

For positive school p

erformance they should:

come to class on time

be prepared
listen and respond to the teacher
obey school rules
get involved with the school tasks and projects
ask questions
take the initiative to seek help when needed.

Factors promoting active engagement are family encouragement, small class size and a warm, supportive
school environment (Papalia et al., 2006).
It was found that absenteeism was a significantly more serious problem for scholars without disabilities
than for those with disabilities (Kemp, 2006). This may be part because of the intensive special education
services learners with disabilities receive. Closer communication between the school and parents may
counteract absenteeism which is seen as the most common indicator of learner disengagement and a
significant predictor of dropping out of school.

5.2 Factors that cause anxiety in learners and the counselling thereof
Anxiety, according to the psychoanalytic approach is a feeling of dread that results from repressed
feelings, memories, desires and experiences that emerge to the surface of awareness (Corey, 2013). The
Existential approach explains anxiety as a condition of the human condition where we are faced with the
realities of death, pain and the struggle to survive. The view of the humanists holds that each of us has
a natural potential that we can actualise (remember Maslow placing self-actualisation on the top of his
hierarchy of needs?) and that we can find meaning through that.
While growing up children experience a variety of physical, emotional and social changes, and influences
from close family and friends to society and the rest of the world play in on their everyday life. The
extent to which their sense of personal security and self-worth develop through their earlier years has a
significant influence on their readiness to cope with the many challenges later in life. Learners who find
themselves ill-equipped to deal with these challenges and who feel they are not able to cope, may worry
excessively and, as a result, may become anxious.

Definition:
What is anxiety and what causes it? Anxiety can be described as an anxious feeling which
hampers a person’s behavioural and cognitive functioning and drains their energy. People differ
in their tendency to anxiety and in their degree of being anxious. What causes anxiety differs
from person to person and different causes may result in anxiety in an individual.

132 | UNIT 5
 Anxiety can be caused by any one or a combination of some of the factors as can be seen in the presented
flow diagram:

c. Environmental
b. Physical factors
factors

a. Genetic factors Causes of d. Behavioural

anxiety factors

f. Medical e. Psychological
conditions factors

Heredity plays a role in a person being prone to worry. Worry is fear and a. Genetic factors
fear is what turns on the anxiety response. A disposition to anxiousness is
inherited, but how, when and where it manifests is shaped by environmental
influences. People have different temperaments. The way children differ
in psychological and physical reactions to novel or unexpected events can
5
be seen in the way infants react to novel stimulation. This variation is partly
the result of inherited differences in the neurochemistry of brain structures
thought to play an important role in detecting discrepant events (Mash, 2010).
Children who display a tendency to withdraw in novel or unfamiliar situations
are seen as behavioural inhibited. This type of temperament is an enduring
trait for some and a predisposing factor for the possible development of
anxious behaviour. Prior, Smart, Sanson and Oberklaid are of the opinion
that although behavioural inhibition contributes to later anxiety disorders,
it is not an inevitable outcome as environmental influences may counteract
this tendency (Mash, 2010).

b. Physical factors • Recreational drugs. The high intake of caffeine and nicotine, as well as
using stimulant drugs such as marijuana and amphetamines seem to
increase anxiety in people who have a predisposition to it.
• Drug withdrawal. People who have stopped the intake of alcohol and
barbiturate drugs often show high levels of anxiety and panic attacks.
• Poor nutrition. Our body needs a balanced diet. Just as stimulants such
as caffeine and other drugs increase our level of anxiety, so does the
deficiency of certain vitamins and minerals such as calcium, Vitamin B6
and magnesium increase anxiety.
• Somatic symptoms. The occurrence of symptomatic pains such as
headaches, stomach aches and muscle tension may be because of a feeling
of worry and the built up of physical tension may result in more anxiety.
• Neurobiological factors. In the human brain several interrelated systems
operate together in complex ways in the human brain to produce anxiety.
The system referred to as the behavioural inhibition system is believed to
be over-active in children with anxiety disorders (Mash, 2010).

Together with heredity, environmental factors play a major role in c. Environmental

the precipitation of anxiety experienced by learners. Some of the factors:
environmental triggers of anxiety include family life and childhood,
cumulative stress, adverse life events and life changes.
A learner who constantly experiences stress over a long period - like being
abused, having academic difficulties or problems with peer relations – may
put a lot of pressure on his mind and body. If the accumulating stress is not
Cumulative stress. reduced or worked through the child’s body will go into automatic protection
mode, resulting in high levels of anxiety. At-risk learners who are not identified
and whose feelings of anxiety are not addressed, often develop an Anxiety
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Disorder.

UNIT 5 | 133
 Children are highly influenced by their role models and significant people in
their lives. Parents and teachers, for instance, contribute to the development of
a learner’s belief and value system which affects how they perceive themselves
and the world they live in. Parents who model anxious behaviour, or are
emotionally over-involved with their child and who may grant less autonomy to
their children than other parents do, may create the impression that the child
will not be able to function without their help. This in turn reduces the child’s
self-esteem.
According to McLeod, Wood and Weisz parenting practices such as rejection,
over control, overprotection and modelling of anxious behaviours have all been
suggested as contributors to childhood anxiety disorders (Mash, 2010). Insecure
attachments may be a risk factor for the development of anxiety disorders like
Family factors
school phobia, separation anxiety disorder and social phobia. School phobia is
and childhood
the unrealistic fear of going to school and may be a form of separation anxiety
experiences.
disorder or social phobia. Separation anxiety disorder is the condition where
children display excessive, prolonged anxiety when separated from their home or
from people to whom they are attached. They may have developed the disorder
after the death of a pet or a loved one, an illness, or a move to a new school.
Social phobia is the extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations. Small
events can be very significant to a child who is sensitive. Social-phobic learners
are afraid of embarrassment and break into blushes, sweats or palpitations when
asked to speak in class (Papalia et al., 2006). If it happens that some of the class
mates laugh at the learner, he may interpret it as something being wrong with
him and will worry about this for days. When a feeling of ‘not being good enough’
is internalised, it may result in a reduced self-esteem and difficulty being assertive
in later life, both of which can contribute to anxiety.
The death of a parent or close family member, a friend or a pet constitutes an
Adverse life events immediate crisis in the life of a learner. The incurrence of a learner to poverty
and major loss. and threats to his safety may pose a crisis over a longer period of time. Both
these losses and adverse events contribute to high levels of anxiety.
Apart from losing a loved one, life changes like moving, emigrating, parents
Major life changes. changing or losing their jobs, or siblings leaving home can trigger panic
attacks or high levels of anxiety.

d. Behavioural factors:
What a person does and how he does it may influence his emotional well-
being or conversely may cause feelings of anxiety.
• Life style. A high intake of recreational drugs, poor nutrition and a lack
of exercise put pressure on a person’s body which may precipitate high
levels of anxiety.
• Avoidance. Avoiding feared situations, or situations that elicit high
levels of anxiety in the past, is a common coping mechanism. However,
the more a learner avoids a situation he/she experiences as scary, the
more scary the situation will seem and the more the learner will be
convinced that he/she won’t be able to handle it.

e. Medical conditions:
There are a vast variety of medical conditions that may cause anxiety in a person. Some medical
conditions that may have an influence on the anxiety levels of a learner are mentioned here.
Learners who feel that they are not accepted as “normal” or that they have to
Physical disability. prove themselves, may experience anxiety. If their condition deteriorates they
meet with heightened feelings of anxiety.
Feelings of anxiety may occur when the excessive lowering of carbon dioxide
Hyperventilation
in the bloodstream results after rapid, shallow breathing, and the symptoms
syndrome.
thereof are perceived as dangerous.
Feelings of anxiety are experienced by people when their blood sugar levels
Hypoglycaemia. drop too low due to improper diet or stress, and symptoms similar to a panic
reaction occur.
Some girls experience more feelings of anxiety around the time just before
Hormonal triggers their menstrual cycle. Early maturing girls are at an increased risk of various
in girls. behavioural and mental health problems, including anxiety (Papalia, Olds, &
Feldman, 2006).

134 | UNIT 5
 Other medical conditions that may cause high levels of anxiety include
• acute reaction to cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine and other stimulants
• withdrawal from alcohol, sedatives or tranquillisers
• deficiencies of calcium, magnesium and potassium and vitamin B12
• asthma

f. Psychological factors

Albert Ellis found 10 types of beliefs that people with high levels of anxiety tend to internalise:
• I must be loved or liked and approved of by every person in my life.
• Some people are bad, wicked or evil and they should be punished for this.
• I must be completely competent, make no mistakes and achieve all the time if I am to be considered
worthwhile.
• It is dreadful, nearly the end of the world, when things aren’t how I want them to be.
• My bad feelings are caused by things outside of my control, so I can’t do anything about them.

5
• If something might be dangerous, unpleasant or frightening, I should worry about it a lot.
• It’s easier to put off something difficult or unpleasant than it is to face up to it.
• I need to depend on someone stronger than myself.
• My problem was caused by some event in my past, so that’s why I have it now.
• I should be very upset by other people’s problems and difficulties.
(Corey, 2013)

A learner may wonder “What if I do something stupid?”, “What if I get stuck

Negative,
and they laugh at me?” or “What if something terrible happens to my family?”
unrealistic and
Many of these thoughts are automatic with the person not consciously aware
irrational thinking
they are having them. Thoughts such as these are based on fear and the
patterns
emotion that is associated with fear is anxiety.

Thoughts come from beliefs about the self, others and the way a person views
the world. Belief and value systems are generally developed during childhood.
Even though most people are not consciously aware of their beliefs, the belief
system has a major influence on a person’s thoughts, emotions and subsequent
behaviour.
• Focusing on fear and negativity.
Learners living with high levels of anxiety tend to focus solely on their
symptoms of anxiety or negative stimulus, often perceiving a negative
stimulus that is not there or relevant.
• Suppressed emotions.
The person-centred approach as part of the Humanistic Psychology allows
the child to explore and express his feelings of fears, anxiety, and so forth as to
gain greater self-understanding. When learners suppress their feelings, these
emotions will continue to rise to the surface at various times throughout their
lives, especially during times of increased stress and emotional vulnerability.

Unhealthy beliefs. • Lack of self-esteem.

As seen before earlier childhood experiences may elicit feelings of not being
good enough and this may result in feeling anxious. When learners feel they
have no control over it, they may experience even higher levels of anxiety.
• Lack of assertiveness.
Being unable to ask for what you want or to express your feelings, needs
and opinions in an open and direct manner will often lead to resentment and
confinement which both serve to aggravate anxiety.
• Lack of meaning in life.
Anxiety according to the humanistic approach is too much accentuated
by Existentialism and more emphasis should be placed on concepts such
as freedom, choice, values, and meaning. The Existentialists see the human
being as faced with the anxiety of choosing to create an identity in a world
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that lacks intrinsic meaning (Corey, 2013). Many learners who live with high
levels of anxiety find it difficult to focus on other areas of their life, their
goals and their direction. This lack of sense of purpose exacerbates feelings
of anxiety.

UNIT 5 | 135
Ways in which anxiety can be treated.
According to the psychoanalytic approach resistance is designed to protect individuals against anxiety
and fear of change and the therapist aims at making the reasons for the resistance clear so that it can
be dealt with (Corey, 2013). Through counselling learners with high levels of anxiety can uncover the
underlying causes of their worries and fears, learn to relax, look at situations in new, less frightening ways
and develop better coping and problem-solving skills.
In the table below we look at three ways of treatment a teacher counsellor can implement when dealing
with children experiencing anxiety.

Therapy Description Steps of conduct

Systematic Successively imagine more anxiety- 1) Progressive muscle relaxation while
Desensitisation arousing situation while simultaneously creating image of previously relaxing
– becoming engage in behaviour that competes with situation e.g. sitting by a lake
less sensitive anxiety (relaxation exercise).
2) Creating a step-by-step list of scary
to anxiety-
arousing Allows you to gradually challenge your situations working towards your final
situations. fears, build confidence and master skills goal (building an anxiety hierarchy)
for controlling panic.
3) Together with counsellor work
A form of through the steps – imagining each
Behavioural scary situation till fears subside.
therapy
Switch to relaxation when anxiety
gets to intense. Each step is done
when completed without feeling
overly distressed.
Cognitive Cognitive therapy examines how 1) Identify negative and irrational
behavioural negative thoughts (cognitions) thoughts. Situation may be perceived
therapy (CBT) contribute to anxiety. more dangerous than it really is.
– challenges
Behaviour therapy examines how you 2) Challenge negative thoughts.
negative
thinking behave and react in situations that Question evidence, analyse unhelpful
patterns and trigger anxiety. beliefs and weigh pros and cons,
distortions chances of fears actually realising
Replace negative thinking patterns with
more positive, realistic thoughts. 3) Replace negative thoughts with
realistic, more accurate, thoughts.
Think of realistic, calming statements
to say to yourself when facing /
anticipating an anxiety-evoking
situation.
Exposure In vivo exposure consists of dealing with Learner is exposed to the situation or
therapy – actual feared situation or event, rather than object he/she fears.
confronting of simply imagining it.
Through repeated exposures, an
anxiety-evoking
In vivo flooding consists of intense increased sense of control is felt over the
events in real
life. and prolonged exposure to the actual situation, causing anxiety to diminish.
anxiety-producing stimuli.

5.3 The impact of single parent families on learners’ lives and learning
The rising numbers of single-parent households in many industrialised countries today is a matter of
concern. A great portion of single-parent families is headed by a mother who for various reasons may not
be able to sufficiently provide for her children’s upbringing. Learners chronically exposed to poverty and
the lack of support from a parent often show emotional and behavioural problems and probably will not
finish school. However, this is not always the case and learners from a single-parent family fare as good as
learners from two-parent homes when raised in similar socio economic environments.
Children from a harmonious single-parent household may grow up as well-adjusted adults. Creating a
supportive and stimulating atmosphere at home is essential for a developing child’s well-being. However,
one-parent families with one breadwinner are relatively more disadvantaged than two-parent families
with two breadwinners.

136 | UNIT 5
 A single-parent family can be defined as a
household headed by one mother, one father, an older sibling,
aunt, uncle, grandmother, grandfather, foster parent, or extended relative
who acts as the primary caregiver and guardian of the child (Ferrell, 2009).
Single-parent families result from divorce or separation, unwed parenthood, or
death. Ahrons sometimes prefers the term binuclear family to single-parent
when two separate one-parent households are established after divorce
but still continue to interrelate as a reorganised family system
(Ferrell, 2009)

According to McLanahan and Booth children from mother-only

families are less advantaged than children from two-parent
families as the mothers are often the primary caregiver and
breadwinner of the family, while fathers, who seem to be less
active in their children’s lives after divorce, could have a positive
5
and stronger impact if they were more actively involved (Ferrell,
2009). Two-parent families tend to have higher incomes and more
wholesome diets than single-parent families and their children are
more likely to have health insurance (Papalia et al., 2006).
Most single mothers experience an overload of responsibilities
and tasks. They do not have the emotional support a spouse
can provide, or income assistance. Cherlin argued that the most
detrimental aspect of the absence of fathers from the family is not
the lack of a male presence, but the lack of a male income (Ferrell,
2009). As Barber and Eccles state “Often a single mother must
work to stave off economic disaster; how her working affects her
teenage children may hinge on how much time and energy she
has left over to spend with them, how well she keeps track of their
whereabouts, and what kind of role model she provides” (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Coping is difficult for any single-parent and a woman may experience a higher level of stress when
troubled with financial obligations and with no spouse who can share the parental strains. The stress that
mothers face can also have negative effects on their children.
According to Demo and Cox the absence of a same-sex parent for daughters of solo-fathers and for
sons of solo-mothers tends to have a negative impact (Ferrell, 2009). Ellis et al. are of the opinion that
a father’s early presence and active involvement may be important to girls’ healthy sexual development.
A father’s absence and early maturing of a girl are both risk factors for sexual promiscuity and teenage
pregnancy (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Teenage mothers rarely complete their school education
since the expense and responsibility of having a child of their own compel them to start working, thus
reinforcing the cycle of interrupted education and poverty.

Poverty and the single-parent family

A major problem in many single-parent families is lack of money. “Poverty can inspire people to work
hard and make a better living or it can crush their spirits” (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Single-parent
families headed by women are more likely to be poor than families headed by men or by married couples
(Henslin, 1999). Most divorced women earn less than their former husbands and most young, unmarried
mothers have little education and skills preventing them from earning good money.

Poverty has a detrimental effect on single-parenting in the following ways:

• Mothers who are unemployed, especially those without outside help and support, may
become depressed.
• Depressed mothers tend to perceive their maternal role negatively and punish their children
harshly (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
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• Although most parents are loving and nurturing, some cannot or will not take proper care of their
children and some deliberately hurt or kill them (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
• They move more often, leaving behind friends and support networks.
• Many single mothers in their twenties are fleeing domestic violence and are homeless.
• Being homeless means unstable, insecure and often unsanitary living conditions.

UNIT 5 | 137
Poverty is the primary source of strain and can have a negative outcome on the development of a child
from a single-parent family, for example:
• They can do less well socially and educationally than children in two-parent families.
• They have more emotional and behavioural problems.
• They are more likely to exit from high school before finishing.
• They are more likely to get arrested.
• The emotional state of the parent affects the child’s state of mind.
• They can become depressed and tend to have trouble in school when their relationships with their
mothers deteriorate (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
• Homeless children are cut off from a supportive community, family ties, institutional resources and
from ready access to medical care and schooling (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006)
• According to Marsiglio et al., moving can be a source of emotional strain because old friends are
left behind and they experience social isolation in the new setting (Ferrell, 2009).
• They often have poor peer relationships.
• According to Bloom they are more likely than other children to be in poor health, to have chronic
conditions or health-related limitations on activities, to miss school due to illness or injury, to be
hospitalised, to have unmet medical and dental needs and to experience delayed medical care
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Research on learners coming from a single-parent family found no negative effects of single parenting on
school performance and no greater risk of problem behaviour. According to Ricciuti, “What mattered most
were the mother’s educational level and ability, family income, and the quality of the home environment
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). In the event of single mothers lacking the resources needed for good
parenting, the provision of economic, social, educational and parenting support may enhance academic
performance and behaviour in learners.

A literature review done by Ronald Ferrell revealed the following (Ferrell, 2009):

Amato et al. are of the opinion that children from one-parent families are more on their own. “They
tend to have more household responsibility, more conflict with siblings, less family cohesion, and less
support, control or discipline from fathers, if it is the father who is absent from the household”.
Seltzer states that factors determining how children turn out include the
father’s involvement, child’s age and level of development, parents’ financial
circumstances and whether there are frequent moves.

According to Lambert learners from single-parent families are

more apt to be placed in a special education class or school.

Dornbusch et al. found children in single-parent households to have

lower grades than those in two-parent households.

Bempechat et al. hold that parents’ expectations of their child’s behaviour and
performance have a great influence on the outcome thereof.

According to Eccles et al. as a result of parental expectations children’s school performance

are affected by their increased expectations and perceptions about their own confidence.

When comparing children from single-mother households to children from two-parent families it was
found that children from mother-only households are more likely to (Ferrel, 2009):
a. have poorer academic achievement (boys more so than girls);
b. be absent from school;
c. drop out of school;
d. have lower earnings in young adulthood and are more likely to be poor;
e. marry early and to have children early, both in and out of marriage;
f. divorce, if they marry;
g. commit delinquent acts and to engage in drug and alcohol use.
After a review of the research Zinn et al. reported that although children from single-parent homes may
be more at risk than children from two-parent families, they “do not get pregnant, drop out of school, or
require treatment from a mental health professional” (Ferrell, 2009). In his own research on the hypothesis

138 | UNIT 5
 that there would be a statistically significant difference in achievement for students who lived in two-parent
households compared to students who primarily lived in single-parent households Ferrell concluded that
“more research is needed to be conducted to determine if there is a direct relationship between family
structure (single-parent households versus two-parent households) on student achievement, attendance,
and behaviour” (Ferrell, 2009).

5.4 The impact of socio-economic deprivation (poverty) on learners’ lives

and learning
Poverty, especially if it is chronic, is harmful to the physical, psychosocial and cognitive well-being of
children and their families. Poor children are more likely than other children from affluent homes to have
emotional or behavioural problems and their cognitive potential and school performance suffer even
more. Apart from the acute and chronic daily stressors, learners from a poor socio-economic status (SES)
may experience indirect harm through their place of residence, their parents’ emotional state, parental
practices and the home environment created by their parents. Learners from a lower socio economic class
are perceived as having poor physical health and depression, and displaying more emotional, behavioural
and academic problems.

SES includes income, education and occupation. People from socio economically deprived homes
generally are unemployed or have a low income. Parents of learners from a low SES often have not
finished their school education. As a low SES community they are frequently considered less worthy,
less capable of jobs and to be socially isolated. Meeting the basic needs of food and shelter becomes
a challenge and may provoke feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, dependence and inferiority (Sue,
Sue, & Sue, 2010). Apart from a low income, poverty is tied to many other forms of disadvantage, for
instance, poor education, inadequate health care, limited resources, poor nutrition and greater exposure
to violence. McMahon & Luthar state that children from poor and disadvantaged families suffer more
conduct disorders, chronic illness, school problems, emotional disorders and cognitive-learning problems
than children who are not poor (Mash, 2010).
Learners growing up in poor homes have to face many acute and chronic stressors every day. They
have the disadvantage of little or no income, poor nutrition, poor living conditions, low-quality schooling
and the lack of intellectual stimulation. They also tend to have more behaviour problems, psychological
disturbances, and learning disabilities as their physical, emotional and social development are often
hampered by their circumstances.

LEARNERS FROM LOW SES HOMES

There is a striking relationship between socio economic status and the physical development
Physical development & health

and health of a child. Children from low SES families are more at risk of illness, injury and death.
Children who do not eat properly generally do not grow properly either and mature later than
their peers. Because of malnutrition their bodies are weaker, leaving them more susceptible to
disease. Undernourished children not only suffer ill effects of growth and physical well-being, but
their cognitive and psychosocial development is negatively affected as well.
Alaimo, Olson & Frongillo found that learners who do not eat properly are more likely to do poorly
in arithmetic tests, to have repeated a grade, to have seen a psychologist and to have had difficulty
getting along with other children (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Although cognitive effects
of malnutrition may be long lasting they can be largely reversed with an improved diet. Many
STUDCOUNS0016

health problems stemming from poverty are preventable. Families who are socio economically
deprived often live in crowded, unsanitary housing which put them at great health risks. There
are no proper medical health care and the children generally are not medically insured.

UNIT 5 | 139
 Poverty can inspire parents to work hard and make a better living for their family, or it can
crush their spirits. Low socio economic status can exert a powerful influence on the developing
child through its impact on parents’ emotional state, parenting practices and the atmosphere
they create in the home. The inability to provide educational resources and a stimulating home
environment may have a negative psychological effect on the parents and their parenting
practices. Learners whose parents are at work and do not have the means to put their children
in child care, often lack adequate supervision after school hours. Often poverty leads to family
Family

problems such as alcoholism, anti-social behaviour or maltreatment of children by parents.

According to Sedlak & Broadhurst a disproportionate number of abused and neglected
children are in large, poor, or single-parent families, which tend to be under stress and to have
trouble meeting children’s needs (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Poverty, unemployment,
job dissatisfaction, social isolation and lack of assistance for the primary caregiver are closely
correlated with child and spouse abuse (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Although most cases
of neglect occur in very poor families, most low-income parents do not neglect their children.
Despite economic stress, some families remain emotionally healthy and parents with relatively
high self-esteem tend to have academically and socially competent children.
Families who do not have an income or a very low income generally have to reside in
Neighbourhood

neighbourhoods where large numbers of residents are unemployed. Many poor families live in
crowded, unsanitary housing in run-down, noisy, polluted, or dangerous neighbourhoods. In
communities like these the atmosphere may be depressing with insufficient facilities or support
programmes and rampant criminal activities. Especially boys take on the “adapt or die” attitude
and join street gangs that govern the neighbourhood by extorting a reign of terror through
fear and violence. In poor communities where social support networks, community services and
strong political leadership are intact, maltreatment of children is less likely to occur.
A study done on twin pairs, born in England and Wales, concluded that a combination of genetic
Psychosocial development

and environmental factors influences children’s vulnerability to economic deprivation and their
ability to overcome it cognitively and behaviourally (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). According
to Kim, Conger, Elder and Lorenz negative events such as an economic crisis tend to intensify
sadness, fear and antisocial conduct, which, in turn, contributed to future adversities (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Children in deprived families are more likely to engage in antisocial
behaviour and may become juvenile delinquents or become pregnant in their teens.
Learners from poor homes – who may see their environment as threatening – tend to be more
fearful than children of higher SES. Depressed learners may have trouble getting along with
peers, lack self-confidence, develop behavioural problems and engage in antisocial acts. Other
circumstances such as the effects of oppression and discrimination can also affect self-esteem,
as well as motivation and academic performance.
Growing up with poverty has a substantial effect on the well-being of children and adolescents,
especially in terms of impairments in learning ability and school achievement (Mash, 2010). Children
from deprived socio economic backgrounds often enter school at a considerable disadvantage.
According to Stipek and Ryan they may make as much progress as more advantaged classmates,
but because they start out behind, they remain behind (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). They
tend to have lower IQs and are more likely to be placed in special education or to repeat a grade
and are less likely to finish high school.
Learning abilities

Dropping out of school may in part stem from the poor quality of their schools as compared
with those attended by more advantageous children, as well as having to find work to help
support the family. Lack of financial resources prevents parents from putting their preschool
child in a high quality child care group which may enhance positive cognitive development and
social interaction, or to provide stimulating activities that can lead to IQ improvement. Bolger,
Patterson, Thompson and Kupersmidt state that families under economic stress are less likely
to monitor their children’s activities, and lack of monitoring is associated with poorer school
performance and social adjustment (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Social competence and language development contribute to an understanding of thoughts and
emotions. Small children who are from a socio economically deprived family generally are not
exposed to a rich spoken vocabulary and lack strong language skills. Children with advanced
language development and those with several or older siblings to talk to are better able to
recognise false beliefs, to distinguish between real and feigned emotion and to take another
person’s point of view (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).

5.5 The reasons for and impact of substance abuse on learners’ lives and learning
and counselling in abuse cases
Learners use drugs for a variety of reasons, being it out of curiosity and looking for excitement, or for the
relief of physical and psychological pain and tension. The abuse of drugs – the prolonged and extreme use
thereof – may lead to physical and psychological dependence on the substance. Drug abuse may cause
serious harm to the physical, emotional and social development of the young child. Apart from possible

140 | UNIT 5
 physical restraints and relationship problems with family and peers, it affects the cognitive abilities of
learners and thus has a negative influence on their school performance.

Reasons for substance abuse

Causes for learners to abuse alcohol and drugs are numerous. A list of reasons as was covered in Unit 4
under the heading 4.6 Reasons for substance abuse can be summarised as follows:

The
omnipresence of They Peers
substance use in the have access to may glamorise
media substances substance use
Society’s
moral They choose to
permissiveness They want to be
Peer adopt similar beliefs than autonomous and to
pressure to their friends which may be experiment with adult
conform supporting drug use “privileges”
Parents’
The
expectations for
initial
them and how involved The misguided

5
relaxing Reduced self-
or absent they are concept of “everybody is consciousness and
effect
using it” sexual

Parental
Increased
history of General
willingness to
substance abuse and/or discontentment
take risks
their acceptance of with life
drugs

May have the

tendency to seek
Adolescents want
out sensation
to fit in and to be liked
by their friends and
others
Perceive
Lack a They are substance use
commitment to from broken as beneficial and
Curiosity their education homes acceptable

Adolescents often use substances in conjunction with, for example, alcohol and cigarettes or other drugs
to get the result desired or to counteract the effect of another. Someone who has taken stimulants in
order to stay up all night may take a depressant in order to be able to get some sleep. Their choice of
drugs also depends on how accessible it is, what affect it induces and the cost thereof.
Learners who use any harmful substance in abundance over a period of time are abusers of the substance.
Harmful substances are consumables like alcohol and other drugs for instance marijuana (dagga) and
crystal methamphetamine (tik). Drugs used as depressants, for example Mandrax and Rohypnol (known
as the ‘date-rape drug’) are alcohol-based and induce a feeling of relaxation. Narcotics are tranquilisers
and effective painkillers and may include ingredients such as heroin and morphine. Nicotine, tik and
amphetamines are examples of stimulants. Other substances abused may include inhalants (such as glue,
petrol, nail polish remover), relaxants (dagga) and hallucinogens (LSD).
According to Gouws, Kruger and Burger substance abuse differ in popularity among adolescents from
different races, genders and social classes. They describe the effects of some of the substances that are
more commonly used by adolescents (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).

Effects of substance abuse

Depressants like tranquillisers and appetite suppressants are often alcohol-based and induce a
Depressants

feeling of relaxation. Rohypnol (the date-rape drug), usually mixed with a girl’s drink without her
being aware of it, causes a high level of intoxication and leaves her vulnerable to sexual assault.
Rohypnol used with alcohol may produce stupor, coma or death. The use of Mandrax causes
light relief of tension, and in larger doses may produce staggering, impaired thinking, slurred
speech and slow reflexes. It may cause emotional depression, drastic weight loss, insomnia,
STUDCOUNS0016

epilepsy and aggression. An overdose can result in unconsciousness, coma and death

UNIT 5 | 141
 Stimulants more often taken by adolescents may include caffeine,
nicotine, amphetamines and crystal meths (tik). Caffeine-intake is
intoxicating when a person shows several symptoms of restlessness,
excitement, insomnia, flushed face, and more (Sue et al., 2010:242).
Stimulants Nicotine is highly addictive and may cause heart attacks and strokes,
emphysema, chronic bronchitis and cancer of the larynx, mouth,
throat, lungs and pancreas. Amphetamines are popular among
adolescents who want to stay awake all night as it reduces fatigue and
appetite and generate a “feel good” attitude. Negative side-effects include restlessness, tremors,
headaches, a dry mouth, dizziness, erratic behaviour and when used more excessively can cause
effects such as depression and fatigue. Users of tik experience a burst of energy lasting for
hours and do not feel hungry. This dangerous drug damages brain cells and causes brain
shrinkage. It induces psychotic symptoms, paranoia and hallucinations and in young developing
children is likely to cause chronic mental illness
Inhalants are popular among adolescents who are poor - due to its
affordability and accessibility. Fumes from, for instance petrol, nail
Inhalants

polish remover and glue, are inhaled to produce a feeling of dizziness

and floating experience. Aggression sometimes may be the result of
induced feelings of power. Excessive use can lead to unconsciousness
and death, and long-term use may cause damage to the kidneys and
nervous system, brain tissue and bone marrow.
Marijuana/dagga is used as a relaxant. It may be addictive and increase
the possibility of trying out more serious drugs. In mild doses the
Marijuana/

adolescent may have feelings of drowsiness, dizziness, tremors or

dagga

nausea. It also causes an increase in heart rate, dilation of the pupils,

eye and throat irritations and stimulation of appetite. Heavy use may
result in damage to the brain, heart, lungs and immune system.

