ARREY AWO LSS NOTES

Nucleic Acids And Genetic Information Transfer

Core Knowledge.
Normally, when we talk about genes and heredity we perhaps think immediately of how children
resemble their parents or, depending on our background knowledge, we may even think about Mendel
and the height and colour of his pea plants. This level of genetics is known as phenotypic expression,
where the phenotype of an individual is the collection of visible and recognizable characteristics by
which that individual is identified.
The phenotype is influenced by the environment as well as the genotype; but this aspect is more
appropriate to classical genetics and will not concern us at the present time. In this section we are more
concerned with the collection of the inherited factors which determine these traits, and this is a cell’s
genotypic expression. The genotype is the genetic composition of an organism in terms of the forms of
specific genes, i.e. alleles, that it contains, and its study is referred to as molecular genetics.
The very fact that a child can resemble one or both parents means that there was some way in
which the genetic information was passed from the parent to the child. What then is the nature of the
genetic material?

Structure Of Nucleic Acids

Learning objectives
Each student should, without reference to his or her notes, be able to:
• state that DNA is composed of phosphate, deoxyribose and the four major bases: adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine.
• state that RNA is composed of phosphate, ribose, adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil;
• state that DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotide subunits.
• state that a nucleotide is composed of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar and one of the four
corresponding bases.
• state that the backbone of a DNA molecule is a chain of repeating deoxyribose–phosphate units.
• state that the backbone of an RNA molecule is a chain of repeating ribose–phosphate units;
• state that each molecule of DNA is usually composed of two chains;
• state that in DNA, adenine will only bind with thymine on opposite chains and guanine will only bind
with cytosine on opposite chains;
• state that the two linked chains in DNA are arranged in a double helix.
• state that there are three principal types of RNA, these being messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which are all single-stranded molecules.
• state the function of the three principal types of RNA.
• draw a diagram of a simple ladder-like representation of a DNA molecule; and
• state that DNA is a stable polynucleotide which contains coded genetic information for inherited
characteristics.

Introduction
Basically, nucleic acids can be subdivided into two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). Both DNA and RNA have been shown to consist of three groups of molecules:
pentose (5-carbon-atom) sugars; organic bases; and inorganic phosphate.

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Sugars
There are only two types of sugar present in nucleic acids, ribose which is present solely in RNA
(hence its name) and deoxyribose which is present solely in DNA (again, the sugar gives rise to the
name deoxyribonucleic acid). The chemical structures for these compounds are shown here:

The prefix ‘deoxy’ means ‘without oxygen’, and we can see from the structures that the only difference
between them is the absence of an oxygen in the deoxyribose sugar (see shaded area). Both sugars
contain 5 carbon atoms (pentose sugars).

Bases
The nucleotide bases found in nucleic acids are related either to the purine ring system or to the
pyrimidine ring system.

In DNA we find principally four different bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine
(T). The first two are derived from purine whereas the remaining two are derived from pyrimidine. In
RNA we find principally four different bases; adenine, guanine and cytosine as in DNA. The fourth
base in RNA, however, is not thymine but instead the pyrimidine-derived base, uracil (U).
The chemical structures for each of the five bases are shown below.

Purines

Pyrimidines

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Inorganic phosphate
There are phosphate residues in nucleic acids and they are of the type derived from phosphoric acid, the
structure of which is shown below.

Building nucleic acids from their building blocks

When any one of the bases is joined to either one of the two sugar molecules, we have a compound
known as a nucleoside. If the sugar residue is ribose then we have a ribonucleoside, whereas if it is
deoxyribose then we have a deoxyribonucleoside. The bond linking these structures is known as a
glycoside bond.
Addition of a phosphate group to the sugar residue of a nucleoside molecule produces a different
molecule called a nucleotide.

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Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are formed by the combination of nucleotide molecules through sugar–phosphate bonds
known as phosphodiester linkages. Because a nucleic acid is a polymer of many nucleotide molecules,
DNA and RNA molecules are called polynucleotides.

