Block 1

BGYET – 147
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Indira Gandhi National Open University AND GEOTECTONICS
School of Sciences
Geomorphology Volume 1
BGYET – 147
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
AND GEOTECTONICS
Volume
1
GEOMORPHOLOGY
BLOCK 1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY 09
BLOCK 2
LANDFORMS 103
Glossary 207
1
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Dr. A. K. Biyani Prof. L. S. Chamyal Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences Govt. DBS (PG) College M.S.University of Baroda Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Dehradun Vadodara, Gujarat Pt. Ravishankar Shukla
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. Pankaj Srivastava Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Centre of Advanced Study Dr. R. A. Singh
University of Delhi, Geology in Geology Department of Geology
Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi Banaras Hindu University LSM Govt. PG College,
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. M. A. Malik Varanasi, UP Pithoragarh
School of Studies in Earth Department of Geology Prof. R. K. Ganjoo Dr. K. Anbarasu
Sciences, University of Jammu Department of Geology Department of Geology
Vikram University, Jammu, J & K University of Jammu National College
Ujjain, MP Prof. D. C. Srivastava Jammu Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Department of Earth Science Prof. Madhumita Das Faculty of Geology Discipline
Reddy (Retd.) Indian Institute of Vice Chancellor, School of Sciences, IGNOU
Department of Geology Technology Roorkee Fakir Mohan University Prof. Meenal Mishra
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open Roorkee, Uttarkhand Balasore, Odisha Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
University Dr. Omkar Verma
Hyderabad Dr. M. Prashanth
Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Volume Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. Deepak M. Maurya Dr. S.D. Deshmukh (Unit 3) Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava Prof. Kuldeep Prakash
(Unit 1) Department of Geology (Units 4 and 5) (Units 6 & 9)
Department of Geology Govt. V.Y.T. Autonomous Centre of Advanced Study in Centre of Advanced
Faculty of Science P.G. College, Geology, Study in Geology
The MS University of Baroda Durg, Chhattisgarh Banaras Hindu University Banaras Hindu University
Vadodara Gujarat Varanasi, U P Varanasi, U P
Dr. R. K. Ganjoo (Unit 7) Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh Content and Language Editors
Department of Geology (Units 2 and 8) Dr. Ashok K. Dubey (Block-1) Dr. A.K. Biyani (Block-2)
University of Jammu School of Sciences Rtd. Scientist Rtd. Professor
Jammu IGNOU, New Delhi Wadia Institute of Himalayan Department of Geology
Geology, Govt. DBS (PG) College
Dr. Omkar Verma (Unit 2)
Dehradun Dehradun
School of Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinators: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Dr. Omkar Verma
Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Prof. Meenal Mishra, Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Dr. Omkar Verma
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Faculty members of Geology Discipline for their valuable feedback for improvement and
Mrs. Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
March, 2022
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used
only for educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original
authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s
office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD,
IGNOU.
Printed by :
2
BGYET-147: GEOMORPHOLOGY AND GEOTECTONICS
Block 1 Basic Concepts of Geomorphology

Unit 1 Introduction to Geomorphology
Unit 2 Geomorphology of India
Unit 3 Geomorphic Processes
Unit 4 Controlling Factors in Geomorphic Processes
Block 2 Landforms
Unit 5 Tectonic and Volcanic Landforms
Unit 6 Fluvial Landforms
Unit 7 Glacial Landforms
Unit 8 Aeolian and Coastal Landforms
Unit 9 Karst and Lacustrine Landforms
Block 3 Fundamentals of Geotectonics

Unit 10 Introduction to Geotectonics
Unit 11 Continental Drift Hypothesis
Unit 12 Palaeomagnetism
Unit 13 Sea-Floor Spreading
Block 4 Plate Tectonics and Movements

Unit 14 Plate Tectonics
Unit 15 Plate Boundary Processes
Unit 16 Movement of the Indian Plate
Unit 17 Major Tectonic Features of Peninsular India
List of audio / video materials related to this course
1. Topographical Maps
Link: https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/75484
2. Weathering, its Types and Significance

3. Soil : Product of Weathering

4. Landslides : Types and Causes

5. Landslide Hazard Zonation

6. Landslides : Mitigation Measures
7. Physical Features of Volcanic Terrain

8. Applications of Geoinformatics
9. Earth System Science and Society Part-1

10. Earth System Science and Society Part-2

11. Fossils in Himalaya

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/50339
12. Evolution of Himalaya

13. Himalaya- an Overview

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials pertaining

to the course you may visit Youtube page of the School of Sciences, IGNOU.
You can also visit eGyankosh website at http://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/36575
BGYET-147: GEOMORPHOLOGY AND GEOTECTONICS
The course BGYET-147 Geomorphology and Geotectonics consists of four blocks, which have
been packaged into two volumes. The Volume 1 deals with Geomorphology and consists of two
blocks namely, basic concepts of geomorphology and landforms. The Volume 2 covers
Geotectonics and comprises two blocks namely, fundamentals of geotectonics and plate
tectonics and movements. The course builds on the basic concepts covered in the course
BGYCT-131.
The first block, Block 1: Basic Concepts of Geomorphology will introduce you to
geomorphology, basic concepts, commonly used terminologies, geomorphic processes and
controls on these processes. The block builds on the concepts covered in Block-2 Earth
Surface Processes of the course BGYCT-131.
In the second block, Block 2: Landforms, various kinds of landforms such as tectonic,
volcanic, fluvial, glacial, aeolian, coastal, karst and lacustrine, developed due to various kinds of
geological processes would be covered. The block builds on the concepts covered in the Block-
1 General Geology and Block-2 Earth Surface Processes of the course BGYCT-131.
In the third block, Block 3: Fundamentals of Geotectonics, you will study basic principles of
geotectonics and historical developments in the field consisting of concepts of continental drift,
palaeomagnetism and sea-floor spreading that gave rise to modern theory of plate tectonics.
The fourth block, Block 4: Plate Tectonics and Movements will introduce you to the theory of
plate tectonics. It will discuss basic principles of plate tectonics, processes operating at plate
boundaries, geotectonic history of the Indian lithosphereic plate and Himalaya, and main
geotectonics features of India.
Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this course, you should be able to:
 introduce geomorphology as a branch and discuss geomorphic subdivisions of India,
geomorphic processes and their controlling factors;
 describe various types of major tectonic, volcanic, fluvial, glacial, aeolian, coastal, karst and
lacustrine landforms developed due to geological activities of different geological agents;
 explain the fundamentals of geotectonics and discuss concepts, mechanisms and
evidences of continental drift, sea-floor spreading and palaeomagnetism and their
importance in developments of plate tectonics theory; and
 discuss basic principles of plate tectonics theory, movements of Indian plate and major
tectonic features of Peninsular India
After studying this course, you will be equipped with the basic knowledge of geomorphology
and geotectonics.
We wish you all success in this endeavour!
VOLUME 1: GEOMORPHOLOGY
After studying the Course BGYCT-131, you know that various processes are continuously
working on the Earth surface. These processes sculpt the Earth surface and develop majestic
and unique features called landforms in different types of terrains from high mountains to plains
to coasts. Study of these processes and the landforms is the subject matter of Geomorphology.
The Volume deals with introduction to Geomorphology and consists of two blocks.
Block 1: Basic Concepts of Geomorphology will introduce you to the geomorphology as a
branch, and its basic concepts. The block builds on the concepts covered in Block-2 Earth
Surface Processes of the course BGYCT-131. You will also get an overview of commonly used
terminologies, geomorphology of India and various geomorphic processes. There are several
factors that control these geomorphic processes. You will also learn about these controlling
factors.
The second block, Block 2: Landforms will introduce you to different kinds of landforms
developed as a result of action of geomorphic processes of various geological agents such as
movement of tectonic plates, rivers, glaciers, wind, seas, underground water, etc. The block
builds on the concepts covered in the Block-1 of this course and Block-1 General Geology and
Block-2 Earth Surface Processes of the course BGYCT-131.

