Chapter 5: Native Americans

Learning Objectives

1. Explain the designation “Native American.”

2. Discuss the impact of the interactions between the arriving Europeans and the Native
American tribes on traditional food resources.
3. Describe the urban versus rural locations and jobs of Native Americans in the U.S. today and
how this affects socioeconomic status.
4. Discuss how the Native American worldview relating to health affects the use of biomedical
health services.
5. Identify the key components of the traditional health beliefs and practices of various Native
American groups.
6. List indigenous foods used commonly in the different regional Native American cultural
groups.
7. Differentiate between foods indigenous to the Americas and those introduced from other
regions of the world.
8. Identify the core protein food traditionally used in each of the five Native American types of
fare.
9. Summarize the meal cycle similarities and differences across regional groups of Native
Americans.
10. Recognize the traditional plants and foods used medicinally by Native Americans.
11. Summarize the typical adaptations made to traditional foods in the modern diet of Native
Americans.

Chapter Summary

Native Americans, as a group, comprise the greatest number of ethnic groups of any minority
population in the U.S. Each of the approximately 400 American Indian and Alaska Native
nations has its own distinct cultural heritage. About half of the groups live in rural areas, either
on government reservations or on nearby farms. The ethnic identity varies from tenacious
maintenance of heritage to total adoption of the majority culture.

Traditional Native American foods are major contributors to the American diet—for example:
corn, squash, beans, cranberries, and maple syrup. The diet of Native Americans has changed
dramatically from its origins. Renewed interest in Native American culture has prevented the
complete disappearance of many traditional foods and food habits.

The history of Native Americans suggests that 20,000-50,000 years ago the ancestors of Native
Americans crossed the Bering Strait from Asia. Historical records and commentaries beginning
in the 1600s document development of three major centers of culture: in the southeast, the “Five
Civilized Tribes”; in New York, the Iroquois nations; and in the southwest, the Pueblo
communities. Introduction of horses, firearms, and metal knives changed the lifestyles of many
nations. As a result of forced migration, illness and assault, nearly one-fourth of all Native
American ethnic groups were extinguished. By 2000, two-third of all American Indians and
Alaska Natives resided in farms, towns and urban areas outside of reservations. The overall
poverty rate for Native Americans (nearly 26 percent) in 2012 more than doubled that of the
general population, although significant tribal differences are seen.

Harmony best describes the Native American approach to life. Each individual strives to
maintain a balance among spiritual, social, and physical needs in a holistic approach; only what
is necessary for life sustenance is taken from the environment. Religion varies from an
uncomplicated belief in the power of a self-declared evangelist to elaborate theological systems
with organized hierarchies of priests. Religion permeates all aspects of life.

Traditional health beliefs and practices include the view that health and illness are a reflection of
a person’s relationship to nature, the family and community and the environment. Treatments
focus on the cause of the imbalance and restoring harmony with the universe. Traditional healers
and traditional techniques may be used, either instead of, or along with, biomedical treatments.

The traditional food habits across the different areas were influenced mainly by geography and
climate. Food acquisition systems included hunters and gatherers as well as agricultural societies.
Throughout North America corn (maize) was a primary, core cereal grain. Maize was commonly
grown with beans and squash. Within different regions, natural resources formed the basis of the
regional variations for the traditional diets associated with each tribe. The Europeans introduced
many foods that are now common. New foods included various fruits, vegetables, and animals.
The long, cold winters, relative lack of plant-based foods, and steady availability of fish, seals,
whales, and other game influenced the Northwest Coast and Alaska Natives’ food ways. The five
major regions--the Northeastern, Southern, Plains, Southwestern, and Northwest Coast/Alaska
Natives--and others shared similarities but also had distinctive food habits.

Typically the pattern of daily meals varied by ethnic group and locality. Foods were often
monotonous with only seasonal variations. Feasting was associated with religious ceremonies.
Food was valued (and still is) as a sacred, precious resource. Many food plants were used
medicinally to treat both spiritual and physical health.

In the contemporary world, Native Americans are undergoing changing ethnic identity,
acculturation, and loss of traditional languages and traditional practices. Many Native Americans
participate in both traditional Native American societies and white society. Over the years, many
of the traditional foods and methods of preparation have been lost and a variety of substitutions
are currently made to recreate the traditional diet. Many Native Americans have an inadequate
diet due to low socioeconomic status, or lack of transportation, fuel, refrigeration, and/or running
water. However, recent changes suggest that Native Americans have transitioned from the
conditions of under-consumption to diseases associated with overconsumption. For counselors
intending to successfully serve Native Americans, it is imperative to learn about the Native
American worldview, traditional health beliefs, differences between nations, and the history of
each group.

