Unit Title THE LEAVES: A SPECIALIZED ORGAN FOR

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Title of the 8.1 Leaf External Morphology

Lesson
8.2 Leaf Internal Anatomy

8.3 Modified or Specialized Leaves

8.4 Water Relations of the Whole Plant

Duration 3 Meetings (11 hrs.)

Introduction At the end of this module, the learner would know the leaves'
physical form, structure, and specific fundamental features as well
as distinguish the different modified or specialized leaves. And also
to identify the internal structures of this organ and to know how the
process of photosynthesis takes place in plants. Equally important
is to determine the relations of water as well as the influence of
humidity and temperature on the whole plant. The learner would
appreciate the importance of studying this if they get some leaf
samples in the school premises and or in their backyard and
examine the leaf parts, make sectioning (cross-section, etc.), and
scrutinize the different types of modified and specialized leaves.

The leaf is defined as the flattened, lateral, outgrowth of the stem

with a bud in its axil. It is the center of several activities of a seed
plant, the most vital of which is the process of photosynthesis,
wherein this is the primary organ of photosynthesis in plants. As we
all know, all other developments of the vegetative plant body relate
to this essential process. The bulk of root grips water and minerals,
and the stem conducts them to the leaves, where they are
necessary for food manufacture. Moreover, the stem or trunk yields
the leaves and displays them to the sunlight, an essential source
for food manufacture.

As you study the structure of a leaf, the cells and tissues

comprising it, you internalized what a perfect organ it is for
photosynthesis. Though this organ has a variety of colors, shapes,
sizes, and textures, it is almost countless. You will see and be
surprised at how varied plant leaves are.
 Typically, a leaf develops and functions for a season only. But in
evergreens (a plant or a group of plants that retains green leaves
throughout the year), the leaves remain from one season to the
next, but even these plants develop new leaves on young shoots
each growing season. Thus, the plants refurbish its vital food
factories repeatedly, as old leaves fall down.

Objective/ After studying this module, the learner should be able to:
Competencies
o determine the physical form, structure, and other special
features of leaves.
o identify the internal structures of the leaves.
o distinguish the different modified or specialized leaves.
o determine the relations of water as well as the influence of
humidity and temperature on the whole plant.
o
Pre-test Stock Knowledge: Did You Still Remember This Stuff?

To find out how the concept and information discussed in this

module, try to figure out the following Module pre-test:

1. How does a simple leaf differ from a compound leaf?

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2. What are the differences between monocot and dicot leaf?
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3. How can you distinguish a leaf from a leaflet?
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4. Which type of leaf arrangement exposes the leaves to less

sunlight?
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5. Does the lower or upper epidermis possess more guard
cells?
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6. What leaf specializations are associated with climbing and

petaloid flowers?
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Lesson Proper/ Lesson 1. Leaf External Morphology

Course
Methodology
Lesson Objective

At the end of studying this lesson, the learner expects to be able to:

o determine the physical form, structure, and other special

features of leaves.

ACTIVITY #1

Exercise No.6 EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES

SIMPLE LEAVES

Specific Objective: To describe simple leaves

Specimens: Guava, gumamela, santol, pandan, bamboo,

sugarcane leaf and any other sample plant leaf in your area

Procedures:

(1) Draw one simple dicot leaf and one simple monocot leaf
from the samples.
(2) Study their differences and similarities very well.
Result:

Make a labeled drawing of each leaf.

 Monocot leaf Dicot leaf

Try to answer the following questions based on this Exercise

QUESTIONS:

1. How does a simple leaf differ from a compound leaf?

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2. How is a typical dicot leaf attached to the stem?

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ACTIVITY #2

Exercise No. 7 EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES

COMPOUND LEAVES

Specific Objective: To describe compound leaves

Specimens: leaves of malunggay, rose, caballero, sampaloc, suha,

bataw, makahiya, five fingers, fern, and kamias and or any other
available compound leaf in your area.

