MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME:

BSc. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT:

EMM301: MECHANICS OF MACHINES 1

LECTURER:

MR JOHNSON NGUGI

MAY, 2021
 LECTURE TWO

Lecture overview

In this lesson, we shall discuss how to determine the kinematics of mechanisms. Specifically,
we shall focus on the analytical method and two graphical methods. More graphical methods
shall be considered in the next lesson.

This lecture covers:

(i) Lecture objectives

(ii) Lecture notes: Determination of the Kinematics of Mechanisms
(iii) Summary of the lecture
(iv) Suggestions for further reading

Lecture Objectives

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

(i) Determine the kinematics of mechanisms using the analytical method

(ii) Determine the kinematics of mechanisms using the instantaneous centres method
(iii) Determine the kinematics of mechanisms using the Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem
 1.7. Determination of Kinematics of Mechanism

The techniques for finding the displacements, velocities and accelerations fall into one of two
broad groups - graphical and analytical. The analytical technique has the great advantage of giving
a general solution, that is, one that is valid for all configurations of the mechanisms, whereas
graphical methods rely on scale drawings related to one particular configuration. A complete
solution would thus require many drawings. On the other hand, the amount of analysis and
differentiation sometimes needed for apparently quite simple mechanisms may make the analytical
method unmanageable. The choice depends very much on the nature of the mechanism and is
largely a matter of experience.

1.7.1. Analytical Method

In this method, the displacements of the elements of interest are defined with reference to some
convenient datum, and then related geometrically. Successive differentiation will thus give
expressions containing velocity and acceleration and hence the desired quantities can be obtained.

An important case where this method can be used with advantage is the slider-crank mechanism.

Worked Example 1

For the slider-crank mechanism shown in Figure 1.8, determine the expressions for velocity and
acceleration of slider A. The crank OB rotates anticlockwise with a constant angular velocity ω.

Figure 1.8: A slider-crank mechanism

The displacement of the slider A, measured from the crank axis O, is given by:
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)

But, 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)

Squaring both sides of equation (ii),

𝑙 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

Therefore,

𝑟2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑙2

From: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = 1,

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑣)

Substituting equation (iii) into equation (iv).

𝑟2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 = 1 − 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝑟2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = √1 − 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑣)

Substituting equation (v) into equation (i).

𝑟2
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 √1 − 𝑙2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑣𝑖)

The differentiation is made easier by first expanding the square root term using the binomial
theorem, so that

𝑟2 𝑟4
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 (1 − 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − ⋯ ) … … . . (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
2𝑙 8𝑙4
 1
If the slider-crank is used as part of a reciprocating engine the ratio r/l is unlikely to exceed 3

and since 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≤ 1, the successive terms after the first two terms in the binomial expansion
diminish rapidly.

An acceptable approximation is thus obtained by taking only the first two terms of the binomial
expansion, giving,

𝑟2
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 − 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)

To get the expressions for velocity and acceleration, we need to differentiate equation (viii) with
respect to time. Noting that:

𝑑𝜃
𝜔= and
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝑑𝜃 . 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜃 . 𝜔
𝑑𝑡

It follows that:

𝑑 𝑟2
𝑣 = 𝑑𝜃 (𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 − 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) . 𝜔

Differentiating,

𝑟2
𝑣 = (−𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃) 𝜔

𝑟
𝑣 = −𝑟𝜔 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃) … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑥)

Noting that:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 𝑑𝜃 . 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜃 . 𝜔
𝑑𝑡

It follows that:
 𝑑 𝑟
𝑎 = 𝑑𝜃 {−𝑟𝜔 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 2𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)} . 𝜔

Differentiating,

𝑟
𝑎 = −𝑟𝜔2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) … … … … … … … . (𝑥)

1.7.2. Graphical Methods

1.7.2.1. Instantaneous Centres

An instantaneous centre is a point on a rotating rigid body whose velocity is zero at a given instant.
The use of instantaneous centres to determine the kinematics of mechanisms avoids the complexity
arising from the geometry of the mechanism and will often give a simple and elegant solution.