Narcotics containing substances, for instance heroine and morphine, are habit-forming and
Narcotics

leads to physical dependence. Adolescents who use heroine show physical deterioration, weight
loss and a lack of concentration.

It may be commonplace among teenagers to experiment with substances, but the abuse of substances
impacts on learners’ lives and learning as it lowers inhibitions, reduces judgements and increases the risk
of physical harm. Young people may use a variety of chemical substances for the purpose of altering their
moods, levels of consciousness, or behaviours (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Yet, not all symptoms displayed by
adolescents may be because of the use of drugs; certain illnesses may show the same effects. Care should
thus be taken to make quite sure that troubled adolescents are indeed abusing drugs and not displaying
the side-effects of prescribed medication.
The effects of substance abuse described above focused more on the symptoms due to somatic influences.
However, substance abuse have major effects on a person’s mind as well and may have a negative influence
on the adolescent’s life and learning. According to Gabhainn and François alcohol poses a serious problem
in many countries and is a potent, mind-altering drug with major effects on physical, emotional, and social
well-being (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Short-term psychological effects of alcohol include feelings
of happiness, loss of inhibitions, poor judgement and reduced concentration (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).
Because alcohol reduces tension, drinkers drink more and more frequently which may lead to feelings of
anxiety in getting sufficient amounts of drinks. The lowering of inhibitions causes the adolescent to take
part in more high-risk behaviours, for example the uncontrolled intake of more alcohol or other drugs,
driving while intoxicated and unsafe sexual activities. According to Connolly, Furman and Konarski, young
people who use alcohol and drugs are more likely to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, have more
sexual partners, and have greater risk of sexually transmitted diseases (Mash et al., 2010).
The use of marijuana, like alcohol, “can cut down perception, alertness, attention span, judgement, and
the motor skills needed to drive a vehicle and thus can contribute to traffic accidents” (Papalia, Olds,
& Feldman, 2006). It may harm the adolescent’s affective and social development causing relationship
problems with family and peers. The excessive and prolonged use of dagga damages an adolescent’s
health through harming the immune system exacerbated by nutritional deficiencies in their diet. Dagga
may lessen motivation and can impede memory and learning which affect their school performance and
other activities (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). According to Chassin, poor academic achievement,
higher rates of academic failure, higher rates of delinquency, and more parental conflict result from
substance abuse (Mash et al., 2010). Substance use is also a risk factor for unhealthy weight control when
teenage girls, for instance take diet pills or laxatives. Mood and anxiety disorders may result from drug
abuse. Also incidences of adolescents taking their own lives, ADHD, conduct problems and aggressive
behaviour may all be concurrent with the abuse of substances.

142 | UNIT 5
 5.6 The reasons for suicide and pregnancy amongst adolescents
Although much has been written about suicide and why people do it, we can never be entirely certain
why people knowingly and deliberately take their own lives. If we want a better understanding of suicide
one single explanation is too simplistic. Rosenfeld is of the opinion that “suicide has many causes, and
people kill themselves for many different reasons” (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Often secrecy surrounds the
act and its reported cause which many times provide contradictory explanations (Bezuidenhout, 2008).
Unwanted pregnancy may be one of the reasons why a girl decides to end her life and may coincide with,
for instance helplessness or feelings of shame. Just as with suicide, there is more than a single reason why
teenage girls fall pregnant. Often it may be that a young girl falls pregnant because of her cultural beliefs
or because she feels the need for belonging.

5
5.6.1 Reasons for suicide amongst adolescents
Suicide is defined as the intentional, direct and conscious act of taking one’s own life (Sue, Sue, & Sue,
2010). Not all learners are suicidal and many who have thoughts about suicide never actually attempt to
take their own lives. But a great portion of young people who think about suicide do kill themselves, and
some of them may succeed accidentally while all they actually wanted to accomplish was to be heard
and be helped. People who intend killing themselves may plan their death in advance and a sign thereof
may for example be handing out personal possessions. Some keep their plans a secret. Others think about
suicide but never plan how to do it. They may take their lives impulsively when the opportunity seems to
arise. As Whittaker states in the newspaper report inset, some teenagers who take their own life do not
fully understand the permanency of death (The Namibian, 2011:July21).

21.07.2011

Khomasdal teenager commits suicide

By: CATHERINE SASMAN

A DORADO Park family is struggling to come to grips with the suicide of 17-year-old Curtis
Bok at his family home.

The teenager allegedly shot himself in the mouth with his father’s gun in the bathroom at about 19h00 on Tuesday evening.
Bok, a Grade 10 pupil at the Windhoek High School, was being treated for depression, but was considered a gregarious and
intelligent child.
His father, Nicky Bok, said his son, who had a learner’s licence, had earlier in the day crashed into a neighbour’s car.
Curtis Bok went into the house and when his brother started looking for him, he found the safe in which his father kept a gun
wide open.
Bok was already dead by the time the family found him in the bathroom.
The family said they did not hear a shot go off, presumably because Bok had closed the bedroom and bathroom doors.
There have been several other seemingly incomprehensible suicides in Windhoek this month.
Triple tragedy struck when three men – two brothers and a cousin – committed suicide in a matter of two weeks.
Josef Cloete (41) hanged himself using an electric cord in the corrugated shack he was renting at the back of a Katutura
home in Damara location on Ignatius
Loyola Street on June 4.
Before his funeral took place, Cloete’s 27-year-old brother Adriaan, out from prison to attend the funeral, hanged himself in
a riverbed using a similar electric cord.
The two brothers were buried on July 16, a day when tragedy struck again when their cousin, Reinhard Thomas, believed to
have been in his late 30s, went home from the funeral and hanged himself at his home in Okuryangava.
Thomas will be buried in Windhoek this weekend.
Clinical psychologist Shaun Whittaker says these incidents are extremely disconcerting, especially for a country with a small
population such as Namibia.
Moreover, he says, they are traumatic not only for the families of the deceased, but for society as a whole.
These apparently copycat suicides, he says, send a message to relatives that suicide is an acceptable way out of a difficult
situation instead of trying to find a constructive solution.
Whittaker says people usually commit suicide when they emerge from the depths of depression, when they have just
enough energy to take their lives.
He says suicide among teenagers is usually triggered by relationship and examination stress, often coupled with
depression. Suicide is thus often viewed as a way to stop emotional pain.
“They do not necessarily want to die, but they do not fully understand the permanency of death,” says Whittaker.
STUDCOUNS0016

He advises that Namibia should very seriously consider intervention measures, especially in view of the fact that the country
has an above-average suicide rate.
In 2008 and 2009 the suicide rates were 21,5 and 22,7 per 100 000 people respectively. The world average suicide rate is
16 per 100 000 people.
A memorial service for Bok was held last night at the family home. Another service will be held at 165 Antilia Street, Dorado
Park, at 19h00 tomorrow. Bok will be buried at the United Congregational Church in Khomasdal on Saturday morning.

Permission for reprint of the newspaper report on “Khomasdal teenager commits suicide” was granted by The Namibian.

UNIT 5 | 143
The reasons for suicide amongst adolescents are seldom crystal clear.
“People who commit suicide – those who complete their suicide attempts – can no longer inform us
about their motives, frames of mind, and emotional states. We have only indirect information, such as
case records and reports by others, to help us understand what led them to their tragic act”, (Sue, Sue,
& Sue, 2010). Through what is known as psychological autopsy, information of the deceased is gathered
through interviews with relatives and friends, recollections of therapists, phone calls made to help lines
and messages left in suicide notes (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). The authenticity of the completeness and
correctness of such information however cannot always be established.
In seeking the answers as to why adolescents take their own lives, we explore 6 possible groups of
causes, namely negative feelings, thoughts and behaviours, emotional illness, physical causes, relationship
problems, social influences and the accessibility of means to commit suicide. These causes cannot be
“boxed” in and they may influence each other depending on the personality and circumstances of the
suicide victim.

B. Emotional C. Physical &

illness biological

A. Feelings,
thoughts &
Reasons for D. Relationships
behaviour suicide

F. Accessibility E. Social

A Negative feelings, thoughts and behaviours

Perhaps the most prevailing cause of teenage suicide is the feeling of hopelessness and helplessness. They
may feel the only way to get control of their life is to escape the overwhelming emotions of ‘nothing to look
forward to’ or of ‘no way out’ by taking their own life – an act they can control. According to Keinhorst et
al., an increase in sadness is a frequent mood indicator of suicide and Lester & Shneidman maintained that
interest in suicide may grow as a result of pleasure loss and fatigue (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).
Feeling pessimistic about future outcomes, anxiety, anger and shame can all contribute to a learner’s
feelings of helplessness. In the event of facing negative life events without any support system, they may
choose to end it all (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). A young person may want attention or sympathy, or may try to
manipulate another person in his/her attempt of suicide. When a relationship is ended, the suffering party
may feel guilt, anger or hostility, and may want to punish the other one (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Many learners who consider or attempt suicide may have a history of depression, substance abuse and
antisocial or aggressive behaviour. They tend to be either perpetrators or victims of violence and to
display behavioural or academic school problems (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Adolescents who
partake in sexual activities and the abuse of alcohol and drugs are more liable to commit suicide.

Other factors that may add to an adolescent’s negative feelings and thoughts of suicide may include:

Other factors:

low performance and failure in e.g. school work, sport, sexuality, etc.
poor impulse control
low self-esteem and/or feeling of self-worth
meaninglessness of life – no goals to achieve
feeling isolated and/or alienated.

144 | UNIT 5
 B Emotional illness
Children with a history of emotional illness are more likely to attempt suicide. These illnesses may include
depression, substance abuse, unstable personality and antisocial or aggressive behaviour (Papalia, Olds,
& Feldman, 2006). Although severely depressed patients seldom have the strength or energy to commit
suicide, depression seems to be highly correlated with suicidal behaviour in both children and adolescents
(Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Signs of depression may be mourning over the loss of something or someone,
crying spells, withdrawal of interest in the world, and a lack of motivation in performing tasks (Gouws,
Kruger, & Burger, 2008). The likeliness of impulsive suicide is higher when the adolescent has taken
alcohol or drugs. According to the American Academy of Paediatrics alcohol plays a part in half of all
teenage suicides (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Mental illness may cause hallucinations in which a person feels the urge to kill himself. Many adolescents
who commit suicide have relatively long histories of disturbed behaviour and psychiatric symptoms,
especially depression or substance abuse (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Those with personality
disorders are usually the emotionally immature with low frustration tolerance and antisocial personalities
(Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).

C Physical causes
Suicide may have a strong biological cause when the mood of the child was influenced by low serotonin
levels in the brain (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Genetics may also play a role in suicidal behaviour, but often it
is learned coping skills and attitudes, characteristic of a family, that influence the young person’s decision.
5
Adolescents strive to become their own, independent being. A serious illness or declining health may cause
them concern of becoming a burden to others and thus they may choose to rather take their own lives.

D Relationship problems
It may happen that children from a caring family commit suicide - as possibly may have been the case
with Curtis Bok in the news report. Often though children who commit suicide believe they are escaping
an unhappy and abusive family life. Sue, Sue & Sue are of the opinion that maybe “parents who are
preoccupied with economic concerns are less readily available to support their children in time of need”
(Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Young people who feel rejected and alienated from their parents and have no
one outside the family to turn to, are more susceptible of suicide. Family instability and stress, a chaotic
family atmosphere and unpredictable traumatic events like losing someone close before age twelve, are
correlated with suicide attempts by younger children as well (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).

Gouws, Kruger & Burger mention the following factors as contributing to disturbed family backgrounds
(Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008):

Contributing
factors:

conflict between parents

conflict between parents and children
the absence of any warm, parental figure with whom to identif
negative, rejecting attitudes toward the children
economic stress due to frequent parental unemployment
early parental physical or emotional deprivation
absence or loss of one/both parents
family violence

Children from unhappy family relations often feel emotionally and socially isolated. They may not feel
close to any adult and have difficulties communicating with significant others around them (Gouws,
Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Interpersonal problems also may lead young people to feel anger and retaliation over a broken love
affair, disputes with their parents or recent bereavements, and in taking their own lives may even want
to manipulate those - who they feel were causing them hurt - to feel guilty. Jobes & Leenaars are of the
STUDCOUNS0016

opinion that “many suicides are interpersonal in nature and are influenced primarily by unfulfilled wishes
or needs involving a significant other (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).
Maltreatment in childhood may cause adolescents to have poor relationships (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman,
2006), even with peers.

UNIT 5 | 145
 E Social causes
Adolescents today are more vulnerable in their exposure to great stress and are more inclined to
depression, while environmental supports have decreased (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Learners who
fail to maintain close ties with the community are deprived of social support systems that are necessary
for adaptive functioning, and become isolated and alienated from other people (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).
“Some researchers believe that hopelessness, or negative expectations about the future, may be the
major catalyst in suicide, and possibly an even more important factor than depression and other moods”
(Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Sometimes the negative expectations about the future and social disorganisation
may urge young people to become part of a unit that is predisposed to group-suicide. A person may also
give up his/her life as a sacrifice for what is believed to be a higher religious or political cause that will
further group goals or achieve some greater good (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).

Other causes of suicide that may entail a social dimension are:

Other causes:

The media may portray a colourful picture of suicide which glorifies the event and draws
attention to it. This may increase the risk of suicide in youngsters who can identify with it and
are already thinking about killing themselves (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).
Grief, depression and mourning may not always be the cause for copycat suicides; it
seems more often to be imitations by fans (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010).
Depressed adolescents who are highly suggestible in following the examples of
others and who have a history of depression and/or suicide attempts are more
inclined to take their own lives following the suicide of a peer (Gouws, Kruger, &
Burger, 2008).
An advanced technological society de-emphasises the importance of
the support of and relations with families and the community which
could contribute to a decrease in suicide rate of young people (Sue,
Sue, & Sue, 2010).
Adolescents who have unsuccessfully tried to escape the sexual
and other inhuman demands by members of religious cults,
such as Satanism, may see no other way out than ending their
own lives.

F Accessibility
Adolescents who committed suicide have slit their wrists, hanged themselves, taken an overdose of pills
or killed themselves by jumping from high bridges or buildings. Alcohol, drugs and firearms are now, more
than ever, to the disposal of adolescents in African countries (Bezuidenhout, 2008). Also the availability
of guns in the home is a major factor in teenage suicide (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).

5.6.2 Reasons for pregnancy amongst adolescents

Adolescents go through major physical changes in their teens. With the development of their reproduction
system they experience a heightened sexuality. They may become sexually active at a young age; often
without knowing the facts about fertility and contraception. Not using contraceptives is one of the reasons
for teenage pregnancies. Girls who are sexually active but do not use contraceptives have a 90% chance
of becoming pregnant within a year (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Although girls are more likely than boys to use protection consistently, in a relationship they may be
persuaded by their boyfriend not to use a condom as it saps his strength and eliminates all pleasure from
the sexual encounter (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). According to Hills, girls who become pregnant
in adolescence were likely, as children, to have been physically, emotionally, or sexually abused and/or
exposed to parental divorce or separation, domestic violence, substance abuse, or a household member
who was mentally ill or engaged in criminal behaviour (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Several other
factors also have an influence (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). They may choose to become pregnant
because:

146 | UNIT 5
 having a baby is a kind of status symbol – a sign of maturity

motherhood gives them an identity and a feeling of being loved and needed

it is seen as a way out of an unhappy home situation

they have lost of a parent through divorce, death, hospitalisation or institutionalisation

their culture sees reproductive ability as a sign of strength.

Other reasons why young girls fall pregnant may be because of the reduced stigma on unwed motherhood,
media glorification of sex, the lack of a clear message that sex and parenthood are for adults and failure
of parents to communicate with children (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Unfortunately, because of the lack of information, superstitions and myths associated with pregnancy and
contraception contribute to the problem. Many adolescents assert that the use of contraceptives makes
them sterile or that plastic wrap makes an effective condom. They believe a girl cannot get pregnant the
first time or by having sex in a standing position.

5.7 Counselling interventions for possible suicide cases

Suicide is a conscious act of taking one’s own life and represents a serious health concern (Van Niekerk 5
& Hay, 2009). Ways in which suicide attempts can rather be prevented than counselled is of course
preferable. In schools, primary prevention programmes where teachers, learners and parents are sensitised
to assess, recognise and react to signs of suicidal behaviour is desirable. This can be done by:
• gathering information on local incidents of suicide attempts, determining the necessity of a
preventative programme
• informing community on suicide prevention, availability of professional help and signs displayed
by someone planning suicide
• training educators in e.g. background information on suicide, assessment techniques and the
decision-making process

In most cases suicide cannot be accurately predicted and best case scenario to prevent such a deed is
through secondary intervention - the early detection of warning signs and the decision to intervene based
on the information obtained.
A checklist of risk factors determining suicidal intent, according to Shea (1999), is the SAD PERSONS
STUDCOUNS0016

scale. This acronym of risk factors is explained in Handbook of Youth Counselling by Van Niekerk and Hay
and is summarised as follows:

UNIT 5 | 147
 Sex (gender) – historically males are at a higher risk
Age – higher risk group is 15–24 year olds
Depression - with biological basis
Previous attempt
Ethanol abuse – e.g. use of alcohol and/or drugs
Rational thought loss
Social support lacking
Organised plan
No partner – single, not in romantic relationship
Sickness – serious medical conditions
In cases where the risk of suicide seems high, teachers must refer a learner to a professional. An informed
counsellor will then discuss the risk of suicide openly with the individual and their relatives and make the
decision on whether the at-risk person is to be admitted to hospital. For lower suicide risks other options
such as a treatment programme are discussed. Guidelines on strategies used in preventative interventions
can be found in Van Niekerk and Hay’s Handbook of Youth Counselling.

5.8 Interpersonal relationships and learners’ lives and learning

No human being lives in isolation and people normally want to be accepted by others. As the child grows
up, the world he lives in expands to more than his immediate family. According to Bronfenner’s theory the
child’s immediate environment begins with family members and home surroundings, but it quickly grows
more complex as the child enters preschool, visits neighbourhood parks and makes friends (Mash, 2010).
The adolescent, in seeking his own identity, increasingly associates with others in his environment and
seeks for approval and acceptance amongst his peers. How children think about themselves and others
change continually as they mature and come in contact with other members of their society.

Relationships with relatives

Throughout their lives people interact with others and may establish
and maintain an emotional bond with some significant individuals.
This process, according to Stroufe, is ongoing, beginning between Educators Others
6 and 12 months of age, and provides infants with a secure,
consistent base from which to explore and learn about their world
(Mash, 2010). From the first crucial relationships emerges what
the child learns to expect from others and how he/she relates to Peers &
other people. As the world of the child expands, Sameroff is of Relatives friends
the opinion that parents’ friends and jobs, the availability of family
support services such as health and welfare programmes and
similar community resources and activities that are positive and negative make up the child’s larger social
framework (Mash, 2010). Adolescents in their aspiration to become independent sometimes have to
“juggle” between the norms as set by their parents and the norms as accepted by the peer group.

148 | UNIT 5
 How the family as a unit deals with stressors of everyday life, affects a child’s adjustment and adaptation
to his environment and, according to Sameroff, his/her ability to form satisfactory relationships with
peers, teachers, and other adults (Mash,2010). Adolescence has been called a time of rebellion involving
emotional turmoil, conflict within the family, alienation from adult society, reckless behaviour and rejection
of adult values. Yet, according to Offer & Schonert-Reichl, school-based research on adolescents the
world over suggests that only about 1 in 5 teenagers fits this pattern (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
None the less, it seems like family conflict, depression and risky behaviour are more present during the
teenage years than any other part of their life span and have a major influence on young people’s relations
with their relatives.

a. Relations with parents

As with younger children, teenagers’ relationships with their parents are affected by the parents’ life
situation – their work, marital status and SES. Children who were exposed to parental depression, child
abuse, parental alcoholism, parental divorce, marital violence and parental criminality may grow up
feeling insecure and without a strong supportive relationship with their parents. However, according to
Offer et al., most adolescents feel close to their parents, love them, value their judgment and feel that
their parents care about them (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
For the adolescent to become emancipated and to gradually loosen the ties of parental authority
is a complex developmental task (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). The adolescent aspires to make
independent decisions and accept responsibility and the parents have to be willing to let their
children become independent and responsible. During this period parents and child both experience
ambivalent feelings which can lead to erratic, fluctuating behaviour. “Adolescents who look forward to
5
independence with eager anticipation often fall prey to uncertainty because so many new experiences
and decisions confront them” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Parents have to walk a fine line between
giving adolescents enough independence and protecting them from immature lapses in judgement
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Still, Santrock maintains that the relations between parents and
adolescents are inherently positive and not stressful (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008) as supportive
parents provide a safe haven in times of emotional stress. Conflict may occur when, as Arnett maintains,
the accumulation of arguments about more serious issues such as substance use, safe driving and sex
may add up to a stressful family atmosphere (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Adolescents need moral and emotional support from their parents. Lack of parental interest and support
often leads to negative outcomes such as poor schoolwork, low self-esteem, poor social adjustment,
and defiant and antisocial behaviour (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Learners that thrive in their lives
and learning, generally have a relationship with their parents where they experience understanding,
acceptance and approval, trust, a happy home and discipline and guidance.

b. Relations with siblings

How siblings relate depends in part on their culture. Often older children
in remote rural areas and villages look after their younger siblings and
teach them in the ways of daily life care and activities. In industrialised
societies, according to Cicirelli, when older siblings do teach younger
ones, this usually happens informally and not as an established part of the
social system (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
The influence of sibling relations on the development of children depends
on age, gender, birth order and spacing (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Older siblings may tend to be bossy, and may command and reprimand the
younger ones. Children with an elder brother may tend to be aggressive
and assertive and less likely to be timid (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Older sisters who have to take care of siblings in the absence of their
mother may rebel against this role, but normally are more nurturing and
less aggressive as what an older brother may be. As they grow older,
there is more equality between different-age siblings and they tend to be more accepting of each other,
resulting in a decrease of their former conflicts. Because they share a home, siblings are motivated to
make up after quarrels. They learn that expressing anger does not end a relationship (Papalia, Olds, &
Feldman, 2006).

c. Relations with other relatives

When not in an abusive family, other relatives occasionally provide positive input in their interaction
with the learner. Grandparents can play a positive role in the development of the adolescent and may
act as confidantes or go-betweens while taking care that they do not interfere too much with parental
STUDCOUNS0016

practices. Through grandparents more is learnt about their family and culture which in turn positively
affects the adolescent’s search for identity. Having a good relationship with their grandparents,
positively influence adolescents’ attitude towards the elderly in general.

UNIT 5 | 149
Relationships with peers
In middle childhood peer groups often consist of children from the same racial or ethnic background
and similar socio economic status. During adolescence the child shares the bigger part of a day with the
peer group. The peer group constitutes a world with its own customs, traditions and sometimes language
and dress (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008) of which the adolescent longs to be part of. Although as they
turn to peers for role models, companionship and intimacy, they look to parents for a ‘secure base’ from
which they can try their wings (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). However, relations with peers are highly
significant for self-concept formation, self-actualisation and socialisation.
The self-concept formation involves searching for an individual identity. This can be attained through
their relations and interactions with the group where they gain self-knowledge, self-insight and self-
evaluation. The peer group serves as a source of feedback about the adolescent’s personality, appearance
and behaviour (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
Through the acceptances by the peer group, learners learn to accept themselves and a positive self-
concept is formed. Adolescents weigh their own behaviours against those of the peer group to see how
well or bad they are doing in life. When the feedback is negative, they adjust their behaviours accordingly.
They assess the values and norms with which they have grown up against those of the peers to confirm
and strengthen their own values.
Learners realise that they can prove themselves as individuals in their own right through self-actualisation.
In the process of becoming emancipated, and thus gradually less dependent on parents, the peer group
provides the safe environment the young child earlier experienced in family life. Within the peer group
adolescents also learn to resolve conflict within and about themselves and between themselves and
others (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).
The peer group, in providing social acceptability and support, plays a crucial role in the socialisation of
the adolescent. The peer group provides the individual the opportunity to practise social skills through:
forming close friendships

communication with members of the opposite sex

healthy and moderate competition with others

making contact with other adolescents from different backgrounds e.g. race or SES

spending leisure time with others and participate in sporting activities as a group or team member

a. Effects of peer relations

Peer relations may exert positive and negative effects on children (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006) which
can be tabulated as follows:

Effects of peer relations

Positive Negative
• Benefit from doing things with peers • Form cliques
• Develop skills needed for sociability and intimacy • In including some people, tend to
• Enhance relationships exclude others
• Gain a sense of belonging • May reinforce prejudice e.g. towards
“outsiders”
• Motivated to achieve
• May discriminate against certain
• Attain a sense of identity
racial or ethnic groups
• Learn leadership and communication skills
• Can foster anti-social tendencies
• Learn cooperation, roles and rules
• Pressure to unhealthy conformity
• Learn new perspectives
• Expected to accept group values and
• Learn to make independent judgements behavioural norms, even if socially
• Test values previous accepted without questioning – undesirable
decide which to keep and which to discard • If not resist may be persuaded to
• Gauge their abilities realistically against same age others shoplifting or drug use
• Gain sense of self-efficacy • Unhealthy conformity is destructive
• Learn how to get along in society or prompts people to act against
their own better judgment
• Learn how to adjust their needs and desires to those of
others • In middle childhood rejection and
friendlessness may lead to low self-
• Learn when to yield and when to stand firm
esteem and in young adulthood may
• Peer group offers emotional security show symptoms of depression
• Can share thoughts adults might find offending

150 | UNIT 5
 b. Friendships

Although learners spend a lot of their study and leisure time in groups, friendships are formed with
individuals. Children from middle childhood play with others who are usually of the same age, gender,
interests and neighbourhood. According to Hibbard & Buhrmester, same-sex groups help children learn
gender-appropriate behaviours and incorporate gender roles into their self-concept (Papalia, Olds, &
Feldman, 2006).
Younger children like their friends when they do what they want them to do. Middle childhood
friendships are more a give-and-take type of relationship but are still based on self-interest. In early
teens friendships are more ongoing and become more possessive and exclusive. Adolescent friendships
are far more intense and they respect their friend’s need for autonomy. Because of their cognitive and
emotional maturation, they can appreciate the other’s point of view. They now begin to rely more on
support from their friends than on their parents. The intimacy, loyalty and sharing show aspects of
adult-like friendships. According to Buhmester, young people explore their own feelings, define their
identity and validate their self-worth by confiding in a friend.
Hamm is of the opinion that friends tend to have similar academic attitudes and performance and
especially similar levels of drug use (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Adolescents increasingly seek
support for their behaviour from friends and as their understanding of the other grow, their relationship
become more relaxed and less intense.

c. Romantic relationships
5
Learners in their puberty have to deal with their budding sexual desires and
most of them become interested in the other sex. This phase is frequently
marked by intense heartache, pain and stress and, in addition to the
emotional demands made on adolescents it holds the danger of early sexual
activity, premarital sex, pregnancy, sexual promiscuity and sexually
transmitted diseases (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). On the other hand,
romantic partners can be someone the young person, in the process of
emancipation, can seek out and attach to in times of distress.
According to Furman & Buhrmester, a romantic partner may become the
main person an adolescent turns to for emotional support (Papalia, Olds,
& Feldman, 2006). As time passes and trust develops, they can form
a relationship of being companions and friends who engage in intimacy,
affection, mutual co-operation, help, care, and nurturance; and sources of
sexual fulfilment. A romantic partner may fill some or all of these roles and
the relative importance or particular roles may change with age or as the
relationship develops.

As they develop, young people come in contact with many significant others with which they may
form a relationship of some kind, for example, school teachers, sport coaches and religious leaders. It
often happens that learners are extremely critical and mistrustful about the actions of educators and
can undermine their authority most effectively, but many teachers, for instance, may be important role
models and influence the formation of an adolescent’s identity and self-concept.
In an ethnically and culturally diverse society, learners from a minority group may have trouble establishing
relationships with peers and educators due to factors such as the material used does not relate to their
life experiences and frame of reference and as a result, they experience difficulty in understanding.
Learners tend to associate with others who were brought up like themselves, who are similar in school
achievement, adjustment, and prosocial or antisocial tendencies (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Children with behaviour problems may be inclined to get involved with juvenile delinquencies, resulting in
poor performance in school and not getting along with well-behaved classmates.

5.9 General characteristics of underachievers

An underachiever is someone who functions at a level below his/her potential (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger,
2008). Where it concerns learners we find that their school performance does not match their measured
ability, such as intelligence, aptitude, creativity or information gained by observation - thus learners who
possess high intelligence but obtain poor grades in school (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). They may become
underachievers for several reasons being bound by a disruptive situation at home or at school, continual
learning problems or not wanting to achieve and displaying characteristics such as being lazy, immature
and neurotic.
Underachievers often have a defensive attitude and blame factors other than their own effort or ability
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for their lack of success. They have feelings of helplessness and believe that effective action is either
impossible or may lead to unpleasant consequences (Van Niekerk & Hay, 2009). When a learner receives
messages of being inadequate from teachers and parents it influences their motivation to succeed in a
negative way, for example, when girls are told they are not good at maths, it may reduce their effort and
interest in careers where mathematics is a requirement.

UNIT 5 | 151
Fact is that if assisted adequately they still may be successful. When a learner does not reach his potential,
it can be demoralising and have an effect of frustration.

General characterist
ics of underachievers:
(Van Niekerk & Hay, 2009)

negative self-concept
 feelings of helplessness, anxiety and tension
 feelings of rejection
 hostility towards and distrust of adults and other authority figures
 dislike of school and/or teachers
 not doing well in reading, spelling and maths
 poor study habits
low levels of motivation and/or ambition

The biology and psychological status of a child as well as social and spiritual factors have an influence on
the learner’s level of achievement.

Influential factors
Biological factors
Despite their intellectual ability learners with a hearing or visual impairment, chronic illness or a
neurological history of e.g. (head) trauma or an infectious disease such as meningitis, may fail to reach
their full potential in academics. Their learning abilities may be hampered by learning disabilities, such
as ADHD or dyslexia, and/or the side-effects of medication.
Children from lower socio-economic households often lack proper nutrition and health care and go to
school hungry and unable to concentrate adequately in the classroom.
Psychological factors
• School beginners who have delayed development in fine and gross motor skills may struggle to
catch up on reading and writing skills.
• Learners who are emotionally disturbed may develop cognitive distortions of their environment and
their personal capabilities. This often coincides with feelings of anxiety and depression.
• Underachievers may display dysfunctional behaviour patterns and/or a lack of appropriate
coping skills.
• Being discouraged by the lack of achievement the learner feels dissatisfied and becomes
less motivated.
Social factors
• Continuous criticism and nagging, little interest in child’s affairs or being overprotective and
domineering exert a negative influence on a learner’s level of achievement (Gouws, Kruger, &
Burger, 2008).
• A learner who lack social support and who feels alienated finds it difficult to sustain effort in
academic achievement.
• A warm atmosphere at school and the relevance of the lessons according to the learner’s perspective
and interests influence achievement.
• Disempowerment of the group to which a learner belongs has a negative influence on the want
to achieve.
Spiritual factors
Spiritual beliefs and values translate into principles that guide decision-making and behaviour, such as
the strive to achieve academically (Van Niekerk & Hay, 2009).