Procedures:

1. Study the specimens that you have. Be sure to have

different types of compound leaves. Label the different leaf
parts, such as the petiole, petiolule, stipule, leaflet, primary
 rachis, secondary rachis, and tertiary rachis.
2. Make diagrams of the different types of compound leaves
and label their parts.

____________ _____________ ____________

RESULTS:

1. Classify your leaf samples and fill out the table below.

No. Name of Pinnate Type Type of Type of

Specimen or of venation phyllotaxy
bipinnate margin

10
Try to answer the following questions based on this Exercise.

QUESTIONS:

1. How would you differentiate the rachis of a compound leaf

from a branch?
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2. How can you distinguish a leaf from a leaflet?

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3. Differentiate a simple leaf from a compound leaf.

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ACTIVITY #3

Exercise No. 8 EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES

VENATION PATTERNS

Specific Objective: To describe the different types of leaf venation

Specimens: leaves of butterfly tree, papaya, bird of paradise, sugar

cane, pandan, bamboo, langka, and guava and or any other
leaves available in your area.

Procedure:

Study the type of venation of your specimens closely. Draw

the different types of leaf venation.

Results

1. Make drawings of the parallel and netted types of venation.

 2. Draw the three types of netted or reticulate venation.

Try to answer the following questions based on this Exercise.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the functions of leaf veins?

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 2. What comprises the vein?
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ACTIVITY #4

Exercise No. 9 EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY OF LEAVES

PHYLLOTAXY

Specific Objective: To differentiate the types of leaf arrangement in

some plants

Specimens: twigs of guava, santol, digman, yellow bell, mango,

dita, atis, guyabano, and kutsarita and or any other available twigs
in your area.

Procedure:

Get your specimens and study the type of leaf arrangement

shown by each plant.

Result:

Make a diagram of each type of phyllotaxy and label it

properly.
Try to answer the following questions based on this Exercise.

QUESTIONS:

1. Which type of leaf arrangement exposes the leaves to more

sunlight?
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2. Which type of leaf arrangement exposes the leaves to less

sunlight?
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ANALYSIS

The leaf structure

The leaf is an expanded outgrowth of the stem. As we observed

and in most cases, the leaves have a flattened green blade. The
leaf blades vary in size as well as in form and structure. The leaf
margins or leaf edges, sometimes smoothed (entire), toothed, or
indented (lobed). The shapes of the tips (apex) and bases of leaf
blades also vary in different plant species. These characteristics
and features are often useful and advantageous in plant species
identification.

Usually, in most dicot leaves, the leaf blade is attached to the

petiole. The leaflike stipules found at the bases of many leaf
petioles are small in size. Depending on the plant species, these
may fall after the leaf develops or remain throughout the season.
Some dicot leaves have no petioles, and it is what we called
sessile.

The leaf blade reinforced by numerous veins (usually netted and

parallel) that penetrate the leaf tissues is intact. The more
prominent veins look like ribs and are observable on the lower part
of the blade. In supporting the leaf tissues, the said veins serve as
conducting channels through which foods, minerals, and water
transports.

The positioning and arrangement of veins (small or large) tend to

categorize into one or two patterns that we call forms of venation.
In most monocotyledonous plants, including rice, corn, bananas,
and coconuts, the larger veins are parallel or nearly so. Generally,
in the dicotyledonous plant, the veins branch and subdivide,
forming a netted vein. The leaves of the gabi, papaya, santol, and
many other ornamental plants have several large veins that
outspread through the blade from the end of the petiole. It is
analogous to fingers from the palm of a hand. This leaf pattern is
called palmate net venation. Some fruit-bearing and ornamental
plants, including the star-apple, guava, kalachuchi, and figs have a
large central vein or midrib, extending through the length of the
blade. Smaller and lesser veins branch from the midrib and run to
the margin, and this pattern is what we called, pinnately net
venation.