DNA
WATSON AND CRICK STRUCTURE
- DNA is long thin molecule of diameter 2mm and contains the base
cytosine ,guanine,adenine and thymine.
- In the DNA molecule, A & T are paired by 2 hydrogen bonds ( A=T ) while C & G are
paired by 3 hydrogen bonds (C≡G) , (these are called complementary base pair).
- It is a double helix made up of two polynucleotides wound round each other forming a
right handed helical spiral.
- The helix makes a complete turn of 0,34nm apart.
- The two chains are anti-parallel that is the 5’ end of the one chain lies next to the 3’ end of
the chain.
- The two chains are held together by complementary base pairing where nucleotides joined
together at their bases by hydrogen bonds.
- Guanine is linked to cytosine by three hydrogen bonds and adenine is linked to thymine by
2 hydrogen bonds.
- Each chain consist of a sugar phosphate backbone on the outside with the organic bases
inside.
- The double helix model looks like a twisted ladder in which the alternating sugar
phosphate backbone forms the sides or upright while the steps or rung of the ladder
represent the nitrogen-containing bases.

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Assignment( diagram of the Watson and crick structure)

DNA REPLICATION
Important terms in DNA replication

i. Template
- Original section of the DNA that serves as a mould or a model for the production of new
complementary polynucleotides chain of DNA or RNA by complementary base pairing.

ii. Continuous replication

- This replication in the 5’ to 3’ direction
- DNA polymerase moves in the 5’ to 3’ direction as the enzyme Helicase
- This replication leads to the formation of the leading strand
- No DNA Ligase is needed, as no Okazaki fragments is needed.

iii. Discontinuous replication

- This replication that moves away from the replication fork
- DNA polymerase cannot move in the 3’-5’ direction, hence has to keep on being started
again as it cannot join 3’ ends to 5’ ends.
- Short fragments called Okazaki fragments are synthesized
- DNA Ligase is needed to join those fragments and seal the gaps
- This type of replication leads to the formation of the lagging strands

iv. The leading strand

- This is the strand produced by the DNA polymerase which moves in the same direction as
the unwinding enzyme on one of the parent strands. This process is called continuous
replication.

v. The lagging strand

a. The DNA strand that is replicated discontinuously from the 5′ to the 3′ direction.

vi. Okazaki fragments

a. a relatively short (100-200bp in mammals) fragment of DNA that is later joined by DNA
Ligase to allow for 3' → 5' overall chain growth during replication.
vii. Replication fork
a. The replication fork is a region where a cell's DNA double helix has been unwound and
separated to create an area where DNA polymerase and the other enzymes involved can
use each strand as a template to synthesize a new double helix. An enzyme called a
Helicase catalyses strand separation.

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Intro: The genetic information of a cell is contained in the DNA of that cell. For the cell to divide and
produce daughter cells in mitosis and meiosis it is essential that the DNA is copied (replicated) and an
identical copy is passed to the daughter cell. DNA is replicated during interphase of both mitosis and
meiosis.
Basically, there are five theoretically possible modes of replication.
Conservative
By this mechanism one daughter cell receives the original DNA molecule whilst the other receives a
completely new copy.

Semi-conservative
Here the original DNA molecule is split into two strands and each strand acts as a template on which a
new strand is synthesized.

Non-conservative
Here the original DNA is destroyed completely during the course of synthesis of two new identical
DNA molecules.

Dispersive
Here the original DNA molecule is dispersed or distributed into all nascent chains.

End-to-end
Here the original DNA molecule is present as half of one chain and the other half of the complementary
chain for both nascent molecules.

Semi-conservative hypothesis by Meselson and Stahl

it involves three major steps; initiation, elongation, and termination.
• The first step for the DNA Replication to take place is the breaking of hydrogen bonds between
bases of the two anti-parallel strands.
• The unwinding of the two strands is the starting point, The splitting happens in places of the
chains which are rich in A-T. That is because there are only two bonds between Adenine and
Thymine (there are three hydrogen-bonds between Cytosine and Guanine).
• Helicase is the enzyme that splits the two strands. The initiation point where the splitting starts
is called "origin of replication".The structure that is created is known as "Replication Fork".
• RNA Primase binds on the 3'-5' parent chain, this marks the initiation point of replication. RNA
Primase can attract RNA nucleotides which bind to the DNA nucleotides of the 3'-5' strand due
to the hydrogen bonds between the bases. RNA nucleotides are the primers (starters) for the
binding of DNA nucleotides.
• The elongation process is different for the 5'-3' and 3'-5' template.
a) 5'-3' Template: The 5'-3' proceeding daughter strand -that uses a 5'-3' template- is called
leading strand because DNA Polymerase can "read" the template and continuously adds
nucleotides (complementary to the nucleotides of the template, for example Adenine opposite to
Thymine and Cytosine opposite Guanine).
b)3'-5'Template: The 3'-5' template cannot be "read" by DNA Polymerase. The replication of
this template is complicated and the new strand is called lagging strand. In the lagging strand