5.10 Counselling interventions for underachievers

Nearly all underachievers, at one time or another, are referred to the school counsellor either by a teacher
or a parent. And because no two learners - that are not accomplishing their potential - can be counselled
the same way, each case has to be looked at separately, addressing their unique needs and reviewing their
academic progress on a regular basis.

152 | UNIT 5
 During counselling sessions, the different influences on underachievement are explored. These may be
personal characteristics, family and/or environmental influences and include contributing factors such as:
• Lessons / activities not interesting or meaningful
• Unfavourable peer influences
• Poor family relationships where inconsistent pressures and expectations from parents prevail
• Does not believe effort affects outcome
• Low levels of self-confidence
• An inability to persevere
• A lack of goals
• Feelings of inferiority
The counsellor and the learner work at getting a
written list of factors that are barriers to the child’s
academic achievement. Focusing on one barrier at
a time, they brainstorm ways the barrier might be
addressed - especially by making use of the
learner’s strengths. Together the counsellor and
the learner prepare a written action plan that
includes specific activities the learner will
undertake and a time-line indicating the completion
of each activity. Follow-up sessions are arranged 5
with the counsellor to review progress and
eventually to continue focusing on how to
overcome other barriers that may still prevent the
learner from successful completion of tasks and to
help the underachiever improve his/her
performance.
Selecting tasks that are meaningful and challenging to the child but not overwhelming strengthen their
sense of ability through effort. The value of achievement is reflected by the teacher who communicates
warmth and confidence in the child’s abilities and who models high effort in overcoming failure. Learners
who believe that their performance is controlled externally – by luck or their teachers – often doubt their
ability and are likely to withdraw from learning abilities. Therefore, teachers who attribute their learners’
failure to effort, who are caring and helpful and who emphasise learning goals tend to instil a desire in the
learner of becoming competent in a given task (Berk, 2013).

5.11 How to counsel learners about effective study methods

Underachievers often lack the ability of learning with insight and instead memorise the work through
passive and mechanical learning without interpreting the new material.
Learners do not all have the same personality, interests and intellects and therefore their study methods
will not all be the same. This learning outcome deals with the basic study methods that can be applied
to all individuals.
The study process entails the exploration, fixation and testing of new material. The exploration part of
studies takes up about 60% of the time (Van Schoor, Mill, & Potgieter, 2005). Some of the aspects found
during this phase, include:
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UNIT 5 | 153
working through the presented material to identify what is relevant and important to know

complete assignments

doing additional reading in the library

identify and clarify difficult concepts

make summaries for intensive study later

Learners need to be pragmatic about their study approach and learning situation. A good start is to adopt
a positive academic self-concept, believing in their abilities and skills. Factors impacting on the ability to
concentrate include motivation and the physical study environment (Van Schoor, Mill, & Potgieter, 2005).

These factors therefore set the scene for effective studies:

Internal Ideally one

motivation
An important factor in
internal motivation is goal
setting. These may include
short-term goals; such
as what part of the work
you would like to have
completed within an hour.
Long-term goals include
passing an exam at the
end of the year, getting
good enough marks for
applying to the tertiary
institution of your choice.
Goals put milestones
in place. Reaching
these goals will give
satisfaction and a sense of
achievement.
should have a
Positive study
External motivation
is generally not as room of your environment
powerful as internal own – or at
motivation but it least a study
can still spur you corner - where you can work. A familiar
on to greater effort space especially appointed to you, has
(Van Schoor, Mill, the advantage of creating an atmosphere
& Potgieter, 2005). where you can get into a study mood
Positive external quickly and concentrate better. A fixed
motivators can be place where you can study without
a financial reward, interruptions is most suitable. If it is not
or the possibility possible to have a study place of your own,
to get elected as depending on your circumstances, it may
a member of the be a good option to find a quiet place at
council of learners. school, at the library or even at a church in
your neighbourhood. Apart from the space,
it is important to look at the right furniture
- a chair that is not suitable may cause
External fatigue causing you to lose concentration.
motivation Adequate lighting, no interruptions (by e.g.
friends) or disturbing noises, and enough
ventilation are important conditions
conducive to studying.

Apart from the aspects mentioned above, concentration is a major factor when one has to study. Being
motivated and finding the study material interesting helps a lot. Unresolved and unaddressed issues, such
as feelings of disappointment and/or anger - even joy and/or love – can occupy your thoughts in such a
manner that it causes you to lose concentration. The decision to focus entirely on the task in hand for an
extended period can be strengthened by deliberately putting on a real or imaginary study hat every time
you sit down to study.
A big part of effective studies is the management of your available time. Set up a possible and realistic
study schedule for each day. Draw up a timetable of when assignments are due and when you will start
with revisions for tests and examinations. Avoid procrastination by setting clear objectives for each study
period and by rewarding yourself (with something you enjoy, e.g. chocolate, a walk outside, etc.) whenever
you reached your goal in time.
Be positive in your thinking and self-talk – focusing your attention on your studies whenever your thoughts
start to wander. If you find that partaking in a study group helps with the comprehension of new material,
join a group where they are serious about the work, but do not use the group to replace your individual
study sessions.
When dealing with new work plan how you will familiarise yourself with the material. Make sure you
understand what you need to learn. Once you have read through the new material, reread and make notes
of the relevant information. Learners who are more visually oriented may benefit more from flow-charts
and mind maps instead of linear summaries.

154 | UNIT 5
 5.12 How to counsel learners about preparing for and writing exams
Because examinations are compulsory and needed for progression in a learner’s studies, it can cause a
great deal of stress. By understanding and accepting the necessity for examination, tension can be reduced
a great deal. Physical activities, such as getting enough sleep and exercise, and following a healthy diet
(refer to learning outcome 7.4) are good ways of counteracting exam stress. Seeing examinations as a
practical way of testing your knowledge and ability should be motivation for making the most of the
time available and collecting all the points you can. Another important part of exam preparation is time
management. One needs to plan the period of revision and then stick to the plan as far as possible. While
preparing for an exam, practise to write quickly and legibly. Do practice papers and time it strictly so that
you have a better idea of what to expect when you are in the examination venue and how you would time
yourself while answering the paper. It is easier to answer papers if you know beforehand how to do it
efficiently and in an organised way.

While preparing for examination, keep the following in mind while you do your revision (Van Schoor, Mill,
& Potgieter, 2005):
• Plan and manage your time effectively – make provision for a daily study program
• Study with insight and understanding - formulate and answer questions, concentrate on
problem areas
• Go over your assignments – take note of mistakes and make corrections
• Work through old exam papers (if available)
• Form a study group – each member formulates questions beforehand and the group then work
out logical, systematic answers
The actual getting-it-over-with part is a bit better. Stick to your normal everyday routine, do not stay up
late the night before to revise, eat a healthy breakfast and allow yourself enough travelling time to the
venue. In a two to three-hour time-slot you reproduce the relevant material you have learned over the
past few months. To avoid unnecessary mistakes, stay cool and calm.

Writing exams
Seating in venue If you have the option, choose a seat where you feel comfortable
Relax Close your eyes, take deep breaths and relax different parts of your body
Read and listen to instructions!!!
On receiving
Read carefully through the exam paper
the paper
Plan your answers carefully and realistically
Decide how long you are going to spend on each question – then stick to it.
What carries the most marks? How many minutes do you need to get those marks?

Managing Assign some time at the beginning for planning and at the end to check and finish
available time things off.
If you know you’ve got 20 minutes for each answer and you are tempted to
spend a little more time on a question, leave a blank space after your answer, and
determine to come back to it at the end if you can.
Put your hand up if you start writing on the last clean page and you know that you
will need more paper. Invigilators may not initially see your hand, or they may be
Need more paper
busy – it will save you time and panic if you request more paper while you keep
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on writing.
If you finish before the end of the session, double-check all your answers. Re-read
Do not leave early what you have written. Correct spelling and other obvious mistakes and rewrite
any illegible, hastily-scrawled words.

UNIT 5 | 155
 Make sure that you read the question properly.
Start with something you can really do. (Unless you are the type of person who
like to first launch straight into the hard stuff; to get the dreaded questions out of
the way.)
Writing
Find a method that suits you best. Figure out which approach is best to keep you
calm and focused in the exam.
Keep answers concise and complete, not setting the scope of the information too
wide – maybe leaving it unfinished.
If disaster strikes or something unpleasant happens
If you find you cannot answer anything, DO NOT panic. Write down what has
You go totally
happened and what it is that you can remember so that the teacher can see what
blank
has happened.
If you have answered too few or the wrong questions, or simply misread the
Realise something question you did answer – quickly write an explanation to the teacher on what you
has gone wrong have done. Then use the remaining time to write a new, or alternative, answer in
bullet points. Get in as much information as you can.
Your poor, sore hand cannot possibly write one single word more. Let it hang
Hand cramps by you side for a little while for the blood flow to return or rub it gently without
making anyone around you aware of it.
The boy/girl in front/opposite/behind you does something disturbing that upsets
you. You have two options: either ignore the behaviour and focus on your task at
Other people hand, or raise your hand and tell the invigilator.
If the invigilator catches you trying to squish in a last sentence after the exam is
over (you should not try that) apologise and do as they request.

And to conclude – the following are tips for when you are answering test and exam papers:
• Write down a summary of the answer first before start writing
• Allocate enough time to each question and stick to it
• Answers should be well-structured and logically planned
• Write neatly and legibly
• By answering what you know best you take maximum advantage of the facts that are still fresh
in your memory
• If you do not know the answer very well, write down all the facts that you know, but avoid “padding”
(Van Schoor, Mill, & Potgieter, 2005)
• If time catches up with you, answer the last question in schematic form

5.13 How to advise parents on answering children’s questions of a sexual nature

Otherwise confident moms and dads sometimes feel awkward and tongue-tied when caught off guard
by their child’s questions on, for example, puberty or where babies come from. These questions are
often asked at what seems to be the most unfit times as well. But parents remain their child’s primary
socialisation agents – modelling and establishing traditions and practice and influencing a variety of
beliefs and behaviours in the young person. They should not avoid the subject of sexuality, because
as parents they play a key role in helping their children develop healthy attitudes and behaviours
towards sexuality.

Adolescents have to establish a sense of sexual identity – a sense of being male or female – and they
have to determine attitudes towards issues of a sexual nature, such as masturbation, premarital sex, etc.
(Bezuidenhout, 2008). The society in which the child is brought up and the friends they socialise with
have a great influence on the values and attitudes they foster towards their sexuality and the decisions

156 | UNIT 5
 they make around this. Initially adolescents may find it difficult to determine appropriate guidelines for
sexual behaviour and often turn to peers to find answers to what may be considered as socially taboo
topics. To avoid this, it is better for parents to have an attitude of open-mindedness when their children
start asking questions about sexuality and to then answer them as honestly as possible. There is no need
to bombard the child with information all at once. It is best to let the situation – and the child’s questions
– guide the answer. Often, for the child, the important thing is to know that they are listened to and that
whatever questions they may have are answered.
Parents may feel awkward when talking with their children about bodily changes and sexual matters, but
providing them with accurate information is one of the most important things parents can do to make
sure their child grow up safe, healthy and secure in his/her body. In doing this it is important to realise
that – given the situation - it is best to teach them only what they need to know and what is appropriate
to their age and developmental level. Children are generally satisfied with a straightforward answer and
little information at a time.
At approximately ages 4 to 6 years they may wonder where babies come from and why boys and girls are
physically different. Forget to tell them all about the birds and the bees when a simple, short and honest
answer can satisfy their curiosity. Between the ages of 7 to 12 years, particularly with the onset of puberty
- their curiosity about adult sexual behaviour increases. They may begin to seek out sexual content in
movies and printed material and telling dirty jokes is not uncommon. During this period parents should
be aware of what their children is watching on television and online, and make time to watch television
with them.
By answering a child’s questions in an age-appropriate way, parents can help foster healthy feelings about 5
sex. When parents are unsure of how to address sexual issues and how to answer the child’s questions,
they can do some research. Age-appropriate books on the subject can be quite helpful. These may be
books covering the topic on how to talk to children about sexual issues, or it may be a book that the
parent and the child can read together. Parents can consult their doctor or paediatrician, or they can turn
to reliable online resources.
Although a parent may feel uncomfortable having a conversation about sex with their children, there are
many resources available to assist them in the matter. As the child moves through the developmental
stages of childhood, parents should provide close supervision and support them with clear, positive
messages about boundaries and privacy. Talking openly about relationships, intimacy and sexuality can
foster healthy growth and development in the child.

SUMMARY In the process of growing up children come to face with many challenges.
As adolescents they strive to become their own, independent being, but
many times they are restrained by circumstances they have no control
over. Poverty is a major cause for young people having to leave school
because they need to support a family. Children from a lower socio-
economic household are more likely to experience negative home and
school atmospheres. Without proper school education or after care
facilities they may get involved with high-risk behaviours such as the
abuse of alcohol and other drugs, unsafe sexual activities and other
delinquencies. Poverty is but one of many reasons why adolescents
sometimes get involved in mischievous behaviour.
The educational system and counselling services can play an important
role in helping learners to feel more connected to the school, thus
preventing the high rate of school dropout. In lending adolescents
support, feelings of anxiety and helplessness can be reduced. Young
people with a positive outlook on life less often turn to destructible
behaviours such as substance abuse, sexual promiscuity and suicide.
Learners from single-parent households often face many challenges
economically, socially and emotionally, but when supported by a parent
and other important people in their lives, they cope satisfactorily in their
academic, social and psychological environment.
Children, who sometimes feel helpless in their circumstances, may turn
to suicide as a last, desperate attempt of being in control of their lives.
Educators can advise learners who are struggling academically and teach
them ways to invest in their studies, show the effective study methods
and how to prepare for examinations.
When their children start asking questions of a sexual nature, parents
can be reminded that they are generally satisfied with a straightforward
answer and little information at a time. As developing beings, children
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continually come in contact with an expanding circle of significant

others and the values and norms they live by. Relationships with family
members and others may change as the adolescent becomes more
engaged in forming an own identity, and teachers and leaders in society
can influence how the learner’s self-concept and goals are formed.

UNIT 5 | 157
 FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

Summarise the role of the school in the prevention of school drop-outs.

Your answer does not have to be exactly the same, but the following factors must be included:
• At-risk students must be identified early
• School curriculums that enhance the connection between school and work
• Learners should be encouraged to participate in extra-curricular activities
• Flexible schooling hours and systems,
• Counselling

Learner activity 2

Choose the correct answer from the given options:

a. Albert Ellis (option a) has been referred to as the grandfather of cognitive behaviour therapy
and is known for the rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) he developed. Abraham
Maslow (option b) was a pioneer in the development of Humanistic Psychology and he saw
Freudian psychology preoccupied with the negative side of human nature. Carl Rogers (option
c) built his ideas on Maslow’s positive outlook on human life and functioning. The central theme
of Maslow’s work was self-actualisation and he believed that more research should be done
on the positive human aspects like joy, creativity and self-fulfilment. Therefore, option b is the
correct answer.
b. Anxiety, according to the humanistic approach, is too much accentuated by Existentialism and
more emphasis should be placed on concepts such as freedom, choice, values, and meaning.
Thus option c is the correct answer.
c. Cognitive behaviour (option a) is not a factor causing anxiety. Heredity (option b) is a genetic
factor causing anxiety and is therefore not the correct answer. An unhealthy belief is a
psychological factor that causes anxiety. Option c is the correct answer.

Learner activity 3

The effects poverty may have on children from a single-parent family.

Your answer should include the following:

• They can do less well socially and educationally than children in two-parent families.
• They have more emotional and behavioural problems.
• They are more likely to exit from high school before finishing.
• They are more likely to get arrested.
• The emotional state of the parent affects the child’s state of mind.
• They can become depressed and tend to have trouble in school when their relationships with
their mothers deteriorate.
• Homeless children are cut off from a supportive community, family ties, and institutional
resources and from ready access to medical care and schooling.
• Moving can be a source of emotional strain because old friends are left behind and they
experience social isolation in the new setting.
• They often have poor peer relationships.
• They are more likely than other children to be in poor health, to have chronic conditions or
health-related limitations on activities, to miss school due to illness or injury, to be hospitalised,
to have unmet medical and dental needs, and to experience delayed medical care.

158 | UNIT 5
 Learner activity 4

The impact of poverty on a learner’s learning ability and school performance.

Your answer will not exactly be the same but should include the following:
• Poverty has a negative effect on the well-being, learning ability and school achievement of a
learner.
• Learners from poor homes often enter school at a disadvantage.
• They make progress but remain behind because of their initial disadvantage.
• They tend to have lower IQs and are more likely to be placed in special education or to repeat
a grade and are less likely to finish high school.
• Dropping out of school may in part stem from the poor quality of their schools as compared
with those attended by more advantaged children, as well as having to find work to help
support the family.
• Lack of financial resources prevents parents from putting their preschool child in a high quality
child care group which may enhance positive cognitive development and social interaction.
•
•
The parents lack resources to provide stimulating activities that can lead to IQ improvement.
Poor parents are less likely to monitor their children’s activities. 5
• Lack of monitoring is associated with poorer school performance and social adjustment.
• Small children who are from a socio-economically deprived family generally are not exposed to
a rich spoken vocabulary and lack strong language skills.
• Social competence and language development contribute to an understanding of thoughts
and emotions.
• Children with advanced language development and those with several or older siblings to talk
to are better able to recognise false beliefs, to distinguish between real and feigned emotion,
and to take another person’s point of view.
• Thus it seems that due to the fact that children from poor homes do not have the stimulating
environment for a positive cognitive, emotional and social development. The lack of resources
and involvement from their parents lowers the expectations learners could have of themselves.
They enter school with a disadvantage and may start fostering the belief that they are not able
to perform academically and lack the motivation for trying. Instead they often prefer to drop
out of school to find a work and help support the family.

Learner activity 5

Identify the physical, emotional, cognitive and social symptoms of the use of marijuana (dagga) that
a teacher should look out for in a learner.

Physical symptoms may include:

• Drowsiness, dizziness, tremors and nausea
• Increased heart rate, dilation of the pupils, eye and throat irritations and stimulation of appetite.
• Heavy use may result in damage to the brain, heart, lungs and immune system.
• Decreased motor skills.
• Deteriorating health due to insufficient nutrition intake
• Emotional symptoms may include:
• Lack of motivation.

Cognitive symptoms may include:

• Decreased perception, alertness, attention span, judgement.
• Poor memory and learning
• Declining school performance

Social symptoms may include:

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• Relationship problems with family and peers.

UNIT 5 | 159
 Learner activity 6

In reading the news report from “The Namibian” as reprinted in this module, distinguish between the
incidences of suicide between the teenager and the three family members. Name the possible reasons
that may have preceded their actions as discussed in the six groups of causes under 5.6.1 Reasons for
suicide amongst adolescents as the clinical psychologist Shaun Whittaker cited in the report.

Possible reasons for the teenager suicide:

This incidence of teenage suicide shows several similarities with what was discussed as reasons for
adolescent suicide. Although he was a sociable and intelligent child, he was treated for depression – a
major cause for suicide amongst adolescents. We could assume that he was doing well at school, but it
may very well be that he felt compelled to perform academically (and otherwise) and that the fear of
failure could have caused him much stress. According to Whittaker teenage suicide can be triggered
by relationship and examination stress, coupled with depression and they may thus see it as a way to
stop emotional pain. He confirms that someone who is severely depressed usually does not have the
energy to take his/her own life. Also, having been depressed may have led to thoughts of killing himself
but the preceding event of crashing into a neighbour’s car could have caused overwhelming feelings of
helplessness and/or shame. (Getting a learner’s licence can be seen as part of the process of becoming
independent, and the accident could have brought on negative feelings of, for example, failure.) The
decision to take his life may have been impulsive. As was suggested by Whittaker, adolescents “do not
necessarily want to die, but do not fully understand the permanency of death”. Thus depression and
negative feelings and thoughts mostly seem to be the reasons for the teenager’s decision to take his
life. Apart from us not knowing what the cause for his depression was, physical, relationship or social
causes do not seem to have played a role in his decision of suicide. The only other possible cause
remaining was the accessibility of a weapon.

Possible reasons for the two brothers and cousin suicides:

They were all adults and we do not know about the preceding events in their lives. Similarities between
their suicides and the reasons why adolescents commit suicide may be:
• a physical cause – genetics may have played a role
• a social cause – they all hanged themselves in what can be interpreted as possible copycat
suicides.

160 | UNIT 5
 Learner activity 7

The influence of the peer group on the self-concept formation, self-actualisation and socialisation
of the adolescent.
Although your answer may differ in wording, it should include the following aspects:

The influence of the peer group on self-concept formation:

• Through their relations and interactions with the group they gain self-knowledge, self-insight
and self-evaluation which enable them to form an individual identity.
• The peer group serves as a source of feedback about the adolescent’s personality, appearance
and behaviour.
• Through the acceptances by the peer group, learners learn to accept themselves and a positive
self-concept is formed.
• Adolescents weigh their own behaviours against those of the peer group to see how well or
bad they are doing in life.
• When the feedback is negative, they adjust their behaviours accordingly.
• They assess the values and norms with which they have grown up against those of the peers to
confirm and strengthen their own values. 5
The influence of the peer group on the self-actualisation of the adolescent:
• While the adolescent is becoming emancipated and gradually less dependent on his/her
parents, the peer group provides the safe environment the adolescent experienced earlier
at home.
• Within the peer group adolescents learn to resolve conflict within and about themselves and
between themselves and others.

The influence of the peer group on the socialisation of the adolescent:

• The peer group provides the individual the opportunity to practise social skills through forming
close friendships, communication with members of the opposite sex, healthy and moderate
competition with others, making contact with other adolescents from different backgrounds
e.g. race, spending leisure time with others and participate in sporting activities as a group or
team member.

Learner activity 8

Counselling a learner who is an underachiever because of his inability to persevere.

Your answer may contain the following guidelines:

• The counsellor and learner work together and write down a list of things that are barriers to
the learner’s ability to persevere.
• Focus on one barrier at a time, e.g. getting bored with school work easily and brainstorm ways
this boredom might be addressed.
• Concentrate on the learner’s strengths e.g. being a quick reader
• A written plan including specific activities the learner will undertake is prepared (What activities
can a quick-reader get involved in to avoid boredom?) An example may be that he does further
reading on the topic in a field that may interest him more.
• A timeline is set to indicate the completion of each activity, e.g. reading for enrichment is done
after the initial assignment is completed.
• Arrange follow-up sessions to review progress and see if the learner can start and finish a task
in time.
• See if there are any other barriers that may prevent the learner from completing assignments,
such as pressure from friends to play video games instead of finishing school task.
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UNIT 5 | 161
 Causes of
How to prevent
6.1 undisciplined behaviour
6.2 undisciplined
behaviour
Principles underlying
6.3 teachers’ disciplinary
Autocratic and actions
6.4 democratic approaches
to disciplining learners

Adolescents and
6.5 self-discipline

Acceptable Unacceptable
6.6 discipline discipline
6.7 techniques and their How to treat
techniques
consequences 6.8 learners with
respect

The importance of a
6.9 positive relationship How to deal with
for maintaining order 6.10 bullies

How to deal with

6.11
attention seekers STUDY The practice of good
UNIT 6 discipline with children

How to counsel learners

6.12 who watch pornography

6.13 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 6
The practice of good discipline with children

INTRODUCTION From previous units we have learnt that children, especially adolescents,
are exposed to a wide range of influences from their family, peers and
society. Some of these influences can lead to misbehaviour in learners.
For effective classroom management, the teacher has to thoroughly
plan classroom activities and a routine of daily practices. To prevent
undisciplined behaviour in learners they have to obey rules and accept
certain norms and values to be able to fit into and become part of the
educational system. This way they learn why rules can be beneficial and
to respect the rights of others.
The last decades brought changes to the classroom from the teacher-
centred autocratic approach to a democratic style where learners and
their participation became the point of focus. Discipline is about changing
inappropriate behaviours of learners and about teaching and guiding
them in alternative and acceptable behaviours. Learners are encouraged
to take part in school and extra mural activities, for being actively involved
in their learning process instils the discipline necessary for appropriate 6
emotional and behavioural conduct and social interactions. Through a
safe and orderly educational environment, children learn self-discipline.
This increases their ability of self-control to abstain from problem-related
behaviours and to engage in more goal-orientated activities.
Different teachers choose different styles of discipline to suit their
way of classroom management or the situation and behaviour. Some
of these styles may be more effective than others and some are more
appropriate than others. Teachers have to realise that unacceptable
discipline techniques are counterproductive to optimal learning and
that more can be accomplished by building positive relationships with
learners and setting an example by treating them with respect. Through
the use of acceptable measures, teachers are prepared to deal with
bullies and attention seekers and how to support learners addicted to
watching pornography.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Clarify how to prevent undisciplined behaviour

• Examine the causes of undisciplined behaviour
• Examine principles underlying teachers’ disciplinary actions
• Compare autocratic and democratic approaches to disciplining learners
• Propose how to persuade adolescents to be self-disciplined, including why we have rules,
benefits of rules, emotional maturity, respect for others’ rights, etc
• Examine and apply acceptable discipline techniques
• Propose and explain unacceptable discipline techniques and their consequences
• Clarify how to treat learners with respect
• Clarify the importance of a positive relationship with learners for maintaining order
• Propose how to deal with bullies
• Propose how to deal with attention seekers
• Propose how to counsel learners who are watching pornography
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UNIT 6 | 163
 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!

1. Discuss probable causes of undisciplined behaviour in the classroom.

2. Compile a discipline plan for your classroom, using the template below.

CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE PLAN

e.g. Be prepared (books, assignment, pen/pencil etc.)
EXPECTATIONS:

e.g. 1st violation: 1st warning

CORRECTIVE
ACTIONS:

Note: Major discipline issues (fighting, inappropriate behaviour or language, etc.) are to be
dealt with by class teacher or office!

e.g. Time for homework in class

REWARDS:

3. Explain why corporal punishment, labelling and shaming are unacceptable disciplinary
techniques in the classroom.
4. Discuss how you – as a teacher - would deal with bullies in the classroom.

6.1 How to prevent undisciplined behaviour

Undisciplined behaviour includes any kind of behaviour that
has a negative effect on the learning process in the classroom
(Landsberg, Krüger, & Nel, 2005). No child and no class
behave perfectly well at all times. There are days when one or
more of the learners in your class will misbehave. Not only will
your learners have good and bad days, you will have them too.
Generally, the best way to address a disruptive situation is to
do it as quickly as possible, refrain from disciplining any
learner in front of the class and respect your learners. It is
important for teachers to remember that they always have to
respond to learners in a totally consistent manner (Landsberg,
Krüger, & Nel, 2005). In learning outcome 4.9 we mentioned
that teachers need not be perfect – neither do learners – but
by showing respect you may reap the benefits of a class
feeling good about themselves.

164 | UNIT 6
 Let us look at some precautions teachers can implement to make sure that learners do not misbehave.

Set expectations early in the year. Make sure your class knows what is expected of them and
1
that undisciplined behaviour has (negative) consequences.
Make rules together by involving the class. What kind of learning environment do they desire
2 and how would they like their peers to behave? They are more likely to follow rules they have
helped establish and to keep one another in check.
Think about the reason why some learners display undisciplined behaviour. Maybe they are
feeling insecure, need confidence, need a feeling of success or need to feel equal to the rest
3
of the class? Once determined that these may be part of the problem, address the issue rather
than the symptoms displayed through misbehaviour.
Even though it takes a lot of self-control on the part of the teacher, remember to respond and
not react. The person who responds takes more time before acting – separating their emotions
4
from the decisions made – rather than reacting impulsively. Instead of letting your emotions get
the better of you, stay calm and make logical and intentional responses.
Keep in mind that the attention span of children is estimated to be one minute for each year
of age. Do not let them spend too much time on staying in one position for too long. Tasks,
5
where they can move around, go outside or work independently may keep them productively
occupied for longer periods of time.
It may happen that a child becomes disruptive when he/she is bored with class because of
being a quick learner. Adding new responsibilities to their schedule, such as putting them in
6
a leadership role, provide extra challenges in classroom activities and may motivate them to
encourage their peers to behave in class.
More unusual strategies include inviting another teacher to take the class for a day or two, or to
6
7
once in a while invite the learners’ parents to join the classroom lessons.

6.2 Causes of undisciplined behaviour

Discipline means to instruct a person to follow a particular code of conduct ‘order’ (Rhalmi, 2010). In
the classroom the code of conduct can be established and agreed upon by both the teacher and the
learners. Because the rules are set by teachers as well as learners the class generally cooperates in the
enforcement thereof. Learners that break the rules knowingly can hardly deny or refuse disciplinary
action. Yet, even with voluntary input in setting the class rules, it still happens that some learners may be
guilty of misconduct and disruptive behaviours in the class.

Examples of dis
ruptive behaviour:
Landsberg, Krüger, & Nel, 2005

Refuse to obey commands and requests

Noisy
Showing off
Teasing
Irritating or disturbing other learners
Leaving their seats without permission
Talking out of turn
Calling out when teacher is speaking
Making improper noises
Not paying attention
Storming out of the classroom
Knife attacks
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The reason for these misbehaviours may stem from the learner seeking attention, power or revenge.
Learners who are afraid of failure also may pretend to be asleep or may disrupt the activities as to avoid
the moment of report and evaluation. Though there can be numerous causes for indiscipline – and a lot is
said about it, for example, on the internet - we list the following reasons as was proposed in a document
by Rhalmi titled Discipline and causes of indiscipline:

UNIT 6 | 165
Favouritism
Teachers have to take care not to allow some learners more privileges than others without apparent well-
earned reason. The rest of the class may either see this as a sign that everything is allowed in spite of the
rules or they may feel offended because their efforts are not rewarded in some way.

The rules are not enforced

When there are no consequences to breaking the class rules what would be the point in obeying them?

Lack of communication
Learners who are well-informed about the school rules will also know when they are not
behaving accordingly.

Teacher-learner relationship
When the relationship between the educator and the class holds no trust and collaboration,
indiscipline emerges.

Lack of leadership
A teacher should be the so-called captain of the ship. If this does not realise, some learners will gladly
take over the role causing others to rebel. Thus indiscipline appears.

Lack of motivation
As we have seen in previous learning outcomes, learners who are not motivated do not really have any
interest in the activities. They tend to work in an undisciplined manner and often become disruptive in
the class.