Cultural Controversies – Type 2 Diabetes, Thrifty Genes, and Changing Theories

Prevalence rates of type 2 diabetes vary between 4 and 70% in adults over 45. Attempts over the
past 50 years to find a universal thrifty gene that predisposes Native Americans to diseases such
as obesity and type 2 diabetes have been unsuccessful, except for a mutation in the Oji-Cree of
Canada who have type 2 DM rates of 40% among adults. Three domains of thought exist:
political-economic, etiological, and cultural. Of particular interest are theories regarding the roles
of historical trauma.

Chapter Outline

I. Introduction

A. Native American (NA)—greatest number of ethnic groups of any minority population in

U.S.
1. Self-declared: 5 million in 2009
2. 2 % of U.S. population
B. Approx. 400 American Indian and Alaska Native nations

II. Cultural Perspective

A. History of Native Americans

1. Settlement Patterns
a. 20,000-50,000 years ago the ancestors of NA crossed the Bering Strait from Asia
b. Only traditional histories describe life before Europeans come to America
c. Three major centers of culture:
(1) Southeast—Five Civilized Tribes
(2) New York—Iroquois nations
(3) Southwest—Pueblo communities
d. Interaction with Europeans brought
(1) Firearms, horses, metal knives
(2) Disease
(3) Forced migrations
(4) Diminishing land resources
e. By late 19th century
(1) Most NA lived on federal reservations (res.)
(2) Res. administered by Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
2. Current Demographics
a. By 2000—more than 2/3 live in urban areas, not on res.
b. Figure 5.2 shows Native American nations in the U.S.
c. 60% live in metropolitan areas
d. Large urban Native American populations are found in Los Angeles, NYC,
Phoenix, Tulsa, Anchorage, Oklahoma City, Albuquerque, Tucson
3. Socioeconomic Status
a. Poverty rate (26%) more than double that of the general population in 2012
4. Native American Organizations
a. Variety of organizations have developed to promote ethnic identity
B. Worldview
1. Introduction
a. Characterized by a desire for harmony and balance between spiritual, social,
physical needs
 b. Earth to be cared for with respect
c. Personal autonomy highly respected—Example: Even family members do not
speak for one another
d. Time is eternal—present needs valued over future ones
2. Religion
a. Traditionally, range of religious beliefs from a personal relationship with God to
elaborate religious hierarchies of priests
b. Religion permeates all aspects of life
c. Some integration of Christian/Catholic beliefs
d. Traditional approaches still popular
3. Family
a. Social unit is the extended family—children, elders valued
b. Many NA tribes are matrilineal
4. Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices
a. Health and illness are a reflection of a person’s relationship to nature; family,
community, environment; every illness is due to an imbalance with supernatural,
spiritual, or social implication
b. Treatment
(1) Focuses on cause of imbalance
(2) Concerned with physical, mental, spiritual renewal
c. Causes of illness
(1) Navajos—may be witchcraft
(2) May be soul loss, violating social or spiritual taboos, unfulfilled desires
d. May reject biomedical causes for disease and have alternate explanation for an
illness
e. Treatments by traditional healers may use a variety of rituals

