Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

Solar-powered airplanes: A historical perspective and future challenges

Xiongfeng Zhu, Zheng Guo, Zhongxi Hou n
College of Aerospace Sciences and Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Solar-powered airplanes are studied in this research. A solar-powered airplane consumes solar energy
Received 19 February 2014 instead of traditional fossil fuels; thus it has received a significant amount of interest from researchers
Received in revised form and the public alike. The historical development of solar-powered airplanes is reviewed. Notable
24 June 2014
prototypes, particularly those sponsored by the government, are introduced in detail. Possible future
Accepted 26 June 2014
Available online 15 July 2014
applications of solar-powered airplanes in the civilian and military fields are proposed. Finally, the
challenges being faced by solar-powered airplanes are discussed. This study proposes that the solar-
Keywords: powered airplanes are potential alternatives to some present technologies and that they complement
High altitude and long endurance current satellites, traditional airplanes, airships, and balloons. However, these planes require further
Solar-powered airplane
development and enormous technical obstacles must be addressed.
Unmanned aerial vehicle
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Stratospheric platform
Intelligence surveillance reconnaissance
Near space

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2. History of solar-powered flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1. The Sunrise project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2. The Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3. The Zephyr project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4. The Solar Impulse project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5. Other notable projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.1. The SoLong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.2. The Helios platform (Heliplat). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5.3. The Sky-sailor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.4. The Vulture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3. Expected applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1. ISR and relay communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2. Hazard warning, rescue, and assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3. Agricultural surveillance and decision support systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4. Planetary atmospheric exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4. Challenges faced by solar-powered airplanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1. Energy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1.1. Requirement of high utilization energy ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1.2. Requirement of high-efficiency solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1.3. Requirement of high energy density for secondary batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2. Aerodynamic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.1. Requirement of high-lift and low-drag aerodynamic performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.2. Requirement of aerodynamic performance with a low Reynolds number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3. Propulsion system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.1. Requirement of high-efficiency motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.2. Requirement of high-efficiency propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hzx@nudt.edu.cn (Z. Hou).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2014.06.003
0376-0421/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53 37