Bad habit
Some learners have a history of bad habits, such as coming to school late or not handing in assignments
on time. Learners that are not cooperative and who display disruptive behaviours, affect the rest of the
class in a negative way.

6.3 Principles underlying teachers’ disciplinary actions

Even minor misbehaviours can lead to greater disruptions if left unchecked. Therefore, the earlier disruptive
behaviours are stopped the more likely it is that a major disruption will not occur and a safe class and
school climates are created where effective teaching and learning can take place. Where policies and
practices are put in place it is not uncommon that supportive and safe school climates are effectively
fostered. Creating positive school climates also help prevent and change inappropriate behaviours. Such
steps include training staff, engaging families and the community, and deploying resources to help learners
develop the social, emotional and conflict resolution skills needed to avoid and de-escalate problems. For
effective classroom management, the teacher has to thoroughly plan a routine of daily practice and to
control classroom activities to such an extent as to save time and energy. Without effective practices
of discipline, it is impossible to create an environment where great teaching flourishes and learners
are motivated to fully engage in the activities (Duncan, 2014). Often the successful implementation of
class management principles can be highly complex and requires appropriate training of school leaders,
teachers and other staff members.
Creating positive school climates also help prevent and change inappropriate behaviours. Such steps
include training staff, engaging families and the community, and deploying resources to help learners
develop the social, emotional and conflict resolution skills needed to avoid and de-escalate problems
(Duncan, 2014). When a positive school climate is developed learners feel supported in their efforts of
achieving academic success. In the classroom teachers can ensure that clear, appropriate and consistent
expectations and consequences are made clear to all the learners. When they are held accountable for
their actions in developmentally appropriate ways, misbehaviour is addressed and prevented and the
learners learn responsibility, respect and discipline. Three guiding principles to improve school climate
and discipline include:

Create a positive Develop clear, appropriate Ensure fairness,

1. class climate 2. and consistent expectations 3. equity and
and focus on and consequences to address continuous
prevention disruptive behaviour in class improvement

Safe and productive learning environments not only support learners but also keep them in school and
engaged in instruction to the greatest extent possible. Learners who are suspended or expelled from

166 | UNIT 6
 school because of misconduct miss out on academic enrichment and positive peer interactions. They also
fail to develop the skills and strategies they need to improve their behaviour and avoid future problems
(Duncan, 2014).

Principles governing the handling of disciplinary problems include teachers to….

• Be responsible for the discipline of their learners
• Uphold and enforce school regulations and maintain standards affecting discipline
• Punish only learner(s) guilty of misconduct – not whole class
• Approach disciplinary problems in a positive way
• Settle problems in a calm way and with self-control
• Stay away from corporal punishment
• Inform learner of nature of offence and how to correct it
• Not correct learner in front of others
• Show respect and kindness during disciplinary investigation
• See that punishment is reasonable and constructive
• Remember that praise and approval are more effective in promoting good standard of conduct
than blame and punishment
• Try determine reasons for indiscipline, such as, needs or goals thwarted
(Rosario, 2013)

6.4 Autocratic and democratic approaches to disciplining learners

Discipline is derived from the Latin words disco (to learn) and discipline (the communication of knowledge
6
to the learner). Effective discipline is about teaching and guiding children, not forcing them (through
punishment), to obey. Two approaches to discipline that seem to be in stark contrast are the autocratic
and democratic styles. Autocratic methods put the teacher in command, while the democratic approach
is more learner centred and encourages them to participate in the learning process. This is in accordance
with the Namibian approach towards discipline in which learners are enabled to take charge of their
own behaviour. Guiding and motivating learners to actively take part in their learning process instils the
discipline necessary for effective emotional and behavioural conduct and positive social interactions.
Post war – middle twentieth century – saw the school as part of an autocratic system where teachers were
knowledgeable and directive. Children had to listen and memorise what they were taught. All was not
bad, of course, but nowadays educators are more aware of different learning styles and the notion that
knowledge is best accumulated when experienced and understood. Children now play a far more active
part in the learning process, and physical and cognitive participation sometimes erupt in what becomes a
very noisy classroom. The role of the teacher has changed to facilitating the learning process of scholars
in a constructive way as to exert discipline. The word discipline means to impart knowledge and skill
which helps the child to effectively and appropriately fit into the real world.
According to Zelkowitz “Discipline has the most positive effect when it is consistent rather than erratic;
when it is accomplished primarily through clear, verbal explanations to develop internal controls rather
than through external, physical means of control; when it is just and fair and avoids harsh, punitive
measures; and when it is democratic rather than permissive or autocratic” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger,
2008). An autocratic style is implemented when the teacher dictates what will happen and how it will
happen and is the opposite of a permissive approach that allows freedom of behaviour without set rules.
A democratic style strives to promote learners’ intrinsic motivation and encourages their participation in
decision-making.
The different styles of discipline management of the autocratic and democratic approaches can be
summed up as following:

AUTOCRATIC DEMOCRATIC
• Teacher dictates • Increases learner’s motivation
• Learners comply • Values learner’s input in classroom activities
• Obedience is valued • Increased participation leads to reduced
• Curriculum controlled amount of behaviour issues
• When compliance is goal of classroom • Learners are allowed to voice their perspective
management, learners do not have the and it is respected by the educators
opportunity to learn • Learners establish own rules for behaviour
and sanctions
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• Punishment is used to change behaviour

• Aim of punishment is to enforce less poor • Learners are allowed to move and talk
behaviour in future during activities
• Believes a well-managed class is a quiet class

UNIT 6 | 167
Education practices strive to be more democratic and are more activity centred, more focused on
interactive learning and co-constructed management, as well as learners’ participation. The activity
centred lessons include a variety in:

Curriculum and content

Co-operative learning

Peer tutoring

Learning centres

Role-play

Brainstorming and discussion

The autocratic learning approach on the other hand is teacher centred, and practices passive learning and
controlled classroom management.
In performing discipline teachers use different disciplinary strategies and may even combine them. The
democratic and autocratic approaches have different perceptions on how discipline is to be instilled
on learners and thus often use different strategies to stop undesirable behaviour and/or encourage
desirable behaviour.
Power assertion is intended to stop or discourage undesirable behaviour. It makes use of verbal or physical
enforcement by the teacher and includes techniques such as demands, threats, withdrawal of privileges
and spanking (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). This strategy more prevails in the autocratic education
system where the authority of the teacher as sole-manager is not to be challenged.
Inductive techniques are applied to encourage desirable behaviour or to discourage undesirable behaviour.
Most often it will be the democratic educator who uses these techniques of reasoning, explaining and
negotiating as it involves participation and input by the learners. Inductive techniques include setting
limits, demonstrating logical consequences of an action and getting ideas from the child about what is
fair (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
Learners need guidance in their learning and conduct. Teachers who effectively perform discipline insist
on the learners abiding by important rules, norms and values, but are willing to listen to their point of view,
to explain and negotiate. They create and maintain a safe, orderly and positive learning environment and
take precaution in their use of discipline to correct misbehaviour and to teach the learner self-discipline.
According to Bear (2008) prevention strategies commonly used by authoritative (democratic)
teachers include:

close communication
develop social with each learner’s parents
problem-solving and and encourage support
decision-making skills from them
among learners
predictable
procedures and
routines
the frequent Prevention
monitoring of student Strategies
behaviour and immediate
a physical
responding to signs of
environment that is
misconduct
conducive to teaching
academic and learning
praise and activities that
rewards motivate learning

The education system has to ensure a learner’s safety and has to provide order, discipline and rules.
Teachers that inspire or demand more from their class, motivate learners to participate in school and
extramural activities leading to young people being more aware of the importance of self-discipline in
their achievements and social relationships.

168 | UNIT 6
 6.5 Adolescents and self-discipline
Teachers who maintain discipline strive to create a safe and orderly learning environment and also aim
to teach the learner self-discipline. “Self-discipline is the will power to make yourself do what you may
not feel like doing, or to keep yourself from giving in to what you will later regret. In both cases self-
discipline advances or protects what you believe is in your best interests” (Pickhardt, 2010). For growing
adolescents this is relevant but not easy to accomplish. To do homework when your friends are doing
something that is much more fun, or to restrain from taking alcohol at a party where everybody else is
drinking, is not easy.

Why self-discipline?
There are rewards to self-discipline. In the more independent world of peers, in which the adolescent finds
himself, new opportunities await. More pleasurable distractions and the escape from everyday duties
challenge their self-control and determination in the performance of school work and other priorities.
However, through persistence and successful completion of a task, adolescents establish and build
self-esteem and strengthen motivation to achieve their goals. More rewards of self-discipline for the
learner are:

Avoidance of problem
Positive school-related
Academic success behaviours like substance
behaviours
abuse

Components of self-discipline
Adolescents who want to become their own authority have to lean less on adult instruction, supervision,
motivation and correction (Pichardt, 2010). They have to exert the abilities such as decision-making, target
setting and self-control. Pickhardt states that many adolescents struggle with persistence, patience and
6
restraint – all components of self-discipline – which are often hampered by discouragement, impulsiveness
and temptation (Pickhardt, 2010).

Persistence Discouragement

Self-discipline Patience Impulsiveness Self-discipline

Restraint Temptation

Hence, in accomplishing what is expected from them, or what

the adolescent set out to do, discouragement can lead to
feelings of failure, helplessness and hopelessness and they
may see no point in trying to succeed. Impulsiveness can
result in the young person making the wrong decisions like
dropping out of school or not finishing a task because of not
having the patience to pursue. Not refraining from immediate
temptations, like not going to a game practice because of a
friends-get-together, may lead to in completion of an
important task.
Two essential components of self-discipline are motivation
and setting goals.

Developing self-discipline
As stated in the preceding, motivation and goal setting
are essential for adolescents to develop self-discipline. In
pursuing their goals, motivation plays a major role in the
self-control needed for persistence, patience and restraint.
School homework tasks help learners to discipline themselves
in successfully climbing the steps to a greater goal. “Those
adolescents who require no parental supervision to take
care of homework develop a work ethic that will serve them
well in the years ahead” (Pichardt, 2010). Another common
source of self-discipline is the participation in sport and other
recreation activities. Not only does the dedication to practice
build values such as perseverance and self-control, but they
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learn to work as hard as they can in order to give their best.

They have to work with others and to accommodate others’
wishes, thus they learn positive social conduct and to refrain
from self-indulging behaviours.

UNIT 6 | 169
Consequences of developing self-discipline
The development of self-discipline results in rewards of academic success and positive social behaviours
as well as the building of personality factors. Scientists found that in these positive outcomes, self-
discipline played a bigger part than IQ (Fraser-Thill, undated).

a. Intrinsic values
Elements of self-discipline that form part of an individual’s personality factors include values such as low
impulsivity, the ability to control one’s own thoughts, emotions and action, as well as the ability to delay
gratification. They are interrelated and may act collaboratively on the development of self-discipline.
Refraining from impulsive choices is necessary for self-discipline. “A child with low impulsivity is able to
wait their turn, to avoid interrupting others’ conversations and to stay seated and quiet when appropriate”
(Fraser-Thill, undated). She maintains that self-discipline also includes the ability to control one’s own
thoughts, emotions and actions. An element of self-discipline with far reaching consequences is the
child’s ability to delay gratification. Refusing a small, instantaneous reward in exchange for a larger reward
later, exerts self-discipline. An example may be a child that decides against immediate satisfaction of
watching a television program and chooses to finish a homework task for which he may be acknowledged
and awarded in school later. Researchers found that the ability to wait for a reward was associated with
higher self-esteem, less discipline problems in school and lower substance abuse (Fraser-Thill, undated).

Ability
Ability to control own
to delay thoughts, emotions
gratification & actions

High
impulsivity
control

b. Behaviours

Learners with self-discipline are academically more successful and are less likely to have problematic
behaviours that can interfere with school performance. They are less frequently absent from school and
refrain from aggressive conduct such as bullying. Away from school they finish their homework before
watching television, play computer games, and so forth. At a party with friends, where alcohol is available,
they will refrain from drinking excessively.

Looking at adolescents and self-discipline as discussed in this learning outcome one starts to see the
connection between discipline and rules. So why then do we have rules? Self-discipline is needed to
refrain from impulsive choices or problematic behaviours that can interfere with school performance.
Rules are like guiding posts showing the way to the right choice of behaviour. They provide appropriate
discipline and reflect what is expected from the adolescent. Young people begin to explore their own
power and they might push for more autonomy and independence. In the classroom learners that follow
the rules are allowed freedom and choices. Consequences result when they do not follow the rules.
We find a host of benefits of rules in the school. Not only are they associated with school discipline and
classroom management but rules are also guidelines for actions and for the evaluation of actions in terms
of good and bad, or right and wrong. Rules provide learners of a clearer sense of what it takes to perform
and the cause-and-effect relationship between actions and consequences. They know what to expect and
they understand learning tasks better as opposed to the frustration and confusion that result from the
absence of clear expectations. More concrete and meaningful expectations lead to actions experienced
by learners as examples of how one improves oneself.
Learners who display the ability to cope in difficult situations, who strive to improve themselves in a
rational way instead of ranting and raving or breaking the rules, are showing emotional maturity.

Emotional maturity is the ability to control your

emotions and behave in an adult manner when dealing with others
in - what may be - difficult situations.

170 | UNIT 6
 Signs of emotional maturity include:
• Flexibility – can adapt to a situation
• Responsibility – realise that decisions and actions have consequences and plan accordingly
• Visionary – identify problem, visualise a solution and research best way to implement solution
• Personal growth – desire learning and development
• Seek alternative views – finding improved ways of doing things, seek out opinions and views of
others without feeling threatened when others disagree
• Non-judgemental – even when in disagreement, respect others’ the right to their beliefs
• Resilience – with setbacks and disappointments the ability to express one’s feelings, identify
actions to be taken, and to move on
• A calm demeanour – most of the time
• Realistic optimism – believe opportunities can be optimised through effort and patience
• Approachability – good at building relationships with others
• Self-belief – in doing what one believes to be the right thing - appreciate the approval of others
but realise that there will always be others who disapprove
• Humour – not taking oneself too seriously
The Namibian Constitution states that all persons have the right to education and that the best interest
of a child and the right to life and development are to be taken into account. Therefore, laws and rules
give learners rights that other citizens are supposed to respect. The other side of the coin is that learners
are also supposed to respect the rights of others. An example may be when some of the learners decide
on a stay-away from school and they cause disruption in the learning environment resulting in the rest of

6
the learners not being able to attend class; the stay-away group infringes on the other learners’ right to
education. One has to keep in mind that treating people with respect is easy when you treat them the
way you like to have them treat you.

6.6 Acceptable discipline techniques

Children are not born with self-discipline and most of them hate being told what and how to do things,
especially when they see it in contrast with their aspirations. Educators have to guide - rather than control
- learners in exercising discipline. They see disciplinary encounters as opportunities to teach appropriate
behaviour, instil self-discipline and to prevent future behaviour problems. The effective teacher combines
demonstrating care and support while remaining firm and communicating clear expectations of appropriate
behaviour. Learners come to the realisation that their choices and behaviours have consequences.
Teachers use different styles of discipline and learners may not all react the same way to a single method
of discipline. Hence, a teacher may use a combination of disciplining techniques. In encouraging desirable
behaviour and correcting or discouraging misbehaviour, the teacher strives to use acceptable discipline
techniques that will not harm the child or the teacher-learner relationship in any way.
There are times when punishment is necessary and when appropriate discipline techniques are acceptable.
Children must be prevented from hurting themselves or others. According to the American Association
of Psychology “punishment, when necessary, should be consistent, immediate, and clearly tied to the
offense. It should be administered calmly, in private, and aimed at eliciting compliance, not guilt. It is most
effective when accompanied by a short, simple explanation (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
A caring and supportive teacher who wants to teach or strengthen desired behaviours will focus on
techniques that build social and emotional competencies and a positive learner-teacher relationship.
Different acceptable discipline techniques may include positive and negative reinforcement, consequences,
warnings, time-out, I and your messages, effective praise, suggestions, prompting, re-directing, modelling,
listening, ignoring, encouraging, isolating, losing of privileges, extra work, moving to another seat and
removing objects. These techniques are all discussed below:
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UNIT 6 | 171
 a. Positive and negative
reinforcement
Reinforcement takes place when a child is rewarded for his/her behaviour and the
behaviour is repeated in the expectation of getting rewarded again. Human beings
behave according to the pleasure principle: behaviour that’s rewarding continues,
behaviour that’s unrewarding ceases. According to Papalia, Olds & Feldman,
“external reinforcements may be tangible (candy, money, toys, gold stars) or
intangible (a smile, a word of praise, a hug, extra attention, or a special privilege).
Whatever the reinforcement, the child must see it as rewarding and must receive it
fairly consistently after showing the desired behaviour. Eventually, the behaviour
should provide its own internal reward: a sense of pleasure or accomplishment”
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). The ultimate goal is self-discipline – learners
behave because they want to or because they know the teacher expects good
behaviour. They should not expect a prize each time they behave well. Ideally, a job
well done, like finishing an assignment in time, should be its own reward.
Negative reinforcement is induced when children are allowed to avoid or escape from situations they find
aversive. An example may be a learner - who feels rejected by his task-group because he has nothing to
contribute - acts up and causes disruptions, so he gets time-out in isolation where he does not need to
face the teachers or peers.

b. Consequences

Experiencing the consequences of their choices is one of the most effective ways children can learn
self-discipline. These lessons really last because they come from real life. Most success in life depends on
making wise choices. Being able to think ahead about the positive or negative consequences of an action
and choose accordingly is a skill we want our children to learn” (Anonymous, 2011).
The technique of “When you […something good], then you can/may […something good]”. “Because you
[….something not good], therefore you cannot/ may not […something good]/ have to […something not
so good]”.
According to Kersey this technique teaches children to be responsible, obedient and accountable
(Cooper, 2005).
Adolescents, in their process of becoming emancipated, must within reason and safe limits experience
the consequences of their actions in order to learn from them. Consequences teach learners to make
the right choices and to genuinely experience decision-making. Learning from their mistakes is more
powerful than preventing preaching.

c. Warnings
For effective classroom management teachers should follow a discipline plan known to the class. Learners
are responsible for their own actions in the classroom and when they choose to misbehave, they are
subject to disciplinary consequences. Before punishment, a warning or two may be issued. An example
of a discipline plan could be:

Infringement Warning Explanation

1 disruption
st
Warning 1st warning for inappropriate
behaviour
2nd disruption Warning 2nd and final warning
3 disruption
rd
Administrative intervention Learner referred to principal
Learners make mistakes and warnings are meant to bring them back to reality. But if misbehaviour
persists, an offender may be told to “take a break” and think about what he could have done differently.
This provides the learner with the opportunity of making adjustments in his behaviour and prevents
administrative intervention.

d. Time-out

The learner is told to “take a break” and think about what could be done differently that would work
better or more constructively. It is up to him/her to decide how the undesirable behaviour has to change.
After they have made a decision or they are ready to try again, they can come back.

TIME-OUT
Taking time to think of what could have been done differently.

172 | UNIT 6
 REASONING OR AWAY-FROM-THE-MOMENT DISCUSSIONS
This refers to dealing with the difficult behaviour not in the heat of the moment.

NB: Effective use of time-out means that further

interaction or follow-up from the teacher is necessary to make sure a resolution
has been reached.

“Ucci argues that the use of all discipline, including the time-out, should be viewed not as punishment,
but rather as supportive or and teaching about how to gain behavioural control and express feelings
appropriately” (Gartrell, 2001).

e. I and you messages

I and you messages are used in a relationship (e.g. teacher-learner relationship) as a prevention of
undesirable behaviour in a conflict situation. This is done by using statements about yourself and your
feelings (called “I-messages” because they start with “I feel” or “I felt”) instead of “you-messages” which
start with an accusation --”you did this [bad thing]” or “you are [another bad thing].” In a you-message
the speaker often attacks the other person, makes judgements about him/her or sometimes even calls
the person names.
The use of you-messages, where a learner feels he/she is accused of something, will cause them to act
in a defensive or hostile manner. An example of a you-message is “You need to stop that!”, and of an
I-message will be “I would like it if you would stop that.”

You-messages versus I-messages

“You (the class) broke your promise.”
“You kids are such inconsiderate slobs!”
“Late again!”
“I (the teacher) felt let down.”
6
“I am angry about this mess.”
“I get worried when you do not turn up in time
for class.”

When using
I-messages

Use eye contact

Tell the person: “I have a problem…”
Describe the problem or behaviour in a non-threatening way. “When you do
this… I feel...”
Tell the person how you feel about the problem. “I feel…”

can sound manipulative, Simply state a problem,

so care should be taken not to without blaming
use them to control or change someone for it
someone else. Enable the other
party to help solve the
problem without having to
admit they were wrong
will increase the
likelihood that a
resolution can be found I-messages
are self-empowering
because they are more
easily heard by others
help to
reframe the way are not this
you think about the as natural as increases the
conflict you-messages chance that we can
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and need to be work with others to get

practised what we need

UNIT 6 | 173
Effective praise
For the teacher who has a specific behaviour goal for his/her class, shaping through praise works well.
Learners should be praised for responsible, considerate and appropriate behaviour. This can be done in
ways that will not embarrass them and could be by giving attention, saying thanks, thumbs-up, recognition,
hugs and special privileges.

When using
praise

Change praises & do not overdo it

Praise genuinely
Use the art of complimenting
Avoid praises with a hidden agenda
Teach learners how and when to praise themselves.

The teacher must take care though not to overdo it. Praise the behaviour, not the person and they will soon
understand that the act is worthwhile. The teacher simply acknowledges, rather than praises, expected
behaviour. Acknowledgment shapes a child in pleasing himself instead of performing for approval only.
Learners with low self-esteem do not always know how to handle compliments and teachers must be
sincere when complimenting them. Appropriate praise is used to reinforce good behaviour and to teach
children how and when to praise themselves.
Praise, used by teachers, is an external motivator. The ultimate goal of discipline is self-motivation,
and when learners know when their behaviours are praiseworthy, their actions are reinforced by
inner motivation.

f. Suggestions

Sometimes it is necessary for teachers to suggest a possible better outcome to a learner. When a learner
for example is told to do “time-out” and think about what they could have done that would have been
more constructive, teachers may suggest more proper behaviours for the child to ponder on.
In drawing up class rules, the teacher suggests choices that are positive and acceptable and the learners
have the opportunity to pick the choice they find fit.

g. Prompting
Prompting is a subtler technique than suggestion. By the teacher doing or mentioning something, the
class is caused to realise that something needs to change. When teachers prompt learners to reflect on
their behaviours, like in “time-out”, the majority will immediately stop their inappropriate behaviours. If
the teacher has just asked them to stop the undesirable behaviours, the class would have been deprived
of the opportunity to reflect and to become more responsible.

h. Re-directing

Re-directing works well with younger children. It is easier to get something else for the disruptive child to
keep himself busy with, than with adolescents. Learners who exhibit bad behaviour during class-time can
disrupt the learning experience for everyone else and throw the teacher off the lessons. A misbehaving
child’s attention can be re-directed verbally or non-verbally towards more positive activities.

Verbal redirection Non-verbal redirection

Call the misbehaving learner’s name and maintain Keeps a neutral face at all times.
eye contact.
Speak in a clear, calm tone. Determine how close you are to the learner.
Tell him to stop the behaviour while suggesting an If you are invading their personal space, take a
alternative type of positive behaviour. step back.
Tell him exactly why the behaviour is inappropriate. Otherwise, lean in to help the learner focus on you.
Outline the consequences if the learner continues. Use non-threatening gestures: arms in front or to
the side; hands open and relaxed.
Avoid judgemental statements. Do not glare or role your eyes.

174 | UNIT 6
 Be open to the learner’s concerns. Look at learner calmly.
Follow up with learner to ensure that misbehaviour Take slow, deep breaths before issuing commands.
is over.

i. Modelling

Children learn a lot by simply observing the

behaviours of others. The teacher, in
modelling proper behaviour, teaches the
class how to for instance use quiet voices,
by using a quiet voice him/herself. The
social learning theory – the foundation for
behaviour modelling – asserts that most
types of behaviour are learned by
observation and modelling.
Albert Bandura, the founder of social
learning theory, was interested in the power
of psychological modelling in shaping
thought, emotion and action.

ADDITIONAL READING
6
For enrichment and better understanding on the social learning approach and Albert Bandura read
Gerald Corey’s Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy: - p 225, 226 and 229.

You feel left

You are unhappy
I don’t like this out here?
at this school?
school as much as
my old one. People Yeah. I haven’t
are not very nice. made any good Yeah. I wish
friends. No one I knew more
includes me. people here.

j. Listening

Active listening is a priority in a teacher-learner relationship. Teachers that really listen to what their
learners have to say, show that they care about them. When learners know that their teacher cares and
is interested in their contribution, they feel connected to their school and motivated to learn. Learners
can also be taught active listening, which in turn will overcome poor listening habits such as thinking
about other things while someone is speaking or not listening further after the speaker’s early remark of
something with which they disagree. Poor listening habits interfere with classroom learning and teaching
the learners how to listen actively may improve their study skills. Feedback is essential to active listening.
In giving feedback the listener summarises or paraphrases the speaker’s literal and implied message.
The listener has to focus on the speaker and be aware of both the factual and emotional content of the
message. By giving feedback through a question or statement, he refines his own interpretation of what
was said. Through the feedback the speaker gains greater insight about his own feelings and he knows
that the teacher is really paying attention to him. Following is an example of active listening through
confirmation of the listener’s interpretation of a message:

Active listening requires considerable practice and to be effective each of the following steps should
be implemented:
• Look at the speaker and leave the things you were doing till after the conversation.
• Listen not only to the (factual) words, but to the emotions of the speaker as well.
• Be sincere in the interest you show towards the other person.
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• Restate what he/she said.

• Ask clarification questions once in a while.
• Be aware of your own opinions and feelings.
• If you have to state your views do it only after you have listened.

UNIT 6 | 175
 k. Ignoring
Some complaining comments or misbehaviours are better to be ignored, especially if preceded by
gentle verbal reprimands. It is useful to define these behaviours and inform the learners of your plan
to ignore them. When consciously ignoring disruptive, often attention-seeking behaviour, the teacher
sends out the message of being aware thereof but refusing to acknowledge it. Ignoring is an active
discipline strategy for teaching a learner to behave in a more mature and responsible manner. The
teacher will not ignore inappropriate behaviour, but first seek to see whether the behaviour is attention-
seeking or worthy of a response.
Attention-seeking behaviour, like screaming or destruction of materials, disrupts the class and should not
be ignored. A low performer may misbehave to cover up academic problems. He/she may act tough and
pretend they do not want to do the work, while they actually cannot do it. This type of misbehaviour will
continue if ignored.

Misbehaviours that are often effectively reduced by ignoring are –

complaining

annoying noises,

rude comments,

calling out answers instead of raising hand

chronically ignoring instructions and then asking to have them repeated

l. Encouraging

As said before, praise focuses on the product or outcome of learning - the learner’s behaviour. With
encouragement the focus is on the learner and the process of learning – the learners and their efforts to
learn. It is important to distinguish between praise and encouragement. Learners cannot receive praise
if they have not learned, but they can get encouragement to help them learn. Following are examples of
typical statements of praise and the equivalents thereof as encouragement:

Praise
“Very good! You got 100%.”
“You were the best pianist at the concert.”
“You are an excellent class captain.”
“I am so proud of your artwork.”
Encouragement
“You must really enjoy maths.”
“You have really practised hard on the piano this
year.”
“I appreciate your help in the classroom.”
“It is nice to see that you enjoy art.”

m. Isolating
Before using punishment techniques, the teacher should consider whether positive techniques for instance
praise and encouragement will adequately improve problem behaviours. Forms of punishment such as
isolation should only be considered when positive strategies have not been successful in improving the
misbehaviour of a learner. In schools where an internal suspension program is applied, learners who show
disrespect to the teachers or peers, are given a specified time of isolation punishment. Although not as
severe, time-out can be seen as isolation if the learner is sent to be somewhere on his/her own.

n. Losing of privileges

When people do not act responsibly in real life, they lose their freedom and privileges. With older learners,
loss of privileges is an effective form of discipline. If possible, the privileges that are lost should be related
to the form of the misbehaviour, for example, children who do not properly look after their reading books
are not allowed to borrow books from the library. Learners who finish their work neatly and on time can
play an educational game, work on homework, or earn points toward fun activities and free time, but
those who break the rules lose out on the privileges.

176 | UNIT 6
 o. Extra work
Extra work may be used as a form of punishment or as an incentive. As punishment the learner has to put
in extra of his free time to do previous unfinished work more intensively or an extra assignment because
he misbehaved in class. It can be an incentive when learners are motivated to get extra points for fun
activities by completing extra work.

p. Moving to another seat

Classroom seating arrangement is a key part of teaching. It can set the tone for a classroom and determine
how the academic year will evolve. Seating will affect how learners interact with one another. Sitting
friends near each other may either cause them to not doing their part, or it may motivate them to work
harder. Learners who misbehave are moved to another seat where the opportunity to undesired behaviour
is reduced. As a prevention of disruptions happening in the classroom, the teacher sometimes may decide
to reorganise the classroom seating.

q. Removing objects
When learners throw items during class just for fun, the teacher should tell them that it is inappropriate
class behaviour. Distractive objects such as toys, comics, etc. should be removed as well as distracting
materials such as athletic equipment, art materials, and so forth.

6.7 Unacceptable discipline techniques and their consequences

There are many philosophies and styles of discipline and it may be hard for an educator to decide what
works best in his/her classroom. What works for one teacher may not work for another and depending on
the teacher’s personality and teaching style the best thing to do is to pick the discipline techniques that
will best suit the specific behaviour problems encountered. Some experts say that it is better to error on
the side of being too strict because it is much more difficult to later raise the bar. Some forms of discipline
however will always remain controversial. Care should be taken in picking a discipline technique to see
that a learner is not harmed in any way.
In contrast with acceptable disciplinary techniques where the focus is more on teaching or strengthening
desired behaviours that might replace the undesired behaviour, punitive techniques may range from
verbal reprimands and taking away privileges to much harsher forms like suspension, expulsion, and
corporal punishment or a form of emotional abuse by shaming, belittling or labelling. “Harsh punishment
can be especially counterproductive. Young children who have been punished harshly may act aggressively
even though the punishment is intended to stop aggressive behaviour” (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006).
According to Gartrell childhood writers from the nineteenth century have criticised discipline techniques
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that punish children rather than positively teach them and he cited Froebel who argued that “through
punishment, adults can make a child ‘bad’ ” (Gartrell, 2001). Apart from corporal punishment, shaming
and labelling, which will be looked at in more detail, other unacceptable classroom practices include:

UNIT 6 | 177
 Unacceptable cl
assroom practices

Threats
Anger
Public humiliation
Embarrassment
Victimising humour
Putting names on the board
Giving in to whining or tantrums
Making unrealistic promises
Making comparisons with other children
Failing to listen to the learner’s side of a story

A. Corporal punishment
The Latin word corporalis is related to corpus which means body. Corporal
punishment thus is the physical punishment of an individual. Papalia, Olds
& Feldman defined corporal punishment as the “use of physical force with
the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control
behaviour” (Papalia et al., 2006:310). It can include physical acts such as
spanking, hitting, slapping, pinching and shaking. Some educators argue
that spanking a child may be necessary sometimes, as long as it is within
the appropriate setting and context and never done in anger. A
misconception however is that children become spoiled without regular
spankings. Spanking as a method of punishment for undesired behaviours
is a short term fix and highly inappropriate when applied to adolescents.
Teachers who take the stance that the beating of a child is and always has
been wrong, will find more acceptable disciplinary action than corporal
punishment.