Simple and compound leaves

If you have a plant in your garden and or plants planted in the

school, you will not notice the types of leaf. There is what we call
simple and compound leaves. When the leaf blade of a plant is
undivided, even if it may be deeply indented, the leaf is classified
as simple leaves. There are many leaves everywhere,
nonetheless, if the leaf blade is divided into several parts called
leaflets. If the leaflets are present, then the leaves are classified as
compound leaves.

The arrangement and or position of leaflets may be palmate or

pinnate. The leaves of the kapok and octopus plant are palmately
compound. In this arrangement, the leaflets radiate from a common
point at the end of the petiole. On the other hand, the leaflets of a
pinnately compound leaf attach along a central stalk. The typical
example of pinnately compound leaves is the tamarind, and
kamias. Moreover, bipinnately compound leaves divide into even
smaller leaflets. A typical example of this type includes fire trees,
malunggay, and akasya.

However, in a few cases, it may be difficult to distinguish a simple

from a compound leaf. By having the plant leaf samples, these two
can be determined readily by observing the location of axillary
buds.

To have a complete overview of the external morphology of the

typical leaf.

1. The leaf is consists of a leaf base, leaf blade, petiole, and

stipules with its unique function.

a. Leaf base – is a part of a leaf close to the petiole. In many

dicotyledonous plants, the leaf base supports two lateral
outgrowths known as stipules. However, in
monocotyledonous plants, the leaf base is expanded into a
structure called the leaf sheath. These sheaths partially or
entirely cover the stem such as in sugarcane.

b. Leaf-blade/Lamina – is the green flattened portion of the leaf

that performs photosynthesis in the plant. A noticeable thick
vein, known as the midrib, is located from the leaf base to
the leaf apex. This midrib branches into thinner lateral veins
and veinlets.

c. Petiole – is the stalk of the leaf, which is attached to the leaf

base on one side and the stem on the other side. When the
petiole is present, it calls petiolate while it calls sessile when
the petiole is absent.

d. Stipules – is an outgrowth found paired at the base of some

dicot leaves. The leaves with stipules calls stipulate while
those without stipules calls exstipulate.
 Figure 8.1. Parts of a simple leaf (www.brainly.in)

2. Phyllotaxy – is the leaf arrangement on the stem or its

branches in such a way they receive maximum sunlight. The
following are the arrangement of leaves: alternate, opposite,
spiral, and whorled.
a. Alternate – a single leaf attached at each node. This
considers the most common arrangement. Typical
examples are santol and mango.

b. Opposite – two leaves develop from nodes opposite

each other. Common examples are guava and makopa.
c. Spiral – involve alternately arranged leaves in which
each succeeding stem node and attached leaf is rotated
slightly from the nodes below and above it. A common
example is ivy.

d. Whorled – there are more than two leaves developed in

a node in a circle or rounded position. Common
examples are yellow bell and dita.
 Figure 8.2. Leaf Arrangement (pinterest.com)

3. Leaf Types

a. Simple leaf – leaf blade is undivided and maybe entire,

lobed, or cleft. Common examples are santol and gabi).

b. Compound leaf – leaf blade divides into several parts

called leaflets. Common examples are mahogany and
rain tree).

Figure 8.3. Simple and Compound leaves (sites.google.com)

 Two types of compound leaf:

a. Pinnately compound leaf – the rachis found in the middle

bears leaflets arranged in a linear order. The leaf is
arranged in an alternate or opposite mode. There are
three types in this category. These are unipinnate,
bipinnate, and tripinnate.

1. Unipinnate – the leaflets are attached directly to

the rachis. Common examples are a golden
shower and kamias.
2. Bipinnate – the main rachis branches into what is
known as the secondary rachis, to which the
leaflets are attached. Common examples are
caballero and makahiya.
3. Tripinnate – the leaflets are attached to the tertiary
rachis. A common example is malunggay.

b. Palmately compound leaf – the leaflets form and radiate

from a single point of attachment. Common examples:
octopus tree and five fingers.