4.4. Structure system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.4.1. Requirement of lightweight and high-strength structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.2. Requirement of nonlinear aeroelastic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5. Control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5.1. Requirement of storing energy into environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5.2. Requirement of extracting energy from environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1. Introduction
During the oil crisis in the 1970s, solar energy utilized via
photovoltaic cells was recognized as an alternative energy source
for humans. However, interest on solar energy declined as the
price of oil decreased [1]. At present, the clamor to reduce the
use of fossil energy, and consequently, the emission of green-
house gases, is increasing. Solar-powered airplanes have recently
received significant interest from the public and the aeronautic
community because they represent the use of a renewable energy
source. In 1974, the first solar-powered airplane in the world,
Sunrise, made its maiden voyage. Since then, solar-powered air-
planes have developed significantly. In contrast to traditional
airplanes, solar-powered airplanes harvest solar irradiance and
convert it into electrical energy by using solar cells. The available
energy compensates for energy consumption during daytime level
flights. Surplus energy is stored in secondary batteries, which
provide the energy consumed during nighttime flights. Given
the environment friendly and inexhaustible characteristics of
solar power, solar-powered airplanes are zero-emission and eco-
friendly aircraft that fairly satisfy the requirements of global
environmentalism.
Solar-powered airplanes exhibit a huge potential for high
altitude and long endurance (HALE) flights because of the unlim-
ited supply of solar power. Solar-powered airplanes can be
designed to fly near space, that is, above the atmospheric flight
region and below the spacecraft flight region (approximately 20–
100 km). They can fly continuously for months, or even years,
depending on the reliability of the airplane system and sunlight
conditions [2], which is impossible for traditional, fossil-fueled
airplanes. Solar-powered airplanes can function as complements
to low-altitude satellites, with the advantage of having a relatively
low altitude, free deployment, high resolution, high frequency of
coverage, and low cost [3]. Solar-powered airplanes can also
function as alternative to high-altitude balloons and airships, with
the advantage of having free-maneuver capability, high resilience
to weather, as well as being easy to launch and recover. Compared
with low-altitude airplanes, solar-powered airplanes have the
advantage of reaching relatively high altitudes and covering large
areas. Solar-powered airplanes can perform various missions in
military and civilian fields, such as uninterrupted relay commu-
nication; intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR);
wildfire warning systems; agricultural assistance; pipeline mon-
itoring; border patrolling; pollution and nuclear observations; and
so on. Many of these applications fall within the category of dull,
dirty, or dangerous (DDD) aerial work and are associated with high
risks and costs [4].
Solar-powered airplanes are products of cutting-edge technol-
ogy and have small design margins. Reaching high altitudes and
attaining long endurance are the perpetual objectives of most
recent studies. The most difficult objective is reaching very high
altitudes with low available energy [5]. Atmospheric density at
20 km is one-tenth of that at 0 km [5], and thus, available dynamic
pressure to lift an airplane is minimal. Moreover, the power
density of photovoltaic cells is relatively low compared with that
of internal combustion engines. The aforementioned restrictions
result in an extremely narrow design space. In general, solar-
powered airplanes are different from traditional airplanes because
of their small wing loading, small power loading, and constant
energy shortage. Thus, the lightweight structure, solar-energy
collection efficiency, energy storage capacity, and propulsion
systems of solar-powered airplanes should be carefully designed
to enable them to attain an energy cycle and achieve long-
endurance flights. We should also consider multiple disciplines,
such as energy and aerodynamic systems, among others. These
factors should be coupled with one another to achieve a multi-
disciplinary and optimized design.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The history
of solar-powered flight is reviewed first. Then, expected applica-
tions are introduced. Finally, the challenges faced by solar-
powered airplanes are discussed.
2. History of solar-powered flight
2.1. The Sunrise project
Designed, built, and flown by Astro Flight, Inc., the Sunrise was
the first solar-powered airplane in the world. The prototype
airplane, the Sunrise I, made its maiden flight on November 4,
1974, and demonstrated for the first time that an airplane can fly
on solar power alone. The Sunrise I had a wingspan of 9.8 m, a
length of 4.4 m, a wing area 8.4 m2, and a gross weight of 12.3 kg.
In 1975, the Sunrise I was damaged in a windstorm during a test
flight. Fig. 1 shows the maiden flight of the Sunrise I [6–8]. An
improved version, called the Sunrise II, was then constructed. The
Sunrise II had the same configuration but was 13% lighter, that is,
10.3 kg, and had 33% more power than the Sunrise I. The Sunrise II
was expected to reach 50,000 15.2 km on September 27, 1975, but
only reached 5.2 km because the command and control system
failed. The aircraft was severely damaged and the test flight
program was terminated. Five years later, the solar panels of the
Fig. 1. The Sunrise I demonstration flight (1974) [10].
38 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
Sunrise II were removed and attached to the Gossamer Penguin,
another manned, solar-powered airplane [9,10].
2.2. The Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology
(ERAST) project
Funded by the United States (US) government, AeroVironment,
Inc. initiated the development of full-scale, solar-powered air-
planes, called the Gossamer Penguin and the Solar Challenger,
during the late 1970s and the early 1980s. The Pathfinder was the
first prototype of a high-altitude solar airplane, with a wingspan of
30.0 m. In the latter part of 1993, the Pathfinder was adopted by
the ERAST project, which was funded by NASA and managed by
NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC). On September 11,
1995, the Pathfinder made a solar-powered flight altitude record of
15.4 km at DFRC. After further modifications, the Pathfinder was
moved to the Pacific Missile Range Facility (PMRF) of the US Navy
on the Hawaiian island of Kauai. In the spring of 1997, the
Pathfinder raised the altitude record for solar-powered flight to
21.5 km. The Pathfinder Plus was the second generation solar-
powered airplane of the ERAST project. By using four sections of
the Pathfinder wing and substituting a longer center section, the
wingspan of the Pathfinder Plus reached 36.9 m. In August 1998,
the final flight of the Pathfinder Plus at the PMRF achieved a new
altitude record of 24.4 km. The Centurion was the third-generation
solar-powered airplane of the ERAST project. It was created with
the objective of reaching an altitude of 30.5 km. The wingspan of
the Centurion was 63.1 m, which is approximately double the
wingspan of the Pathfinder. During the latter part of 1998, the
Centurion flew three demonstration flights using battery power at
low altitudes at NASA's DFRC. The Helios, the fourth-generation
solar-powered airplane of the ERAST project, was a modification of
the Centurion. A sixth 41 ft (about 12.5 m) wing section and a fifth
landing gear and system pod were added to the Helios. These
changes increased its wingspan to 75.3 m. The Helios was created
to demonstrate two objectives of NASA: sustained flight at an
altitude of 30.5 km and nonstop flight for at least 20 h. On August
13, 2001, the high-altitude prototype Helios HP01 reached an
altitude of 29.5 km at the PMRF, thus attaining a world record for
sustained horizontal flight by a winged aircraft. Unfortunately, the
long-endurance prototype Helios HP03 was destroyed during the
flight test at the PMRF on June 26, 2003 because of turbulence and
structural failure [11]. Fig. 2 shows the evolution of solar airplanes
in the ERAST project.
Fig. 2. The evolution of solar airplanes in the ERAST project [11].
2.3. The Zephyr project
The original objective of the Zephyr project was to film
balloons while attempting to break the world altitude record. In
2001, the Zephyr project was renamed the Zephyr 2, with the
objective of demonstrating the flight of an aircraft that weighs less
than 7 kg in both free and tethered modes (off the Clifton
suspension bridge in Bristol, United Kingdom). In 2002, the Zephyr
3 was developed, which weighed 15 kg and measured 12 m long.
While tethered to a manned balloon, the Zephyr 3 attempted to
set a world record of 40.2 km. However, the balloon experienced
several technical problems, and thus, both the balloon and the
Zephyr 3 were unable to fly. In 2005, the Zephyr 4 was built. This
aircraft weighed 17 kg and had a wingspan of 12 m. In February
2005, the Zephyr 4 performed a flight test in Woomera, South
Australia. It flew for an hour after being launched by a balloon at
an altitude of 9.1 km. The following project, the Zephyr 5,
consisted of two aircraft, the Zephyr 5-1 and the Zephyr 5-2. The
primary objective of this project was to demonstrate a manual
launch instead of through a helium balloon. The two aircraft were
separated by energy systems, with the Zephyr 5-1 (weighing
31 kg) carrying both the battery and the solar cells, and the Zephyr
5-2 (weighing 25 kg) carrying only the non-rechargeable battery.
In December 2005, the two aircraft flew in New Mexico, US, with
the Zephyr 5-1 flying for 4 h and the Zephyr 5-2 flying for 6 h. In
July 2006, the two aircraft flew again in the US. The Zephyr 5-1
flew for 18 h (including 7 h into the night) and reached an altitude
of 11.0 km. The Zephyr 6 was made of ultra-light carbon fiber and
weighed 30 kg, with a wingspan of 18 m. In July 2007, the Zephyr
6 flew for 54 h in New Mexico, reaching a maximum altitude of
17.7 km. In August 2008, the Zephyr 6 flew for 82 h in Yuma,
Arizona, reaching a maximum altitude 18.3 km. This flight time
was triple the official world record for the longest unmanned
flight, which was 30 h (set by the Global Hawk in 2001). The latest
solar-powered airplane created by the Zephyr project, the
Zephyr 7, was launched in July 2010 in Yuma, Arizona. The Zephyr
7 set a new record for flight time length by flying for 14 days
(336 h) and 21 min [12]. Fig. 3 shows the evolution of solar
airplanes in the Zephyr project.
In 2013, the Zephyr program was acquired by the Airbus's high
altitude pseudo-satellite (HAPS) program, which was initiated by
Airbus since 2008. Meanwhile, all the key Zephyr staff was
integrated to the HAPS organization. On 23 April, 2014, Airbus
announced that it had launched the Zephyr 8 program to develop
the next generation Zephyr unmanned aerial system (UAS). Before
designing the Zephyr 8, the current Zephyr 7 underwent final test.
The Zephyr 7 had flown in Australia, USA and Europe during the
year 2013 [13].
2.4. The Solar Impulse project
Bertrand Piccard, an explorer famous for being the first person
to circumnavigate the world nonstop in a balloon, joined the Swiss
Ecole Polytechnique Federalede Lausanne (EPFL) with the objec-
tive of circumnavigating the globe in a solar-powered airplane.
This partnership resulted in the creation of the Solar Impulse SA in
2004 [15,16]. The first prototype airplane of the Solar Impulse, the
HB-SIA, was manufactured from 2007 to 2008. The HB-SIA had a
wingspan of 63.4 m (approximately the same wingspan as a
Boeing 747-400) but weighed less than 1600 kg (less than the
average family car). The HB-SIA was powered by four 10-hp
motors by exclusively using energy collected from 11,628 photo-
voltaic panels. Surplus solar energy collected during daytime was
stored in 400 kg lithium batteries. In June 2012, the HB-SIA
flew from Switzerland (Europe) to Morocco (Africa), which was
the first solar-powered intercontinental flight in the world. In the
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53 39

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Zephyr 5
Zephyr 2 2 trails programs
Solar flight at White Zephyr 7
Flew in both free Zephyr 3 Zephyr 6
Sands Missile Range 14 days flight in Yuma,
and tethered Not flow 54 h flight in New
in Dec 05 & July 06 Arizona 2010
modes Altitude 131,000ft 2×Z5 aircraft Mexico 2007 and 82 h
Weight 15lb Wingspan 74ft
Wingspan 40ft
Zephyr4 Wingspan 40ft flight in Yuma, Weight 117lb
Weight 28lb Weight 59lb Arizona 2008
Payload 2lb Demostration of Payload 2.2lb Wingspan 59ft
high altitude Weight 66lb
launch of HALE
UAS at Woomera
Australia
Altitude 33,000ft
Wingspan 40ft
Weight 44lb
Payload 2.2lb

Fig. 3. The evolution of solar airplanes in the Zephyr project [12,14].