Consider a rigid body in plane motion rotating with an angular velocity ω shown in Fig. 1.9 (a). A
and B represent two points on the body rotating with velocities 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 respectively. Point A
must be rotating about a centre on a line through A perpendicular to 𝑣𝐴 and point B must be
rotating about a centre on a line through B perpendicular to 𝑣𝐵 . Where the two lines intersect at
every instant (point C) must be the instantaneous centre of rotation of the rigid body.

Figure 1.9: Instantaneous centers

It should be noted that it is only necessary to know the lines of action of 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 in order ·to
locate C, and since in general the velocities 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 will vary from instant to instant, C is not a
fixed point. Having located the instantaneous centre, the relationship shown below immediately
follows.
 𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵
𝜔= =
𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵

An important special case arises when the two velocities are parallel as shown in Fig. 1.9 (b). Point
C is then found by the simple ratio

𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵
𝜔= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶

But in this case, the magnitudes of both velocities must be known. If 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 are opposite in
direction, then C will lie between A and B.

Worked Example 2

The slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 1.10 has a crank (OB) radius of 160 mm, and a
connecting link (AB) 500 mm long. The crank rotates at a steady speed of 4500 rev/min. Find the
velocity of a point on the connecting link 360 mm from the slider, when the crank has turned
through an angle of 40° measured from the position where the slider is furthest from the crank
axis.

Fig. 1.10

Solution:

(i) Draw the slider-crank mechanism to scale

(ii) Because slider A has a body closure constraint and can only reciprocate horizontally,
𝑣𝐴 is parallel to OA and the instantaneous centre of A lies on a line through A
perpendicular OA. Therefore, draw a line from A perpendicular to OA.
(iii) Because O is the centre of rotation of crank OB, 𝑣𝐵 must lie of a tangent perpendicular
to OB. Therefore, draw a line perpendicular to OB from B to represent 𝑣𝐵 .
 (iv) Draw a line from B perpendicular to 𝑣𝐵 to intersect the line drawn in part (ii). Where
the two lines intersect is the instantaneous centre, C.

(v) Locate point P along link AB (P is 360 mm from A) and draw a line from P to C.
Velocity 𝑣𝑃 must be along a line drawn from P perpendicular to CP.
(vi) To determine the magnitude of 𝑣𝑃 , first find 𝑣𝐵
𝑣𝐵 = 𝜔 × 𝑂𝐵
2𝜋
𝑣𝐵 = (4500 × 60 ) × 0.16 = 75.4 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝐴 𝑣 𝑣
(vii) Then use the expression = 𝐵𝐶𝐵 = 𝐶𝑃𝑃 to find 𝑣𝑃 .
𝐴𝐶

BC = 640 mm and CP = 564 mm

𝐶𝑃 564
𝑣𝑃 = 𝑣𝐵 × 𝐵𝐶 = 75.4 × 640 = 66.44 𝑚/𝑠

1.7.2.2. Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem

The Aronhold-Kennedy theorem of three centres is used to determine the kinematics of more
complex mechanisms. It states that “If three bodies have motion relative to each other, they have
3 instantaneous centres which lie in a straight line.”

This theorem is particularly useful in locating the instantaneous centres of a mechanism. Consider
the following example.
Worked Example 3

Locate the instantaneous centres of the 4-bar mechanism in Fig. 1.11

Fig. 1.11: 4-bar mechanism

Solution

(i) Determine the number of instantaneous centres in the mechanism.

The number of instantaneous centres in a mechanism is given by:
𝑛(𝑛−1)
𝑁= 2

Where n is the number of links

4(4−1)
In this case, 𝑁 = =6
2

(ii) Locate the fixed and permanent instantaneous centres by inspection.