Figure 8.4. Parts of a bipinnate leaf (www.palomar2.edu)

4. Leaf venation – is the arrangement or patterns of veins and

veinlets in the blade of a leaf. These veins are composed of
 vascular tissues that are used for food and water transport.
There are two types of venation: netted and parallel.

a. Netted – sometimes called reticulate is a type where

there are one or more big veins from which smaller veins
branch out and interconnect. This branch and
interconnection form a network pattern. This type of
venation categorizes into three, and it is the
characteristics of most dicotyledonous plants.
1. Pinnately reticulate – has one main vein
present from which smaller veins spread out in
different directions in the leaf blade.
2. Palmately reticulate – have two or more big
veins radiating from the tip of the petiole.
3. Radiate reticulate – have two or more large
veins radiating from around the tip of the
petiole and branching up into smaller veins to
form a network throughout the leaf blade.

b. Parallel venation – a form in leaves when all the veins

run parallel to each other. Typically, this type of venation
is characteristically found in most monocots leaves.

Figure 8.5. Types of leaf venation (pinterest.com)

5. Leaf margin – the margin and or border area is extending

along the edge of the leaf. The leaf margin is one of the
 bases of leaf identification.

Figure 8.6. Types of leaf margin (infovisual.info)

Quiz-tions?

1. What are the differences between a monocot and a dicot

leaf?

2. What are the most important characteristics of a leaf by

which it can be considered a monocot?

ABSTRACTION

People know that the leaves are just the same features. The
learner would know that the leaves have different sizes, shapes,
colors to distinguish from each other.

APPLICATION

The learner may go back to the nearest backyard, mini-garden,

subdivision parks, and other vacant areas in their community. Pick
some leaves and examine all the different types of leaves. If
possible, try to look at some leaves and observe the physical form
and structural features. Write all the observations.

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Lesson 2. Leaf Internal Anatomy

Lesson Objective

At the end of studying this lesson, the learner expects to be able to:

o identify the internal structures of the leaves.

ANALYSIS

The tissue of a leaf

If you have a leaf and cut across the blade of a leaf, then examine
the section with a microscope; three distinct kinds of tissues
observe. The epidermis covers the upper and lower sides. In
between the epidermal layers lie the photosynthetic tissue, the
mesophyll, or chlorenchyma composed of several layers of
parenchyma cells. The veins of various sizes enter the mesophyll
about midway between the upper and lower epidermis.

The leaf tissues are so adjusted as to allow penetration of light and

exchange of gases between the tissues and the atmosphere. They
also provide passages of conduction for a continuous flow of
materials to and from the cells of the mesophyll.

The structure of the epidermis

The upper and lower epidermis consists of single layers of

interlocking cells that usually lack chloroplasts. When you view the
leaf in cross-section, the epidermal cells look like bricks. Though, a
surface view of an epidermis shows that the cells are asymmetrical
in shape and locked together.

Some of the leaves, the epidermis is covered by a thin, waxy

substance – the cuticle. The presence of cuticles slows down the
passage of water vapor and other gases through the epidermal
cells, and hence, avoids excessive loss of these elements from the
leaf tissues.

Based on the study, the movement of water vapor and other gases
into and out of the leaf tissues take place through stomata. The
stomata are lens-shaped pores that prick the epidermis and open
into air spaces between cells of the mesophyll. The two-bean
shaped guard cells surround each stomatal opening. The guard
cells are modified epidermal cells that contain chloroplasts. As
observed, the partition of a guard cell flanking the stoma thickens.
This partition or wall structure is essential in changing the shape of
the guard cell and opening and closing the stomata with changes in
water content and resulting turgor.

The small area of the epidermis may contain as many as several

hundred stomata. The stomata may be present in both the upper
and lower epidermis. In most leaves that grow horizontally, they
are limited to the lower surface. The stomata found in the
epidermis of the herbaceous stem and young shoots of woody
plants. In some plants where the orientation of the leaves is in a
vertical position, such as those of the grasses and lilies, stomata
are about evenly distributed on both leaf surfaces. On the other
plants, where the leaves are floating, all of the stomata lie in the
upper epidermis, while submerged leaves of aquatic plants lack
stomata.