III. Traditional Food Habits

A. Introduction
1. Influenced mainly by geography and climate
2. Includes hunters/gatherers, agricultural societies
B. Ingredients and Common Foods
1. Indigenous Foods
a. Table 5.1: “Indigenous Foods of the Americas” lists many foods from North,
Central, and South America
b. Corn (maize)—the central grain
c. NA on East Coast—abundant food
d. Pacific Northwest—mainly salmon, fruits
e. Plains—resourced buffalo extensively
f. Northeastern woodlands—wild rice
g. Southwest—chile peppers, corn, squash
2. Foods Introduced from Europe
a. Adopted many foods—Examples: apples, apricots, carrots, lentils, peaches,
purslane, wheat, rye
b. Keeping livestock (cattle, hogs, sheep) reduced NA dependence on hunting
3. Staples
a. Only beans, corn, squash in common among (most of) the many nations
b. Staples varied by the area and depended on local ingredients, storage needs
4. Regional Variations
a. Introduction
(1) Five regional areas
(2) Each area has many nations, but share similar food habits
b. Northeastern
(1) The area was heavily wooded, many lakes, ocean coastline—many food
resources
(2) Many New England dishes were originally NA dishes
(3) Examples: Clambake, baked beans, succotash, corn pudding, pumpkin pie
(4) Corn in many variations including popcorn
(5) Maple syrup
c. Southern
(1) Many food resources in rich land, also used agriculture to grow corn, beans,
squash
(2) Many traditional southern cooking methods and flavors come from traditional
NA foods
(3) Examples: Hominy, grits, squirrel, sassafras, beechnuts, hazelnuts, hickory
nuts, pecans, black walnuts, honey
d. Plains
(1) Nomadic hunters following the bison
(2) Mississippi and Missouri valley tribes used agriculture to grow beans, corn,
squash
(3) All parts of the bison used; all edible parts used in some dish
(4) Jerked buffalo or jerky
(5) Pemmican
(6) Hunted other game and gathered wild plants in variety, including wild rice in
northern parts
e. Southwestern
(1) The pueblo communities lived in the river valleys of the arid southwest—
farmed beans, chilies, corn, squash
(2) Others: Apache and Navajo—nomadic hunters and gatherers
(3) When sheep were introduced by the Spanish many NA also raised sheep
(4) Corn traditionally primary food with different color corns cultivated
(5) Many traditional recipes in common with Mexican NA—tortillas, pozole
(6) Beans, squash, pumpkins , cantaloupes
(7) Wild plants used, also piñon, cactus, mesquite (beans), mescal
f. Northwest Coast/Alaska Natives
(1) Temperature, geography define many of food habits
(2) Northwest coast—temperate, wooded valleys = reliable food
(3) Alaska and Canada—short growing season, vs. cold winters
(4) Arctic—2 two main ethnic groups: Inuit (Eskimos) and Aleuts or Alaskan
Natives
(5) Northwest coastal Indians did not use agriculture
 (6) Salmon: staple with numerous ways to prepare
(7) Wild plants made up balance of diet
(8) Many berries, greens
(9) Diet of Alaska Natives often marginal
(10) Semi-nomadic, traveling to hunt, fish
(11) Seal, walrus, whale, caribou, other game
(12) Often foods eaten raw
(13) Fat of animals especially valued
(14) Limited access to wild plants
g. Other Native American Cuisines
(1) California/Nevada—Indian breadroot, small game, insects
(2) Central (Miwok, Pomo)—acorn-based
(3) Northern mountains, plains (Blackfeet, Crow, Shoshone, Dakota)—hunters
(4) Wild plants add variety
C. Meal Composition and Cycle
1. Daily Patterns
a. Traditional patterns varied by ethnic group, locality
(1) Northeast—one large meal before noon; snacks rest of day
(2) Southwest, Pacific Northwest—two meals common
(3) Food simple, often monotonous—only seasonal variations
(4) Various food preservation techniques
(5) Regional variations
2. Special Occasions
a. Religious ceremonies often accompanied by feasts
b. Festivals for planting, harvests
c. Example: Green Corn Festival
(1) Thanks for plentiful harvest
(2) Start anew: new fire, clothes, pots
(3) All crimes but murder forgiven
(4) Counts as the new year for marriages, divorces, mourning
D. Role of Food in Native American Culture and Etiquette
1. Food valued as sacred, precious resource
2. Men—often hunters, in charge of herds
3. Women—in charge of food gathering, preparation, storage
4. Both men and women involved in cultivation
5. Sharing food—important value today
E. Therapeutic Uses of Food
1. Many food plants used to treat both spiritual, physical health
2. Numerous indigenous plants used for medicines
3. Some plants have psychotropic properties and may still be used

IV. Contemporary Food Habits

A. Introduction
1. NA undergoing changing ethnic identity, acculturation, loss of traditional languages,
practices
 2. Many NA participate in both traditional NA societies and white society
B. Adaptation of Food Habits
1. Ingredients and Common Foods
a. Many traditional foods and methods of preparation have been lost
(1) Variety of substitutions currently made
(2) Res. life = dependency on federal food commodities
b. Traditional foods eaten more commonly at special occasions
2. Meal Composition and Cycle
a. Little has been reported regarding meal patterns
b. Variations in number of meals, snacking, diet across groups
3. Special Occasions
a. Numerous traditional celebrations are maintained
b. Regional, traditional foods often prepared, served
C. Nutritional Status
1. Nutritional Intake
a. Many NA have an inadequate diet due to
(1) Low socioeconomic status
(2) Lack of transportation, fuel, refrigeration, running water
b. Diets high in fat and refined, starchy carbohydrates
c. Low intake of fruits, vegetables common in many ethnic groups
d. Obesity is prevalent—Metabolic causes of obesity in the Native American
populations a current field of study
e. Type 2 diabetes mellitus rates are 2-4 times that of general U.S. population
f. Average life expectancy is approximately 4.2 years less when compared to the
U.S. population
g. Alcoholism remains a significant medical and social problem
2. Counseling
a. Effective counselors
(1) Should be open-minded
(2) Avoid ethnocentrism
(3) Use intercultural communication skills
(a) Listen carefully
(b) Provide respectful silence
b. NA often do not use biomedical services
(1) Lack of access
(2) Conflict with beliefs
(3) Results:
(a) Less preventive measures
(b) Less treatment services
c. Verbal style
(1) Allows for silence
(2) Questioning may be seen as invasive
d. Non-verbal communication is very sophisticated
e. Counseling improved by using an interactive, informal, and cooperative style
f. Integrate traditional medical beliefs and customs if:
(1) Practiced by the client
 (2) Practical to implement
D. Cultural Controversies – Type 2 Diabetes, Thrifty Genes, and Changing Theories (Box)
1. 50-year-old thrifty gene theory unproven
2. Not all NA groups have rates of diabetes mellitus (DM) much higher than average,
but some do
3. Researchers propose three domains related to development of type 2 DM
a. Political-economic
b. Etiological
c. Cultural