In this case, the fixed instantaneous centres are 𝐼14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼12 and the permanent
instantaneous centres are 𝐼34 𝑎𝑛𝑑 123 as shown in Fig. 1.12 below.

Fig. 1.12: A 4-bar mechanism

(iii) Since there are 6 centres and only 4 have been located thus far, a circle diagram is
needed to locate the remaining 2 centres. Therefore, plot a circle and mark points along
 its circumference that corresponds with the number of centres already identified and
join them with solid lines. In this case, mark 1, 2, 3 and 4 and join them as shown in
Fig. 1.13.

Fig. 1.13: circle diagram

(iv) In order to find the other two instantaneous centres, join two such points that the line
joining them forms two adjacent triangles in the circle diagram. The line which is
responsible for completing two triangles should be a common side to the two triangles.
In Fig. 1.13, join 1 and 3 to form the triangles 123 and 341. Line 13, which is common
to both triangles, is responsible for completing the two triangles. Therefore, the
instantaneous centre 𝐼13 lies on the intersection of the lines joining the points 𝐼12 𝐼23
and 𝐼34 𝐼14 . Thus centre 𝐼13 is located.
(v) Likewise, join 2 to 4 to form triangles 234 and 124. Centre 𝐼24 will lie at the intersection
of the lines joining the points 𝐼23 𝐼34 and 𝐼12 𝐼14 as shown in Fig. 1.14.

Fig 1.14
Worked Example 4

In a pin-jointed four bar mechanism, as shown in Fig. 1.15, AB = 300 mm, BC = CD = 360 mm,
and AD = 600 mm. The angle BAD = 60°. The crank AB rotates uniformly at 100 r.p.m. Locate
all the instantaneous centres and find the angular velocity of the link BC.

Fig. 1.15

Solution

(i) Determine the number of centres

4(4 − 1)
𝑁= =6
2
(ii) Plot the mechanism to scale and locate all known permanent and fixed centres

(iii) Draw a circle diagram, mark point 1, 2, 3 and 4 and join them with solid lines. Join 1
and 3, and 1 and 4 as shown below.
(iv) Centre 𝐼24 will lie at the intersection of the lines joining the points 𝐼23 𝐼34 and 𝐼12 𝐼14

and centre 𝐼13 will lie on the intersection of the lines joining the points 𝐼12 𝐼23 and 𝐼34 𝐼14

as shown below.

The angular velocity of link BC can be determined as follows:

2𝜋𝑁 2×𝜋×100
𝑁𝐴𝐵 = 100 𝑟𝑝𝑚, therefore, 𝜔𝐴𝐵 = = = 10.47 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
60 60

𝑣𝐵 = 𝜔𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐵 = 10.47 × 0.3 = 3.141 𝑚/𝑠

Let 𝜔𝐵𝐶 be the angular velocity of link BC. Since B is also a point on link BC, therefore

velocity of point B on link BC,

𝑣𝐵 = 𝜔𝐵𝐶 × 𝐼13 𝐵
𝑣
Therefore, 𝜔𝐵𝐶 = 𝐼 𝐵
13

By measurement, 𝐼13 = 0.5 𝑚

3.141
Therefore, 𝜔𝐵𝐶 = = 6.282 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
0.5
Summary

In this lesson, we showed how the instantaneous centres can be located using the instantaneous
and Aronhold-Kennedy Theorem and how those centres can be used to determine the
kinematics of different mechanisms.

Further Reading

1. Khurmi, R.S. & Gupta, J.K. (2015). Theory of Machines (5th Ed.). New Delhi, IN: S.
Chand & Company.
2. Uicker, J., Pennock, G. & Shigley, J. (2010). Theory of Machines and Mechanism (4th
Ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
3. Hannah, J. & Stephens. R.C. (1962). Mechanics of Machines: Elementary Theory and
Examples, London, UK: Edward Arnold (classic book).