After studying this volume, you should be able to:
 introduce geomorphology as a branch and discuss the fundamental concepts, basic
terminologies commonly used and also geomorphic subdivisions of India;
 explain various geomorphic processes and discuss their controlling factors;
 describe various major tectonic and volcanic landforms developed along plate boundaries
due to movements of plates; and
 discuss various types of major fluvial, glacial, aeolian, coastal, karst and lacustrine
landforms developed due to geological activities of different geomorphological processes.
After studying this volume, you will be equipped with the fundamental concepts of
geomorphology, various geomorphic processes and major landforms developed by them.
BGYET – 147
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences AND GEOTECTONICS
Block
1
BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
Unit 1
Introduction to Geomorphology 13
Unit 2
Geomorphology of India 35
Unit 3
Geomorphic Processes 51
Unit 4
Controlling Factors in Geomorphic Processes 75
Course Design Committee
Prof. Vijayshri Dr. A. K. Biyani Prof. L. S. Chamyal Prof. K. R. Hari
Former Director Department of Geology Department of Geology School of Studies in Geology &
School of Sciences Govt. DBS (PG) College M.S.University of Baroda Water Resources Management
IGNOU, New Delhi Dehradun Vadodara, Gujarat Pt. Ravishankar Shukla
Prof. V. K. Verma (Retd.) Prof. Pankaj Srivastava Prof. Vaibhava Srivastava University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Centre of Advanced Study Dr. R. A. Singh
University of Delhi, Geology in Geology Department of Geology
Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi Banaras Hindu University LSM Govt. PG College
Late Prof. Pramendra Dev Prof. M. A. Malik Varanasi, UP Pithoragarh
School of Studies in Earth Department of Geology Prof. R. K. Ganjoo Dr. K. Anbarasu
Sciences, University of Jammu Department of Geology Department of Geology
Vikram University, Jammu, J & K University of Jammu National College
Ujjain, MP Prof. D. C. Srivastava Jammu Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu
Prof. P. Madhusudhana Department of Earth Science Prof. Madhumita Das Faculty of Geology Discipline
Reddy (Retd.) Indian Institute of Vice Chancellor, School of Sciences, IGNOU
Department of Geology Technology Roorkee Fakir Mohan University Prof. Meenal Mishra
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open Roorkee, Uttarkhand Balasore, Odisha Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh
University
Hyderabad Dr. Omkar Verma
Dr. M. Prashanth
Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Block Preparation Team

Course Contributors
Prof. Deepak M. Maurya (Unit 1) Dr. S.D. Deshmukh (Unit 3) Prof. Vaibhav Srivastava (Unit 4)
Department of Geology Department of Geology Centre of Advanced Study in Geology
Faculty of Science Govt. V.Y.T. Autonomous P.G. College Banaras Hindu University
The Maharaja Sayajirao University Durg, Chhattisgarh Varanasi, U P
of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat
Dr. Omkar Verma (Unit 2) Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh (Unit 2) Content and Language Editor
School of Sciences, IGNOU School of Sciences, IGNOU Dr. Ashok .K. Dubey
Rtd. Scientist
New Delhi New Delhi
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology
Dehradun
Course Coordinators: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Dr. Omkar Verma

Audio Visual Materials
Dr. Amitosh Dubey Prof. Meenal Mishra, Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Dr. Omkar Verma
Producer, EMPC, IGNOU Content Coordinators
Production
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar
A.R. (P), MPDD, IGNOU S.O. (P), MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgement: Faculty members of Geology Discipline for their valuable feedback for improvement and Ms.
Savita Sharma for assistance in preparation of CRC and some of the figures.
March, 2022
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN:
Disclaimer: Any material adapted from web-based resources or any other sources in this block are being used only for
educational purposes only and not for commercial purposes and their copyrights rest with the original authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Printed by :
BLOCK 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geomorphology broadly deals with the study of surface configuration of the Earth.
Geomorphological investigation of a region could provide us with information about geomorphic
evolution and the processes responsible for sculpting unique landforms in that region. Its scope is
very wide and geomorphological information has applications in many fields such as in mineral
exploration, hydrogeology, military science and engineering projects. It also plays an important role
in planning and development.
We have introduced you to various Earth surface processes in the Course BGYCT-131, in which
you have learnt that various processes are continuously working on the Earth surface. This block
comprising four units builds on the concepts covered in the course BGYCT-131.
Through the Unit 1: Introduction to Geomorphology, we will introduce you to the branch of
geomorphology, its definition, fundamental concepts in geomorphology and their development. You
will also get familiar with various tools and techniques used in the geomorphological studies. You
will also learn the scope and various applications of geomorphology.
In Unit 2: Geomorphology of India you will learn about commonly used terminologies along with
the three major geomorphic subdivisions of India and major geomorphic features of India.
In Unit 3: Geomorphic Processes, you will study about various constructional and destructional
geomorphic processes. You will also learn about development and evolution of hill slopes besides
soil formation.
In the last unit of this block i.e. Unit 4: Controlling Factors in Geomorphic Processes you will get
an overview of various controlling factors. You will also study about relationship of tectonics and
climate with landform development along with an idea on how human activities are capable of large
scale changes in the landscape.

After studying this volume, you should be able to:
 define geomorphology and discuss its scope and applications, fundamental concepts and the
tools and techniques employed in geomorphological investigations;
 describe the basic terminologies commonly used and also geomorphic subdivisions of India;
 explain various geomorphic processes along with the development and evolution of hill
slopes; and
 discuss various controlling factors in geomorphic processes and describe relationship of
tectonics and climate with landform development and impact of human activities on the
landscape.
After studying this block, you will be able to understand basic concepts of geomorphology.
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Structure______________________________________________
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Drainage Analysis
Expected Learning Outcomes 1.6 Landscape Analysis
1.2 Geomorphology 1.7 Applications of Geomorphology
Definition 1.8 Summary
Scope 1.9 Activity
1.3 Development of Geomorphological Concepts 1.10 Terminal Questions
Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism 1.11 References
Scale in Geomorphology 1.12 Further/Suggested Readings
Concept of Geomorphic Cycle 1.13 Answers
1.4 Tools and Techniques in Geomorphology
Topographic Maps
Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs
Satellite Data
Digital Elevation Models
1.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that geology deals with the study of Earth including its origin, evolution, interior
constitution, ancient life and various processes (internal and external) operating on it. You have
already learned about its various branches viz. physical geology, structural geology, mineralogy,
crystallography, petrology, stratigraphy, palaeontology, ore geology and economic geology in your
previous semesters. In this unit, we will introduce you to another branch i.e. geomorphology.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Geomorphology is a part of Earth Science that studies changes on the Earth’s
surface and forces and processes that develop them. It is therefore ‘a discourse
on Earth forms’. Geomorphology deals with characteristics of the Earth’s surface
and all the geological processes that try to change it over a period of time.
Earth’s physical land surface features (i.e. landforms) are developed and
sculptured by persistent action of agents like rivers, wind, glaciers, ocean,
underground water and lake. You have already studied the geological work of
rivers, wind, underground water, glaciers and oceans in the course BGYCT-131.
Aim of geomorphology is to reconstruct evolution of landscapes through
geologic time. The scope of geomorphology is very wide as it encompasses
study of landforms and landscapes, geological processes, evolution, and
dynamics of geomorphic changes.
In this unit you will be introduced to the basic concepts of geomorphology and
the tools and techniques used. You will also learn about drainage and
landscape analysis along with some applications of geomorphology.
Expected Learning Outcomes________________________