Fig. 5. Alan Cocconi and the SoLong [19].

solar-powered monoplane with a wingspan of 4.75 m, a wing area

Fig. 4. The two notable demonstration flights of the HB-SIA of the Solar Impulse
project [17].
summer of 2013, Piccard and Andre Borschberg successfully
completed the “Across America” project by piloting the HB-SIA
from San Francisco to New York. To date, the second-generation
Solar Impulse airplane (the HB-SIB) is still under construction [17].
The pressurized cockpit of the HB-SIB will permit a single
passenger to recline and lay down for 4–6 days. The ultimate
objective of the Solar Impulse project is to fly around the world,
and this endeavor is scheduled to happen in 2015. Fig. 4 shows the
two influential, record-breaking flights of the HB-SIA.
2.5. Other notable projects
2.5.1. The SoLong
The SoLong was established by AC Propulsion Inc., a company
that specializes in high-efficiency, electric propulsion. Alan
Cocconi, the founder, chairman, and chief engineer of AC Propul-
sion, funded the project himself. The objective of the SoLong was
to demonstrate multi-day solar-powered flight. The SoLong was a
of 1.5 m2, a battery that weighs 5.6 kg [Sanyo 18650 lithium-ion
(Li-ion) batteries with 220 Wh/kg], 76 SunPower A300 solar cells,
and a total mass of 12.6 kg. To minimize power consumption, the
airplane was remotely controlled by six experienced pilots who
focused on using updrafts and avoiding downdrafts. The SoLong
flew at the Desert Center Airport on June 3, 2005, which is located
east of the Colorado Desert in California. It set a record of 48 h of
nonstop flight. The airplane was still capable of flying on the third,
fourth, and fifth nights, but the flight test was terminated because
the pilots were exhausted [18,19]. Fig. 5 shows the SoLong during
its test flight.
2.5.2. The Helios platform (Heliplat)
The Heliplat was the first European, very-long endurance,
stratospheric unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). This monoplane
had eight brushless motors, a twin-boom tail, and two rudders
[20]. The Heliplat was designed to fly at stratospheric altitudes
ranging from 17 km to 25 km, with the objective of providing
information assistance services in the Mediterranean Sea area. The
Heliplat project was initiated as an offshoot of the HELINET
project, a network of stratospheric platforms for traffic monitoring,
environmental surveillance, and broadband services coordinated
40 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53

Fig. 6. An artist's conception of the Heliplat flying above the Mediterranean Sea
[24].

by the Politecnico di Torino. From January 2000, the project

was financed by the European Commission within the Fifth
Framework Program, and conducted at Turin Polytechnic Univer-
sity. The objective of this project was to introduce a high-altitude
Fig. 7. The test flight of the Sky-sailor [27].
very-long endurance UAV with a solar-powered and fuel-cell
energy system that can remain aloft for an extremely long period
(approximately 9 months). Only a small part of the research was
completed because of limited financial support, and a scale-sized
solar-powered prototype was manufactured [20–25]. Fig. 6 shows
an artist's conception of the Heliplat flying above the Mediterra-
nean Sea.

2.5.3. The Sky-sailor

The Sky-sailor project was funded by the Space Technology
Advancements by Resourceful, Targeted and Innovative Groups of
Experts and Researchers of the European Space Agency (ESA).
Research for the project was conducted by the Autonomous
Systems Lab of the EPFL. The project began at the end of 2003,
with the objective of building an ultra-lightweight, solar-powered
airplane that can fly continuously for days and nights. The project
was also established to demonstrate the Mars atmospheric flight
airplane. The general configuration of the Sky-sailor was similar to
that of a motorized glider, whereas its basis layout was the same as
that of the Avance glider, which had set two world records,
namely, for distance and duration. The airplane had a wingspan
of 3.2 m, a Li-ion battery that weighs 1.056 kg, and a total weight
of 2.444 kg. The maiden flight of the Sky-sailor occurred in 2005.
In June 2008, a long-endurance demonstration flight was con-
ducted at Niederwil, Switzerland, and a record of 27 h [26] was set.
Fig. 8. The three candidates of the Vulture project.
Fig. 7 shows the demonstration flight of the Sky-sailor Fig. 8.
Aurora Flight Sciences Inc. brought in the Odysseus, which had a
2.5.4. The Vulture Z-wing configuration. The SolarEagle won the bid, and would
In 2007, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency perform its maiden flight in 2014 [28–30].
(DARPA) of the US sought an alternative to expensive satellites. Aside from all the aforementioned projects, other notable solar-
This alternative would be used to satisfy ISR requirements or as powered airplanes have been produced. The Gossamer Penguin,
communication relay platforms. A project called the Vulture, designed by Paul MacCready, Jr., flew on May 18, 1980, and was
which was a solar-powered airplane that can stay aloft for as long considered as the first, manned, solar-powered flight in the world.
as five years, was announced. The Vulture weighed 450 kg and had The Solar Challenger (the successor of the Gossamer Penguin) flew
a payload of 5 kW. In 2009, the Vulture project entered phase 2, from Puntois-Cormeilles near Paris to the Manston Royal Air Force
with the objective of building a high altitude long endurance Base near London on July 7, 1981. The flight lasted for 5 h and
unmanned aerial system that can remain aloft for three months. 23 min, and covered a distance of 262.3 km. The Solair I, produced
Three teams competed for the right to build the airplane. QinetiQ by Günter Rochelt, flew for 5 h and 41 min on August 21, 1983. The
collaborated with Boeing Integrated Defense Systems and pre- Sunseeker, developed by Eric Raymond, crossed the US in August
sented the SolarEagle, which was a scaled-up version of the 1990, and made 21 solar-powered flights within 121 h. The Icare 2,
Zephyr. Lockheed Martin Inc. presented a special configuration designed by Rudolf Voit-Nitschmann of Stuttgart University, won
with ten electric propulsion units and three tilting tail planes. the annual Berblinger Aeronautical Competition on July 7, 1996.
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53 41

The Solitair, created by the Institute of Flight Systems of the

German Aerospace Center, was a proof-of-concept airplane for
year-round operations in the northern European latitude. The Sun
Sailor, produced by students from the Technion – Israel Institute of
Technology in Haifa, aimed to set a new World Air Sports
Federation world-distance record for solar-powered UAVs. How-
ever, the Sun Sailor crashed before it was able to set a record in
2006 [1,27]. In 2014, Google announced that it had purchased
Titan Aerospace, a New Mexico maker of solar-powered airplane.
Founded in 2012, Titan had developed two models of solar-
powered airplane, the Solara 50 and Solara 60, which can stay
aloft for 5 years. The Solara 50 can carry 70 pounds and the Solara
60 can carry 250 pounds. In 2014, Facebook was also reported to
buy another solar-powered company Ascenta. The two internet
companies try to use solar-powered airplane to deliver internet to
places hard to reach.