Some of the plants have leaf surfaces that are velvety and or
powdery because of the presence of epidermal hairs or trichomes.
These hairs or trichomes are unicellular or multicellular outgrowths
of epidermal cells. The presence of these structures may also
contain glands that secrete oily or sticky substances on the leaf
surface. Those of the nettle comprise an irritating poison that
causes a burning and stinging sensation (like lipa) when the leaves
are touched, and points of the hair break off in the skin, thus
performing a protective function.

The mesophyll

The mesophyll is the inner tissue of a leaf, containing chloroplasts.

It is the primary photosynthetic tissue of the leaf. The mesophyll
lodges in all of the leaf blade between the upper and lower
epidermis except for the vascular bundles. Most of the leaves'
mesophyll tissue contains two distinct regions: the palisade and the
spongy. The palisade cells located below the upper epidermis are
elongated and positioned in vertical rows. It was so named
palisade mesophyll because the cells in it resemble rows of stakes
in a fence. All the activities within the palisade cells reflect an
interesting adaptation to light. Many chloroplasts flow through
palisade cells in a circular path. In the upper part, they receive the
greatest exposure to sunlight.

On the other area, just below the palisade cells, is a zone of

irregular, loosely arranged cells composing the spongy mesophyll.
The large intercellular spaces in this area provide air passages
from the stomata through the tissues of the leaf. The cells of the
spongy mesophyll contain a fewer number of chloroplasts as
compared to the palisade mesophyll. This is the reason why the
upper surface of most leaves is darker green as compared to the
lower surface.

In other plants having vertical leaves, there are no distinct upper or

lower surfaces. A lot, in these leaves, each epidermis is crinkled
with palisade mesophyll zone. Moreover, when these palisade
mesophyll zones arise, they are separated by a zone of spongy
mesophyll. Though, in other plant leaves, the palisade and spongy
mesophyll is not distinguished into distinct zones.

Structure of veins

The veins are the vascular tissue of the leaf and located in the
spongy layer of the mesophyll. These veins are composed of
varying aggregates of conducting and supporting tissues band
together into fibrovascular bundles. One or more large bundles
enter the leaf blade from the petiole. In dicot leaves such as tibig,
large veins subdivide and branch, forming a network that
penetrates all the sections of the mesophyll.

A large vein consists of a section of xylem vessels on its upper side

and a mass of phloem sieve tubes on the lower side. As the veins
branch in a dicotyledonous leaf, they become smaller and smaller
in size, and the amount of vascular tissue declines. The smallest
veins may have a single xylem vessel. These veins come to an
immediate dead-end in the tissue of the mesophyll.

The small, medium-sized veins enclose in a bundle sheath. A

bundle sheath is a ring of elongated parenchyma cells that lie in
close contact with the palisade and spongy mesophyll cells. The
water and minerals passing from the xylem vessels to the
mesophyll cells, as well as foods moving from the mesophyll cells
to the phloem sieve tubes, must pass through the bundle sheath.
The smallest veins, the phloem tubes, are absent. The cells of the
bundle sheaths surrounding these small veins transport foods
along the vein to the nearest phloem tubes.

The large vascular bundles often comprise zones of sclerenchyma

fibers. These fibers are located above and below the vascular
tissues and extend to the epidermis. Moreover, these fibers
strengthen the bundles and offer mechanical support in the leaves.

The petiole and leaf traces

An uninterrupted pathway forms by bundles of conducting tissues

that branch from the vascular region of the stem, then pass through
the petiole and continue as branches again in the veins of the leaf
blade. This conducting system initiates in the stem, where bundles
of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem), known as leaf traces, grow
outward in the node area. Depending on the plant species, the
number of leaf traces varies from one to many. When a leaf
matures and falls, the leaf traces see as bundle scars within the
leaf scar.

In essence, the following are the Internal Morphology of a Dicot

Leaf

If you have a dicot leaf, and cut cross-sectionally, the following

parts are shown.