B. Shaming
Learners who are scolded and compared to better performing classmates may develop feelings of shame
and guilt. Shame is inflicted when a child is punished by means of:

embarrassment
his/her name being unfavourable
a disciplinary especially when
written on the board as comparison to other
referral slip in the presence of
part of a warning learners
others.

When shame and blame are used to bring a child’s behaviour “back into line”, it may cause them to halt
the immediate behaviour, but it does nothing to teach alternative, more positive, behaviours. The child
may have feelings of failure “because he does not know something the teacher expects him to know”
(Gartrell, 2001) and this may reinforce a negative self-fulfilling prophecy.

C. Labelling
Through feelings of shame and guilt a learner may come to the conclusion that he/she is not good/clever
enough for any form of achievement or acknowledgement. A negative self-label may even result in them
asking: “Seeing that I am ‘no good’ - how do bad people act?”.
Children should not be labelled as “good” or “bad”. They mature at different stages and use their energies
in different ways. Labelling a learner as a troublemaker is counterproductive of teaching a child desirable
behaviours. Teachers should be careful not to stereotype learners according to their culture or gender, for
example boys are bullies and girls are ladies. Many boys practise behaviours of gentlemen, and many girls
may exhibit aggressive behaviours. Teachers therefore must not show preferences for one gender over
the other and need to treat all learners equally.

178 | UNIT 6
 There are serious consequences of unacceptable discipline techniques. The use of harsh punitive
punishment creates a sense of lower self-esteem in the child and does more harm than good to the
teacher-learner relationship. The immediate effect thereof seems like there is improvement of behaviour,
but usually it is just because the learner gets better at not being caught (Joseph et al.,2001). Characteristics
of teachers who are more inclined to punitive punishment may be that they insist on personal authority,
are arbitrary and judgemental, and demand compliance. Punitive punishment seldom achieves the
desired result and often leads to increased frustration, anger and a negative attitude towards the learning
process. It removes responsibility from the child and instils fear.

loss of confidence

feelings of anger,
retaliation and dislike loss of self-respect
toward the school.

various acts of displaced Other negative

aggression or punishment feeling devalued
towards others
effects of
unacceptable discipline
techniques may
a negative and emotionally
include:
a decrease in motivation
unsafe classroom and
school climate

social withdrawal a lack of trust 6

And according to Papalia, Olds & Feldman it also may include:

having trouble interpreting other people’s actions and words

perceiving hostile intentions where none exist

becoming passive because they feel helpless

becoming frightened when adults lose control.

2.
Unaccepted Also, it teaches
fails to address the learners what not
ways of
that it is short multiple factors (trouble at to do and fails to
punishment are
term and home, peer rejection, etc.) teach the desired
limited in its
that typically contribute to 3. or replacement
effects in 1. a learner’s behaviour. behaviour.

Some learners continue to display inappropriate conduct despite supportive guidance approaches. There
are many types of services and intervention strategies for addressing challenging behaviours in more
severe cases of misconduct. A teacher who is knowledgeable of these ways of intervention does not have
to resolve to unacceptable disciplinary actions.

6.8 How to treat learners with respect

We often hear educators complain about the way learners misbehave, talk back and act out with little
regard for teachers or classmates. Nevertheless, teachers should have respect for learners at all times.
Children come from different backgrounds and situations that they have to deal with on a daily basis.
School should be a safe haven where the educational staff are people they can trust. Learners want to be
treated with respect. Talking down to them or lecturing them about their inadequacies and unacceptable
behaviour only frustrate them. Teachers, who are consistent, friendly, open to their concerns and offer
positive reinforcement, gain the trust and friendship of their class. When teachers set an example of
integrity in class - being the kind of person a learner would want to become - they will respond in more
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appropriate ways, paying their teacher the necessary respect.

UNIT 6 | 179
Teachers that treat their learners with respect will engage in ways that raise their self-esteem and increase
their motivation of becoming part of contributing to a better learning environment. Caring teachers get
to know their learners and what interest them. They listen to them, communicate positive expectations of
their abilities and protect them from getting hurt verbally, for example, by correcting them in constructive
ways. Learners like to feel that what they say in class have influence and count for something. And if the
teacher is open to receiving feedback, this can bring about a better level of mutual respect.

6.9 The importance of a positive relationship for maintaining order

Teachers would all like their learners to try hard and behave in class. Establishing goodwill can help improve
learner engagement in the activities and minimise disruptive behaviours in class. Popular teachers seem
to have built good relationships with their learners mostly by treating them the way they would like to
be treated. Although teachers all have different types of personalities three important teacher skills were
suggested by Eggen and Kauchak (1997) in creating a helping atmosphere and in preventing discipline
problems (Landsberg, Krüger, & Nel, 2005). These skills are organisation, lesson flow and communication.

ORGANISATION LESSON FLOW COMMUNICATION

Teachers should know the
learning material well and
be prepared to teach it well.
Lessons and teaching material
must be well planned and
prepared. Effective time
management keeps learners
involved.
Teachers should strive to keep
the lesson moving, keeping
the learners occupied and
preventing disruptions.
A teacher that is “with-it”
conveys to the learners that he/
she knows what is going on all
the time.
Tone of voice, body posture
and facial expressions are all
tools used in the skill of clear
expression on the part of the
teacher. When learners are
treated fairly and courteously,
they feel welcome and
appreciated. Praise motivates
learners to improve their
learning.

6.10 How to deal with bullies

What is bullying? Bullying is when someone is offensive, intimidating or insulting towards another and
sometimes forces the victim to do things against his/her will. It is an abuse or misuse of power intended
to undermine, humiliate or injure the recipient. Bullying can have a devastating effect on a learner and
damage the learning environment. Teachers are responsible for a safe classroom where everyone respect
the feelings of others and behave in a way that does not cause offence. The following strategies serve as
guidelines for teachers to deal with bullying in the classroom:

Because the teacher wants to protect the right of learners to learn and enjoy school, they will prevent
bullying. To be able to do this they have to know what bullying is – that it often takes the form of threats,
intimidation and forcing someone against his/her will to do what the bully wants. The teacher takes
the responsibility in dealing with the situation and sees it through to the end. They have to know the
school’s bullying policy so they can work within the policy (e.g. suspending a learner who physically bullies
someone) and to accurately communicate it to the learners and their parents. In addition to the school’s
bullying policy, teachers should have their own policy – as part of the classroom management packet - and
have a procedure in place if bullying occurs. The teacher discusses this classroom policy with the learners
at the start of the school year and sends a copy home the first week of school.
In class the meaning of bullying is explained and the ways in which it manifests are made clear through,
for example, role-play scenarios. The learners are also informed about the consequences of bullying.
Throughout the year the teacher has to be in touch with the class – they have to supervise and keep an
eye on learners that appear to be socially awkward, smaller built or less confident. They have to keep an
ear on the ground and talk to the learners when working with them individually. If indeed, the teacher
gets a report of bullying, he/she has to get the facts by finding out precisely what happened. The bully or
bullies are then separated from their classmates and the incident is reported to higher authorities in the
school. The parents of both the victim and the bully are informed of what happened. In the event of the
victim becoming withdrawn, less social or unable to enjoy classroom activities, professional counselling
should be considered. In the same way the bully should be referred if the bully-like behaviour is repeated.

All complaints of bullying are to be dealt with as quickly as possible.

Confidentiality should be maintained at all times and information is
only shared on a need-to-know basis. There are various ways in which
individuals can deal with bullying. Complaints can be either formal or
informal. Formal complaints are generally dealt with according to the
institution’s policies. For the purpose of this learning outcome we stick
to the informal approach only and what to do when someone gets
bullied in school.

180 | UNIT 6
 Victims should try to keep a record of all the incidents so that they can be clear about what happened,
when, where and whether anyone else was present.

They have different options of taking action after the incident:

talk to the bully and ask for it to stop

ask a peer, council leader or teacher to speak with the bully

write to the bully, being specific about what offends them and ask for the behaviour to stop

These actions have to be done as soon as possible after the offence

and good policy is to keep copies of all written notes.
When a teacher is approached by a learner who is experiencing
bullying they have to respect the confidence placed in them and give
support wherever possible. However, action on behalf of another can
only be taken if that person explicitly asks for it. The teacher, acting
as intermediary, explains the nature of the complaint, and who has
made it, to the learner against whom the complaint has been made.
He/she is given the opportunity to respond. A meeting between the
two parties is arranged in an attempt to resolve the matter. When
no clarification or reconciliation is met, the teacher may consult any
witnesses to clarify the situation. If it is found that there is substance
to the complaint, the teacher lodges a record of the action taken
during the process of investigation.
6
6.11 How to deal with attention seekers
It has been said that children need attention like a plant needs sun and water. Since they are dependent
on significant others, such as parents and teachers, they will do everything they can to get the love and
appreciation they need. However, as they get older, that level of attention should diminish gradually.
Usually their early experiences show them that when they are well-behaved, when they learn new skills
and when they are happy, they gain positive attention from others. If this is not the case, various reasons
may be the cause of them bidding for extra attention most of the time.

These may include:

• not getting enough attention and approval because parents are overscheduled and/or are working
too hard
• lack of enough positive interaction resulting in misbehaviour, e.g. outbursts, tantrums, nagging,
teasing, etc.
• feeling abandoned leads the child to develop negative tactics to get the attention of others
• inability to express emotions, such as anger or feeling they were wronged in some way
• medical and psychiatric issues, such as ADHD
• the result of other problems like abuse and learning difficulties
Human beings are all social creatures and like to be acknowledged by fellow-human beings even if it
means causing another suffering. Bullies (see learning outcome 6.10) often exploit the hurt and suffering
of others in an attempt to gain attention for themselves. To them being scolded or punished is far better
than being ignored.

Attention seeking
behaviour in learners

Being the class clown

Being an over-helper
Needing assistance with everything though they can accomplish the task
Being at the side of the teacher all the time
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UNIT 6 | 181
What is it that attention seekers really want? It was the belief of the psychotherapist, Alfred Adler, that
people are constantly seeking belonging and significance. Thus, we can say, learners are first and foremost
looking for connection with others – they want to belong in a relationship or in a group of people. Secondly,
they want to feel significant in a relationship or in a group – they want to contribute something valuable.
When the behaviours of attention-seekers are problematic, there are some ways a teacher can address
the matter.

a. Rules/ b. Positive c. Ignore

expectations attention behaviour

a. Set clear rules and expectations around

attention-seeking behaviour
With the start of a new school year it is a good idea to inform the learners what behaviours are deemed
as inappropriate in the classroom, amongst other, constant attention-seeking and tantrums. Learners
have to take responsibility for their actions and be aware that their behaviours have consequences. For
misbehaviour they may get punished in some way, such as being ignored, and when they behave in a
more appropriate way, like asking nicely for something they want, they are praised. Teachers should be
consistent in the implementation of the rules for the learners to realise the importance thereof and they
have to repeat them until the class gets the message.
Learners should realise that their classmates all have the same right to the attention of the educator
and that they will be given the opportunity of time and attention from the teacher when they behave
responsibly. In discussing the expectations of how they should behave in class, the teacher explains to
them that he/she has high expectations for their ability to manage their behaviours and for them not to
engage in misbehaviours, such as bothering others, hitting or kicking their peers. They learn that tantrums
are ignored and good behaviour is appreciated.

b. Ignoring bad behaviour

When a learner engages in inappropriate behaviour to get attention, but it is not aggressive or harmful
to others, ignore the misbehaviour - not the child. While ignoring the behaviour, the teacher has to stay
aware of the safety of the learner. Many teachers are concerned about the effect on the rest of the
class when one child is ignored, but learners often will tell you that some will act inappropriately to get
the attention of their peers. When the teacher carries on working with the remainder of the class, the
attention-seeker’s behaviour is not acknowledged while the good example set by the other learners is
recognised. In this way the learners are taught that good choices are acknowledged on a daily basis and
inappropriate choices get no attention from either the teacher or the rest of the class.

To make sure that ignoring is the best strategy first determine whether
• The misbehaviour is really attention-seeking in nature
• The actual problem is the frequency and/or duration of the behaviour (not the behaviour itself)
• The misbehaviour is so severe, such as hitting someone, that ignoring it would be inappropriate
When the attention-seeking misbehaviour ceases and the learner demonstrates responsible behaviour,
give him/her attention. The learner’s behaviour is monitored to determine whether there is any progress
and when there is no misbehaving, the teacher maintains interaction with the learner.

c. Positive attention
Positive attention is to be given appropriately and include feedback from the teacher, such as a positive
comment, a smile, pat on the shoulder or to have a conversation with the learner. The good behaviour
of learners should be appreciated and rewarded by privileges like special attention time, providing
assistance with enjoyable tasks and having the opportunity of meaningful contributions in, for example,
class management decisions and leadership positions.

6.12 How to counsel learners who watch pornography

Today, if you would do a survey on the statistics of teenagers watching pornography, you would probably
be speechless at the magnitude of numbers. Watching pornography is seen as a potential addiction.
When someone starts to neglect relationships, school or work and other important things in life and
continues despite the negative consequences, it is time to do something about it. Three methods of how
to help someone end a pornography addiction can be found on http://www.wikihow.com/Help-Someone-
End-a-Pornography-Addiction and is summarised below:

182 | UNIT 6
 Method 1
Igniting action
• Talk about the problem to
initiate action
• Be the accountability person
– to be updated during
process
• Avoid additional shame and
guilt – motivate positive
change
• Develop a structured
approach to manage
behaviour change
• Provide healthy distractions
e.g. physical exercise
• Encourage exploration of
new interests
• Suggest talking to a
therapist
• Conduct an intervention
Method 2 Method 3
Shaping new thoughts Creating healthy balance
• Provide emotional support • Be there for the person and
• Show empathy continue support
• Help person identify their • Encourage real life
emotional issues interactions
• Plan and carry out healthy
• Celebrate the
accomplishments activities
• Be the voice of reason – the
• Realise you can only do so
one that makes sure that
much
common sense prevails
• Take care of your own health
• Understand there may be
and well-being
relapses

When a person wants to change his/her habit of watching pornography, there are certain things that can
be of help, for example:
6
Avoiding high risk situations and change routines and environments that lead to
pornography usage
List the positive and negative consequences of using versus not using pornography

Spend more time with friends and among other people – build relationships
Learn new ways of coping with emotions such as anxiety, loneliness, anger,
depression and boredom
Identify activities that help with relaxation and feeling good about things
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UNIT 6 | 183
SUMMARY All teachers would like to have a well-behaved class and there are some
precautions teachers can take to make sure that learners are disciplined.
Reasons for misbehaviour may stem from learners seeking power, revenge
or attention or they may disrupt class activities to hide their fear of failure.
Teachers having policies and practices in place harbour a supportive and
safe learning environment which helps with the prevention and change
of inappropriate behaviours.
Some important skills a teacher can employ in preventing discipline
problems involve organisation, lesson flow and communication. According
to the Namibian approach towards discipline, learners should be able to
take charge of their own behaviour. This is in line with the democratic
approach which encourages learner-participation as opposed to the
autocratic teacher-centred style that expects passive listening from
scholars. Learners who are actively involved in their learning process are
more inclined to goal-orientated behaviour and being motivated – two
essential components of self-discipline. Through self-discipline learners
develop their intrinsic values, such as self-control in thoughts, emotions
and behaviour, and to refrain from gratification.
Children who are self-disciplined are more likely to have academic
success and to stay away from problem-related behaviours. Teachers,
in disciplining children, may use a variety of acceptable discipline
techniques to teach children appropriate behaviours or to keep them
from misbehaving, for example through positive enforcement, praise,
encouragement and warnings – to name but a few. Harsh punishment
techniques such as corporal punishment, shaming and labelling are
short termed, unacceptable and unproductive because it does not
teach the child alternative or appropriate behaviours. The most effective
discipline techniques are those who do not hurt the child physically or
psychologically or harm the teacher-learner relationship. Learners want
to be treated with respect and when the teacher is consistent, open to
their concerns and offers positive reinforcement, good relationships
are built with the learners, gaining the trust and friendship of the class.
Teachers are responsible for a safe classroom where everyone respect
the feelings of others and therefore all complaints of bullying are dealt
with as quickly as possible. When the behaviours of attention-seekers
turn problematic, teachers can address the matter by setting clear rules
and expectations around attention-seeking behaviour, by ignoring bad
behaviour and employing positive attention. Watching pornography
regularly is seen as a potential addiction. When someone starts to
neglect relationships, school or work and other important things in life
and continues despite the negative consequences, something needs to
be done about it. Learning outcome 6.12 proposes ways how to counsel
learners that may be addicted to watching pornography.

FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

Discuss probable causes of undisciplined behaviour in the classroom.

Your discussion may include the guidelines proposed by the Rhalmi-document as found in learning
outcome 6.2.

Learner activity 2

Compile a discipline plan for your classroom.

Although your discipline plan will be personalised, it should follow the guidelines provided in
learning outcome 6.6 Acceptable discipline techniques.

184 | UNIT 6
 Learner activity 3

Explain why corporal punishment, labelling and shaming are unacceptable disciplinary techniques
in the classroom.
Refer learning outcome 6.7 Unacceptable discipline techniques and their consequences. Your answer
should include the following:

Psychological (emotional) harm of the learner includes:

• Lower self-esteem, increased frustration, anger, fear, loss of confidence and self-respect, feeling
devalued.
• Relationship, social and attitude consequences:
›› reduced motivation, lack of trust, a negative attitude towards the learning process,
harms the teacher-learner relationship, social withdrawal, a negative and emotionally
unsafe classroom and school climate, various acts of displaced aggression or punishment
towards others, feelings of anger, retaliation and dislike toward the school, having trouble
interpreting other people’s actions and words, perceiving hostile intentions where none
exist, becoming passive because they feel helpless, and becoming frightened when adults
lose control.

Behavioural:
• Short term remedy, but more often learner gets better at not being caught.
•
•
Seldom achieves the desired result.
Responsibility of learning and developing appropriate behaviour is removed.
6
Punishment is limited in that -
• it is short term, fails to address the multiple factors (trouble at home, peer rejection, etc.) that
typically contribute to a learner’s behaviour and teaches learners what not to do instead of the
desired or replacement behaviour.

Learner activity 4

How to deal with bullies in the classroom.

For guidelines on how to deal with bullies, refer to learning outcome 6.10.
You do not have to discuss bullying or to refer to arguments about it. Describe details of the process
you will follow and the stages that you will implement.
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UNIT 6 | 185
 Macronutrients and
7.2 micronutrients and their
Nutrition, malnutrition, health functions in a diet
7.1 and health indicators

Everyday practices
Adequate nutrition 7.4 that support physical
7.3 and nutrition related health
disorders/diseases

Fast (junk)
7.5 food versus a
balanced diet

Eating disorders: obesity and

7.6 anorexia nervosa

How to support learners with

7.7 eating disorders
STUDY Nutrition, nutrients and
UNIT 7 related health disorders

Diet guidelines proposed by

7.8 Tim Noakes

7.9 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 7
Nutrition, nutrients and related health disorders

INTRODUCTION This unit builds on work done in previous learning outcomes of this
Counselling and Learner Support module. Life skills on emotional
management and the consequences of alcohol and drug abuse were
covered in Unit 4 while the impact of poverty on a learner’s life and
learning and how adolescents can exert self-discipline were dealt with
in Units 5 and 6 respectively. Subsequent to all these learning outcomes
lies the development of the young person’s self-concept. Feelings of
low self-esteem may lead to destructive behaviours that can result
in serious and chronic illnesses due to the lack of taking proper care
of the self. Eating disorders, such as obesity and anorexia nervosa,
often prevail in adolescence and result from malnutrition. These are
examples of unhealthy conditions that may lead to other serious and
even terminal illnesses.
Each individual has the responsibility to look after his/her own health.
Apart from emotional influences, for a person to understand how to
stay healthy, he/she must be knowledgeable about what factors affect
health. This unit covers the concept of proper nutrition and the necessity
and responsibility of looking after one’s own health. Ways of supporting

7
learners with eating disorders are examined and diet guidelines as
proposed by Tim Noakes are evaluated. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle
involves the balanced intake of nutritious food, personal hygiene, enough
rest and physical exercise.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Define ‘nutrition, malnutrition and health’ and describe health indicators

• Analyse macronutrients and micronutrients and their functions in a diet
• Discuss the importance of adequate nutrition and describe nutrition related disorders/diseases
• Analyse everyday practices that support physical health
• Examine the dangers of fast (junk) food and describe a balanced diet
• Analyse the dangers of obesity or anorexia nervosa
• Examine ways to support learners with eating disorders
• Evaluate the latest diet guidelines proposed by Tim Noakes

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!
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UNIT 7 | 187
 1. Describe the concept of malnutrition.
2. Study the parts on macronutrients and micronutrients and complete the following table:

Nutrient Food sources Functions

Macronutrients
Protein

Carbohydrates

Fats

Macronutrients

Vitamin C

Vitamin B12

Calcium

Iron

3. Choose the incorrect answer from the options given:

3.a. Nutritional diseases that may be caused or aggravated by deficiencies in nutrients are
3.a.a. eating disorders such as obesity and anorexia
3.a.b. hypertension
3.a.c. sprained ankle
3.a.d. cancer
3.b. Tiredness and fatigue are due to a deficiency in the micronutrients -
3.b.a. Carbohydrates
3.b.b. Vitamin B1
3.b.c. Vitamin B12
3.b.d. Vitamin C
3.c. Functions of the human body include -
3.c.a. regulation of processes
3.c.b. growth, repair and maintenance
3.c.c. fatigue
3.c.d. protection

4. You are responsible for the planning of one day in the programme of a Grade 5-school camp.
Compile the activities for the day on a blank A4 paper and demonstrate how you will implement
practices that support physical health. (You may use colour and drawings to illustrate your
activities).
5. You run a guest house that provides three balanced meals per day. Use the information you
have gained from the learning outcomes of this unit to compile a menu for one day.

6. Use the table below to fill in the physical and emotional consequences of the eating disorders
anorexia nervosa and obesity.

Disorder Physical consequences Emotional consequences

Anorexia
nervosa

Obesity

188 | UNIT 7
 7.1 Nutrition, malnutrition, health and health indicators
In order to understand how to stay healthy an individual should be knowledgeable about what factors
affect health. The human body needs nourishment to function properly. The importance of nutrition is
often underestimated and may lead to malnutrition. Malnutrition can be caused by an unbalanced diet,
eating too little or too much, or faulty digestion and utilisation of the food. How healthy a nation is can
be established by measuring the prevalence of factors such as the quality of life, behaviours related to
health, and illness of the population.

What is health, when are we healthy and how can what we eat affect our health? In looking after our
health there are several things we have to keep in mind and which we should do. One way an individual
7
can look after himself is by eating properly and seeing to it that he takes in a balanced amount of the
nutrients his body needs. Before we carry on let us take a look at how the key concepts of this unit can
be defined.
Nutrition has to do with food and nourishment that a living being needs for growth,
health and the capability to work successfully. Nutrition can be seen as the process of
Nutrition nourishing or being nourished. It also can be described as the sum total of the
processes involved in the taking in and the utilisation of food substances. In more
biological terms we can define nutrition as the provision, to cells and organisms, of
materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life.
Malnutrition is the lack of proper nutrition. It is the condition that develops when the
body does not get the right amount of nutrients it needs to stay healthy. This can be
caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough of the right things or being
unable to use the food eaten. Not eating enough of the right things leads to poor
Malnutrition
nutrition because of an insufficient or poorly balanced diet, or faulty digestion or
utilisation. Malnutrition is a broad term commonly used as an alternative to under-
nutrition, but it may also refer to over-nutrition, because both conditions relate to
faulty nutrition due to inadequate or an unbalanced intake of nutrients. Thus,
malnutrition refers to any condition in which the body does not receive enough
nutrients for proper functioning.
The definition for health according to The World Health Organisation is “a state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. Thus, health can be
seen as the state of being sound in body or mind, and of being free from illness or injury. Different aspects
of health are mental and emotional, physical, social, spiritual, sexual and reproductive health. Dimensions
of health, such as physical, nutritional and emotional health may collaborate to optimal health or may be
affected simultaneously by, for example, eating disorders.
Aspects of the health of an individual or population are described by health indicators. It can, for instance,
report public health problems at a particular point in time and show change in the level of the health of
a population or individual over time. Health indicators are used as measurements of aspects of human
well-being and may include the following:
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quality of life, life skills, or health expectancy (sanitary, access to water/electricity)

behaviours and actions related to health (work performance, physical fitness)

illness or disease (prevalence or absence thereof).

UNIT 7 | 189
Population health indicators measure the social and economic conditions and the physical environment
as it relates to health. Communities with strong social networks and sufficient recreation and sanitary
facilities, may indicate a higher percentage of health.
Health indicators for Namibia according to the National Social Marketing Programme (2006) show
measurements (some quite alarming) of which a few examples are listed below. Even though the statistics
may be - or become – outdated, the items provided are examples of what can be accepted as health
indicators in a population group.

Item Percentage (%)

Malnutrition in children under 13 years old 10.6
Aids prevalence in children under 13 years old 5.6
Girls of 17 years old who have begun childbearing 18.7
HIV/Aids prevalence among pregnant women 22.3
Aids as cause of death for all ages 12.4
Households with access to safe water 77
Households with access to adequate sanitation 41
Life expectancy (years) 43
School attendance 94
Health issues that commonly affect adolescents include stress due to cognitive, emotional and
attitudinal changes, sexually transmitted diseases due to promiscuous behaviour or having unprotected
sex, physical and mental harm due to substance abuse and other high-risk activities and poor nutrition
due to eating disorders.

7.2 Macronutrients and micronutrients and their functions in a diet

For optional functioning, the human body needs a balance in the variety of nutrients it uses. Nutrients
essential for energy, growth and repairs are the macronutrients, namely protein, carbohydrate and fat. The
body needs smaller amounts of micronutrients but these nutrients are just as essential for the protection
of health and for the regulation of the body systems. Micronutrients consist of vitamins and minerals that
are derived from the daily intake of food or supplements.
A balanced diet includes plenty of nuts, whole grains, green leafy vegetables and colourful fruits and
vegetables. The more colourful your diet, the better the nutrition. Traditionally a well-balanced meal
includes a portion of meat, a portion of starch and two portions of vegetables. Different coloured
vegetables e.g. green beans and orange carrots not only make an attractive plate of food, but also increase
the variety of nutrients intake. A fruit salad for dessert is a better choice than sweets. Different types of
produce contain a variety of nutrients. Fish, for example, can be rich in protein and fat (macronutrients),
as well as iron and iodised salt (micronutrients).

3
Macronutrients Proteins Carbohydrates Fats

Large amounts of macronutrients are required to provide the energy needed to maintain body functions
and for the individual to carry out activities of daily life. Although examples of food high in protein,
carbohydrates and fats are listed, there is a bigger variety of food products that belong to these groups.
Also keep in mind that some kinds of foods may provide more than one type of nutrient, e.g. nuts contain
proteins as well as fat.
“All body cells contain protein. Muscles, glands, bones, skin, blood and organs are examples
of types of body tissues that consist of large amounts of protein.” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger,
2008) Generally, adolescents need more protein than adults and a deficiency is often
more common among girls than boys. Foods high in protein are meats, eggs, dairy
products, seeds and nuts.

Carbohydrate is a source of energy and must be consumed daily. How much carbohydrates
an individual needs depends on his/her body weight and level of activity. Carbohydrates
help to maintain physical fitness and overall health. Bread, pasta, grains, fruit juices and
fruits like bananas and apples contain carbohydrate. Anything made with white flour and/
or sugar has high carbohydrate content.

190 | UNIT 7
 Fat also is a major energy source and is essential for light- to moderate-intensity exercise
and for exercises where endurance is necessary. Fried and processed foods that contain a
lot of fat should be limited. The focus has to be on an intake of healthy fat from plant oils
and soft margarines made with vegetable oils. Foods high in fat include nuts, fatty meats
and most dairy products, like butter.

The functions of macronutrients in a diet

Protein builds, maintains and repairs body tissue. It provides energy and regulates body functions.
Carbohydrate gives energy, improves the digestive system, stabilises blood sugar and maintains energy
levels. It lowers blood cholesterol levels, cuts down on body weight and improves muscle contraction.
The main function of fats in the body is to provide energy. With fats supplying energy, proteins are
allowed to perform their one important role of building and repairing body tissues. Fats can be stored in
the body for subsequent use. In eating more than we expend, fats are deposited under our skin. Fats also
help with the absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K.

Micronutrients Vitamins Minerals

The human body needs only small quantities of them to survive, however the intake of micronutrients is
vital to the proper functioning of the body systems.
Vitamins do not provide energy or build our cells and organs but they are essential to
keep the body healthy and the mind alert. There are 13 different vitamins that can be
grouped into being water-soluble or fat-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) are
absorbed and can be stored until needed. Water-soluble vitamins are assimilated from
foods and consumed daily. They play an important role in the break down, metabolism
and digestion of the macronutrients and the energy they supply to the body. Many
vitamins are found in fruit and vegetables but meat, eggs, fish, nuts and dairy products
7
are also sources of vitamins.

Minerals can be divided into two groups, namely the major or macro-minerals and trace or
micro-minerals. Although trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts than major
minerals, both groups are equally important in helping the body grow, develop and stay
healthy. Meat and seafood, nuts, leafy green vegetables and dairy products are some of
the food sources of minerals.
The variety of vitamins and minerals and the role they each has to fulfil is complex and we will take a look
at some of the most common micronutrients and their functions.

The functions of micronutrients in a diet

Micronutrients are necessary for the body to function efficiently and, in sustaining the immune system,
serve as protectors against diseases. In maintaining good health, they are indispensable. The flow
diagram below represents 6 elements each from the micronutrients groups “vitamins” and “minerals”.
The examples cover only part of the sources and functions listed.

a. Functions of vitamins

Vitamin A aids with vision, especially in the dark. This vitamin is important for healthy bones,
A
teeth, mucous membranes and the skin.