3. Expected applications

3.1. ISR and relay communication

Aerial vehicle-based and space vehicle-based information-

supported platforms both experience a fundamental trade-off
between ground resolution and the instantaneous service area.
Near-space (often defined as ranging from 20 km to 100 km above
sea level) vehicles can bridge the gap between aerial vehicles
and space vehicles, thus enriching the application of information- Fig. 9. Advantages of a high altitude [25].
supported platforms [31]. Solar-powered airplanes exhibit the
most potential for high altitude long endurance flights in near
space. Given the inexhaustible amount of solar energy, the
theoretical endurance of solar-powered airplanes is infinite, and
thus, they are theoretically able to function as satellites for years
until eventual mechanical failure occurs. The traditional airplane
Global Hawk, a UAV that can fly over 18.2 km for several days, was
the first to demonstrate the advantages of high altitude long
endurance flights. The 14 days of continuous flight of the
Zephyr 7 in 2010 have revived the dream of humanity for eternal
flight. The Vulture project aimed to stay airborne for five years,
which is approximately the life cycle of satellites. The high flight
altitude feature of solar-powered airplanes can be compared with
that of conventional atmospheric airplanes (typically below
10 km). Solar-powered airplanes can reach altitudes higher than
30 km because fuel shortage is not an issue for these airplanes.
High altitude long endurance performances of solar-powered
airplanes have drawn significant attention from the military
community, which is primarily interested in using these aircraft
for ISR. Such activities include integration into the node of the
command, control, communications, computers, ISR system. At
present, long-endurance airplanes (e.g., the Global Hawk) are used
in ISR missions. However, such airplanes can only stay aloft for
dozens of hours and consume tons of fuel. Satellite platforms, such
Fig. 10. The Heliplat covering the Mediterranean Sea [20].
as the KH-11/KH-12 of the US [32], are also used in ISR missions.
However, these platforms are confined to a rigid working orbit.
Moreover, satellites can only provide intermittent services. To non-intermittent ISR-supported information, and cover a relatively
cover an area of interest continuously, several satellites must work large area with a high resolution for a long period. Fig. 9 illustrates
together. In addition, the orbit of a satellite is easily predicted, and the Heliplat flying at an altitude of 20 km, and providing services
migration is fuel consuming. These factors can easily result in to a circular area with a diameter of 300 km. A fleet of five
resistance from uncooperative forces. Recently, light-than-air medium-altitude, long-endurance UAVs is required to cover the
vehicles such as high-altitude airships (HAAs) are expected to be same area with approximately four times the cost. Fig. 10 shows
used in ISR missions, (e.g., the Lockheed Martin HAA airship) [33]. that seven to eight Heliplat platforms are sufficient to cover the
However, such vehicles typically have a huge volume to allow entire south Mediterranean Sea from Spain to Turkey [20,25].
them to deal with stratospheric wind; they also undergo signifi- Solar-powered airplanes also receive significant interest from
cant volume changes during their ascent and descent [34]. By the civilian sector because they can immediately be used for
contrast, solar-powered airplanes can freely maneuver over airborne-relay communication platforms such as microwave,
regions of interest, cruise slowly high above such regions, provide ultra-high frequency, and very high frequency communications,
42 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
as well as cellular telephone systems. Solar-powered airplanes
have the advantages of a wider service coverage compared
with terrestrial relay communication systems, and a more flexible
deployment compared with satellite systems. In 2002, an airborne
platform-based radio relay experiment was performed at Kauai
Island, Hawaii. By placing the International Mobile Telecommuni-
cation 2000 device onboard a solar-powered airplane, namely, the
Pathfinder Plus, and flying at an altitude of 20 km, an airborne
platform was able to provide mobile communication services to an
area with a radius of more than 200 km [35]. Theoretically, an
airborne platform flying at an altitude of 20 km can provide
service to a horizon distance of 500 km, which can be expanded
to 600 km when the flight altitude is increased to 30 km [36].
3.2. Hazard warning, rescue, and assessment
Natural hazards such as wildfires, floods, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis, hurricanes, and others, destroy lives and
properties. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake killed 230,000
people in 14 countries. In the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in
China, 69,195 people lost their lives. Typhoon Haiyan hit the
Philippines in November 2013, and claimed 6183 lives and affected
318,270 families, according to the International Federation of Red
Cross and the Red Crescent Societies. Such large-scale damage
occurs year after year.
Losses from natural hazards can be dramatically reduced by
effective advanced prediction and warning systems. Currently,
modeling and simulation of natural hazards are widely applied.
However, most systems are intellectually challenging and some-
times unreliable. The primitive sensing method (e.g., in situ
visualization) remains vital and more reliable than modeling and
simulation [37]. A person observing an area of interest can issue
early warnings that can be sent to ground commanders nearly
close to real time. Solar-powered airplanes, which are capable of
high altitude long endurance flights, are ideal for this function.
Optics/infrared/radar/multispectral imaging sensor instruments
can be placed onboard solar-powered airplanes, and then, these
planes can be deployed to regions of interest. Solar-powered
airplanes also have the ability to maneuver freely to other regions
while aloft. A complete survey that includes vital images can be
generated by horizontal scans. By using solar-powered airplanes,
warnings can be given for wildfires and volcanic eruptions,
tsunami waves and hurricanes can be tracked, whereas floods
can be mapped. Recently, scientists and engineers have tried to
use high-altitude airborne platforms to provide early warning for
some natural hazards. For example, the DFRC, in cooperation with
the US Forest Service, started the Ikhana project in 2007, with the
objective of monitoring wildfire in western states by using a high-
altitude MQ-9 unmanned aircraft system [38]. Fig. 11 shows a
3D view of the Castle Rock wildfire during a western state fire
mission.
Electric power is typically reduced in naturally hazardous
regions. Moreover, current communication systems are frequently
ground-based cellular telephone systems, which can be easily
devastated during natural disasters. Communication interruption
is a nightmare for local residents and may further hinder rescue
operations. For example, during the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake,
information regarding the fate of Yingxu Town was unavailable
until eight airborne troops landed on the district. In the future,
solar-powered airplanes can function as airborne platforms for
relay communication, thus providing vital information on disaster
areas. During rescue operations, finding survivors, building shelter,
distributing food, and providing medical services are the primary
objectives. With their ability to cruise above hazardous regions for
long periods, solar-powered airplanes can function as information
centers. They can collect global data, guide rescue troops more
Fig. 11. A 3D view of the Castle Rock wildfire [38].
efficiently, and avoid secondary damages. After rescue operations,
the imaging systems of solar-powered airplanes can help provide
reasonable assessments. Solar-powered airplanes can also function
as ideal observers for man-made hazards such as toxic emissions,
nuclear leaks, and terrorist activities, among others.
3.3. Agricultural surveillance and decision support systems
As cultivated areas (fields are currently measured in square
kilometers instead of acres) expand, modern agriculture generates
a huge demand for new technology. Farmers aim to maximize the
mean profit per unit cultivated area, thus resulting in the demand
for precision agriculture. Precision agriculture should consider the
spatial variability of biotic and abiotic factors, including irrigation
systems, pathogens, ripeness of crops, invasive weed outbreaks,
destructive insects, fertilization anomalies, and so on [39]. The
spatiotemporal distribution of such factors should be provided for
further assessment and decision making.
First, precision agriculture requires images with high spatial
resolution (e.g., 1 m or less is required to map weed proliferation)
taken by specialized multispectral cameras. Second, information
should be provided with a temporal frequency (1–3 days revisit),
and the product should be delivered in a timely manner (should
have a 1–24 h turnaround; 5 days after data collection is useless to
farmers) [40]. The traditional method of hiring laborers and using
land rovers is time consuming and costly. Consultants may make
random observations through some sample fields, thus leading to
sample time diversity as well as regional and unreliable assess-
ments. Another method is hiring a commercial satellite (e.g., Quick
Bird). Information from such satellites is intermittent, exhibits a
time delay, and has a low resolution because of their high orbit.
Satellites are also limited by their high cost, are difficult deploy,
and unable to cover certain regions. Thus, satellites are not
acceptable to farmers. Solar-powered airplanes are capable of
flying at medium altitudes, which are above the altitude typically
used by conventional aircraft. These airplanes will not interfere
with routine operations. A medium altitude satisfies the tradeoff
between optical resolution and coverage area. Flying with a
relatively slow speed, solar-powered airplanes can go around a
given location for an extremely long duration. By using “off-the-
shelf” wireless technology, images can be downlinked in real time
[41]. The aforementioned capabilities enable solar-powered air-
planes to deliver high-resolution information frequently and in a
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
Fig. 12. Weed infestation distribution map provided by the Pathfinder Plus [42].
timely manner to farmers regarding their crops. Therefore, solar-
powered airplanes can be used efficiently in precision agriculture.