1. Upper epidermis – a single layer of cells containing no

chloroplasts. It covers the upper surfaces of the leaf,
covered with a waxy waterproof cuticle, which serves to
prevent excessive loss of water from the leaf surface.
Stomata are usually absent.
2. Mesophyll – the inner tissue of a leaf lying between the
upper and lower epidermis, containing chloroplasts. It
consists of two types of tissue:
a. Palisade mesophyll – consists of long, cylindrical,
compactly-arranged cells with numerous chloroplasts. To
absorb light and manufacture food are their primary
functions.
b. Spongy mesophyll – the lower part of the mesophyll
composed of oval or circular-shaped cells that contain
chloroplasts.

3. Veins – tubular strands of vascular tissues that occur mainly

in the mesophyll. These are vascular bundles consisting of
xylem and phloem that lie in all directions for the distribution
of water and food. The xylem cells have angular walls and
are always present towards the upper epidermis. The
phloem cells are less distinct, thin-walled, and located below
the xylem, towards the lower epidermis.

4. Lower epidermis – a single layer of cells, similar to the upper

epidermis, except that it is in the lower surface of the leaf. It
has a thinner cuticle, and its pores or stomata are
numerous. These small pores control the exchange of
carbon dioxide and oxygen in and out of the leaf and the
loss of water vapor. Each stoma surrounds two kidney-
shaped cells called guard cells.
.

Figure 8.7. Cross-section of a dicot leaf blade (pathwayz.org)

The internal anatomy of a monocot leaf

The internal anatomy of monocot leaf as compared to dicot leaf.

The internal structure of a monocot leaf is quite similar to that of a

dicot leaf in having an upper and lower epidermis, mesophyll,
vascular tissue, though they differ in some aspects. In monocot,
the upper and lower epidermis may have an equal number of
stomata, and the cuticle has more or less the same thickness. The
monocots mesophyll is generally not differentiating into palisade
mesophyll and spongy mesophyll. It mostly contains spongy
parenchyma cells with chloroplasts.

Cross-section of the midrib

If you have a sample of a plant leaf, the midrib is in the

center or central vein of a leaf. The midrib is bound by the
epidermis (upper and lower). In a layer next to the epidermis is the
collenchyma cells, then followed by parenchyma tissues. In cross-
section, the vascular bundles composed of xylem and phloem are
crescent-shaped or semi-circular. In the semi-circular vascular
tissues, the phloem surrounds the xylem.

Figure 8.8. Cross-section of the midrib (plant-structure.weebly.com)

 Figure 8.9. Cross-section of a monocot leaf (slideplayer.com)

The stomata

The stomata (singular, stoma) are the tiny openings or pores in

plant tissue that allow for gas exchange. Ninety percent (90%) of
water loss in plants occurs through the stomata. The plants must
be able to prevent extreme water loss to avoid wilting and
eventually dying. The closing and opening of the stomata are
essential and very vital for the plant. These tiny openings are
mostly located in the abaxial part of the leaf, preferably in the lower
epidermis where the temperature is lower. This condition prevents
the blockage of the stomata. More or less 10,000 stomata can be
found for every square-inch of the lower epidermis.

The guard cells are specialized plant cells in the epidermis of

leaves. These cells regulate the size of the stomata. Each of a pair
of cells becoming larger or smaller depends on the pressure within
the cells.

When there is sufficient water, the guard cells yield a lot of water
and become rounded, hence opening the stomata. The opening
and closing of the stomata depend on high temperature, low
humidity, the blue light of the visible spectrum, response to the
internal concentration of CO2, and the abscisic acid hormones. If
the plant hormones are at high levels in the guard cells, they lose
Reflection/
Let’s Think About This
Learning
Insights
Reflect on what you have learned about the physical form,
structure, and other special features of leaves. Learned the
leaf arrangement, leaves internal structures, when the
stomata are closed or open, leaf modification, leaf
coloration, and the falling of leaves. Write your insights in
the space provided below.
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Post-test Assess what you have learned

To find out if the concepts and information discussed in this module

were understood, the following Module post-test conducted:

1. What are the typical plant leaf structures?

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2. What is the green flattened portion which performs most of

the photosynthesis in the plant?
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3. Enumerate all the internal leaf structures and their functions.