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the RNA Primase adds more RNA Primers. DNA polymerase reads the template and lengthens
the bursts. The gap between two RNA primers is called "Okazaki Fragments".
• The RNA Primers are necessary for DNA Polymerase to bind Nucleotides to the 3' end of them.
The daughter strand is elongated with the binding of more DNA nucleotides.
• In the lagging strand the DNA Pol I -exonuclease- reads the fragments and removes the RNA
Primers. The gaps are closed with the action of DNA Polymerase (adds complementary
nucleotides to the gaps) and DNA Ligase (adds phosphate in the remaining gaps of the
phosphate - sugar backbone).
• Two new DNA molecules are produced, each new double helix is consisted of one old and one
new chain. This is what we call semi-conservative replication.
• The last step of DNA Replication is the Termination. This process happens when the DNA
Polymerase reaches to an end of the strands.
• The last step of DNA Replication is the Termination. This process happens when the DNA
Polymerase reaches to an end of the strands.

Assignment: Report an experiment which puts the semi-conservative hypothesis to evidence.

Features Of The DNA That Makes It To Serve As A Store For Genetic Information
• The DNA contains nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and T.
• Adenine pairs with Thymine while Guanine pairs with Cytosine.
• The bases are arranged as a triplet pole. This pole helps to store information which gives
instruction on The type of proteins to be made by the cell.
• The information is first transcribed to the base sequence of mRNA and it is later translated to
the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

Features Of The DNA That Enables It To Transmit Identical Information In Cells

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• The DNA is a double stranded helix and replicates in a semi-conservative manner where one of
the original parent strands is maintained in the new molecules formed.
• Before cell division by mitosis, the DNA replicates.
• The strands formed must be complimentary to the parent strands, this passes the genetic
information to the newly formed daughter cells.

RNA
It is a single strand chain of nucleotides which contains the organic bases; Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine
and Uracil. Unlike the DNA, the RNA also contains a pentose sugar which is a ribose and a phosphate
group.

Types Of RNA
messenger RNA (mRNA)
it is a single helix made up of thousands of nucleotides, it is formed in the nucleus. It carries
information on the type of protein to be synthesised during protein synthesis.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

it is produced in the nucleus and helps in the make up structure of ribosomes. The rRNA helps in
moving ribosomes along messenger RNA for amino acids to be linked together forming proteins.
Ribosomes are there for the sites for protein synthesis for they act as a framework supporting mRNA in
the cytoplasm during protein synthesis.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

it is a folded double helix with 3 bulges, it contains a base sequence called anti-codon which codes for
particular amino acids during protein synthesis.

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Functions of the DNA

Holds genetic code/info/ genes and instructions for making proteins.

Functions and Role of the RNA

• It functions mainly in protein synthesis.
• Information in mRNA determines the type of protein to be made.
• The rRNA forms the ribosomes.
• The tRNA assembles amino acids to form proteins.

Differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
Larger molecular mass Smaller molecular mass
Pentose sugar is a deoxyribose Pentose sugar is a ribose
Organic bases are A, G, C, T Organic bases are A, G, C, U
Chemically very stable Chemically unstable
The amount is constant in every cells of the Amount varies in the cells of the organism
organism
Found entirely in the nucleus but could be found Manufacture in the nucleus but found throughout
in the mitochondria and cytoplasm the cell
Only one type exist Several types exist

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Protein Synthesis
• This is the process by which amino acids are linearly arranged to form proteins or we can say it
is the making of proteins using information found in the DNA.
• It starts in the nucleus with the mRNA copying information for proteins (transcription).
• It is completed in the cytoplasm when tRNA enters the ribosome and reeds message from the
mRNA producing amino acids linked together by peptide bonds (translation).
• Protein synthesis requires energy supply in the form of ATP.

*Transcription
This is the process by which a complementary mRNA is made from a specific region (cistron) of the
DNA molecule which codes for a polypeptide. Transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell where the
base sequence of a section of DNA representing a gene is converted to the complementary base
sequence of mRNA. It involves 3 stages which are; Initiation, Elongation, Termination.