Recently, scientists and engineers have begun employing solar-
powered airplanes in precision agriculture. In September 2002,
NASA's Pathfinder Plus was used to conduct a proof-of-concept
mission above the 1500-hectare plantation of the Kauai Coffee
Company in Hawaii [41,42]. The high-resolution color and multi-
spectral imaging payloads onboard the airplane provided informa-
tion regarding weed, irrigation, and particularly, crop ripeness.
Fig. 12 shows weed infestation (in the regions within the white
circles) in the coffee plantation.
3.4. Planetary atmospheric exploration
Scientists have recently conducted a series of scientific explora-
tions on astronomical objects such as the planets Venus, Mercury
and Mars, and the planet-like moon, Titan, among others. Most
probes have been designed as satellites, land rovers, or balloons
that drift with wind or gravity.
Recently, scientists have considered using aerial vehicles to
explore the atmosphere of other planets. An aerial vehicle can
observe the surface of a planet at an altitude of tens of kilometers
instead of hundreds of kilometers as that of an orbiting probe. The
former can also go around a particular spot of interest instead of
uniformly scanning all regions of a planet. Given that an aerial
vehicle has more freedom to maneuver itself in a region of interest
than balloons and land rovers, it can observe regions at a scale of
several hundreds to thousands of kilometers, which is unachie-
vable for land rovers and balloons. An aerial vehicle also has more
endurance than balloons and rovers, which allows it to glide down
to lower altitudes and ascend to higher altitudes, and probe into
different cloud layers. Given that oxygen does not exist in most
planets, traditional internal combustion engines cannot be con-
sidered in such missions. However, solar power is abundant, and
thus, solar-powered airplanes, or those that use a hybrid of solar
power and other energy sources, are prime candidates. An atmo-
spheric flight probe typically consists of a space vehicle for
cruising, an entry vehicle for entry and descent, and an aerial
vehicle to perform scientific research [43]. Considering that the
entry vehicle that contains the aerial vehicle has a limited volume
(e.g., the aeroshell of the Venus probe, the Pioneer Venus, has a
43
Fig. 13. An artist's conception of a Venus solar-powered atmospheric flight [45].
diameter of 1.3 m [44]), solar-powered airplanes used for this
purpose must have a folded configuration design that will enable
it to unfold its wings and tail to fly (e.g., inflatable wings are
currently under research).
Anthony Colozza and Geoffrey Landis from the NASA Glenn
Research Center have initiated the study on solar-powered aerial
flights on Venus [45]. The exoatmospheric solar irradiance of
Venus is 2600 W/m2, whereas that of Earth is 1370 W/m2. The
atmospheric pressure at altitudes of 65–75 km is similar to that at
the terrestrial surface. Temperature is also moderate. This previous
research shows that an altitude between 50 km and 75 km is the
most favorable for solar-powered atmospheric flights. Fig. 13
illustrates the atmospheric flight of a conceptual solar-powered
airplane on Venus. Funded by the ESA, the Sky-sailor was created
by the Autonomous Systems Lab of EPFL as the proof-of-concept of
solar-powered atmospheric flights on Mars [26]. However, the low
density of the Martian atmosphere (0.7% of terrestrial atmospheric
density) requires an extremely lightweight structure, a large wing
area, and an extremely fast flight speed, which are current
challenges in solar-powered atmospheric vehicles. Solar-powered
atmospheric flight probes are suitable for planets close to the sun
where solar irradiance is abundant. Meanwhile, other sources of
power should be studied for different locations. For example, Jason
Barnes et al. investigated the use of an electrically-driven airplane
powered by a radioisotope thermoelectric generator for the mission
Aerial Vehicle for in situ and Airborne Titan Reconnaissance
(AVIATR) [43].
4. Challenges faced by solar-powered airplanes
4.1. Energy system
4.1.1. Requirement of high utilization energy ratio
The electric power train is the most important part of a solar-
powered airplane because it generates, stores, delivers, transfers,
and transforms energy to satisfy the requirements of a solar-
powered airplane [46]. Fig. 14 shows the power system layout of a
typical solar-powered airplane. The devices along the electric
power train yield energy losses. The energy utilization ratio
determines whether a solar-powered airplane can get through a
nighttime flight, and whether it can achieve high altitude long
endurance flight.
For solar-powered airplanes, energy is converted from solar
irradiance by solar panels. Given that solar panel output varies
with temperature and irradiance density, a maximum power point
44 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
Fig. 14. Layout of the power system of a typical solar-powered airplane [48].
Fig. 15. The efficiency of the energy transformation devices of a solar-powered
airplane [47].
tracker (MPPT) is generally required to maximize the use of solar
irradiance. The harvested electric energy is controlled by energy
management equipment, which helps decide whether the bat-
teries should be charged or whether the airplane should be
propelled. If the electric energy needs to propel the airplane, then
it should be transformed from the motor controller, the electric
motor, and the gearbox until it reaches the propeller, where it is
transformed into the kinetic energy of the airplane. The yield
thrust force compensates for the aerodynamic drag. If the electric
energy is stored in the secondary batteries, then it is transformed
by the DC/DC converter for use in charging and discharging the
batteries at night time. In some cases, electric energy is converted
by the DC/DC converter into electric branches with different
voltages, with the objective of satisfying the requirements of
avionics, payloads, autopilot systems, and communication systems.
Energy efficiency is illustrated in Fig. 15.
Most of the aforementioned energy transformation devices
may lose some energy; even electric lines may lose energy because
of inevitable internal resistance. In commonly used devices, the
total energy utilization ratio of solar-powered airplanes is only
11%, thus indicating that nearly 89% of solar irradiance is lost, as
shown in Fig. 15 [47]. The resulting efficiency is compared with
internal combustion engines with a transformation efficiency of
25% [46]. However, the energy-to-mass ratio of solar panels is
significantly less than that of gasoline; thus, solar-powered air-
planes are less competitive than traditional internal combustion-
powered airplanes. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 15, the solar cell
and the propeller contribute the most to energy loss. These issues
should be seriously considered.
Based on the aforementioned points, we can easily make the
conclusion that energy is always in shortage in solar-powered
airplanes. As a result, achieving energy balance during daytime
and nighttime is crucial.
4.1.2. Requirement of high-efficiency solar cells
Solar cells provide all the energy requirement of a solar-
powered airplane, as shown in Fig. 15. However, solar cells lose
most of the solar energy as it travels along electric power train
devices. Thus, improving the efficiency of solar cells should be
addressed immediately. Until recently, the most commonly used
solar cells are as follows [49,50].
Crystalline silicon solar cells include monocrystalline (also
noted as single-crystalline) and multicrystalline (also noted as
polycrystalline) silicon solar cells. Monocrystalline silicon solar
cells are more efficient (at approximately 20%) than muticrystal-
line silicon solar cells (at approximately 10%). However, the former
are more expensive to produce than the latter.
Thin-film solar cells include noncrystalline (also noted as
amorphous crystalline) silicon and chalcogenide solar cells. Thin-
film solar cells are heavier (approximately twice the weight) and
less efficient than crystalline silicon solar cells. However, they are
cheaper to produce and more flexible, which allows them to be
mounted on the curved surface of the wings and horizontal tail.
Multijunction solar cells, which are composed of several p–n
junctions, are tuned to cover intervals of light with a wide
wavelength, and thus, they have higher efficiency (at approxi-
mately 40% for lab samples) than the previous two types. However,
multijunction solar cells are expensive to produce, and are
typically used in satellites and in space exploration.
Other types of solar cells, such as dye-sensitized solar cells,
polymer solar cells, and quantum-structured solar cells are cur-
rently being researched but are not widely used in solar-powered
airplanes. Fig. 16 presents the most efficient solar cells in the
world. The efficiency of the most commonly used crystalline
silicon cells in solar-powered airplanes is approximately 20%; the
most efficient of which are the three-junction cells, which achieve
nearly 44%. In general, making the thinner (i.e. lighter) and more
flexible solar cells with higher efficiency and lower price is the
endless goal. Table 1 shows the performance characteristics of
some commonly used crystalline silicon solar cells. The products
can be bought from most business-to-consumer internet plat-
forms. For the SoLong airplane, 76 A300 solar cells from SunPower
Inc. (with an efficiency of 20%) were mounted [18]. These cells
were also chosen for Helios, which exhibits a total efficiency of 19%
[11]. By contrast, amorphous silicon solar cells with an efficiency of
10% were used for the Zephyr because thin-film solar cells can be
bent to fit into the curved wing, and because the collected energy
was designed to satisfy the requirement [12].
The output performance of solar cells varies with circum-
stances such as solar irradiance density and temperature. In
general, output power is greater when solar irradiance is higher
and temperature is lower, as illustrated in Fig. 17. To achieve the
best performance, a highly efficient MPPT should be designed to
adjust to the environment.
4.1.3. Requirement of high energy density for secondary batteries
During nighttime, the secondary batteries compensate for
energy consumption. The energy density (also noted as specific
energy) of secondary batteries, which describes the energy capa-
city per unit mass, is an important parameter for solar-powered
airplanes. When the energy density of the batteries is high, a solar-
powered airplane can carry less battery, and thus, level flight
power requirement will be minimal and the safety margin for
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53 45