Both vitamin B6 and foliate (vitamin B9) are members of the B-complex of vitamins and are
vital for energy metabolism and blood health. Vitamin B6 is required for the formation of red
blood cells and various neurotransmitters (a chemical substance released from a nerve fibre) and
B
helps to maintain nerve function. Vitamin B12 also helps maintain the metabolism process and the
nervous system, while Vitamin B1 protects the heart and the nervous system from the build-up of
toxic substances and helps to convert the macronutrients - carbohydrates and fats – into energy.
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Vitamin C is required daily and helps to maintain skin, teeth, gums, tendons and ligaments. It
C
strengthens the immune system and helps the body fight common colds.

UNIT 7 | 191
Vitamin D is necessary for skeletal growth. Ages 11 to 24 years require generally twice as much
D
vitamin D than adults (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).

Vitamin E protects cells and tissue from harmful substances and helps prevent cancer,
E cardiovascular and heart disease. It is used in skin creams, due to claims that it may delay the
ageing process. .

When large amounts of blood are lost, Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting. It also helps to
maintain strong bones and to prevent osteoporosis – a disease where the bones become brittle K
and fragile.

b. Functions of minerals

Macro-minerals
Calcium is needed to support healthy bones and teeth, increase bone mass and
aid in nerve impulses and muscle contraction and relaxation. In addition, it helps
with blood clotting, blood pressure regulation and immune system health. Growing
CALCIUM
adolescents require more calcium as a deficiency of this micronutrient may lead
to limit bone growth which in turn affects the child’s eventual height. Foods rich in
calcium include milk by-products, cheese, broccoli and kidney beans.

Sodium, found in table salt, soy sauce and processed foods, is needed for proper
SODIUM
fluid balance, muscle contraction and nerve transmission.

Magnesium is found in bones and also assists with muscle contraction and nerve
MAGNESIUM transmission. Nuts, seeds, leafy green vegetables, seafood, and more, all contain
magnesium.

Micro-minerals (trace minerals)

Iron is a mineral that, through the formation of haemoglobin, carries oxygen in the
blood. It plays a major role in the energy metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and
fats. Iron deficiency is especially prevalent among girls (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger,
2008) which may result from heavy menstrual periods when they need more iron.

Muscle mass is the actual weight of the muscles

in a body. It includes all the muscle groups in the body and IRON
the water that is stored in them.

Boys need more iron because of their greater muscle mass and blood volume
(Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Iron is found in types of food such as fruit juice,
iron-enriched cereal, red meat, poultry, fish and vegetables. Vitamin C helps the body
to absorb more iron.

Zinc helps with the maintenance of the body systems and immune functioning and
is critical for wound healing and tissue growth. It directly affects the utilisation
ZINC of protein which is a major source of energy, leading to zinc being essential to
athletes. Foods containing zinc include meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole grains
and vegetables.

Iodine helps regulate the metabolism, growth and development of the body. Seafood,
IODINE
iodised salt, bread and dairy products all contain iodine.

192 | UNIT 7
 7.3 Adequate nutrition and nutrition related disorders/diseases

Guidelines fo
r good nutrition

Take in a balanced meal of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals.

Take fats, sugar, salt and sodium in moderation.
Eat plenty of vegetables, fruit and grain products.
Maintain a healthy weight.

The human body needs a variety of nutrients to be able to perform the tasks it has to fulfil. Through the
adequate intake of the needed nutrients energy can be released, the regulation of body processes can
be obtained and growth, repair and protection of the body can be realised. Five groups of food types
include grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy products and lean proteins. These produce, if presented according
to the suggested servings of the food pyramid, generally provide adequate nutrients for the optimal
functioning of the human body. Food portions must correspond to the amount of energy consumed by a
person. The intake of less than the adequate amount of vitamins, minerals and macronutrients may lead
to chronic conditions of illnesses. Excessive intake of food, or not following a balanced diet, can result in
being overweight. This in turn may be the cause of numerous illnesses and nutrition related disorders such
as obesity, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and more.

The importance of adequate nutrition

Why is it necessary for a person to follow a balanced diet when the human body is a system that seems to
function independently and is able to heal itself after illness or accidents? For a body to function properly
and to adequately be able to heal, it needs the intake of a variety and balanced amount of nutrients. These
nutrients each play a role in generating energy, regulating body processes and the protection, growth and
repair needed to maintain body health. Adolescent girls need more nutrition in their early adolescence
7
when they are growing the fastest, while the need for nutrients for boys are highest in mid-adolescence.
“For either gender inadequate nutrition can delay growth, affect the onset of puberty or even compromise
the final growth attained.” (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008)

Essential vitamins and nutrients needed for a healthy and balanced diet can be found in five categories of
food sources including grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy products and lean proteins.
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Eating too much of one type of food is not good for your body and may result in deficiencies causing the
body not to function properly which in turn may lead to serious health problems.

UNIT 7 | 193
According to Hutchison, citing the National Institute of Health, a balanced diet with the proper nutrition
is one of the keys to successful weight management. “Maintaining a healthy weight is related to the
prevention of chronic heart disease, diabetes and other serious illnesses” (Hutchison, 2011).
Thus, a healthy diet and the balanced intake of the proper nutrients enable the human body to optimal
functioning and performing tasks that include the following:

Growth, repair & Regulation of

Energy Protection
maintain processes
essential vitamins are We need energy to Water, vitamins and Vitamins, minerals
needed to develop think, breath, walk, minerals help regulate and Protein keep
the bones, muscles, sit, speak and sleep. breathing, the nervous the body’s tissues
organs and tissues We get energy from system, digestion, and organs healthy.
of a growing body. carbohydrates, blood circulation and A strong immune
Proteins, fats and proteins and fats. If we the elimination of system can produce
minerals are the best do not take in enough waste products from antibodies and fight
nutrients for growth. nutrients we feel tired the body. illness.
Growing bodies and listless. If we take
(like adolescents) in more than needed
need extra amounts the redundant energy
of nutrients. Poor is stored in the body as
nutrition can lead fat. This may result in
to stunted growth, becoming overweight
learning disorders and or obese.
weakened immune
systems. Replacing
and repairing injured
or dead cells is a
continual process

The consequences of malnutrition

The imbalance in the intake of nutrients through an inadequate diet - by either taking too much or neglect
taking the proper amount of vitamins, minerals and macronutrients – may result in malnutrition. The
excessive intake of some nutrients, such as Vitamin C and iron, can cause acute poisoning of the body.
Iron toxicity may cause death in young children. An over-abundance of protein consumption can lead to
dehydration, weight gain and increased calcium loss. Obesity, a health-threatening condition caused by
overeating, may contribute to serious health problems such as diabetes, hypertension and coronary heart
disease.
The lack of essential nutrients due to a poor diet leads to nutritional diseases commonly associated with
chronic malnutrition, for example scurvy and osteoporosis – both the result of vitamin deficiencies. A
person lacking in adequate nutrition is more susceptible to illness. Long term effects include impaired
cognitive development (lack of concentration and limited problem-solving abilities), feeling depressed
and lethargic, and having a lower capacity for work (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008). Lower math scores
were indicated as the result of an iron deficiency (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Deficiencies in Vitamin
K - which is manufactured in the body - and Vitamin E are not common.

Some nutrition related health problems and disorders are listed below:

Deficiencies
Health problems due to deficiencies
in…
Protein Negative effect on organ and immune systems; harming skin and hair; muscle
Macronutrients

wasting; fatigue
Carbohydrate Negative effect on endurance and energy; fatigue; constipation
Fat Hormone imbalance; negative effect on reproductive health; develop vitamin
deficiencies; dry skin and hair; increased risk of depression; decreased
cognitive functioning

194 | UNIT 7
 Vitamin A Poor night vision; eye problems; weakened immune system – more prone
to infection
Vitamin B1 Tiredness and fatigue; muscle weakness; nerve damage; confusion; enlarged heart
Vitamin B6 Skin disorders; mouth sores; confusion; depression; anaemia – shortage of red
blood cells leads to feeling tired
Vitamin B12 Tiredness and fatigue; loss of memory; anaemia; confusion; tingling and numbness
in the hands and feet
Vitamin C Prone to infections; slower healing of wounds; dental and gum problems; fatigue;
loss of appetite; dry skin; painful joints; anaemia; slower metabolism; scurvy
Micronutrients

Vitamin D Softening and weakening of the bones; insomnia; nervousness; muscle

weakness; osteoporosis
Vitamin E May include nerve damage
Vitamin K Easy bruising and bleeding
Calcium Osteoporosis; decreased bone mass resulting in increased risk for stress fractures
and bone-related injuries
Magnesium Sleep disorders, muscle spasm and weakness, hyperventilation
Sodium Muscle cramps, headache, disorientation, tiredness, nausea
Iron Anaemia causing growth retardation; lower work performance; fatigue; impaired
immune function; impaired cognitive reasoning
Zinc Growth retardation
Iodine During pregnancy can result in stillbirth, miscarriage or irreversible mental
retardation; goitre problems
Poor nutrition is often linked to isolated or economically depressed populations but according to Vereecken
& Maes it may also result from a personal concern with body image and weight control (Papalia, Olds,

7
& Feldman, 2006) in which case eating too little may be linked to attractiveness equated with slimness.
Imbalanced food intake is common among adolescents. Girls are more inclined to deficiencies due to
following diets and sometimes because of factors such as menstruation and pregnancy at a young age
when more nutrients are needed. The prevalence of deficiencies in calcium, iron, vitamins and protein is
most common of an imbalanced food intake. A growth-retarding disease that stems from under-nutrition
is iron deficiency anaemia (Gouws, Kruger, & Burger, 2008).

Other nutritional diseases that may be caused or aggravated by deficiencies in nutrients are:

eating disorders such as obesity and anorexia

hypertension

cardiovascular disease

diabetes and metabolic disorders

bowel conditions and diseases

cancer

bowel conditions and diseases

Chronic malnutrition may sometimes be the result of cultural practices, eating habits, sanitation and
hygienic practices. Often it affects the most vulnerable members of a family, for instance infants, children,
pregnant and lactating women and the elderly; or they affect the quality of food which is consumed.
The human body needs proper nutrition for growth and repair, for protecting and regulating the body
processes and for energy. A healthy and balanced diet that includes grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy
products and lean proteins, and provides essential vitamins and nutrients, is needed for the body to
perform its tasks. The excessive intake of some nutrients may lead to acute poisoning of the body or -
in the case of overeating - obesity. A person lacking in adequate nutrition is more susceptible to illness
and in the long run to impaired cognitive functioning. Serious illnesses like cardiovascular disease,
cancer, osteoporosis, hypertension and eating disorders may all be due to deficiencies in a person’s
nutritional intake.
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UNIT 7 | 195
7.4 Everyday practices that support physical health
Every person has the responsibility to look after his health as best he can. Caring for one’s body takes
dedication on a daily basis and includes personal hygiene, exercise, sleep and relaxation, abstaining from
things that may be harmful, and taking in a balanced, nutritional meal regularly.
Physical health contains the well-being of a person’s body and includes healthy organs, bones, muscles,
skin and hair. Physical health also comprises of the effective functioning of the body systems, for example
the immune system, digestive system, nervous system, respiratory system, and so forth. Every functional
individual has the responsibility to look after his/her body and provides it with the necessary materials
and opportunities to be able to perform its tasks of development, protection, maintenance and providing
energy. Every individual has control over his/her physical activity and eating habits (Papalia, Olds, &
Feldman, 2006) and thus can practice basic steps in support of the body’s task of maintaining physical
health.
Assisting the body in performing its tasks of growth, repair, protection and maintaining good physical
health, an individual has to see to certain practices being followed and to the abstinence of others.
Practices every person can apply on a daily basis includes: personal hygiene care, healthy eating habits,
exercise, getting enough sleep and staying away from practices that can harm the body.

a. Personal hygiene
Personal hygiene is not only important for social acceptance and a better appearance but is also
necessary for an individual’s health. In the context of physical health personal hygiene is mainly needed
to prevent illness and disease. It entails bathing regularly, keeping your hair clean, trimming the fingernails
and toenails, brushing your teeth and regularly washing your hands especially after using the toilet and
before meals. Throughout the day people touch and handle different objects that bring them in contact
with germs. Washing one’s hands helps to prevent germs from spreading and causing illness or disease.
Adolescents are particularly liable to hormonal changes which may cause acne, oily hair and body odours
and therefore have to be extra aware of taking care of their personal hygiene. Taking daily showers or
baths, changing clothes daily and the use of an antiperspirant or deodorant helps prevent body odour.
Oral hygiene assists with the prevention of cavities, removal of plaque and food particles from between
teeth, and provides fresh breath. When teeth and gums are not cleaned regularly, the bacteria in the mouth
increase. Long-term infections may lead to a low immune system leaving individuals more susceptible of
diseases such as scurvy.

b. Healthy exercise

Before we come to the reasons why exercise is good for an individual’s physical health, let us first look at
the question: “What happens if we do not exercise?” The lack of exercise can cause -

the muscles to become flabby and weak

the heart and lungs not to function properly

joints to become stiff and easily injured.

196 | UNIT 7
 No regular exercise may eventually lead to the impairment of a person’s movements and effective work
performance. On the other hand, getting moderate exercise daily will increase:

getting moderate exer

cise daily will increase:

The prevention of diseases – exercise helps with blood circulation and the regulation of body
systems such as the digestive system. It may help with the prevention of diseases such as heart
disease, cancer, high blood pressure and diabetes.
Stamina – the more fit a body, the more efficient its performance. Exercise aids the
body to use less energy for the same amount of work, which is good for the heart and
the respiratory system.
Strength in bones and muscles – more firm muscles and strengthened bones
and ligaments not only leads to better endurance but also improves a person’s
posture.
Flexibility – is enhanced by stretching. This reduces the chance of
injury and improves balance and co-ordination.
Weight management – makes it easier to control excess weight
in burning more calories.
Quality of life – by feeling better physically and
mentally. It also helps a person to sleep better.

Exercising outdoors allows the sun to provide vitamin D to the body. This strengthens the bones and the
immune system, and may help to protect the body against diseases such as cancer. Running, walking and
swimming are all exercises that support and improve the respiratory system and blood circulation without
putting too much strain on the body if regulated.
7
c. Rest and recreation
For the body to develop and restore its energy levels,
enough sleep is needed. About eight hours of sleep
per night is recommended for growing children.
Sleep helps support growth and development of
children and teenagers. It is involved in the healing
and repairing of cells and tissues of the body and
helps maintain the healthy balance of hormones that
make you feel hungry or full. Sleep deficiency leads
to an increased risk of chronic health problems such
as diabetes. Sleep affects how your body reacts to
insulin, the hormone that controls your sugar level
and causes diabetes in the case of insulin deficiency.
Efficient sleep helps improve cognitive functions
such as learning, decision-making and creativity.
A person who makes optimal use of health practices generally does something he/she enjoys, like having
a hobby or taking part in sport activities. Recreational time spent with friends and family helps a person
to relax and to reduce stress levels in the body.

d. Healthy eating habits

Food is the fuel that provides the energy for a body to keep functioning. It supplies the necessary nutrients
the body needs for optimal heath and performance. The body needs a variety of nutrients for the different
tasks it needs to fulfil. Macronutrients are necessary for the growth and development of for instance
the bones and muscles. Micronutrients help sustain the immune system and protect the body against
diseases. A deficiency in nutrients leads to improper functioning of the body systems and makes the
individual more susceptible to diseases. The daily balanced intake of nutrients enables a stronger body
more capable of growth, restoration and protecting against diseases due to malnutrition. Eating disorders
caused by malnutrition are obesity (due to excessive and imbalanced nutrition) and anorexia nervosa
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(due to deficiencies of nutrients and not eating enough). The dangers of these two eating disorders are
discussed in learning outcome 7.6.

UNIT 7 | 197
 e. Abstinence from harmful substances and activities
In learning outcome 4.6 of this module we have learnt more about the consequences of tobacco, alcohol
and drug abuse. Physical consequences include:
• malnutrition
• poisoning of the body resulting in failure of organs
• damage to respiratory system, organs and senses
• infections due to unsterilised needles causing secondary infection such as hepatitis or HIV/AIDS.
The use of drugs and alcohol increases the probability of partaking in high-risk sexual activities. These
may result in causing the body harm when contracting sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS.

7.5 Fast (junk) food versus a balanced diet

Modern life brought technology that causes humans to quicken their way of doing things. Transport,
communication and production have all developed rapidly and people rarely nowadays get to their
destination by walking, cycling or going on horseback. They rather phone their neighbour instead of
walking over to ask for something. Produce are readily available in the shops and a meal can be bought
instead of a person preparing it him/herself. Instant meals however do not always constitute a healthy
meal. Fast foods, also known as junk food, are convenient for the person who needs a quick meal, but are
not as nutritious as a balanced meal and on the long run may be very harmful to the human body.

What is meant by fast or junk foods and how nutritious are they?
Hickman et al. state that “adolescents who regularly watch television consume the most junk food”
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Examples of fast foods may include milkshakes, soft drinks, hamburgers
and chips, pizzas, wraps and other foods that are pre-packed and ready for consumption. According
to Vereecken & Maes sweets, chocolates, soft drinks and other junk foods are high in cholesterol, fat
and calories and low in nutrients (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Foods such as fish, chicken and sub
sandwiches may be high in protein, fat, vitamin B and iron but relatively low in fibre needed for digestion.
Low-fat milk, oatmeal and fruit cups – good sources of calcium, fibre and vitamins A, C and D – are less
popular items on the fast food menu. While your body needs sodium, fats and carbohydrates, many fast
foods provide too much, resulting in over-nutrition. Most junk foods have high levels of calories, fat and
sodium and some fast food meals can contain nearly a full day’s worth of calories and fat.

What are calories?

Calories provide the energy that fuels our bodies. An adult body needs at least 1000 to
1400 calories daily for the effective functioning of the heart, lungs and brain. The amount of
calorie intake depends on an individual’s age, sex, weight and muscle mass. The taking in
of calories more than is needed results in weight gain. Fat contains double the
amount of calories than is found in protein or carbohydrates.

Hamburgers with high-fat meat served on white bread; and chips on the side, often lack important
nutrients such as vitamins found in fresh produce, fibre found in whole grains and protein served without
added fat. Adolescents need to take in more nutrients because of their rapid growth. However, many of
them, because of their lifestyle, may skip breakfast and prefer junk food when they feel hungry (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Foods with a high sugar and carbohydrate content (e.g. soft drinks, sweets
and chips) are often less filling than healthier options and may lead to overeating. Non-nutritious fast
food meals several times per week can negatively influence the energy levels of a person and may cause

198 | UNIT 7
 vitamin deficiency. Adolescents who prefer fast foods may neglect their intake of fruits and vegetables.
Therefore, it is not surprising that deficiencies of calcium, zinc and iron are common at this age (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2006).

The dangers of fast / junk foods

Foods high in sugar and carbohydrates are often less filling and may lead to overeating. With the excessive
intake of non-nutritional food and a negative impact on a person’s energy levels, it may lead to the
condition of obesity. Overweight conditions increase the risk of developing chronic, incurable illnesses.
The high levels of calories, fat and sodium in fast foods can eventually lead to other health problems.
High cholesterol often results from consuming excess saturated fat while sodium may contribute to high
blood pressure. Hypertension (high blood pressure) increases the progression of atherosclerosis and the
risk in developing heart disease. Atherosclerosis (clogged arteries) is caused by the build-up of saturated
fats and cholesterol in the arteries. This reduces the space for blood flow and consequently the amount
of oxygen that reaches the cells. The condition of atherosclerosis can cause heart attacks and strokes.
Whether fast foods cause diabetes is not known. However, conditions resulting from malnutrition and
related to fast foods like overweight, hypertension and elevated blood-sugar levels have all been linked
to type 2-diabetes. Overweight and obesity – conditions closely related to the excessive intake of non-
nutritional foods like junk meals – have been associated with cancer of the colon, kidney, gall bladder and
other forms of cancer. In addition, fast foods can contribute to an increased risk of arthritis, sleep apnoea
and liver disease. Eating less fast food often helps to stabilise a person’s weight and lowers the risk of
developing diet-related illnesses such as heart disease and diabetes.

The balanced diet

Fast foods do not seem to be the answer to a balanced, healthy meal. So, what is a balanced diet? A
balanced diet generally consists of three meals a day and no unnecessary meals or snacks in between.
The meals should be a composition of different foods containing adequate amounts of the necessary
nutrients required for healthy growth and activity. A healthy diet helps maintain or improve a person’s
general health. It lowers health risks of contracting obesity, heart disease, diabetes, hypertension
and cancer. Because nutrients can be obtained from many different foods, there are various ways of
compiling a healthy, balanced meal. A balanced meal consists of the right amounts of fats, proteins and
7
carbohydrates. It also contains the micronutrients needed for effective body system functioning and the
sufficient amount of calories needed for energy consumption.
In addition to having a meal adequately balanced in macronutrients, micronutrients, calories and water,
care should be taken of not eating too much or too little. The amount of food intake must balance with the
amount of energy burnt. Increase consumption of plant foods, such as fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts and
whole grain. Limit the intake of fat and oil, granulated sugar and salt. Make sure the salt you use is iodised.
Avoid saturated fats which are those that become solid at room temperature (fats from animal products)
and preferably use unsaturated fats which are found in almost all the plant-based foods and oils.

Types of food and portions necessary for a balanced diet can be represented by a food pyramid as
follows:

Cake,
butter, sweets
use only
occasionally
Fish,
Milk, cheese, chicken, red
yogurt meat, nuts
2 servings 2 servings

Vegetables: Carrots,
tamatoes, broccoli, Fruits: apels, pears,
cabbage etc. grapes, cherries etc.
3-5 servings 2-4 servings

Bread, cereal, rice, pasta

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6 + servings

‘Servings’ mean different options from the group. Thus 2-4 servings in the fruit group would mean 4 fruit
types and not for example 4 bananas.

UNIT 7 | 199
7.6 Eating disorders: obesity and anorexia nervosa
Contemporary life styles exacerbate eating disorders in the sense that people eat too little because
thinness is often linked to attractiveness and competence, or overeating may be due to the abundance of
food. The prevalence of eating disorders is especially commonplace amongst adolescents. The disorder is
often accompanied by having a low self-esteem, a feeling of not being able to cope and a distorted body
image. This may cause problems in their social relationships and general daily functioning. Apart from
the emotional hardships, eating disorders can be very dangerous to the human body resulting in physical
problems, like irregular sleeping patterns and serious illnesses, such as osteoporosis and heart disease.

Both obesity and anorexia nervosa are eating disorders caused by malnutrition. Obesity is caused by
consuming too many calories compared to the amount of exercise the body is performing. Anorexia
nervosa is characterised by low body weight, an intense fear of becoming obese, and body image distortion
(Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). “In industrialised countries eating disorders prevail where overeating may be due
to the abundance of food and the opposite behaviour of eating too little is linked to the attractiveness
equated with slimness” (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Contemporary Western cultural attitudes often
equate attractiveness and competence with thinness (Mash, 2010) resulting in an escalation in eating
disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia. These disorders are more commonplace in adolescence
and usually affect the most promising young people (Bezuidenhout, 2008).
According to Sue, Sue & Sue “factors associated with disordered eating patterns include excess weight,
body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, depression, substance use, and suicidal ideas. It is unclear whether
these factors are the result or the cause of disordered eating. Eating problems may be a result of the
availability of many attractive high-calorie foods, of mass media, family, and peer influences, and of the
pursuit of thinness.” (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010) Genetic and other physical factors make some people more
susceptible to overweight and the prevalence of anorexia nervosa tends to run in families (Papalia, Olds,
& Feldman, 2006). However, the dangers posed by these disorders, due to lifestyle and willpower, are
alarmingly detrimental and serious.
Read the following 3 lifestyle reproductions and decide what is unwise about each one. Can you suggest
adjustment to make each one healthier?

Lifestyle2
Lifestyle 1 Janine is a brilliant college
John is a representative
student, well-liked and has a Lifestyle 3
busy lifestyle. She has cut down
for a cigarette company. He Annie is an attractive 15-
on her daily diet over several
has to travel a lot ad often year old teenager with a
months and eats a tiny quantity
buys rolls, pies, doughnuts craving for food
of salad each day because
and chocolates while he
she is convinced that she is
is on the road.
overweight.

One needs to adjust your lifestyle to see a decrease in illness caused by unhealthy eating.

200 | UNIT 7
 a. Dangers posed by obesity

Sleep
Quality Infertility
apnea
of life
Arthritis
Gout

Gall
stones
Obesity
High blood
pressure
Coronary
heart disease Cancer Diabetes

Many adolescents are overweight because they take in more calories than they expend. Children
can be seen as obese when their body weight exceed, for what is accepted as the normal weight
for their height and age, with twenty percent. Often the life styles of people with obesity reflect
unhealthy eating patterns and an easy access to high-calorie fast foods. Being overweight may
have a serious impact on a person’s emotional well-being and social interactions. According to
Must et al “overweight in adolescence can lead to life-threatening chronic conditions in adulthood
even if the excess weight is lost,” (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). This may include diseases such
as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Sue, Sue & Sue quote the following authors to state the
physical consequences of obesity: According to the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention
being overweight or obese increases the risk of high cholesterol, type 2 diabetes, cancer, coronary
heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnoea and respiratory problems.
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/825322
Fontaine et al states that obesity may result in a reduction of five to twenty years in life
expectancy, and according to Baker et al, being overweight or obese increases the risk of coronary
heart disease in adulthood (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Many obese children and adults suffer the 7
consequences of attitudes that equate being thin with attractiveness and competence. They
struggle with emotional hardships like a low self-esteem and poor body image, seeing themselves
as unattractive and socially not acceptable. The negative influence on their self-concept in turn
has a negative influence on their social relationships. Obesity is often accompanied by depression
and anxiety disorders. The use of diet pills holds various disadvantages and can be addictive.

b. Dangers posed by anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa manifests itself by means of multiple symptoms and in varying degrees of
intensity. It causes physical and emotional upheaval and results in fear of losing control and
disturbed behaviour patterns of lying about eating and taking diet pills. It affects the individual’s
self-concept and confidence, their interpersonal relationships, and general functioning and
coping in life. According to Olivier “in the family it can cause distress, neglect, rejection, disturbed
communication, emotional instability, unacceptable behaviour, feelings of inferiority, loss of
perspective and a vicious circle of being stuck and powerless amidst an escalating problem”
(Bezuidenhout, 2008).
Physical consequences can be grouped into primary physiological and secondary (resulting from
prior symptoms) physiological symptoms. Primary symptoms may include insomnia, purging
(often as a result of a laxative) and dehydration. Secondary symptoms include a dry, pale skin
(because of an iron deficiency), brittle hair and nails, mouth and teeth decay (especially when
frequent vomiting takes place) and muscle weakness (Bezuidenhout, 2008). Anorexia nervosa
often is accompanied by the irregularity of menstruation where at least three menstrual cycles
otherwise expected, cease to occur.
According to the American Psychiatric Association more physical
complications may include cardiac arrhythmias, low blood
To stay thin, I execise pressure and slow heart rates, being lethargic, hypothermia,
4 hours a day, vomit 10 irreversible osteoporosis, vertebra contraction and stress fractures
times per day and take (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). The heart muscle is often damaged and
laxatives weakened because the body may, due to the malnutrition, use
muscles as a source of protein.
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UNIT 7 | 201
7.7 How to support learners with eating disorders
Learners suffering from eating disorders often have a low self-
esteem and may feel that they cannot keep up or deal with the daily
demands and expectancies of significant others. Immediate
measures of medical intervention may be necessary to counteract
the consequences of the condition. Psychological interventions
often include individual and family-base therapy; as the support of
family and significant others on the long road to recovery should
not be underestimated. Cognitive behaviour therapy has been used
in the treatment of eating disorders and sometimes forms part of
treating the patient with anorexia nervosa. Programmes presented
in school can be beneficial to learners’ self-concept and can teach
them skills in coping with their daily stresses and pressures.
Professional psychological interventions for eating disorders often
include some form of individual and/or family-base psychotherapy,
sometimes accompanied by medical interventions (Mash, 2010).
A professional team, rendering medical assistance, ideally would
consist of an internist, a nutritionist, a psychotherapist, and a
pharmacologist. The involvement of the whole family, especially
with younger children, is practical and often pivotal to the recovery
of the patient.
According to Wilson et al, family-based interventions are required to restore healthy communication
patterns (Mash, 2010), and therapists can attend to the general attitudes of the family toward body
shape and body image which may initially have contributed to the overemphasis on control – or the lack
thereof – on eating. The initial phase of treatment involves the restoration of the patient’s weight and the
monitoring of any possible medical complications that may arise. However, Lock & le Grange presented
that so far “no drug has proved useful or effective for treating symptoms of anorexia among adolescents,
and none has improved long-term weight maintenance consistently, changed a distorted self-image, or
prevented relapse” (Mash, 2010).
As reported by Chavez & Insel, cognitive behaviour therapy forms part of the treatment for anorexia
nervosa. This is the preferred method for patients whose symptoms are moderate to severe and who are
not in family-therapy (Mash, 2010). Long-term psychological problems sometimes prevail even after they
have stopped starving themselves. While they still foster an unrealistic body image, and are preoccupied
with weight and eating, they would benefit from psychotherapy. Anti-depressant drugs may be combined
with psychotherapy to counteract the risk of depression and suicide.
School prevention programmes may reduce the incidence of eating disorders and disordered eating
patterns by:

Reduce incidence by:

learning to develop a more positive attitude towards their bodies

building self-esteem and self-worth
developing healthier eating and exercise habits
increased comfort in expressing their feelings to peers, family
members, and significant others
developing healthy strategies to deal with stress and pressures
increasing assertiveness skills.

These programmes should take on an interactive rather than a lecturing format and may include multiple
sessions. It can be done through group discussions and the use of videos, magazines, and examples from
mass media. In developing assertiveness skills learners are taught to combat patterns of helplessness and
submissiveness (Sue et al., 2010).

Support for learners suffering from obesity

“Treatments for obesity have included dieting, lifestyle changes, medications, and surgery. Lifestyle
interventions (low-calorie diets and exercise) were successful in producing moderate and sustained
reductions in weight. This modest weight loss was associated with a reduction in Type 2 diabetes, blood
pressure, and overall mortality rate,” (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). According to Gable and Lutz, efforts to
curb obesity in children often focus on educating parents on nutrition and increasing children’s physical
activity (Mash, 2010).

