Connectives:

➢ Negation: ¬ 𝑝
• 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑝

➢ Conjunction: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
• 𝑝 AND 𝑞

➢ Disjunction: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
• 𝑝 OR 𝑞

➢ Implication: 𝑝 → 𝑞
• if p, then q
• p only if q
• q if p
• q whenever p
• q when p
• q follows from p
• q unless ¬p
• a necessary condition
for p is q
• q is necessary for p
• p is sufficient for q
• a sufficient condition for
q is p
▪ Converse: 𝑞 → 𝑝
▪ Contrapositive: ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝
▪ Inverse: ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞
➢ Biconditional: 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
• p if and only if q
• if p then q , and conversely
• p is necessary and sufficient for q

Precedence of Logical Operators

1. ¬
2. ∧
3. ∨
4. ⨁
5. →
6. ↔
Logical Equivalencies
➢ De Morgan’s Laws:
• ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞 • ¬ ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ≡ ∃𝑥 ¬ 𝑃(𝑥)
• ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞 • ¬ ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ≡ ∀𝑥 ¬ 𝑃(𝑥)
➢ Identity Laws:
• p ∧ T ≡ 𝑝 • 𝑝 ∨ F ≡ 𝑝
➢ Domination Laws:
• 𝑝 ∨ T ≡ T • 𝑝 ∧ F ≡ F
➢ Idempotent Laws:
• 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝 • 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
➢ Negation Laws:
• 𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝 ≡ T • 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝 ≡ F
➢ Double Negation Law:
• ¬ (¬ 𝑝 ) ≡ 𝑝
➢ Commutative Laws:
• 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑝 • 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
➢ Associative Laws:
• (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) • (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)

➢ Distributive Laws:
• 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)∧(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
• 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)∨(𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
➢ Absorption Laws:
• 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡𝑝 • 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡𝑝
➢ Implication Laws:
• 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 • 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 → 𝑞
• 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞 • 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ ¬(𝑝 → ¬ 𝑞)

➢ Other Logical Equivalences:

• (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ≡ 𝑝 → ( 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 )
• (𝑝 → 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟
• (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ≡ 𝑝 → ( 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 )
• (𝑝 → 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟
• 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
• 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 ↔ ¬𝑞
• 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ ( 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ ( ¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞 )
• ¬( 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ) ≡ 𝑝 ↔ ¬𝑞
 Rules of Inference
➢ Modus Ponens: ➢ Addition
𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑝
__________________________
𝑝
__

__________________________
__
∴𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
∴𝑞
➢ Simplification
➢ Modus Tollens
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
𝑝 → 𝑞 __________________________
__

¬𝑞 ∴𝑝
__________________________
__

∴ ¬𝑝 ➢ Conjunction
➢ Hypothetical Syllogism 𝑝
𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑞
__________________________
__

𝑞 → 𝑟 ∴𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
__________________________
__

∴𝑝 → 𝑟
➢ Resolution
➢ Disjunctive Syllogism
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟
__________________________
¬𝑝
__

__________________________
__
∴𝑞 ∨ 𝑟
∴𝑞

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

➢ Universal Instantiation (UI) ➢ Existential Instantiation (EI)
∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)
__________________________
__ _______________________________________________________________________________________
__

∴ 𝑃(𝑐) ∴ 𝑃(𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐

➢ Universal Generalization (UG) ➢ Existential Generalization (EG)

𝑃(𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐 𝑃(𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐
_______________________________________________________________________________________
__ _______________________________________________________________________________________
__

∴ ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ∴ ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)
Some Terminology :
➢ Theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true
➢ Lemma is a helping theorem or a result which is needed to prove a theorem
➢ Corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem
➢ Conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true
• Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem
• However, it may turn out to be false
Proofs:
➢ Trivial Proof: if n is true then 𝑚 → 𝑟 is true
➢ Vacuous Proof: if m is false then 𝑚 → 𝑟 is true

➢ Direct Proof: assume that p is true and try to show that q is true
➢ By Contraposition: try to show that ¬𝑞 is true then ¬𝑝 is true
➢ By Contradiction:
• assume that the whole statement is false, then try to derive a contradiction
• assume ¬𝑞 then try to find a contradiction
➢ Constructive Existence Proofs: find an example that satisfies the formula
➢ Non-constructive Existence Proofs: assume there is no such example and derive a contradiction
➢ Counter Examples: find an example that disproves the formula

➢ By Cases: take all possible cases of p

➢ Exhaustive Proofs: take all possible cases when they’re limited
➢ Without Loss of Generality: by proving one case of a theorem, no additional argument is
required to prove other specified cases
➢ Backward Reasoning: start from q to reach p