Fig. 16. The efficiencies of solar cells charted by the National Renewable Energy Lab [51].

Table 1
Performance characteristics of some crystalline silicon solar cells.

Brand name Material Efficiency (%) Area (mm
mm) Power (W) Thickness (μm) Price ($/W)

Sunpower Monocrystaline 21.8 125
125 3.34 165 740 1.50

Motech Polycrystalline 17.6 156
156 4.30 200 730 0.37
AUO Monocrystaline 17.6 125
125 2.80 200 720 0.52
Mars Rock Polycrystalline 17.0 156
156 3.90 240 740 0.42
Dosolar Polycrystalline 16.5 156
156 3.90 240 740 0.49
Bardon Monocrystaline 17.6 156
156 4.49 200 720 0.40
JAS Polycrystalline 17.4 156
156 4.30 240 740 0.48

nighttime flight increases. Until recently, the most commonly used
battery types are as follows.
Li-ion batteries, which are most commonly used in cell phones,
laptop computers, and electric vehicles such as Tesla motor
cars and Chevrolet Volt electric cars, are becoming the battery of
choice for solar-powered airplanes. Li-ion batteries are capable of
providing high energy density, which is approximately 200 Wh/kg,
for practical applications.
Lithium polymer (Li-Poly) batteries, which are similar to Li-ion
batteries, differ from the latter by using a solid plastic (polymer)
electrolyte. Thus, cell shape is not restricted to the cylindrical form
of Li-ion batteries.
Lithium sulfur (Li-S) batteries, which are notable for providing
high energy density, are composed of a small amount of lithium
and a moderate amount of sulfur. These batteries are relatively
lightweight. The theoretical energy density of Li-S batteries is
more than 2500 Wh/kg; however, a laboratory level of 350 Wh/kg
is reliable.
Regenerative fuel cells (RFCs), which are composed of a fuel
cell, an electrolyzer, and fuel storage tanks, are large-scale, high-
power system. The fuel cell produces electric power by using
stored fuels, whereas the electrolyzer fills in the fuel tanks by
using electric power. RFCs are capable of providing higher energy
density than other energy-storage systems. Depending on the
discharging time, the energy density of RFCs ranges from
250 Wh/kg to 700 Wh/kg [53].
The peak power versus energy density of several batteries is
illustrated in Fig. 18. Traditional gasoline provides approximately
10 times as much energy density as commonly used batteries, such
as Li-ion batteries. Considerable work still needs to be done to
enable solar-powered airplanes to compete with traditional air-
planes with internal combustion engines. For existing prototype
solar-powered airplanes, the SoLong airplane used 120 Sanyo
18650 Li-ion cells with an energy density of 220 Wh/kg [18]. The
Zephyr 7 utilized Li-S batteries, with an energy density that
reached 350 Wh/kg, produced by Sion Power Corporation [12].
Meanwhile, the Helios airplane used hydrogen- and oxygen-based
RFCs, thus becoming the first solar-powered airplane that used
fuel cells [54]. Fig. 19 shows some typical batteries used in solar-
powered airplanes.
46 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
4.2. Aerodynamic system
4.2.1. Requirement of high-lift and low-drag aerodynamic
performance
The level flight power requirement of solar-powered air-
planes has a cubic relation with level flight speed (i.e., P p v3).
Solar-powered airplanes typically fly at a relatively low speed, thus
resulting in a relatively low dynamic pressure (i.e., 0.5ρv2). To
compensate for gravity, solar-powered airplanes should have a
greater lift coefficient CL than conventional airplanes. Lift coeffi-
cients are expected to be greater than 1.0. To achieve this
objective, high-lift airfoils (e.g., E387, E214, SD7032, FX-63–137,
etc.) are typically selected, and large aspect ratio wings are
preferred.
The level flight power requirement of solar-powered airplanes
is inversely proportional to the drag coefficient CD. Thus, reducing
the drag coefficient is a continuous task for solar-powered air-
planes. The drag coefficient of an airplane consists of the induced
drag coefficient and the profile drag coefficient. A high-lift coeffi-
cient may result in a high induced drag coefficient, which can be
improved by increasing the wing aspect ratio and achieving
elliptical distribution of the wing load. The profile coefficient is a
function of friction and pressure forces. Given that laminar flow
yields less friction than turbulent flow, friction force can be
reduced by enlarging the laminar flow area. However, laminar
and turbulent flows typically appear simultaneously in high
altitude long endurance airplanes. By contrast, pressure force can
be decreased by avoiding airflow separation. To reduce the profile
Fig. 17. The current–voltage (I–V) curves of several solar cells versus solar irradiance and temperature [52].
Fig. 18. Peak power versus energy density of some batteries [27].
drag coefficient, boundary layer transition and airflow separation
theory should be studied comprehensively.
Dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient yields the
lift–drag coefficient CL/CD. The lift–drag coefficient is the immedi-
ate description of the aerodynamic performance of a solar-
powered airplane. An ideal aerodynamic system should have a
high lift–drag coefficient. Fig. 20 shows the historical evolution of
the lift–drag ratio; among which, the eta glider recorded the
highest lift–drag coefficient in the world, reaching a value of 70.
However, level flight power requirement is not linearly propor-
tional with the lift–drag coefficient, but is instead, inversely
proportional with the endurance factor (also noted as the power
factor C1.5
L /CD). Compared with the lift–drag coefficient, the endur-
ance factor is more important. Given that energy is always in
shortage in solar-powered airplanes, an airplane with a high
endurance factor can reduce power requirement, and conse-
quently, extend flight endurance. In summary, an aerodynamic
performance with high lift–drag ratio and high endurance factor is
the objective of solar-powered airplanes. Fig. 21 shows the
pressure contour and streamlines of a solar-powered airplane.
4.2.2. Requirement of aerodynamic performance with a low
Reynolds number
Reynolds number (Re ¼ρvL/μ) is an important aerodynamic that
describes the ratio of inertia force to viscous force. Atmospheric
density decreases exponentially with altitude. Solar-powered air-
planes usually fly at high altitudes (higher than 20 km) with a
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53 47