Initiation
To begin transcribing a gene, The DNA double helix unzips at a specific region breaking hydrogen
bonds between bases at this region. RNA polymerase binds to the DNA of the gene at a region called
the promoter. Basically, the promoter tells the polymerase where to "sit down" on the DNA and begin
transcribing.

Elongation
Once RNA polymerase is in position at the promoter, the next step of transcription which is elongation
begins. Basically, elongation is the stage when the RNA strand gets longer, thanks to the addition of
new nucleotides.
During elongation, RNA polymerase "walks" along one strand of DNA, known as the template strand,
in the 3' to 5' direction. For each nucleotide in the template, RNA polymerase adds a matching
(complementary) RNA nucleotide to the 3' end of the RNA strand. The RNA transcript is nearly
identical to the non-template, or coding, strand of DNA. However, RNA strands have the base uracil
(U) in place of thymine (T), as well as a slightly different sugar in the nucleotide. So, as we can see in
the diagram above, each T of the coding strand is replaced with a U in the RNA transcript.

Termination
RNA polymerase will keep transcribing until it gets signals to stop. The process of ending transcription
is called termination, and it happens once the polymerase transcribes a sequence of DNA known as a
terminator.

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*Translation
• The translation is a process by which ribosomes present in the cytoplasm (on endoplasmic
reticulum) synthesize the proteins from mRNA. The RNA Translation occurs by 3 steps;
1.Initiation, 2. Elongation, 3. Termination.
• A protein is a polypeptide that has a sequence of the amino acids coded by the mRNA.
• There are different types of proteins based on their structures and functions and the amino
acid sequences in their polypeptides.
• The components involved in translation are: mRNA, ribosomes, tRNA and amino acyl-
tRNA synthetases.
• The first two mRNA codons enter the ribosomes.
• The amino acyl-tRNA codon molecule with the complementary anti-codon to the codons of
mRNA is brought to that position. The codons and anti-codons binds.
• This molecule carries the first amino acid usually called methionine.
• The second code attacks the next amino acyl-tRNA which is complementary to the anti-
codons.
• The ribosomes holds the mRNA, tRNA and associated enzymes in position until the
peptide bond is formed between the amino acids.
• The ribosomes moves along the mRNA.
• The tRNA previously attached leave to bring more amino acids.
• When ribosomes meets with a stop codon, the polypeptide leaves the ribosomes molecule
and translation is over.
NB: The stop codons are equally called nonsense codons because the don’t code for any
particular amino acid. These nonsense codons include: UAA, UAG, UGA.

The Genetic Code

A codon is a set of three bases on the mRNA coding for a single amino acid. Each codon has only one
corresponding amino acid. A single amino acid may be coded for by more than one codon. Thus the
genetic code is degenerate. There are 61 different codons for amino acids.

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A particular codon (AUG), called initiator codon, signals the initiation of translation. The three codons
(UAG, UAA, and UGA), called a nonsense codon, signal the termination of the translation process.
Anticodon: it is a sequence of three nucleotides forming a unit of genetic code in a transfer RNA
molecule corresponding to a complementary codon in the messenger RNA.

Characteristics Of The Genetic Code

• The genetic code is triplet i.e. it is made of 3 bases in the DNA code for amino acids.
• There are three triplets UAA, UAG and UGA which do not code for any amino acid, these
codons are called non-sense codon. The other 61 codons are called sense codons.
• The same codon shall not code for two or more different amino acids. Thus, the
genetic code is non-ambiguous.
• It is universal i.e. all living organisms contain the same 20 amino acids and the same 5 bases A,
G, T, C and U.
• The same codon shall not code for two or more different amino acids. Thus, the
genetic code is non-ambiguous.
• There is no signal to indicate the end of one codon and beginning of the next codon
i.e. codes are arranged without space. Thus, genetic code is commaless.

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Questions
Describe the structure of DNA and RNA (15mks)
What are the major differences between RNA and DNA (5mks)
Give an illustration of the semi-conservative mechanism of the DNA replication (8mks)
Describe the evidence of the semi-conservative replication of the DNA molecule (8mks)
What do you understand by DNA finger printing (10mks)
Define transcription and translation indicating why this is necessary for organism’s survival (5mks)
Define the term genetic code and state its characteristics (8mks)
Discuss the structural and the metabolic role of lipids in the body (10mks)
how can a protein molecule be synthesised in a eukaryotic cell (15mks)

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