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4. What are stomata? What are the several factors responsible

for the opening and closing of the stomata?
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5. Enumerate the different modified or specialized leaves.

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6. What conspicuous plant parts are present and are

associated with reproduction?
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7. What is guttation all about?

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8. What is chlorophyll? Where is it located in the plant leaf?
Explain your answer?
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Final Make a short essay on how you understand the process of

Requirement guttation.

Other Parts SUGGESTED READING AND WEBSITES

International Journal of Plant Biology.

http://www.pagepress.org/journals/index.php/pb/about

American Journal of Botany. Botanical Society of America.

Website: http://www.amjbot.org

Botanical Society of America. Website: http://www.botany.org

Botanical Studies.
http://as-botanicalstudies.springeropen.com/aboutBotany Without
Borders (2009) by Dr. Karl Niklas, from Botanical Society of
America. Retrieved from http://www.botany.org/botany-without-
borders.php#b2009

GLOSSARY

Abaxial – that surface of any structure which is remote or turned

away from the axis, such as the lower surface of a leaf.
Acumen – the point of an acuminate leaf

Buoyancy – is the force exerted on an object that immerses wholly

or partly in a fluid

Chloroplast – chlorophyll-containing organelle of photosynthetic

eukaryotes

Cleft – divided halfway down to the midrib or further or generally,

any deep lobe or cut.

Coriaceous – tough, leather-like

Entire – leaf margin without teeth or serrations

Enzymes – large protein molecules that speed up the chemical

reactions

Fibrovascular bundles – a unit strand of the vascular system in

stems and leaves of higher plants consisting essentially of xylem
and phloem.

Fleshy – thick and soft

Glucose – is the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of

carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants during
photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from
sunlight, where it uses to make cellulose in cell walls.

Hydathodes – an epidermal structure specialized for secretion or

exudation of water

Lobed – those that have distinct projections from the midrib with
individual inside veins

Membranous – thin and flexible

Peculiar – something that is different and unusual

Pigment – a colored material that is entirely or nearly insoluble in

water.

Rachis – the central axis of a compound structure. It can be the

main stem of a compound leaf.
Succulent plant – thick, soft and juicy plant

Turgor – the rigidity of a plant cell caused by osmotic pressure on

the cell’s membrane

REFERENCES

Bidlack, J. E. & Jansky, S.H. (2014). Stern’s Introductory Plant

Biology (13th ed.). New York, U.S.A.: McGraw-Hill Education.

Chanco, C.R. (2002). Biological Science. CAN Printing Press.

Parañaque City.

Ching, J.A. (2011).General Biology Compendium, Revised Edition.

National Bookstore, Mandaluyong City.

Evangelista, E.V., and Evangelista, L.T. (2009). Worktext in

General

Botany. C & E Publishing, Inc. 839 EDSA, South Triangle Quezon

City.

Evangelista, E.V. & Malonzo, E.R. (2006). Biology Textbook,

Science in Today’s World Series. Sibs Publishing House, Quezon
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Joaquin, J.C; Claustro, A.L.; Arañez, A.T.; Rabago, L.M.; &

Joaquin, C.C. (1995). Lecture Notes and Laboratory Exercises in
General Botany, 2nd Edition. Vibal Publishing House, Inc., Metro
Manila.

Mariano, M.B. (2007). Introduction to Biology. Rex Bookstore,

Nicanor Reyes St., Manila.

Moore, R.; Clark, W.D; & Vodopich, D.S. (2003). Botany, 2 nd

Edition. McGraw Hill International Editions, Boston, Massachusetts.

Weier, T.E; Stocking, C.R.; Barbour, M.G.; & Rost, T.L (1982).
Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology, Sixth Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, USA.