202 | UNIT 7
 Proper nutrition does not mean putting a child on a diet, as energy-restricted or unbalanced diets can
place a child in jeopardy of medical or learning problems. Many weight-loss programmes teach parents
and children ways to be more active and planning proper nutrition through well-balanced meals. Children
should be encouraged to partake in outdoor physical activities; and not to eat while viewing television - as
this can result in weight gain.
Braet & Crombez state that parents should not bring high-calorie snack foods into the house and be
careful what they eat in front of their children, as “obese children are highly sensitive to food cues in their
environments” (Mash, 2010). Ideally children should be encouraged to set their own goals for diet and
exercise and be taught the necessary skills to achieve their goals. These self-control procedures would
include ways in which they can monitor the quantity and nature of their food intake with the minimal
involvement from their parents or therapist.
According to Israel “even if some children are unable to reach or maintain their intended goal of weight
loss, self-control training encourages a greater sense of perceived control among children with obesity”,
(Mash, 2010). In the same way self-monitoring is encouraged for physical activities which may result in a
more adaptive, yet goal directed exercise pattern. Learners need to be aware of the importance of early
eating habits and the influence of cultural expectations and in this regard schools have an important role
in promoting healthy eating habits and helping young children to develop a healthy body image.

Support for learners suffering from anorexia nervosa

The immediate goal of treatment is to get patients to eat and
gain weight. Although the medical treatment of an anorexia
nervosa patient may be done by a team of professionals, the
support of parents, youth care workers and school personnel
may be indispensable. There do not seem to be specific
interventions for anorexia – a life threatening condition
-especially for adolescents (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006),
therefore teamwork between interveners is vital. After the
initial behaviour therapy has brought the symptoms under
control, individual, group, or family psychotherapy may help
in facilitating change. According to McHugh readiness for
change is an important predictor of successful treatment and
7
the patient should be met with empathy and positive regard
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2006). Olivier suggests that the
counselling relationship should include warmth, authenticity,
concern, acceptance, understanding, empathy, openness,
honesty and gentleness (Bezuidenhout, 2008).
Through the use of behaviour therapy learners with anorexia
nervosa can be encouraged to correct the irrational
preoccupation with weight. Healthy weight gain can be
rewarded with privileges, such as doing something they like. Psychological interventions that are used to
help the patient (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010) -

understand and co-operate with nutritional and physical rehabilitations

identify and understand the dysfunctional attitudes related to the eating disorder

improve interpersonal and social functioning

address emotional conflicts that reinforce eating disorder behaviour

Family members can be of great help in planning the meals, reducing criticism, implementing new
patterns of the family relationships and in assisting the learner to develop skills, attitudes, and activities
appropriate to his/her developmental stage. Keeping a diary on daily eating patterns may be therapeutic
and motivating.

7.8 Diet guidelines proposed by Tim Noakes

Tim Noakes is a globally acclaimed sports and nutrition professor who specialises in understanding the
way the human body functions while performing vigorous activity; such as playing a sport. His knowledge
also expands to nutrition and health for people who are not physically active. His latest diet is proposed
for people who are carbohydrate-resistant (CR) or pre-diabetic with a family history of diabetes. It proves
to be quite similar to the banting diet that originated in London during 1861 when Dr William Harvey had
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great success with a client, Mr Banting, losing weight and improving his mobility, deafness and lack of
sight. However, Noaks believes that he does not have the final answers and recommends that one has to
consult a doctor or dietician before making any drastic lifestyle changes, especially when there are any
medical conditions or concerns involved.

UNIT 7 | 203
 What professor N
oakes has to say:

It is an eating plan for life – a lifestyle - not a diet.

It is not for everyone as people are all different – some may benefit from a reduced
intake of carbohydrates, others who may have trouble with dairy produce or meat may
find it difficult to have enough replacements for carbohydrate in their diets.
One reason one feels so good on this eating plan may simply be because
it removes the currently unrecognised toxic elements found in the highly
processed foods that are commonly eaten.
The eating plan requires some discipline to be successful:
Supplement eating with omega-3, exercise, proper sleep and stress
control. Do not smoke.
A dietician will be able to insure that when eating from this
restricted grouping of foods you are optimising your intake of
vitamins and minerals.

The Tim Noakes diet, Banting and in fact Paleo are for most part synonymous. Paleo is a great way of
eating for everyone because it doesn’t require any high maintenance tasks such as calorie counting, food
portion control or time-based eating. The principles are simple and easy to follow because you are eating
foods which your body knows what to do with all the time. However, there are some differences between
the Tim Noakes diet and the Paleo diet. Paleo focuses on nutrient density above all else. It is a naturally
low carbohydrate, high fat diet - better regarded as a diet and lifestyle focused on optimum nutrition. It
is not as ruthless as the Tim Noakes diet eating plan.
This low-carb way of eating, where fat-intake is encouraged, is known as the LCHF (low carbohydrate
high fat) diet. Effects of a LCHF eating plan or “banting” include:
• Cravings for carbohydrates become less
• Weight loss and increased energy levels
• Better sleep patterns and mood
• One needs to eat less often
Some restaurants have started including banting-friendly menu options. Banting and its effects on
traditional recipes include the massive revival of cauliflower as a carb substitute. Before we list the food
types that are allowed or to be avoided, we can summarise the Tim Noakes diet in a nutshell as follows:
• Limit the amounts of high carbohydrate foods including: sweet potatoes, butternut, pumpkin,
fruit and carrots.
• Never eat: Wheat based baked goods and grain based foods, breads, high fructose fruits, all seed
oils, fast food, processed food, preservatives, sweeteners, artificial products, etc.
• Eat lots of: Nuts and seeds (excluding peanuts and cashews), grass fed/free range animal
products, green vegetables, omega 3 fat sources, fish, coconut oil and olive oil
Food types according to the Tim Noakes diet
Allowed Avoid
Eggs, fish, meat (organic or grass fed, not processed) All sugar (must be completely removed from your
– including fat, dairy (butter, milk, cheese and diet), all sugary drinks including cola drinks and
yoghurt) – all full cream versions. Vegetables – all sweetened fruit juices, bread, pasta, potatoes, rice,
leafy greens and things like tomato, mushroom, porridge, breakfast cereals, all confectionery – cakes
avocado, onion and many more. Fruit – low carb, and sweets, desserts, high carb fruit like bananas
fruit like berries and apples. Nuts – macadamia and and grapes, high carb, vegetables like parsnips,
almonds especially but no peanuts or cashew nuts carrots, corn and peas, artificial sweeteners and
as these are high in carbohydrates. Water, tea and products containing these products (like ‘diet’
coffee with no sugar. colas), ‘low-fat’ food which actually contains high
sugar content. Read your labels.
Be very wary of so-called ‘low fat’ options, yoghurt
especially, since these are laden with sugar and
are less healthy than the full fat options. Check for
hidden sugar in the foods.
Both support and opposition to the LCHF/banting lifestyle plan exist. Because people’s bodies respond
differently to lifestyle changes, it is better to consult a medical professional in this regard. A published study

204 | UNIT 7
 of the University of Stellenbosch claimed the diet as potentially dangerous to people and recommended
a balanced diet including all food groups instead. Prof Noakes responded that a carb-heavy eating
plan cannot be a ‘balanced diet’ when the body does not need carbohydrates – as carbohydrates are
responsible for many diseases. Other scientists severely criticised Prof Noakes as practising irresponsible
science and that he does not have enough evidence in claiming the efficacy of the Banting and Tim
Noakes diets respectively.

So what about children? As responsible parents and teachers we have to decide whether the LCHF lifestyle
is safe for young children. Some experts have suggested that LCHF eating plans may not be beneficial for
growing children and suggest that a more balanced nutrition plan is better for young children. Pregnant
women are especially encouraged to speak to a medical professional to find out the potential risks that
such an eating plan could have on their body and to foetal development.
There are no long-term study results available on the effects of a Banting eating plan on children. One
study has suggested that too much uncertainty remains about the long-term effects of Banting on the
body. There is simply not enough clinical evidence to prove that it is entirely safe (or even beneficial) for
children, so a doctor’s input is best should any drastic changes in nutrition be considered.
On the other hand, Tim Noakes proposed a change in the diets of South African Karoo children from
one high in carbohydrates that were cheap but low in nutrition, to one more nutritious and satisfying,
but equally priced. He suggests a diet that includes the liver, heart and kidneys of animals as they have
relative free access to these animal organs. Dieticians have however aired their concerns regarding a
LCHF diet for children.
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UNIT 7 | 205
SUMMARY Malnutrition is a major cause of a body not being able to fulfil its
functions of growth, repair, protection and regulation of the systems
and is caused by an unbalanced diet. Fast foods do not provide the
same proper nutrition as a balanced meal consisting of the various food
types necessary for sufficient macronutrients and micronutrients, and
in the long run may be very harmful to the human body. A balanced
diet consists of the sufficient amount of macronutrients, which provide
energy, growth and maintenance of the body, and micronutrients that
are vital to the proper functioning of all the body systems. Eating too
little or too much, or the faulty digestion and utilisation of the food may
all result in malnutrition.
The insufficient and balanced intake of the nutrients may lead to a
weakened immune system, causing a person to be more susceptible to
fall ill. Excessive intake of food, or not following a balanced diet, can result
in being overweight. This in turn may be the cause of numerous illnesses
and nutrition related disorders such as obesity or other chronic illnesses.
Excessive intake of some nutrients may lead to acute poisoning of the
body, whereas a person lacking in adequate nutrition is more susceptible
to illness and in the long run may cause illnesses such as osteoporosis,
hypertension and eating disorders.
Anorexia nervosa and obesity are examples of eating disorders. Both
these illnesses are caused by malnutrition and are quite harmful to a
person’s body if not treated. Tim Noakes proposes a low carbohydrate
high fat diet as a lifestyle plan for people who are carbohydrate resistant.
In order to maintain a healthy body, proper nutrition and a healthy lifestyle
that includes personal hygiene, enough exercise, rest and abstinence
from substances that can cause harm to the body systems, is necessary.
Optimal health in an individual includes the physical, emotional and
nutritional well-being of the person. Health indicators, that are used
to measure the health status of an individual or a population, often are
affected by the socio-economic status of the environment.

FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

The concept of malnutrition.

Your answer should include the following:
• Malnutrition is the lack of proper nutrition.
• It is the inadequate intake of nutrients needed to stay healthy.
• It may be caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough of the right things or being
unable to use the food eaten.
• Poor nutrition is the result of an imbalanced diet or faulty digestion or utilisation of food.
• Malnutrition is the term commonly used as an alternative to under-nutrition and over-nutrition
due to inadequate or an unbalanced intake of nutrients.
• It is the condition in which the body does not receive enough nutrients for proper functioning.

206 | UNIT 7
 Learner activity 2

Complete the table on macronutrients and micronutrients:

When answering this question, you should include the following:

Nutrient Food sources Functions

Macronutrients
Protein Meats, eggs, dairy products, seeds and Builds, maintains and repairs body
nuts tissue; provides energy and regulates
body functions
Carbohydrates Bread, pasta, grains, fruit juices, Gives energy; improves digestive
bananas, apples, anything made with system; stabilise blood sugar; maintain
white flour and/or sugar energy levels; lowers blood cholesterol
levels; cut down on body weight;
improves muscle contraction
Fats Nuts, fatty meats, dairy products, e.g. Provide energy; help with the
butter absorption of vitamins A, D, E and K
Macronutrients

Vitamin C Oranges & other citrus fruits, leafy
green vegetables, sweet potato
Vitamin B12 Milk & milk products, eggs, meat,
Helps to maintain skin, teeth, gums,
tendons and ligaments; helps
strengthen the immune system Helps
with absorption of iron
Helps maintain metabolism process

Calcium
poultry, shellfish
Milk by-products, cheese, broccoli,
and the nervous system
Supports healthy bones and teeth;
7
kidney beans increases bone mass; aids in nerve
impulses; aids in muscle contraction
and relaxation; helps with blood
clotting; regulates blood pressure; aids
in immune system health
Iron Fruit juice, iron-enriched cereal, red Carries oxygen in the blood; helps with
meat, poultry, fish; vegetables energy metabolism of macronutrients

Learner activity 3

Choose the incorrect answer:

The correct options (which contained the incorrect statement) were –
a. c
b. a
c. c

Learner activity 4

The planning of one day in the programme of a Grade 5-school camp.

Each one of you probably will have his/her own original ideas on how Grade 5s can be kept occupied
for a day while camping. In sticking to the practices that support physical health (see learning outcome
7.4) your activities have to include the following:
1. Personal hygiene
2. Healthy exercise
3. Rest and recreation
4. Healthy eating habits
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5. Abstinence from harmful substances and activities

UNIT 7 | 207
 Learner activity 5

You run a guest house that provides three balanced meals per day. Use the information you have
gained from the learning outcomes of this unit so far to compile a menu for one day.
Your menu will consist of three meals for the day – breakfast, lunch and supper.
The daily menu contains 6+ servings of carbohydrates, 2 servings of protein, 2 servings of dairy
products, 3-5 servings of vegetables and 2-4 servings from the fruit group.
An apple or banana may for instance serve as in-between eatables.
The size of the portions depends on how much or little your guests dish up. For proper weight
management one should generally not eat more than the body burns up as energy.

Learner activity 6

The physical and emotional consequences of the eating disorders anorexia nervosa and obesity.
Your answers may not be the same, but should include more or less the following content:

Disorder Physical consequences Emotional consequences

• Primary physiological symptoms: e.g.
insomnia, purging, dehydration
• Secondary physiological symptoms:
e.g. dry, pale skin (because of an iron
deficiency), brittle hair and nails,
mouth and teeth decay (especially in
cases where vomiting takes place),
muscle weakness.
• Irregularity or cessation of
Anorexia nervosa
• Disturbed body image, denial of her
eating patterns being a problem,
negative self-concept.
• Personality characteristics e.g.
emotional instability, negativism,
withdrawal. Depression, anxiety,
obsessive-compulsiveness
• Males are more likely to have
co-morbid substance use disorder and

menstruation. antisocial personality

• cardiac arrhythmias
• low blood pressure
• slow heart rates
• lethargic
• hypothermia
• irreversible osteoporosis
• vertebra contraction
• stress fractures
• Heart muscle is often damaged and
weakened because the body may use
muscles as a source of protein during
starvation.
• Starvation can ultimately lead to death

208 | UNIT 7
 • Cardiovascular disease • Negative self-concept may cause
• Type 2 diabetes maladjusted social interactions
• Being overweight or obese increases • See self as unattractive and not
the risk of socially acceptable
• high cholesterol • Diet pills can be damaging and
addictive
• cancer
• Suffer the consequences of attitudes
• coronary heart disease
that equate attractiveness and
• stroke competence with thinness.
Obesity

• gallbladder disease • Obesity is often accompanied by:

• osteoarthritis • Depression
• sleep apnoea • anxiety disorders
• respiratory problems • low self-esteem
• Reduction of life expectancy of • poor body image
between five and twenty years
• unhealthy eating patterns
• Overweight in adolescence can lead to
life-threatening chronic conditions in
adulthood, even if the excess weight
is lost

NOTES

7
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UNIT 7 | 209
 The difference between
8.1 HIV and AIDS The modes of HIV
transmission and
8.2 ways to prevent
infection

The impact of HIV/AIDS

8.3 on communities

The rights of the

8.4 learner living with
The difficulties
HIV/AIDS
8.5 faced by AIDS
orphans

The prevention and

How to care for and
support children
STUDY treatment of learners
8.6 affected and infected UNIT 8 affected and infected with
with HIV/AIDS HIV and AIDS

The management of
8.7 HIV and AIDS

8.8 Summary

7 8 9
6 10
5 11
4 12

3 13
Feedback on Learning
Activities
2 14

1 15
 UNIT 8
The prevention and treatment of learners affected
and infected with HIV and AIDS

INTRODUCTION After completion of Unit 7, the importance of healthy eating habits and
life styles are quite clear. People infected with the HIV-virus are especially
subject to malnutrition due to the destructive effect of the disease.
People with HIV/AIDS should be treated like any HIV-negative person
and they must be encouraged to live a positive, healthy lifestyle, taking
part in physical activities and abstaining from unhealthy habits, such as
alcohol abuse and unprotected sexual activities.
This unit covers the difference between HIV and AIDS; it describes how
HIV is transmitted and how the spreading thereof can be prevented.
HIV/AIDS has a dramatic impact on the world population and influences
an individual’s family and social life, education and work performance.
Children and adolescents, as a vulnerable population group, are
especially exposed to being affected and infected by the HIV virus. Their
human rights to an education and of not being victimised often are not
regarded. HIV/AIDS orphans are generally the ones most vulnerable to
being stigmatised, rejected and/or exploited. Finally, ways of how people
can manage HIV and AIDS, through antiretroviral drugs, proper nutrition
and a positive living, are discussed.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:

• Explain the difference between HIV and AIDS

8
• Examine the modes of HIV transmission and ways to prevent infection
• Discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on communities
• Clarify the rights of the learner living with HIV/AIDS
• Analyse the difficulties faced by AIDS orphans
• Describe how to care for and support children affected and infected with HIV/AIDS
• Discuss how HIV and AIDS can be managed through antiretroviral drugs, proper nutrition and
positive living

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
at the end of this Unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide complete
answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to approach a particular
question. It is a good preparation for examination skills.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!
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UNIT 8 | 211
 1. Compare the contrast between HIV and AIDS.
2. Indicate whether the activities listed carry no risk, low risk or high risk in relation to HIV/AIDS
transmission.
NR = no risk; LR = low risk; HR = high risk

Using toilets in a public washroom Having oral sex

Sharing needles for drug use Abstaining from sexual intercourse

Being bitten by a mosquito Eating food prepared by a person

with HIV
Touching or comforting someone Kissing (dry kissing)
living with AIDS
Swimming with a person who has HIV Going to school with a person who
has HIV
Giving blood Touching a person with HIV/AIDS

Having sex without a condom Having sex using the same condom
more than once
Sharing needles for ear piercing or Coming in contact with blood from
tattooing another person
Having sex with a condom Sharing bedclothes and dishes with a
person who has HIV/AIDS

3. Discuss the effect children from HIV/AIDS families have on a community.

4. Discuss the principles that services for HIV infected children should be based on according to
Langat. Think of an example that would fit each principle.
5. Explain the difficulties in education faced by HIV/AIDS orphans.
6. Explain how and what principles you - as a teacher - will use in counselling a learner who is
infected with HIV/AIDS.

7. Choose the correct answer from the options given:

7.a. HIV is caused by –
7.a.a. AIDS
7.a.b. the retrovirus
7.a.c. malnutrition
7.b. Malnutrition can cause –
7.b.a. a decrease in the body’s energy needs
7.b.b. the decline in infections
7.b.c. impairment to the immune system of a body
7.c. To be able to manage their condition effectively HIV/AIDS people should –
7.c.a. keep their activities at a low level
7.c.b. drink plenty of safe water
7.c.c. see a counsellor regularly

8.1 The difference between HIV and AIDS

HIV/AIDS is one of the biggest killers in the world and it has a major direct impact on the lives of children.
Misconceptions about the disease are still commonplace and people infected with the HIV-virus may
be stigmatised although – with medical intervention and care – they can live a normal, active life. The
differences between HIV, the virus, and AIDS, the disease, are looked into.

212 | UNIT 8
 HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus
A healthy person, living an active life and following a balanced diet, normally has an effective immune
system that can ward off infections. According to SAMCA the immune system is seen as the body’s
defence system that protects the body from diseases and provides the strength to fight diseases that
manage to enter the human body (Bezuidenhout, 2008). However, a healthy person can get infected with
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) through being in contact with infected bodily fluids from a HIV-
positive person. When the virus is contracted it becomes active and attacks the body’s immune system
and makes it weak (or deficient). HIV causes AIDS.

AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

When the immune system of a person is weakened by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), they
are more subject to infections the body can normally overcome. AIDS is the outcome of a HIV-positive
person with a weakened immune system that cannot effectively protect the body anymore. As a result,
a compilation of signs and symptoms, indicating a disease, manifests. This is known as a syndrome.
AIDS is an acronym used for acquired immune deficiency syndrome and SAMCA explains it as follows
(Bezuidenhout, 2008):

A Acquired get it from someone

I Immune the body’s defence system

D Deficiency weakness, failure or inadequacy of immune system

S Syndrome a collection of various diseases and symptoms

8.2 The modes of HIV transmission and ways to prevent infection

Health workers are trained to identify and deal with people who are HIV infected. For HIV/AIDS to be
prevented, it is of the utmost importance for individuals to be informed on how the disease can be
transmitted from one person to another. People should be knowledgeable as to how HIV is not transmitted,
as well as what should be done to limit the chances of exposing an individual to HIV infection.

Primary modes of HIV transmission 8

HIV is transmitted primarily through exposure to HIV infected blood or the exchange of bodily fluids
containing HIV. The 3 primary modes of transmission are through sexual activities, infected blood contact
and mother-child transmission.

a. Sexual transmission
This is the most common route of HIV transmission and is a significant phenomenon among adolescents.
Infection may incur as the result of unprotected vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse during which the
individual comes in direct contact with HIV-infected bodily fluids such as semen and cervical and vaginal
secretions. Once an infected person’s vaginal or semen fluids come in contact with the mucous lining of
the penis, vagina, or rectum of another person, the virus can travel into the bloodstream. This may also
occur in cases of child sexual abuse

b. Blood-to-blood transmission

A healthy person may get HIV-infected when he/she comes in direct contact with the blood of a HIV/
AIDS person. The transfusion of HIV-infected blood has been largely reduced by the national blood safety
programmes and through improved blood transfusion services.
When piercing appliances, such as blades or needles, have blood on them from a person with HIV, those
appliances can then transfer HIV to someone else. Exposure to HIV-contaminated needles, syringes, and
other equipment is a major cause for the transmission of HIV-infected blood. Here people using intra-
venous drugs are especially at risk through the use of needles that were used by HIV-infected persons.
Traditional procedures involving scarification is a third possibility of getting infected through blood
transmission. It occurs when a healthy person gets infected when the “medicine man” uses a razor blade
to cut the skin of a HIV positive person and then uses the same razor blade in the same way for the next
patient. According to Langat and Kose other communal traditional rituals, which result into bleeding, such
as uvulectomy – where the fleshy extension at the back of the palate is cut away - are potential modes of
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transmission (Langat, 2007).

Education on the potential dangers of these practices is important in communities where there is still a
large prevalence of ignorance. Rarer than the mentioned blood-to-blood transmissions, is the infection
of HIV through donated organs. Children should be discouraged from sharing toothbrushes and shaving
blades in the event of both people having cuts or sores which may allow the HIV into the blood.

UNIT 8 | 213
 c. Mother to child transmission
HIV can also be spread from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding. An infected
mother can pass HIV onto her baby before birth (through the placenta), during birth, or through
breastfeeding (in some circumstances).

Factors contributing to HIV transmission

People, through ignorant or careless behaviour, contribute to the risk of HIV transmission. Those who do
not know the facts about the spreading and prevention of the disease fail to take precautions against
catching infections. Alcohol and drug users may get intoxicated and because of the effects of the drugs
throw all caution in the wind and fail to use clean needles while injecting or using a condom during sexual
activities. According to Omondi, Kagai and Mwanda HIV is not simply a health issue. It is a social justice
issue. From country to country, the people who are most vulnerable are those who are marginalised and
often also live with poverty, dealing with abuse, and facing many other forms of oppression (Omondi
et al., 2007).

Vulnerability means the degree to which an

individual or a population has control over their risk of acquiring
HIV, or the degree to which those people who are infected and affected by HIV
are able to access appropriate care and support.
Source : AMREF

Vulnerability results from individual and societal factors that increase the risk of HIV infection.

These factors include:

• Poverty
• Illiteracy
• Unemployment
• Cultural practices
• Gender inequalities
• Human rights abuses
• Lack of information and services
Young people are often more vulnerable because they lack financial independence and are in a stage of
life where experimentation and risk-taking behaviour are common.

Ways HIV cannot be transmitted

HIV is not transmitted by blood splashed on normal healthy skin, saliva and urine, coughing, sneezing,
kissing, food, water, eating utensils, or by insect or animal bites (Bezuidenhout, 2008). Additionally
AMREF lists the following as ways that HIV cannot be transmitted:

HIV CANNOT
be transmitted...

Touching or hugging
Going to a public bath/pool
Using a public toilet
Sharing cups, glasses, plates or other utensils
Working or going to school with a person who is HIV infected
Drinking water or preparing or eating food
Using telephones
Shaking hands

Prevention strategies for HIV infection

HIV still does not yet have a cure therefore the best prevention of AIDS is to prevent HIV infection.
According to Omondi, Kagai and Mwanda HIV prevention is more urgent than ever before because HIV
positive persons live longer and healthier lives with antiretroviral therapy and sexual activity normalises

214 | UNIT 8
 in HIV infected persons once health is restored. Hence they should be prepared to ensure that they do
not continue transmitting the virus as well as prevent at-risk individuals from becoming HIV infected
(Omondi et al, 2007).

1 Prevention services such

3
as counselling and HIV
Preventive measures for HIV/AIDS by
education can be closely
Introducing of ways of reducing risk of infections
linked with the clinical
prevention strategies include:
care setting which offers
for HIV infection can be
an opportunity to reach Abstinence from
seen as twofold: firstly,
a large group of at-risk sexual intercourse
it is important that
and HIV-infected persons.
people at-risk of HIV
Health care providers
infection are identified Not using injected drugs
need to be well-trained
and educated about
and should have adequate
ways of preventing HIV Being monogamous. Correct use of
time and resources to
infection, and secondly a condom during sexual intercourse.
conduct effective HIV
that HIV infected
prevention counselling
persons are identified in Being married and staying
(Omondi et al, 2007).
order to reduce the risk faithful to your partner.
of further transmission.
2
A Abstain
Washing after sexual penetration will not prevent HIV infection. Van Vuren and Von
der Marwitz suggest that people be encouraged to realise and internalise the risks B Be faithful
related to HIV transmission through the implementation of the ABCD message in
their relationships (Bezuidenhout, 2008): C Comdomise

D No Drugs
8.3 The impact of HIV/AIDS on communities

Individuals who are affected by HIV/AIDS are burdened with extra responsibilities and expenses which
impact on their daily life and work performance. They may either be HIV-positive themselves and find
their health deteriorating because of a weakened immune system; or they may be related to someone
who was diagnosed with HIV/AIDS and who has become dependent on their assistance. The increased
pressure on individuals as members of a community has a widespread adverse effect on the functioning
of the community itself. Health workers and their resources of time and equipment often suffer the
consequences of a work overload and being understaffed.
HIV/AIDS may be of major concern for the community because it affects a large portion of its population.
Healthy people can build and maintain sanitary facilities and health and recreation services necessary for
a thriving community. However, when members of the community cannot physically work and cannot
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generate an income for their own households, the strain of sustaining a healthy and thriving community
becomes too much.

UNIT 8 | 215
 The individual
Individuals with HIV/AIDS eventually may become
weak, sick and cannot fully attend to personal goals,
such as providing an income for the household. It
may result in children caring for their sick parents
and/or siblings. Children, who become orphans
and have no one to take care of them, often have
to become self-supported. They often have to
leave school to take care of the family but cannot
find work with a proper income, leading to further
poverty. Increasingly, children who are HIV-positive
survive on antiretroviral drugs (Rieser, 2008), but
this may result in having to spend a great deal of
money on their treatment. They also face social
difficulties, such as the stigma attached to HIV/
AIDS which remain a setback in many societies.
Health systems, due to being understaffed and not
having enough resources cannot always respond
to the individual’s needs in a supportive manner.
The family
Whose breadwinners contract HIV/AIDS suffer
decreases in income because of being unable
to keep up their work performance. The loss of
income due to unemployment leads to families
falling into poverty. Poverty results in having little
access to education, health care facilities and other
social services (Bezuidenhout, 2008). They cannot
pay for treatment, relief and comfort for their sick
relatives and cannot properly care for their elderly
family members. Often families have to take their
children out of school to take care of sick family
members because they cannot afford home base
care. The increase in death rates among young
adults who are usually at the age when people are
having children and forming families, mean that
children are often left alone as orphans. Young
women between the ages of 15-24 years have
double the HIV rate as compared to young men of
the same age (Langat, 2007). They often transmit
the disease to their children through pregnancy,
birth and breastfeeding.

The impact of HIV/AIDS on the community

Poverty is a core factor in the transmission of HIV. People who are economically deprived usually have
little access to education, health care facilities and other social services (Bezuidenhout, 2008). As a result,
communities are put under a lot of strain in providing more health and support services and with less staff
members and volunteers having the resources of available time and equipment.

a. Work performance/production
HIV/AIDS not only kills people, it also prevents economic growth as increasing death rates among
the working population slow economic progression. For example, if factory workers or workers
in a farming community fall ill and die, this would cause a decline in industrial and agricultural
production. Food consumption may drop because of the illness and death of productive household
members. A vicious circle of, for instance, the lack of fresh produce necessary for good nutrition
can be illustrated as follows:

no fresh
produce

weakened
immune system

cannot work

Get
sick, especially
when HIV
The loss of skilled workers places great demands on productivity. The smaller workforce and lower
productivity and income originate with the simultaneous increase in the demand for services such
as health care and welfare increases (Bezuidenhout, 2008).

b. Health care
Health care workers need to be trained to educate the community in the awareness of how HIV/
AIDS is transmitted and how to prevent the spreading thereof. The clinical care staff members
are trained in the treatment of HIV/AIDS patients. However, the rise in demand for services from
people with HIV/AIDS puts a burden on the health care system which results in an increase in
the cost of health care and shortages of drugs and equipment. During early HIV infection, the
demand is mostly for primary care and outpatient services. As the infection progresses to AIDS,

216 | UNIT 8
 the demand for hospitalisation increases. The lack of proper resources leads to the health systems
not always responding to patients’ needs effectively and in a supportive manner. The heavy
workload may lead to staff shortages and staff burnout among health workers. The demand for
specialised services such as counselling also increases, and more time and money to spend on
diagnosing and investigating cases become necessary. These factors all place a tremendous strain
on health budgets and systems.

c. Schools / education
According to Langat and Kose, 30% of the people living with HIV worldwide are younger than
25 years (Langat, 2007). The large number of children orphaned by AIDS puts extra pressure on
attempts to achieve inclusive education. It increases poverty, the need for work and homelessness
(Rieser, 2008). Although more HIV-positive children are surviving on antiretroviral drugs, a decline
in school enrolment is one of the most visible effects of HIV/AIDS (Odawo, 2007) and manifests
as follows:

removal of children from school to care for parents and family members,

inability to afford school fees and other expenses,

AIDS-related infertility and a decline in birth rate, and

infection of more children who do not survive long enough to go through the years
of schooling.