Fig. 19. Typical batteries used in solar-powered airplanes.

Fig. 20. The evolution of the lift–drag ratio [47].

relatively low speed (from 10 m/s to 100 m/s), thus yielding a low
Reynolds number. In the aerodynamic community, a Reynolds
number below 1.0
106 is defined as low. Some special flow
phenomena, such as flow transition and separation, occur during
low Reynolds number [56–58].
Flow transition from laminar to turbulent occurs near the
leading and/or trailing edges when the Reynolds number is below
1.0
106. Thus, aside from pure turbulent flow occurring in
passenger airplanes, laminar and turbulent flows also occur
simultaneously in solar-powered airplanes. The transition point
varies with the airfoil profile, the angle of attack, and the incoming
flow velocity. Turbulent flow is known to yield greater friction
drag than laminar flow. Predicting the transition point accurately
and calculating the drag coefficient are important research areas in
aerodynamic systems.
Flow separation (i.e., the flow does not attach the boundary for
some regions) may also occur when the Reynolds number is below
1.0
106. After passing the separation point, the flow may separate
throughout the wing, thus resulting in thicker equivalent airfoil. The
corresponding aerodynamic performance may deviate from that of
the designed airfoil. At some point, the separated flow may reattach
on the wing boundary with the aid of the pressure gradient force,
thus yielding a separation bubble. This bubble occurs on the upper
surface of the wing and enlarges as the Reynolds number decreases.
The separation bubble results in massive pressure drag that causes
aerodynamic performance to deteriorate rapidly, that is, CL/CD
decreases. Fig. 22 shows the separation bubble occurring on the
surface of airfoil E387 when the Reynolds number is 35,000.
In summary, transition and separation when the Reynolds
number is low are highly sensitive to the Reynolds number,
48 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
Fig. 21. Pressure contour and streamlines of a solar-powered airplane [55].
Fig. 22. The oil-flow figure of the separation bubble of airfoil E387 (Courtesy of
Bryan McGranahan and Prof. Michael Selig) [61].
pressure gradient, and disturbance, which, in turn, affect aero-
dynamic performance, and consequently, the static, dynamic, and
aeroelastic stability of the entire airplane [59]. Thus, the low
Reynolds number problem should be considered, and a favorable
aerodynamic system should be designed for solar-powered air-
planes. Fig. 23 shows the polar of airfoil E387 versus various
Reynolds number calculated by Xfoil [60]. As illustrated in the
figure, if airfoil E387 is not carefully designed, then it gradually
becomes invalid as the Reynolds number decreases.
4.3. Propulsion system
4.3.1. Requirement of high-efficiency motors
The electric power of solar-powered airplanes is finally trans-
formed into kinetic energy by using propulsion devices. At present,
propulsion devices mostly consist of motors, gearboxes, and
Fig. 23. The polar of airfoil E387 under low Reynolds number.
propellers. Propulsion devices with higher efficiencies can reduce
electric power inputs, which is favorable for long-endurance flight.
Moving parts wear rapidly in a partial vacuum (the atmo-
spheric density at 20 km is only 7% that at sea level) at high
altitudes, and may even break down [62]. Propulsion devices
should be simple and reliable. Considering that the brushes of
conventional electric motor arcs wear rapidly at high altitudes,
lightweight, high-efficiency (efficiency should be more than 90%),
and brushless DC motors with rare-earth, permanent magnets are
preferred for solar-powered airplanes [62]. Similarly, the gear-
boxes of traditional airplanes wear rapidly at high altitudes
because of bad lubrication. Fig. 24 shows that the motors of the
Zephyr 6 failed because of gearbox seizure during the third day of
its flight in 2007. Removing the gearbox and using the direct drive
motors to provide power directly to the propeller reduce losses
from mechanical dray as well as increase efficiency and propulsion
system reliability [12].
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
Fig. 24. The gearbox of the Zephyr 6 that suffered from failure [12].
Fig. 25. Assembly of the direct drive motor and the fix-pitch propeller of the
Pathfinder [62].
4.3.2. Requirement of high-efficiency propellers
To address various flight altitude and speed issues, conven-
tional propeller-driven planes adapt, at least partially, by using
variable-pitch propellers [62]. However, variable-pitch propellers
require a complex pitch-control analog circuit, which is detri-
mental to steady flights at high altitudes. Moreover, given that
solar-powered airplanes typically fly at definite altitudes with near
constant flight speeds, fix-pitch propellers that are designed and
optimized for certain flight altitudes and speeds are preferable.
These propellers are lighter, stronger, and more reliable than
variable-pitch propellers [62]. Fig. 25 illustrates the assembly of
the direct drive motor and the fix-pitch propeller of the Pathfinder.
Similar to aerodynamic systems, the propeller of solar-powered
airplanes should address the low Reynolds number (approxi-
mately from 1.0
105 to 5.0
106) problem. Flow separation
results in a huge pressure drag and further diminishes the
efficiency of a propulsion system. The diameter and rotation speed
of high-altitude propellers are larger than those of low-altitude
propellers. However, the speed of sound at high altitudes is low.
The combination of these factors leads to the high mach number of
the blade tip. Shock waves even occur, thus aggravating flow
separation. Thus, optimizing airfoil and geometry configuration is
essential work to obtain high-efficiency propellers [63].
4.4. Structure system
4.4.1. Requirement of lightweight and high-strength structures
The wing loading of an airplane is proportional to its power
loading. Considering that solar power, which provides all energy
requirements, has an extremely low density (compared with tradi-
tional airplanes), the wing loading of solar-powered airplanes is
equally low. Fig. 26 shows the wing loadings of some notable
airplanes. The wing loading of solar-powered airplanes is only a
hundredth of that of manned airplanes. This result indicates that a
49
solar-powered airplane can carry a relatively light mass per unit wing
area; thus, the structure mass that makes up most the total mass of
the airplane has to be reduced. Moreover, the avionics, power system,
and payloads should be designed and distributed according to the
objective of avoiding concentrated stress. Complex composite mate-
rials that are extremely lightweight have been utilized extensively in
solar-powered airplanes to ensure excellent mechanical properties
(e.g., strength, torsion, flexion, and vibration) [64].
The structure mass of solar-powered airplanes consists of the
main wing, the elevator, the rudder, and the fuselage, among others.
These components are mainly manufactured with a grid and
sandwich structures. For solar-powered airplanes, the main wing
typically makes up most of the mass, and thus, this part should be
given particular attention. The typical configuration of the main wing
of solar-powered airplanes comprises the main beam, wing ribs, skin,
and solar panels. The main beam frequently has a sandwich
structure, which is a honeycomb structure trapped between high-
module carbon fiber foils. The ribs, which are manufactured from
carbon fiber, are topologically optimized to minimize the mass while
preserving their high strength. The airfoil shape ribs are assembled
on the main beam to form the streamlined shape of the main wing.
The lower and upper surfaces of the main wing are usually skinned
with Mylar, which resembles a high-tech cling film [28]. The solar
cells are then mounted, covering the Mylar on the upper wing
surface. Flexible solar cells with a low mass density are preferable to
enable the efficiency of a plane to satisfy energy requirements. Fig. 27
shows a typical wing structure.
4.4.2. Requirement of nonlinear aeroelastic theory
The large scale, high flexibility, and large aspect ratio of the
slender wing results in huge deflections that reach approximately
25% of the wing semi-span, which may further lead to structure
failure (e.g., the Helios Hp03 suffered from structure failure during
its final long-endurance flight test [11]). Traditional linear theory
fails to model the deformation and changes in the structural and
aerodynamic characteristics of a wing. Thus, nonlinear aeroelastic
theory should be studied extensively [65,66]. Polyester-film infla-
table wings have attracted significant attention recently toward
the objective of avoiding structural failure.
4.5. Control system
4.5.1. Requirement of storing energy into environment
Given that the power density of solar irradiance and the energy
density of batteries are relatively lower than those of traditional
energy devices, energy shortage problem dominates in solar-
powered airplanes. Recently, scientists and engineers have been
attempting to find environment friendly ways to conserve and
collect energy.
50 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53