After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define geomorphology;
 describe the scope and applications of geomorphology;
 discuss developments of the geomorphic concepts; and
 explain tools and techniques used in geomorphic studies.
1.2 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geomorphology deals with characteristics of the Earth’s surface and all
geological processes that try to change it over a period of time. Geomorphology
is based on some fundamental concepts, which have developed over a long
period of time. These concepts not only provide basic fundamental components
of geomorphology but also provide a glimpse of the breadth and scope of the
subject. These concepts deal with the underlying principles of landform and
landscape characterisation, controlling factors, development and evolution, and
constraints (both spatial and temporal) on geomorphic evolution. Due to its
importance, geomorphological data has applications in various aspects of
development, planning, and environmental management.
1.2.1 Definition
Geomorphology (greek words- geo meaning Earth, morphē meaning forms and
logus meaning description) is considered as description of surface morphology
of the Earth. Beginners in geomorphology often find commonly used terms like
physiography and physical geography synonymous with geomorphology.
However, this is not correct. Physiography embodies in its study the landform
description. It covers only the basic notions of variations of the Earth’s surface
based on differences in relief. Physical geography deals with description of
these surface variations and landforms primarily from the point of view of their
applicability for use by humans. Both, physiography and physical geography
are part of geography and do not include aspects of origin, processes and
temporal development of surface features with time. Geomorphology is more
14
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comprehensive and has much wider scope. It includes the study of landforms,
their development, responsible processes and their evolution with time.
Many geologists have defined the tem geomorphology in different ways.
According to Worcester (1965), “Geomorphology is the interpretative
description of the relief features of the Earth”. Strahler (1968) defined
geomorphology as “analysis of the origin and evolution of Earth features”.
According to Thornbury (1968) “ Geomorphology is the science of landforms
including the submarine topography”. Blooms (1979) defined geomorphology
as “ the systematic description, analysis of landscapes, and the processes that
change”.
Geomorphologists like A.K. Lobeck, G.H. Dury, and W.D. Thornbury consider
geomorphology as a branch of geology, whereas S.W. Wooldridge and Morgan
consider it to be a part of geography. While describing evolution of a landscape,
geologists emphasise on the influence of geological history and nature of rocks
whereas geographers emphasise on relationship between the nature of
landforms and impact of human activities on landforms.
Since the days of ancient civilisations and through scientific knowledge gained
about surface of the Earth to extension of study of surface features to other
planets in last few decades, the scope of geomorphology has expanded
manifold. This has led to modifications in the definition of geomorphology from
time to time. Looking at the contemporary work, the term ‘geomorphology’ can
be defined as a branch of geology that deals with the study of landforms and
landscapes including identification, description, classification, origin,
geological and anthropogenic processes of formation and modification of
landforms and geological evolution of landscapes of planetary surfaces
through time.
As discussed in the previous paragraph, geomorphology revolves around two
terms, i.e., landform and landscape. Landform is the fundamental geomorphic
unit in the landscape of an area while the landscape is the sum total of all the
landforms occurring in an area. For example, fluvial landforms like channel,
floodplain and bars, etc. will form a fluvial landscape. Similarly, a coastal
landscape consists of coastal landforms like beaches, mudflats, lagoons, etc.
Likewise, glacial landscape is made up of glacial landforms, while aeolian or
desert landscape comprise landforms formed by wind actions. You have
already studied the works of different geological agents such as river, wind,
underground water, glacier and oceans including the landforms developed by
them in the course BGYCT-131.
Geomorphological studies can be carried out on various scales from local to

regional to continental, and planetary scales. An important factor in the
formation and development of landforms is geologic time. Landforms and
landscapes evolve over variable time scales from tens of years to thousands or
millions of years. Reconstructing the formation, modification and development
of landscape over geological time is termed as landscape evolution or
geomorphic evolution.
15
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1.2.2 Scope
Scope of geomorphology is very wide as it encompasses study of landforms
and landscapes, geological processes, evolution, and dynamics of geomorphic
changes at spatial as well as temporal scales. The ultimate aim of
geomorphology is to reconstruct landscape evolution through geologic time.
The wide scope of the subject of geomorphology is evident from the fact that
parts of it overlap with several other branches of geology. These include
sedimentology, stratigraphy, structural geology, petrology, hydrology, tectonics,
marine sciences, geoarchaeology and many more. The diversity of data
enhances the utility and application of the subject in variety of fields.
Geomorphology, in fact, has widest scope amongst all other branches of
geology which also means that it has application in a wide variety of fields.
1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL

CONCEPTS
In the previous section you have been introduced to various definitions of
geomorphology. In this section, we will learn about development of
geomorphological concepts. The knowledge of the Earth’s surface has grown
through the period of existence of man on its surface. The progress in this
branch of geology has been relatively more rapid during the last few hundred of
years. The development of the concepts of geomorphology partially overlaps
with the period of development of principles of stratigraphy especially the
principle ‘Present is the key to the past’ given by Charles Lyell. The principles of
stratigraphy viz. order of superposition, uniformitarianism and the
biostratigraphic zonation, significantly influenced our understanding of
landscapes and the development of fundamental concepts of geomorphology.
You have been introduced to the concept of principles of stratigraphy in the
course BGYCT-137. Further development occurred with the advent of the
Davisian cycle of erosion and later through increasing knowledge of the
geological processes including surface processes. A detailed sequence of
development of the geomorphological concepts can be found in the book
“Principles of Geomorphology” by W. D. Thronbury.
Let us study about some of the fundamental concepts in the next subsection.
1.3.1 Fundamental Concepts
Some fundamental concepts, which come into use in the interpretation of
landscapes are enumerated by W.D. Thornbury in his book “Principles of
Geomorphology”. These are:
1. “The same physical processes and laws that operate today operated
throughout geological times, although not always with the same
intensity”.
This concept is a slightly modified version of the Principle of Uniformitarianism
given by Hutton in 1785 which states that the present is the key to the past. It is
considered to be fundamental principle in the modern understanding of
geology. Hutton’s concept has been modified by Thornbury. While Hutton
emphasised that same geological processes operated throughout geological
16
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time, Thornbury stated that although the processes remained same, they
operated with different intensity in different time period of Earth’s history e.g.,
glacial processes significantly influenced the landscape during the Pleistocene
period. Similarly, aeolian processes were more significant during arid climatic
time periods. The present concept underlies the uniformity of geomorphic
processes through geological time that operated with different intensities at
different times. The concept is applicable for understanding evolution of
landscapes by processes varying in intensity through geological time.
2. “Geologic structure is a dominant factor in evolution of landforms and
is reflected in them”.
This concept emphasises the dominant role of geological structures in the
evolution of landscapes. We are now familiar with geological structures as we
have studied structural geology and the theory of plate tectonics in the course
BGYCT-131. The rocks of Earth’s crust assume different structures like dipping
rocks, fault zones, folds, joints, etc. in response to different type of stresses
induced by movements of the tectonic plates. This introduces structural
heterogeneities in rocks of the crust which in turn affect their variability and
susceptibility to geomorphic processes. Over long periods of time, this leads to
development of landforms and landscapes that correlate with structural
elements of the crustal rocks. Landform attributes like location, relief, size,
shape, linearity, etc. may be a consequence of structurally controlled erosion
and deposition by various geomorphic agents. Since the advent of plate
tectonics theory, the arrangement of shapes of landmasses and orogenic
ranges together with volcanoes, earthquakes and others are attributed to varied
nature of inter-plate interactions and tectonic stresses. These very well illustrate
the dominating influence of structures and tectonics in formation and evolution
of landscapes around the world.
3. “Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprints upon
landforms, and each geomorphic process develops its own
characteristic assemblage of landforms”.
Different geomorphological agents like river, wind, glacier, seas and oceans
and others have distinctive geomorphic processes that result in formation of
their respective signature landforms. For example, fluvial processes carried out
by rivers lead to formation of fluvial landforms like point bars, flood plains, river
valley, etc. Similarly, each of the geomorphic agents produce their own
distinctive set of landforms. Thus, the processes and agents responsible for
formation of various landforms can be identified and characterised based on
their distinctive characteristics. And these characteristics are suggestive of
particular processes. This is possible because all the processes viz., fluvial,
glacial, marine, aeolian and others are distinct from each other and therefore
produce their specific set of landforms.
4. “As different erosional agents act upon the Earth's surface, they
produce an orderly sequence of landforms having distinctive
characteristics at different stages of their development”.
This concept emphasises the role of erosion in development of landscapes over
a period of time. As erosional agents start acting on the surface and continue
17
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their operation for long periods of time, the landscape undergoes changes
depending on the extent of erosion and time elapsed. As a result, the
landscape shows variable characteristics in different stages of erosion. The
Davisian cycle of erosion exemplifies this concept. The landscape undergoes
changes from initial to intermediate to advanced stage of erosion. In each
stage, the nature of landscape and landforms assemblage is different from the
other stages. This means that there is a sequential development of landforms.
The order in which these landforms are produced, can be determined from
geomorphological studies. It also means that it is possible to reconstruct the
sequence of development of landforms in an area.
5. “Complexity in geomorphic evolution is more common than simplicity”.
Geomorphic evolution occurs over geological time scale. During the course of
geomorphic evolution, various processes may be triggered or controlled by
factors like climate, tectonics and/or sea-level changes. It is expected that
geomorphic evolution influenced by any one of the above factors will be straight
forward and therefore easier to understand and explain. However, it is very
common to see interplay of more than one factor during geomorphic evolution.
This introduces complexity in the geomorphic evolution as more than one
factors interact and one of those factors may dominate over the other factors.
Understanding geomorphic evolution is at times difficult. For example,
geomorphic evolution of Himalayas is complex because climate and tectonics
both are significant factors influencing the geomorphic processes in the region.
6. “Little of the Earth's topography is older than Tertiary and most of it is
no older than Pleistocene”.
This concept has important implication in geomorphological studies while
attempting to determine the age of landscapes in different parts of the planet
Earth. As per the concept, most of the landscape of the Earth are of the
Pleistocene age or younger. This is because various geomorphic agents have
been continuously modifying the landscape through geological time. As a
consequence, it is rare to find landscapes which are geologically ancient. You
know that the Pleistocene is a division of Quaternary period which is the
youngest time period in Earth’s history that encompasses the geologic time
from ~2.6 million years before present up to the present day. It is generally
accepted that majority of the Earth’s surface is sculpted or modified by
geomorphic processes that operated during the Quaternary period. As a result,
very little part of the surface is of Tertiary age or older.
7. “Proper interpretation of present day landscape is impossible without
full appreciation of the manifold influences of geologic and climatic
changes during the Pleistocene”.
This concept underlines the importance of geomorphic processes which
operated in the Pleistocene, in shaping the present landscape of the Earth. You
are aware that Pleistocene is the largest epoch of the Quaternary period.
During this time, the Earth experienced various geological changes, particularly
extreme climatic changes. During the Pleistocene, the Earth’s climate fluctuated
several times from extremely cold glacial phases to warm inter-glacial phases.
During glacial periods, major part of the Earth’s surface was covered by
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glaciers while the glaciers retreated during the inter-glacial periods. This led to
significant changes in the landscapes as the geomorphic processes changed
repeatedly in response to climatic changes. The effects of the geomorphic
processes attributed to Pleistocene extreme climatic changes are observed in
large parts of different continents. It is therefore essential to have good
knowledge of the geological and climatic changes to correctly interpret the
landscape evolution during the Pleistocene.
8. “An appreciation of world climate is necessary to a proper
understanding of varying importance of different geomorpoic
process”.
The wide variety of geomorphic processes operating on the surface of the Earth
are responsible for the formation of different landforms and landscapes. The
present day Earth shows latitudinally oriented climatic belts from the equator to
poles in both hemispheres. The major climatic zones of the Earth comprise
equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate and polar belts. Each
of the climatic zones is characterised by landforms and landscapes that is
distinctly different from the others. This is due to the fact that geomorphic
processes operating in each of the climatic zones are different. This has led to
formation of different landform assemblages and overall landscape
characteristics in each of the climatic zones of the Earth. This suggests that
geomorphic processes are dominantly controlled by climate. Therefore, a
thorough knowledge of the world’s climatic zones and related geomorphic
processes is extremely important for understanding the landform and
landscapes of the geological past.
9. “Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present-day
landscapes, attains its maximum usefulness by historical extension”.
The concept stresses on the need to extend the geomorphologic studies of
landforms back in geological time to delineate geomorphic evolution.
Geomorphic studies should not be limited or confined to identification and
documentation of landforms. The full significance of geomorphic studies is
realised only by interpreting the past geologic history of the landforms and
landscapes. This is an important aspect of geomorphology as the landscapes
continue to be modified and evolved over a period of time. By doing so, a full
history of the development of landscapes can be delineated and understood.
10. “To a large degree the Earth's surface possesses relief because the
geomorphic processes operate at differential rates”.
The earth’s surface is not even. The extent of Earth’s relief variations is
reflected by high peaks of mountain ranges and depths of oceans. The concept
attributes to large variations of relief of the Earth’s surface to different rates at
which the geomorphic processes operate. For example, rate of erosion is faster
in some areas while slower in some areas. As a result, the area where rate is
erosion is faster, will attain lower elevation in comparatively shorter period of
time while area with slower erosion will attain the same relief over a longer
period of time. Consequently, at a given point of time, both areas will be at
different elevations. The different rates of erosion may be aided by other factors
like lithological variations, geological structures and others.
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After learning the fundamental concepts, let us get introduced to two more
concepts in geomorphology in the next subsection.
1.3.2 Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism

We have studied about the concepts of uniformitarianism and catastrophism in
the course BGYCT-137. The theory of uniformitarianism states that the
processes operating on the Earth surface have been the same throughout the
geologic time. James Hutton gave this theory that emphasised the uniformity of
processes in the present and in the geologic past. Hutton also realised that
these processes operate at slow rates and therefore would need a long period
of time to bring about significant changes in the Earth’s surface. Thornbury
framed one of his fundamental concepts of geomorphology which has been
described as Concept 1, earlier in this unit. The theory of uniformitarianism
found application in estimating the enormity in geological time and antiquity of
the processes observed today on the Earth surface. It also helped to dismiss
the notion of previous theorists that the Earth was only a few thousands of
years old.
The theory of catastrophism was put forward by Georges Cuvier. According to
this theory, the Earth has been shaped mainly by abrupt, short lived and
worldwide events. These events were of catastrophic nature that significantly
affected the development of life and deposition of rocks. Cuvier developed this
theory based on the abrupt disappearances of entire population of fossils found
in rocks. He attributed these to the past catastrophic events of worldwide
occurrence like floods. This led to the belief that all rocks on the Earth were
deposited in a vast ocean.
We are now aware that the theories of uniformitarianism and catastrophism
contradict each other. The theory of uniformitarianism emphasises the
uniformity of processes and conditions throughout the geological history of the
Earth. While the theory of catastrophism assumes that the conditions on Earth
were completely different in the past and that no comparison is possible. The
theory of catastrophism died out in the 19th century due to lack of scientific
evidence. On the other hand, the theory of uniformitarianism gained acceptance
with time as a consequence of evidence provided by modern geological
developments.
1.3.3 Scale in Geomorphology
In this subsection, you will learn about the concept of scale in geomorphology.
Geomorphological studies are carried out on a wide range of spatial and
temporal scales. The spatial scales (i.e. the spatial extent or area covered) of
investigations range from microscale (for example, site specific river channel
characteristics) to planetary scales (for example, geomorphic studies of Mars,
Moon and others). The temporal scale (i.e. the time/duration) refers to the
geological time range under investigations in a geomorphic study. This also
varies from short term landform forming events like floodplain deposition,
formation of sand dunes, etc. The focus of these microscale studies is mostly
on quantification of factors producing geomorphic change. In most of the cases,
the factors are generally of local nature. Intermediate temporal scale of
geomorphic studies document changes that occur on hundreds or thousands or
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few tens of thousands of years. The large temporal scales of geomorphic
studies encompass millions of years and beyond.
1.3.4 Concept of Geomorphic Cycle
We have discussed the fundamental concepts, along with the concepts of
uniformitarianism and catastrophism and also scales in geomorphology. Let us
now learn about the concept of geomorphic cycle.
The theory of geomorphic cycle explains the evolution of landscapes through
time. It is also known as the cycle of erosion, peneplanation model or
geographic cycle. It was first proposed by William Morris Davis in the late
nineteenth century and is also popularly known as the Davisian theory of
landscape evolution. The geomorphic cycle explains the long-term landscape
evolution through a series of stages. The theory is truly a complete cycle as it
starts and ends with the same landscape i.e., a peneplain. A peneplain is
defined as a low, almost flat, regionally extensive landscape with negligible
relief. The geomorphic cycle introduced the terms - youth, mature, and old in
geomorphological realm for the first time. The various stages of geomorphic
cycle and consequent development of landscape is shown in Fig. 1.1.
The geomorphic cycle comprises six stages (Fig. 1.1) that encompasses the
major stages of youth, maturity, and old stage. The theory assumes initiation
and persistence of tectonic uplift of the Earth’s surface through the cycle. The
theory also assumes that the landscape consists of uniform lithology. Tectonic
uplift causes erosion of the Earth surface, the cycle therefore, includes erosion
as the main process of landscape evolution.
As you can visualise in the Fig. 1.1, the initial landscape is a low relief
peneplain with poorly developed drainages. The peneplain is subjected to
tectonic uplift that initiates erosion of the landscape. The rivers are also
considered as one of the main agents of erosion; because the landscape
modification normally starts from river valleys. In the initial stage, i.e., the early
youth, the river tends to erode its valley downward. The process may be
encouraged by simultaneous tectonic uplift. This results in broad and flat
uplands with river valleys much deeper than broad. As uplift induced erosion
proceeds further, the landscape enters late youth stage. During this stage, the
vertical erosion continues to dominate but some lateral erosion of valleys also
occurs. The number of drainages also increase significantly. Overall, the
landscape in this stage shows dominantly the valley slopes with few inter-
stream uplands. Continued tectonic uplift aided vertical and lateral stream
erosion leads to the maturity stage of landscape development. The main
characteristic of this stage is development of highly erosional landscape.
In late maturity, the landscape is characterised by subdued relief and broad
valley floors. This occurs due to prolonged erosion that causes substantial
lateral erosion by streams. The long erosional time period makes the landscape
devoid of high elevations resulting in low relief and almost flat peneplain.
Following the old stage, renewed tectonic uplift can initiate a new geomorphic
cycle. A landscape can thus go through several such cycles producing a
polycyclic landscape.
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Fig.1.1: Schematic cross sections depicting the stages in geomorphic cycle (S-
Stream, P- Peneplain, M- Monadnock); (a) Initial stage- relief slight,
drainage poor; (b) Early youth- stream valleys narrow, uplands broad and
flat; (c) Late youth- valley slopes (shown in black colour) predominate,
some interstream uplands remain; (d) Maturity- complete dominance of
valley slopes and narrow divides; (e) Late Maturity- subdued relief and
broad valley floors and (f) Old stage- peneplain with monadnocks.
The main advantage of the concept of geomorphic cycle is that it recognises

the importance of geologic time in the evolution of landscapes. Though no time
limits are set, the cycle if uninterrupted, can last up to tens of millions of years.
It also provides a sequential framework with well-defined stages - youth, mature
and old, to reconstruct the progressive changes in landscape. The cycle also
recognises the significance of tectonics as a causative factor for large scale
erosion of landscapes. This has important application in understanding long-
term landscape evolution of regions located in active parts of various tectonic
plates.
You have learnt the definition and scope of geomorphology and development of
geomorphological concepts. Now, spend few minutes to check your progress.
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SAQ 1
a) Define the term geomorphology.
b) Which concept for interpreting landscapes given by Thornbury exemplifies
the Davisian cycle of erosion?
c) What is uniformitarianism?
d) What is catastrophism?
1.4 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN

GEOMORPHOLOGY
Man uses the Earth surface for his survival by utilising the natural resources for
his benefit and also for various developmental works. For this reason,
geomorphological data is of prime importance in sustainable and environment-
friendly utilisation of Earth’s natural resources. Geomorphological study of
landforms and landscapes utilise a variety of tools and techniques. Primary
data for all geomorphological maps are provided by topographic maps, aerial
photographs, satellite data, Digital Elevation Models (DEM), and field surveys.
The resulting geomorphologic data are used extensively for wide variety of
purposes. Technological developments have enabled high resolution digital
maps and digital data analysis. In the following subsections, we will discuss
about various tools and techniques used in geomorphology.
1.4.1 Topographic Maps
You have read about topographic maps in Unit-14 of the course BGYET-141.
Let us recall, that topographic maps are an indispensable tool for carrying out
field based geomorphological mapping of landforms and landscapes. A
topographic map is a detailed and accurate map that shows all physiographic
including relief, hydrographic, cultural and vegetation features of an area (Fig.
1.2). Geographic location of the maps can be known with the coordinates and
index number given in the maps. All topographic maps contain detailed
standard legend that shows all the notations, symbols, colors, etc. marked on
the maps. These maps are available on the scale (representative fractions) of
1:250,000, 1:50,000 and 1:25,000.
In India, the topographic maps are prepared and made available to users by the
Survey of India. Topographic maps form the base map for preparation of
geomorphological maps. All mappable geomorphic landforms are marked on
the map are extracted, which can then be converted to digital form for
generating digital geomorphological maps.
1.4.2 Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs

Stereoscopic aerial photographs are overlapping photographs of an area taken
by flying aircraft over predetermined paths. Normally, several photographs are
taken along parallel transects. Viewing the overlapped part in the aerial
photograph (Fig. 1.3a) through a stereoscope (Fig. 1.3b), provides 3-
dimensional view of the area. Now digital aerial photographs have gradually
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replaced the earlier obtained analog photographs by film cameras. The stereo
images obtained by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) onboard the US/Japan Terra satellite, have
proved useful for identification of landforms and geomorphological mapping of
the landscapes. Study and interpretation of stereoscopic aerial photographs is
based on attributes like tone, texture, pattern, shape, context and scale. These
attributes in the photograph are controlled by illumination, which depends on
time of the day, season and vegetation cover. Stereoscopic aerial photographs
are found extremely useful for geomorphological studies as they capture
several geomorphic features like landforms and also subtle changes in slope.
Fig. 1.2: Part of a topographic map of the area around Narmada River in Gujarat.
(Source: https://onlinemaps.surveyofindia.gov.in/)
1.4.3 Satellite Data

Remote sensing satellite data of planetary bodies including Earth are obtained
from cameras mounted on orbiting satellites. Such data are now available in
large volumes for free, and is used extensively in various fields like
geomorphology, geology, exploration of natural resources and natural hazard
studies.
Interpretation of satellite data comprises identification of features of interest with
the help of several elements such as shape, size, tone, texture, pattern,
shadows, location and association. For correctly interpreting a satellite data as
shown in the Fig. 1.4, it is essential to have knowledge of scale and how light
interacts with different objects.
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There are some platforms such as ISRO’s Bhuvan (Fig. 1.5a), Google Earth
(Fig. 1.5b) and many others through which we can visualise places of our
interests in satellite images. Many of us are familiar with Google Earth, which is
a web-based data platform comprising virtual globe showing digital satellite
images, of the Earth’s surface and also of other planets and satellites. The data
can be seamlessly used with changing location, scale and view directions. It is
useful for students and researchers in geomorphology as we can visualise
landform of different terrain types and also associated cultural features. We can
also understand changes in landscape with time through the images of different
periods.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig.1.3: (a-b) Colour stereo-pair aerial photographs showing coastal landforms ©

1986 Suffolk County Council, USA; (b) Students using pocket
stereoscope to study aerial photographs.
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Fig.1.4: Sentinel-2 L1C satellite image of Gulf of Khambhat. (Source:

https://eos.com)
1.4.4 Digital Elevation Models

The term digital elevation model (DEM) refers to relief models of Earth’s
surface. In simple words, it is a digital model or 3D representation of the surface
of a terrain generated from elevation data (Fig. 1.6). The elevation data
incorporated in DEMs can be sourced from remote sensing data collected by
satellites, airplanes and drones or from measurements in the field. Modern
elevation databases used for generating DEMs include images taken from
satellites and aerial platforms such as airplanes, besides elevation information
generated from contour lines, Digital Global Positioning System (DGPS) and
ground based surveys using instruments such as digital theodolite.
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.5: a) A view of the Girnar hill, Gujarat as seen in a satellite image (with
some road network) in ISRO Bhuvan portal; and b) A view of the same
hill in Google Earth.
1.5 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS

In the previous section, you have read about various tools and techniques used
in geomorphological studies. Let us now discuss about drainage analysis.
You have already studied about drainage systems and patterns in Unit 6 of the
course BGYCT-131. One important aspect of landscape analysis is the
drainage analysis since drainage pattern reflect the nature of the terrain.
Drainage analysis involves the study of individual stream pattern, overall
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drainage pattern, basin characteristics and drainage parameters, or indices.
Individual stream pattern can be identified as straight, sinuous, or
anastomosing in nature. We are aware that the drainage pattern is a design
formed by drainage network as a result of various contolling factors such as
lithology, structure, tectonics and climate. The dominance of one of the above
controlling factors can lead to formation of distinct drainage patterns viz.,
dendritic, trellis, rectangular, radial, parallel, barbed, centripetal, etc.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.6: a) Relief map generated from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of a part of
the Sandur Schist Belt region in Karnataka. Note that low to high
elevations are represented in the range of green to red colours,
respectively. (Source: a- CartoSat DEM obtained from ISRO Bhuvan
portal); and b- 3D view of Girnar hill, Gujarat in Google Earth).
Drainage basin is defined as the area where all the precipitation is collected
and drained into a single outlet or stream. The shape and elongation of the
drainage basin can indicate the controls of the structure, tectonic and climate in
the given area.
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To assess the morphotectonic evolution of drainage network in an area,
drainage parameters or morphometric parameters are calculated. Drainage
morphometry (also known as morphometric analysis and Horton analysis) is a
quantitative analysis performed to understand the dimension and aspect of a
geomorphic unit of the landscape. It provides information about surface form of
a drainage basin and organisation of drainage networks and their relationships
in that basin.
The drainage morphometric parameters are broadly classified as linear, areal
and relief aspects or parameters based on their characteristics. Linear
morphometric parameters include Stream order, Stream Length, Basin length,
etc. Areal aspects of the drainage basin include Basin Perimeter, Basin Area,
Drainage Density, etc. The relief aspects include basin relief, etc. These will be
discussed in brief in Unit 6 of this course.
The drainage basin analysis is considered important for various assessments
for planners and environmentalists to evaluate groundwater potential,
management and exploration, geomorphic evolution of the terrain, controlling of
floods, understanding river runoff patterns, etc.
1.6 LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS

Landscapes evolve over a period of time in response to surface and subsurface
geological processes. The main controlling factors responsible for landscape
evolution are tectonics, climate and eustatic sea level changes. Landscape
analysis helps to characterise and unravel the history of landscape evolution. It
also helps us to identify relative roles of various controlling factors and
geomorphic processes. Landscape analysis can be carried out with two
different approaches: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative landscape
analysis is mainly concerned with characterisation of landscapes in terms of
stage of evolution, identifying major processes and geological controls.
Quantitative approach of landscape analysis includes quantification of
landscape parameters, rates of processes and estimating magnitude of
influencing factors.
Several methods of landscape analysis are available that use topographical
data, remote sensing data and DEMs. However, no single method
encompasses entire range of landscape analysis. Selection of method or
methods depends on objective, type of input data available and approach
adopted. Landscape analysis is successfully applied in assessment of
landscape characteristics, evolution, exploitation of natural resources, socio-
cultural linkages, developmental planning and policy making.
1.7 APPPLICATIONS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

In the previous sections you have read about drainage and landscape analysis.
Now, let us discuss some applications of geomorphology.
Application of geomorphological knowledge for the benefit and well-being of
human race forms the subject matter of applied geomorphology. An intelligent
use of characteristics of the Earth’s surface has helped the humans to survive,
evolve and adapt to variety of conditions since the pre-historic times. This
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indicates that applied geomorphology existed in one form or the other since the
pre-historic to the modern times. However, the modern applied geomorphology
has started since the last 40-50 years.
Geomorphological knowledge is required for variety of purposes by several
professional organisations like administrative bodies, engineers, land
developers, resource managers, planners, and environmentalists.
Advantages: Geomorphological data provides important datasets for use in
various applications. Some of the distinct advantages of using
geomorphological data are:
- It provides accurate spatial data viz., precise location, area of influence,
relief variations, etc.
- It imparts visualisation and detection of spatial characteristics of landform
units and their correlation.
- It helps in better appreciation of nature and scale (regional and local) of
the problem.
- It provides an opportunity to incorporate the time dimension for evaluating
the problem.
- It provides documentary evidence in form of theme specific maps, plans,
photography, satellite data, DEMs, and others.
- It helps in evaluating the relative roles of natural and anthropogenic
causes.
- It furnishes critical scientific information about the processes and their
controlling factors.
Some of the application examples are given here:
 Natural hazard studies and management: Various types of natural
hazards like floods, volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis and mass movements
like, soil creep, landslides, debris flows and avalanches, occur frequently on
the surface of the Earth. Other hazards also cause substantial damage by
soil erosion, subsidence, desertification, etc. The effects of each hazard are
multi-dimensional, e.g., earthquakes may cause tsunamis, uplift, subsidence,
liquefaction, landslides, etc. besides extensive damage to manmade
structures. Floods also show multiple effects like, high river discharge, high
sediment inflow, inundation of flood plain, farmlands, soil erosion, slope
collapse, devastation in human habitats, etc.. Geomorphological studies
provides critical data for flood hazard estimation and predictions like, peak
discharge, total runoff, area of inundation, lag time, duration of inundation,
sediment load, flood frequency and expected timing of floods. Similarly,
geomorphological data forms the base line for planning preventive measures
for all natural hazards which are useful in minimising damage and also for
predicting future occurrences.
 Environmental management: Environmental management estimates the
causes and response to all geomorphic processes which are intentionally or
unintentionally affected by anthropogenic activities. Some of these activities
accentuate the effects of natural hazards and geomorphic processes. For
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example, enhanced development activities like, constructing roads, mining,
construction of large engineering structures like dams can alter the
landscape to such an extent that hazards like, slope instability, erosion,
floods, inundation and land use patterns change drastically. A strong
geomorphic database and in-depth understanding of the processes is vital at
the planning and implementation stage for minimizing the adverse
environmental impact of various anthropogenic activities.
 Natural resources studies: Resource evaluation comprises consideration
of landscape as an economic, strategic and esthetic resource. Land system
mapping and landuse mapping along with geomorphological mapping and
terrain analysis are important components of resource evaluation. Major
resources of the landscape are soil, minerals, groundwater and sand and
gravel.
Geomorphological mapping provides important clues for locating, evaluating
and exploiting natural resources like gold, diamond, deposits of bauxite, clay,
copper, manganese, iron, etc. It also helps in monitoring environmental
impacts during the mining process. Land system mapping provides
fundamental data required for environmental and resource management.
The area is divided into land systems through analysis of topographical
maps, aerial photographs and satellite images. This forms the basis for
resource evaluation and environmental impact assessment.
Besides these applications, geomorphology is useful in military science,
engineering projects, etc.
Now spend few minutes to check your progress.
SAQ 2
a) What is a topographical map?
b) What is qualitative landscape analysis?
c) List the drainage patterns.
1.8 SUMMARY
Let us sum up what we have studied in this unit. We have learnt that:
 Geomorphology can be defined as a branch of geology that deals with the
study of landforms and landscapes.
 Some fundamental concepts were enumerated by W.D. Thornbury. These
concepts help in interpretation of landscapes.
 Theory of uniformitarianism states that the processes operating presently on
Earth’s surface have been the same throughout the geologic time.
 According to the theory of catastrophism, the Earth has been shaped mainly
by abrupt, short lived and worldwide events.
 Geomorphological studies are carried out on a wide range of spatial and
temporal scales.
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 Davisian theory of landscape evolution or the geomorphic cycle explains the
long-term landscape evolution through a series of stages, which are truly a
complete cycle as it starts and ends with the same landscape i.e., a
peneplain.
 Topographic maps, stereoscopic aerial photographs, satellite data, digital
elevation models, Google Earth data, etc. are various important tools and
techniques for carrying out geomorphological mapping of landforms and
landscapes.
 One of the important aspects of landscape analysis is the drainage analysis
which involves the study of individual stream pattern, overall drainage
pattern, basin characteristics and drainage parameters or indices.
 Qualitative landscape analysis is mainly concerned with characterisation of
landscapes in terms of stage of evolution, identifying major processes and
geological controls. Quantitative approach of landscape analysis includes
quantification of landscape
1.9 ACTIVITY
Redraw the schematic cross sections depicting the stages in geomorphic cycle
as shown in Figure 1.1.
1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. List all the fundamental concepts enumerated by W.D. Thornbury. Explain
any two of them.
2. Explain the geomorphic cycle with neat diagrams.
3. Discuss in detail any two tools used in geomorphological studies.
4. Write a note on applications of geomorphology.
1.11 REFERENCES
 Bloom, A. L. (1979) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late
Cenozoic Landforms, Prentice- Hall of India, New Delhi, p. 510.
 Dayal, P. (1990) A Textbook of Geomorphology, Shukla Book Depot, Patna,
India, 1st Edition, p.820.
 Holmes, A. (1965) Principles of Physical Geology, London and Edinburgh:
Thomas Nelson & Sons, p. 628.
 Strahler, A. N. (1968) The Earth Sciences, Harper International Edition, p.
452.
 Thornbury, W. D. (1954) Principles of Geomorphology, 1st edn., New York:
John Wiley & Sons, p. 618.
 Worcester, P. G. (1965) A Textbook of Geomorphology, Van Nostrand,
East-West Ed., p.43.
 https://earth.google.com
 https://eos.com
 https://onlinemaps.surveyofindia.gov.in
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(All the websites were accessed between 10th Dec. 2021 to 20th Jan. 2022)
1.12 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Holmes, A. (1965) Principles of Physical Geology, London and Edinburgh:
Thomas Nelson & Sons, p. 628.
 Thornbury, W. D. (1954) Principles of Geomorphology, 1st edn. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, p. 618.
1.13 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Geomorphology can be defined as a branch of geology that deals with the
study of landforms and landscapes including identification, description,
classification, origin, geological and anthropogenic processes of formation
and modification of landforms and geological evolution of landscapes of
planetary surfaces through time.
b) Concept: As the different erosional agents act upon the Earth's surface,
they produce a sequence of landforms having distinctive characteristics at
different stages of their evolution.
c) The theory of uniformitarianism states that the processes operating
presently on the Earth’s surface have been the same throughout the
geologic time.
d) The theory of catastrophism states that the Earth has been shaped mainly
by abrupt, short lived and worldwide events.
SAQ 2
a) A topographical map is an detailed and accurate map which reveals all
physiographic details including relief, hydrographic, cultural and vegetation
features of an area.
b) Qualitative landscape analysis is mainly concerned with characterisation of
landscapes in terms of stage of evolution, identifying major processes and
geological controls.
c) Drainage patterns viz., dendritic, trellis, rectangular, radial, parallel, barbed,
centripetal, etc.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to section 1.3.
2. Please refer to sub-section 1.3.4.
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34
UNIT 2
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF INDIA
Structure______________________________________________
2.1 Introduction 2.5 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.6 Summary
2.2 Basic Geomorphic Terminologies 2.7 Terminal Questions
Commonly Used Terms 2.8 References
Terms Associated with Branches of 2.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Geomorphology
2.10 Answers
2.3 Geomorphology of India
2.4 Geomorphic Divisions of India
Himalayan Mountain System
Indian Peninsula
Indo-Gangetic Plains
2.1 INTRODUCTION
We have learnt in Unit-1 that geomorphology deals with the study of landforms, landscapes and
processes that shape the Earth’s surface. The landforms and landscapes are of various scales
ranging from mountain ranges, plains, plateaus, beaches, mountain ridges, river valleys, river
channels, sand bars, and many more. We have also learnt that there are two types of geomorphic
processes, namely internal (geological) and external (including climatic) that create landforms and
landscapes over a long period of geological time. The geomorphic processes develop relief
followed by erosion and deposition of the material. The geomorphic processes are not restricted to
a particular location, rather they operate at global scale including land surface and ocean floor. The
internal geomorphic processes play a significant role in shaping the land’s relief and controlling the
evolution of landforms and landscapes. These internal processes also generate enormous forces,
which break the solid lithosphere and divide it into numerous tectonic plates. The deformation
occurs at varying scales for creating, merging, or colliding tectonic plates, producing both positive
and negative relief features on the surface. It clearly indicates that geomorphic processes are
closely associated with movements of the tectonic plates.
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The external geomorphic processes operate on the Earth’s surface and reduce
the relief contrast of the landforms. Therefore, geomorphic features of any
region or country are a product of geomorphic processes that are operating
over a longer period of geological time.
You have read definition, fundamental concepts, tools, techniques and
applications of geomorphology in the previous unit (i.e. Unit 1). In this unit, we
will discuss basic geomorphic terminologies, branches of geomorphology,
geomorphology of India including major landforms and geomorphic divisions of
India.
Expected Learning
Outcomes___________________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define basic geomorphic terminologies;
 discuss geomorphological divisions of India;
 describe main geomorphic features of each division; and
 define palaeogeomorphology
2.2 BASIC GEOMORPHIC TERMINOLOGIES