Evidence suggests that teachers are among the professional groups most at risk of contracting
HIV (Rieser, 2008). This leads to the morale among teachers to fall as they lose relatives and
colleagues. They also have to cope with an increase in workload when taking up additional
teaching and other duties to fill in the gaps left by sick colleagues (Bezuidenhout, 2008). Schools
will increasingly need to provide emotional and psychological support to both educators and
learners.

d. Social-economic status
The loss of an income due to HIV/AIDS may result in poverty and, together with a community
not being able to sustain support to people in need, may lead to immoral actions as a means of
survival. Children, who have to support a family without proper income, may turn to theft. Some
are forced into becoming sex workers or to exchange sex for food and supplies. Poverty may
also lead people to sell their blood for transfusion – blood which could well be infected with HIV.
However, blood transfusion services nowadays have strict safety measures to adhere to and tests
are done on donated blood to ensure its safety.
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8.4 The rights of the learner living with HIV/AIDS
All children have the right to be protected, be provided for and the right to be able to participate in
decisions on matters concerning them. Inclusive education undertakes the process of addressing the
diverse needs of all learners and brings all learners together in one classroom and community, regardless
of their strengths or weaknesses in any area. This implicates that children living with HIV/AIDS are to
be accommodated in mainstream education and that their rights of being protected, provided for, and
to participate in matters concerning them should be protected just as any other healthy child from the
community.
It is now worldwide accepted that the rights of children need special protection.

The rights of children include (Bezuidenhout, 2008):

• Protection (from maltreatment, neglect, and all forms of exploitation),
• Provision (of food, health care, education, social security),
• Participation (in all matters concerning them).
According to Langat the services for HIV infected children should be based on the following four principles
(Langat, 2007):

Right to life, survival, and development – thus providing them with food, health care,
1
education and social security
Right to be treated equally - thus protecting them from maltreatment, neglect and all
2
forms of exploitation such as child labour
Right to participate in activities and decisions that affect them – thus participation in
3
matters that concern them
All actions should be based on the best interests of the child – means considering the
4
child before a decision affecting his/her life is made.

The right to….

• Non-discrimination, equal protection and equality before the law
• Life
• The highest attainable standard of physical and mental health
• Liberty and security of person
• Freedom of movement
• Seek and enjoy asylum
• Privacy
• Freedom of opinion and expression and the right to freely receive and impart information
• Freedom of association
• Work
• Marry and to found a family
• Equal access to education
• An adequate standard of living
• Social security, assistance and welfare
• Share in scientific advancement and its benefits
• Participate in public and cultural life
• Be free from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

All actions should be based on the best interests of the child - thus considering the child before a decision
affecting his/her life is made.

218 | UNIT 8
 Human Rights Principles relevant to HIV/AIDS include:
The rights of learners living with HIV/AIDS
It is against individual human rights to victimise people who are HIV/AIDS infected. Therefore, in looking
at the rights of children and their right to inclusive education, they should be given all the opportunities
available to healthy children in mainstream education.
They have the right to good nutrition on a daily basis, to treatment of their condition and to be protected
from being stigmatised or discriminated against because of their HIV-status. Learners living with HIV/
AIDS are to be protected from being abused or neglected by teachers and/or parents.
Children have the right to education to prepare them for a future where they can effectively fill their place
in society. They have the right to - as much as any other child – life and development through participation
in activities presented by the school and being protected against harm. In and out of the classroom they
are to be allowed to partake in the decision-making process on matters that concern them. They may not
be barred from group work or participation in sport or other extra mural activities and are allowed the
freedom of using all available facilities.
They have the right to privacy and access to a support group where confidentiality is valued. Counselling
should be available to them when needed and asked for. The best interest of the child should always be
kept in mind when decisions concerning their lives and future are made.

What learners living with HIV/AIDS might want to know

Everybody is aware of the fact that children have rights and that one of the rights of children living with
HIV/AIDS is not to be discriminated against. This is a broad concept and a learner may like to know more
specifically, on the practical side, what the rights imply. The following list of questions was quoted from
the ERP (Education Rights Project) 2005 booklet titled HIV/AIDS: The Rights of Learners and Educators.
The answers written in italics are derived from the National policy on HIV/AIDS for the Education Sector.

a. Can a learner be denied admission to a school because he/

she is HIV positive?
No learner can be denied admission to a school because of his/her HIV status.

8
No learner or student may be denied admission to or continued attendance at an educational institution
as a result of his/her HIV/AIDS status or perceived HIV/AIDS status.

b. How are learners and educators with HIV/AIDS protected

from unfair discrimination?

Learners and students living with HIV or AIDS have the same rights as all other learners and students to
attend any school or other educational institution. The needs of learners and students living with HIV/AIDS
with regard to their right to basic education should be accommodated in the educational institution as far
as is reasonably practicable.
In the event of failure on the part of an education sector employee to keep information about a learner’s
HIV status confidential, will constitute misconduct. Appropriate disciplinary measures will be taken
against any education sector employee found guilty of such misconduct.

c. Can a school governing body or a principal force a learner

to take an HIV test?
A school or school governing body cannot force a learner to take an HIV test. An HIV test is not a
condition for admission to any school. Virginity tests are also illegal and in some instances could lead to
the spread of the illness because of the way in which some of these tests are done.
There is no medical justification for routine HIV testing of learners or students. The testing of learners or
students for HIV as a requirement for admission to, or continued attendance at an educational institution,
is prohibited.
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 d. What if a learner becomes very ill and cannot attend
school?

A learner does not have to go to school every day if she or he is very ill. Learners who are subject to
compulsory school attendance (younger than sixteen), but are unable to attend school may be given
permission not to attend school. The school is required to make schoolwork available to such learners for
study at home and to support continued learning.
Learners and students living with HIV/AIDS are expected to attend classes in accordance with legal
requirements for as long as they are able to do so effectively. Learners of compulsory school going age
living with HIV/AIDS, who are unable to benefit from attendance at school or home education, may be
granted exemption from attendance by the Regional Director, after consultation with the principal, the
parents and a medical practitioner.

e. Can an educator be denied a post or fired because of his/

her HIV/AIDS status?
No educator may be denied the right to be appointed, to teach or to be promoted because of his/her
HIV/AIDS status.
Education sector employees living with HIV or AIDS should lead as full a professional life as possible.
They should have the same rights and opportunities as other education sector employees, with no unfair
discrimination being practised against then only on the basis of their HIV status.

f. Are you forced to reveal your HIV/AIDS status?

No. You must want to talk about your status. This is called voluntary disclosure. (It is very difficult for
people with HIV/AIDS to reveal their status because of a real fear of stigma, rejection and discrimination.)
Parents or caregivers do not have to tell the school that their child has HIV. In the event of voluntary
disclosure, it may be in the best interest of a learner with HIV/AIDS to inform a member of staff about the
child’s HIV/AIDS status.
Compulsory disclosure of a learner’s or education sector employee’s HIV status to educational institution
authorities is not recommended, as this would serve no meaningful purpose. Voluntary disclosure of HIV
status is however encouraged. Such information may not be made known to or shared with any other
person without the written consent of the person who made the disclosure.

g. What if other learners refuse to work with or be taught by

those with HIV?
No learner or educator may refuse to work or be taught by a person who is HIV positive. People who are
scared of the illness often need accurate information about the nature of the illness and how it is passed
on. They should be made to understand that HIV positive people teach and learn as effectively as anyone
else.
No learner or student living with HIV or AIDS may be unfairly discriminated against directly or indirectly
only on the basis of his/her HIV status. No learner or student may be stopped from attending an educational
institution or from participating in sports or play activities, only on the basis of his/her HIV status.
Learners and students may not refuse to study with a fellow learner or student or to be taught by an
education sector employee living with or perceived to be living with HIV or AIDS. Similarly, education
sector employees may not refuse to teach or interact with a learner or student living with or perceived to
be living with HIV or AIDS.

h. What can you do to protect and promote your rights?

Become informed and inform others. Work together with like-minded groups.
All learners and students should be educated about the fundamental human rights and freedom contained
in the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia. In particular, they should learn about the basic rights and
freedom of learners, students and education sector employees living with HIV/AIDS and the need for a
human rights based response to HIV/AIDS.
Should matters (of discrimination against human rights) not be resolved through counselling and
mediation, disciplinary steps may be taken.

220 | UNIT 8
 i. Where can you get help?
Consultative mechanisms must be put in place in educational institutions to ensure that learners and
students can effectively participate in the decision-making and solution-seeking process concerning HIV/
AIDS in those institutions.
The school or institution Head or the head of a hostel is responsible for the practical implementation of
this policy at his/her institution or hostel.

j. Can a learner be denied admission to a school because he/

she is HIV positive?

Learners and students living with HIV or AIDS should lead as full a life as possible. They should not be
denied the opportunity to receive an education to the maximum of their ability.

8.5 The difficulties faced by AIDS orphans

Children who have lost their parents at an early age have to adjust to a new, unfamiliar lifestyle that often
does not consist of family life as seen in the traditional way. They have to do without many privileges and
sometimes have to learn how to fend for themselves in socially unacceptable manners. Many children
have to give up a life of learn, play and being taken care of for a life of taking care of siblings and
being responsible for the support of a family. Very often these children, not being protected by parents
anymore, are exploited financially by being deprived from their inheritance or used to labour.

Difficulties faced by AIDS orphans

The term AIDS orphan is used for a child whose mother died due to AIDS before the child’s 15th birthday,
regardless of whether the father is still alive. “As a result of this definition, one study estimated that 80%
of all AIDS orphans still have one living parent” (Cluver et al., 2007). Children who have lost one or both
of their parents often find themselves in a crisis situation. Not only have they lost family life as they have
come to know it, but living with an HIV/AIDS parent adds the trauma of being confronted with feelings
of fear, anger, depression, shame and finally death. Often they are stigmatised by society and may be
discriminated against. With little or no support from other family members or friends they may suffer
exploitation and abuse. It may happen that they are robbed of their inheritance once they have no parent
to protect their rights. The lives of AIDS orphans, who are left alone after the death of their parents, are
affected in numerous ways:
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UNIT 8 | 221
 There is little knowledge about impacts of AIDS-related bereavement on children. According
to a study done by the University of Oxford and the Cape Town Child Welfare Society “children
orphaned by AIDS were more likely to report symptoms of depression, peer relationship

The emotional impact

problems, post-traumatic stress, delinquency and conduct problems than both children
orphaned by other causes and non-orphaned children” (Cluver et al., 2007).
They also found AIDS-orphaned children more likely to report suicidal ideation. Apart from
feelings of grief and being anxious or afraid of what the future holds, AIDS orphans may
experience rejection by society who denies them access to schooling and health care because
of their association with AIDS. They are often assumed to be HIV positive themselves, adding
to the likelihood that they will face discrimination and damage their future prospects. Children
need to feel safe and being taken care of. They need someone to love and nurture them. In the
event of children being orphaned and nobody to take them into an extended family, they are
deprived of two basic human needs: the need to feel safe and the need to belong.
When children have to look after themselves or are cared for by a poor family it may result in
missing out on another basic need – sufficient food. Adolescents who become the head of their
The household

household and have to take care of their siblings often lack the knowledge of the importance
of a balanced meal, or may not be able to provide the family with a meal consisting of the
impact

necessary nutrients. Children who have lost one parent to AIDS may continue to live in the care
of a surviving parent or family member, but often have to take on the responsibility of doing
the housework, looking after siblings and caring for other HIV/AIDS family members. The lack
of income puts extra pressure on AIDS orphans to contribute financially to the household, and
sometimes they have to go out on the streets to work, beg or seek food.
AIDS orphans may perform poorly in school as a result of their situation. They may have
their schooling interrupted because of their extra household responsibilities or may drop out
of school entirely. The loss of a productive family member is likely to be a financial burden
Education

and the family may fall prey to poverty, increasing the likelihood of the child missing out on
school. Expenses such as school fees and uniforms present barriers to school attendance if the
caregivers cannot afford these costs. AIDS orphans may also miss out on valuable life-skills
and practical knowledge that would have been passed on to them by their parents. Without
this knowledge and a basic school education, children may face social, economic and health
problems as they grow up.

8.6 How to care for and support children affected and infected with HIV/AIDS
Community based care with linkages to healthcare facilities may be the most cost effective way of
providing care in HIV/AIDS. An ongoing relationship between the patient and the healthcare worker or
health facility is needed to facilitate ongoing treatment and support. Factors such as stigma, fear, neglect,
scarcity of food and impoverishment necessitate the networking of care provided - from the family and
community to the health facility. Counselling care should be given to learners who have to deal with
stresses such as discrimination and stigma. Teachers should build a relationship of trust and make sure
that support systems needed for the physical and emotional care of the child are in place.

Physical health care

For effective care of children affected and infected with HIV/AIDS linkages between the community and
clinical health services must be created and maintained. According to Van Vuren and Von der Marwitz
the “important challenge for all individuals who ultimately go onto antiretroviral therapy will be the
quality of care and support services available to them in order to promote adherence to their regimen,”
(Bezuidenhout, 2008).
The fact that HIV/AIDS is a chronic illness is emphasised but, with proper treatment, the child can lead
a long and productive life. Health workers see to patients receiving HIV care and treatment from the
facility and provide patient education on risk reduction such as correct use of condoms, living positively,
nutrition, social services, substance abuse, domestic violence, and other health topics. These interventions
by the health services stress the importance of good nutrition and health. The message of getting good
food, avoiding too much alcohol and avoiding stress are promoted. Ideally, alcohol should be avoided
altogether, since alcohol interferes with the way the body handles the drugs and may affect the proper
working of the liver, where the drugs are mainly metabolised.

Emotional support
The counsellor can offer help that is fair, objective and balanced. Counselling does not merely give
advice or take over the client’s problems, it instead encourages the client to find his/her own solutions
to problems, and this helps them to become a confident, independent person (Bezuidenhout, 2008).
Principles used in the counselling of learners affected and infected by HIV may include:

222 | UNIT 8
 the development of a treatment partnership with the learner

a focus on the learner’s concerns and priorities

support of the learner’s education and self-management

linking the learner to community-based resources and support

ensuring continuity of care

organising a follow-up counselling session

Teacher-counsellors encourage learners living with HIV/AIDS to talk openly about their feelings. Listening
actively promotes openness, honesty and supportiveness. Treat children living with HIV/AIDS as you treat
other learners who are HIV negative. Chat and spend time with them. Make them feel wanted. Like any
normal human being they want to feel loved and a sense of belonging. They should be encouraged to join
a support group, so that they can have a sense of belonging with other people with whom they can share
challenges, solutions and other mutual support to each other.
Learners are encouraged to identify and get treatment for infections and to live positively and productively.
They should do things that build confidence and self-esteem. By positive statements like “I want to stay
alive for….” they are helped to focus on the positive aspects of their lives, aspects that bring them joy
and happiness. The HIV/AIDS learner should be allowed to talk about his/her feelings of anger. Talking
about it helps diffuse the seriousness of the anger that a child living with HIV/AIDS may have against him/
herself or the person responsible for the HIV infection. Such emotional upheavals affect one’s response
to interventions, treatment and also worsen stigma and discrimination. Thus anger should be addressed
and defused.

General principles of
counselling adolescents

8
Ensure them that the given information (especially regarding their sexuality) is appropriate to
their mental and emotional development
Explain that confidentiality will be maintained, except when the situation is life
threatening (talk of suicide is one example), or outside the law (for example sexual abuse).
Discuss how their normal growth and development is affected and influence
risk-taking behaviour and tendency to rebellion
Pay attention to their current issues of concern and areas of misconception
Discuss matters of sexuality, following culturally acceptable
terminology and language. Repeat information a number
of times to be effective and to ensure there are no gaps in
knowledge when they have to make decisions on their sexual
activities.
Keep regular contact to build a strong adolescent-
counsellor relationship.

According to Bukusi, younger children in general are more interested in what is going to happen with
them than to know about the illness. As they grow older they will start asking questions and healthcare
workers or teacher counsellors, in informing them of their diagnosis, should take care toward finding out
and addressing their fears and false beliefs (Bukusi, 2007). Some health care settings (and schools) have
support groups for children to help them cope with their condition and living on a day to day basis. The
supervisors of the group (who may be a knowledgeable teacher-counsellor, nurse, social worker or an
occupational therapist among others) identify coping difficulties and address them. The support group
can also help sharing experiences which provides a good way for the children to learn.

8.7 The management of HIV and AIDS

HIV/AIDS is a chronic disease that involves lifelong treatment. A number of antiretroviral drugs (drugs to
treat HIV) have been developed for adults and children and the use thereof has made a difference in the
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life quality of HIV positive patients. However, it should be kept in mind that the management of HIV and
AIDS not only depends on the adherence to the antiretroviral therapy, but that good nutrition and healthy
exercise also play a role in building and maintaining an individual’s immune system. Through a healthy
lifestyle and the medication needed, HIV and AIDS can be monitored and managed efficiently which may
result in the HIV-positive person having a long, productive life.

UNIT 8 | 223
a. ART/ARVT
According to Bukusi, HIV treatment is a long term treatment and issues that may appear to be small
obstacles may seriously affect outcomes of treatment if not adhered to the medication (Bukusi, 2007). A
health care worker therefore needs to be in constant communication with the patient in order to enhance
adherence. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is provided by the clinical support system in collaboration with
the community.
The HIV disease is caused by a retrovirus which
ART or ARVT is the abbreviated form for enters human cells and uses them as a factory
to reproduce itself. The drugs used in HIV
antiretroviral therapy.
treatment target essential steps in the HIV life
cycle by either blocking the step or inhibiting
HAART means Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy the enzyme required to catalyse the step.

HIV is a retrovirus and A number of ART or ARVT drugs are available

for adults and children. Van Vuren and Von
ARV is short for anti-retroviral drugs against HIV.
der Marwitz maintain the implementation of
HAART has greatly reduced the mortality in
developed countries (Bezuidenhout, 2008).

Reduction Reduce the

Restoration and
in HIV-related Improved Goals preservation of viral load as
mortality and
morbidity
quality of
life
of ART immune function much as possible

ARVs work by reducing viral replication which slows down the destruction of the immune system and
other negative effects to other vital body organs. ART should be part of other aspects of care such
as nutritional support and prevention of HIV transmission. Because ARVs do not cure HIV infection,
treatment is life-long with strict adherence to prescribed practice and regular follow-up and monitoring
of treatment.

b. Nutrition and HIV/AIDS

Antiretroviral drugs may lead to loss of appetite and anorexia and side effects such as fatigue, depression,
loss of sleep and pain may occur due to lower food intake. According to Burkania, HIV disease may
affect the nutrition status of a person and the nutrition status of a person affects the progression of
HIV (Burkania, 2007). To refresh your memory on the definitions of nutrition, nutrients and their roles
and functions in the human body, as well as their food sources, you will have to read through learning
outcome 7.1 – 7.3 again.

Opportunistic
infections occur when the immune
system is weakened

HIV infection is characterised by the progressive destruction of the immune system which lead to recurrent
opportunistic infections. Malnutrition is one of the major complications of HIV infection and constitutes a
significant factor in the advanced stage of the disease. Malnutrition occurs when the body does not have
enough of the required nutrients or has an excess of the required nutrients.

224 | UNIT 8
 Malnutrition usually leads to immune impairment, thus compounding the effects of HIV leading to faster
progression of the disease. Therefore, malnutrition and HIV affect the body in similar ways. Both conditions
affect the capacity of the immune system to fight infection and keep the body healthy. If a person who
is malnourished acquires HIV, they have a higher likelihood of progressing faster to AIDS. This is because
his/her body is already weak and cannot fight infections. HIV infection increases the body’s energy needs
while it diminishes appetite and decreases the body’s ability to digest food and absorb nutrients. This
leads to malnutrition which in turn accelerates the HIV infection.

Vicious cycle of malnutrition and HIV

Increased
needs
reduced food intake
and increased loss
of nutrients
Poor nutrition
resulting in weight loss
muscle wasting, weakness
nutrient deficiencies

Increased
vulnerability
to infections e.g. TB, flu.
Increased HV replication,
disease progression
Impaired
immune system
poor ability to fight HIV and
other infections

Source: AMREF
8
HIV infected individuals have higher nutritional requirements than uninfected individuals, particularly with
regard to protein and energy. If they suffer from opportunistic infections, they are prone to loss of appetite
(which may lead to anorexia) hence reducing their dietary intake at the very time when more nutrients
are required. To meet fibre needs, they should be encouraged to take plenty of high fibre, fruits and
vegetables. All their meals should have different types of vegetables for diversity. Indigenous vegetables
are the best source of micronutrients and they tend to be very high in fibre content. In considering costs,
it should be kept in mind that fruits in season are cheaper.

Improving
nutritional status

Ensuring
adequate nutrient
Goals of nutrition intake
care and support in
HIV/AIDS
Preventing food-borne
illnesses (hygiene and
food/water safety)

Enhancing the
quality of life

c. Education and support of the HIV-positive person

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The preparedness of the patient for ART/ARVT (antiretroviral therapy) is of utmost importance. The HIV
positive patient is frequently in a disturbed state of mind where they find it difficult to take in all the
information. They also may be affected by stigma and/or the prospect of possibly dying soon. Therefore,
several sessions of counselling need to be conducted so that all the key issues are addressed and nothing
is missed.

UNIT 8 | 225
The patient should be informed that HIV attacks the body’s immune system and weakens the body’s
ability to fight off infections. When the body’s immunity is weakened, the individual becomes vulnerable
to infections that would normally have been prevented. The HIV infected person should seek early medical
attention anytime they feel unwell.

Purpose of counselling
• Educate HIV/AIDS affected persons on nutrition and health care
• Attention to personal family needs - food choices and costs
• Explore their options and their decisions in the light of sound knowledge and personal support
Schools should be a place where children feel safe and comfortable to talk about serious subjects such as
HIV/AIDS. Accurate and relevant information enable young people to make sound decisions about issues
that affect their lives. Learners infected with the virus should be informed of the expected side effects of
the medication, and what to do to avoid nutritional deficiencies. It is important that they understand the
concepts of nutrition and why it is a very important intervention in their condition. In order to meet all the
macronutrient, micronutrient, fibre fluid balance, as well as dealing with nutritional problems, the patient
will need nutrition education and counselling. They should also be advised on the effects of alcohol on
the efficacy of the drugs.
HIV/AIDS learners should also be informed on the importance of physical exercise or activities and the
drinking of plenty of safe water. The use of safe water, nutrition care, food hygiene and good health
seeking behaviour should be emphasised.

SUMMARY According to Van Vuren and Von der Marwitz “HIV and AIDS constitute
a global pandemic that influences all spheres of life”, (Bezuidenhout,
2008). There are many interrelated factors contributing to the spread of
HIV/AIDS of which poverty and the lack of education on the prevention
of the illness may be the most prominent. The disease has a dramatic
impact on the world population and affects family life, education, health
care services and productivity. Children orphaned by HIV/AIDS suffer
major psychological and social consequences. They have to deal with the
loss of a parent while society may stigmatise and reject them because
of their association with HIV/AIDS. However, children with HIV/AIDS
have human rights and these should be adhered to. It is important that
teacher-counsellors encourage learners affected by HIV/AIDS to stay
in school, as having an education will improve their future prospects.
Learners who are HIV positive are to be encouraged to continue their
antiretroviral treatment and, where possible, to join a group where they
can share experiences and support each other.

FEEDBACK ON LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The answers provided here are merely guidelines. You need to engage seriously with the
study material, do extra research and readings before you answer the learning activities.
Your prior knowledge allows you to make connections and build on your previous
knowledge and understanding of the particular learning outcomes.

Learning activity 1

The contrast between HIV and AIDS.

HIV AIDS
(human immunodeficiency virus) (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a virus a disease

Transmission through infected blood or needles/ Caused by a weakened immune system and
syringes/blades infected by HIV

226 | UNIT 8
 Learner activity 2

Indicate whether the activities listed carry no risk, low risk or high risk in relation to HIV/AIDS
transmission.
NR = no risk; LR = low risk; HR = high risk

Using toilets in a public washroom NR Having oral sex HR

Sharing needles for drug use HR Abstaining from sexual intercourse NR

Being bitten by a mosquito NR Eating food prepared by a person with NR

HIV
Touching or comforting someone living NR Kissing (dry kissing) LR
with AIDS
Swimming with a person who has HIV LR Going to school with a person who has NR
HIV
Giving blood LR Touching a person with HIV/AIDS NR

Having sex without a condom HR Having sex using the same condom more HR
than once
Sharing needles for ear piercing or HR Coming in contact with blood from HR
tattooing another person
Having sex with a condom LR Sharing bedclothes and dishes with a NR
person who has HIV/AIDS

Learner activity 3

Discuss the effect children from HIV/AIDS families have on a community.

Guidelines on what your answer should include: 8
Children whose parents are poor, HIV/AIDS infected and cannot provide an income, may leave school to
care for the sick family members and to help with the support of the family. Orphans who have nobody
to take care of them have to become self-supported. In the event of not getting a job, they may turn
to theft, sell drugs or become sex workers in order to get food or other necessities. This results in
increased strain on the community health and other services in that increasingly more children do not
get school education.
People who do not have proper education, do not easily get a good income work, do not get educated
in ways of a healthier lifestyle and the prevention of HIV transmission and do not receive proper health
care. Ignorance about HIV transmission leads to many young people engaging in high-risk behaviours
such as unprotected sexual activities.
The prevalence of poverty and crime increases due to people not being able to get sufficient incomes
from normal work opportunities.
The large number of children orphaned by AIDS puts extra pressure on attempts to achieve inclusive
education. It increases poverty, the need for work and homelessness.
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 Learner activity 4

Discuss the principles that services for HIV infected children should be based on according to
Langat. Think of an example that would fit each principle.
The principles according to Langat can be found in learning outcome 8.4. Your examples will not be
the same but may include some of the following:
Right to life, survival, and development – thus providing them with food, health care, education and
social security e.g. learners may not be denied the right to school admission; children have the right to
medical care; food should not be kept from them; they have the right to having a safe home.
Right to be treated equally - thus protecting them from maltreatment, neglect and all forms of
exploitation e.g. child labour; abuse in any form; not giving them any attention, food or clothes are
forms of neglect.
Right to participate in activities and decisions that affect them – thus participation in matters
that concern them e.g. where they want to live, whom they want to care for them, their education,
their health.
All actions should be based on the best interests of the child – means considering the child before
a decision affecting his/her life is made. Does the child feel safe? Does he/she have enough to eat,
clothes to wear? Does he/she feel discriminated against? Etc.

Learner activity 5

The difficulties in education faced by HIV/AIDS orphans

Your answer should contain the following:
• perform poorly in school as a result of their situation
• have their schooling interrupted because of their extra household responsibilities
• drop out of school entirely
• poverty increases the likelihood of the child missing out on school
• expenses such as school fees and uniforms present barriers to school attendance if the
caregivers cannot afford these costs
• miss out on valuable life-skills and practical knowledge that would have been passed on to
them by their parents
• social, economic and health problems as they grow up.

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 Learner activity 6

Principles used in counselling a learner who is infected with HIV/AIDS.

The principles needed are listed under the heading Emotional support in learning outcome 8.6.
• The development of a treatment partnership with the learner: The counsellor builds a
relationship of trust and confidentiality where the learner, as the client, feels safe to discuss his
difficulties and innermost feelings around it.
A focus on the learner’s concerns and priorities: The counsellor listens to what the learner has
to say. If he, for example, wants to talk about his little sister who did not sleep well the night
before, it may be that he is worried that she is getting sick because she also contracted HIV.
• Support of the learner’s education and self-management: Encourage him/her in their school
work and other activities by showing interest in what they are involved in and how they go
about it.
• Linking the learner to community-based resources and support: If a learner does not have
resources and support outside the school, tell him/her about clinics or other health centres in
the community they can go to, or take them there.
• Ensuring continuity of care: The teacher shows continuity of care by showing interest
and support even when not in a session. It may be in the classroom, the sport field or the
passage way.
• Organising a follow-up counselling session: Learners who feel they will be able to cope on their
own will indicate that they are ready to do so and will come back occasionally for counselling
(or maybe just a chat).

Learner activity 7

Choose the correct answer:

a. The correct answer is (b). HIV may lead to AIDS (a) and/or malnutrition (c).
b. Malnutrition accelerates HIV infection which increases the body’s energy needs. Options (a)
8
and (b) therefore are not correct. Answer (c) is correct because impairment to the immune
system can be caused by malnutrition.
c. A healthy lifestyle with enough exercise is recommended. Therefore (a) is not the right answer.
Option (b) is not correct either. Although there is nothing wrong in seeing a counsellor regularly
– in fact it can be very good for the emotional state of the patient – it does not physically assist
the body in maintaining the immune system like for instance a healthy diet and drinking plenty
of safe water. Therefore (c) is the correct answer.
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 GLOSSARY
Term Definition
Anger strong feeling of annoyance
Anxiety feeling of anticipated dreadful event or situation to occur
Aptitude a natural ability
Attention deficit
a disorder of childhood and adolescence characterised by socially
hyperactivity disorder
disruptive behaviours – either attention problems or hyperactivity
(adhd)
Attentiveness the state of paying close attention
Authentic being faithful to internal rather than external ideas
overeating that involves both excessive amounts of food and a lack of
Binging
control
Bio ecological theory the way Bronfenbrenner see processed and contexts of development
a type of mood disorder characterised by an ongoing combination of
Bipolar disorder
extreme emotional highs and extreme lows
Circles of support any individual/group involved in supporting learners-in-need
a place considered together with its inhabitants / a group of people having
Community
a religion, race, or profession in common
a disorder of childhood and adolescence characterised by a persistent
Conduct disorder pattern of antisocial behaviours that violate the rights of others through e.g.
Bullying, lying, cheating, fighting, etc.
Conform matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours to group norms
Contextual view of human development that perceives the individual as inseparable of
perspective its social context
Csg counselling support group
the customs, institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people,
Culture
or group
can be defined as a physical or mental condition that limits a person’s
Disability
movements, senses, or activities.
Empathy the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person
Empower to give someone more confidence and/or strength to do something
Encapsulate expressing something as a brief summary
Entail to imply or require
Fear an alarm reaction to current danger or life-threatening emergencies
Heredity physical or mental characteristics inherited from biological parents
Hierarchy objects arranged in order of importance
the theory that certain wholes are greater than the sum of their parts; the
Holism
whole person rather than just certain facets
Holistic approach dealing with person in physical, cognitive and psychosocial totality
Iep individualised evaluation programme
Incongruence a state of disharmony or not in agreement
Interdependence mutual dependence on one another
Intervention the action taken to improve a situation or condition
Invisible disability disabilities not visible at first glance
Learning styles various approaches or ways of learning
Maturation the action or process of maturing

230 | UNIT 8
 having only one type or representative, especially containing only one
Monotypic
species
bodily signs that can be seen, for example, someone continuously
Overt physical signs
scratching. Can also be bruises, scratches, etc.
clarifying facts by expressing the meaning of what was said, using
Paraphrasing
different words
Probing close enquiry
an approach of investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious
Psychoanalytic elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the
conscious mind
Reflecting feelings the rephrase of the affective part of a message
Rsc regional school counsellor
Self-esteem confidence in one’s own worth or abilities
Society the people living in a community
inappropriate use of or addiction to alcohol, drugs, or intoxicating
Substance abuse
chemical substances
Unconditional positive accepting a person without judging any of his/her actions, feelings or
regard characteristics

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 NOTES

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