Fig. 26. Great chart of total weight versus wing loading of airplanes [3,27].

Limited by the low energy density of batteries, solar-powered
airplanes have to carry batteries with a huge mass to fly through
the night. However, an increment in mass results in large level
flight power, which is detrimental to long-endurance flights. This
issue can be addressed by storing energy other those in batteries.
Considering that gravity is a conservative force that can be used to
store energy, solar-powered airplanes can be designed to ascend to
higher altitudes when solar irradiance is redundant (e.g., around
midday) and to glide to lower altitudes as a sailplane when solar
irradiance is in shortage (e.g., during nighttime). When the
designed minimal altitude is achieved, the batteries can provide
the energy needed until sunrise the next day. By using gravity to
store energy, solar-powered airplanes can carry less battery. The
Zephyr and the Solar Impulse used gravity to realize long-
endurance flight [28,47]. Fig. 28 shows the sketch map of the
Solar Impulse storing solar energy at a certain altitude.
4.5.2. Requirement of extracting energy from environment
Extracting energy from the environment to complement solar
power is advantageous to long-endurance flights. An albatross can
stay airborne for an extremely long period without flapping its
wings. This bird acquires energy from the gradient wind by ascend-
ing with the upwind direction and gliding down with the following
wind direction, and thus, it can fly thousands of kilometers during
migration. This technique is called dynamic soaring, which has been
studied extensively in the flight dynamic community [68,69]. Given
that wind shear typically appears from the ground to an altitude of
 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
Fig. 27. A typical wing structure [5].
Fig. 28. The Solar Impulse stored solar energy at a certain altitude [67].
Fig. 29. Dynamic soaring during a wind shear [71].
more than 20 km, solar-powered airplanes can conserve energy by
using the dynamic soaring technique [70]. Fig. 29 shows the sketch
map of dynamic soaring during a wind shear.
Another environmental energy is updraft. By following an updraft,
solar-powered airplanes can reach high altitudes without consuming
too much energy. The SoLong was remotely piloted to conserve
energy and it reached a high altitude by following an updraft [18].
For high-altitude and long-duration solar-powered airplanes,
51
maximizing environmental forces such as wind shear and updraft,
as well as extracting energy from such sources, remain as challenges.
5. Conclusion
This paper discusses the historical developments and future
challenges of solar-powered airplanes, with the objective of
providing references and overviews for research.
Since 1974, when the first solar-powered airplane flew, govern-
ments all over the world have realized the tremendous potential of
solar-powered airplanes. Institutes and agencies such as the ESA,
NASA, and DARPA have led the research and have launched
numerous projects, albeit technical demonstration prototypes,
which are far from practical applications. With the developments
in science and technology, solar-powered airplanes are envisioned
to address daily transportation needs. The Vulture project (with
5-year endurance, 450 kg, and 5 kW payload) represents the
ambition of DARPA to use solar-powered airplanes in practical
applications, although the specific applications remain to be seen.
The expected applications of solar-powered airplanes are
hypothetical at present. In summary, solar-powered airplanes can
function as alternatives and/or complements to satellites, traditional
airplanes, airships, and balloons in relay communication, ISR, hazard
warning systems, agricultural surveillance, and planetary atmo-
spheric exploration. A revolutionary solar-powered airplane can
bring significant contributions that may completely change our lives.
Solar-powered airplanes can realize high altitude long endur-
ance flights, but with minimal margins for applications, such as
small wing loading for payload, surplus power for payload, and
52 X. Zhu et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 71 (2014) 36–53
requirements for distributed payloads. Subsystems, such as energy,
aerodynamic, propulsion, and control systems, should be studied
extensively. A number of high performances are expected, and
these can be integrated into solar-powered airplanes with a
relatively large margin for applications. Moreover, the interaction
of such subsystems should be recognized integrally, and their
sensitivities to the overall design should be investigated. The
aforementioned concerns summarize the requirements of multi-
disciplinary design optimization for solar-powered airplanes.
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