We now understand that geomorphology s a branch of geology dealing with the
study of landforms and landscapes including the processes of their formation
and evolution through time. While getting introduced to geomorphology, we
have come across several terms in Unit 1 and earlier also in the course
BGYCT-131. In this section, we will reintroduce the terms along with some
associated terms for our convenience.
2.2.1 Commonly Used Terms
Let us first recall the terms commonly used in the context of geomorphology.
We know that landform is a fundamental geomorphic unit in the landscape of
an area while the landscape is a surface comprising an assemblage of all
landforms occurring in the area. Landforms are defined as three dimensional
geomorphic features (i) having specific physical characteristics, (ii) of varying
sizes, and (iii) formed as a result of interactions of various geological agents.
Landscape of a region depends on its geological history, which displays rocks
that are exposed at the surface due to tectonic activities, structural deformation,
igneous activities, erosion, etc. We have learnt this with the example of fluvial
and coastal landscapes. In a fluvial landscape, we can see individual landforms
such as channel, floodplain, point bars, etc. Similarly, in a coastal landscape,
we can find landforms such as beach, spit, hook, lagoon, etc. In a glacial
landscape, we can see a glacier, cirque, arête, hanging valleys, moraines, etc.
In a desert landscape, we can see individual landforms such as a dune, playa,
etc. developed by geological actions of wind. So, landform is an element of
landscape that can be observed in its entirety and has consistence in form and
its changing pattern.
Landscape is described in terms of topography. Topography of an area is
geometrical shape created by varying heights. While elevation is vertical
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distance or altitude above the mean sea level, relief is the difference between
maximum and minimum elevations in a given area. In common parlance, we
generally use the terms ‘low’ and ‘high’ relief to denote areas with plain and
undulation. It is the measure of roughness of a terrain.
Another commonly used term is ‘terrain’: Hoffman (1988) defines terrain as a
tract or region on the Earth’s surface considered as a physical feature, an
ecologic environment or a site of some human activities.
Let us now learn about topographic map and related terminologies.
A topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional
surface of the Earth. Topographic maps are based on precise topographical
surveys and are published in series of maps by the national mapping agencies.
These maps are drawn at different scales, like 1:250,000; 1:50,000; 1:25,000,
etc. A topographic map shows quantitative and precise representation of
physical and cultural features of the Earth’s surface through a standard system
of symbols, signs, contours, and colours. Hence, these maps serve as
indispensable tool for city and regional planners, natural resource managers,
and for engineering, environmental and geological studies. Three dimensional
features of the Earth such as height of mountains, depths of ocean bottom,
steepness of slopes, etc. are represented in two dimensions in these maps
through contours. Contours are imaginary lines that join points of equal
elevation on the surface above or below a reference point. Mean sea level is
the most common reference point. Elevation difference between two adjacent
contour lines is called contour interval.
Earth’s rugged, irregular surface is difficult to be explained by mathematics for
calculating the positions of its features. To effectively represent the shape and
size of the Earth in scientific and real-life applications, a calculable, formula-
driven model is required. The closer a model comes to the actual surface of the
Earth, the better it is for positioning. It is clear that the Earth is not a perfect
sphere, but rather slightly ellipsoidal in shape. For small scale mapping, shape
of the Earth may be considered as spherical instead of an ellipsoid. The
spherical model of Earth is called Authalic Sphere, which may be defined as a
sphere of the same surface area as that of ellipsoid. Cartographers use authalic
sphere for mapping on a small scale, i.e. 1:1 million or smaller.
Topographic maps are based on a framework developed by geodetic survey,
and the ground observations are referred to as a spheroid as it involves a large
area. A spheroid is a mathematical model that describes the shape of the
Earth. It is defined by equatorial radius and the relationship between equatorial
and polar radii. Since topographic maps need to accurately portray the surface
features, ellipsoidal model is generally used to prepare them. There are many
reference ellipsoids, which are in use by different countries and agencies.
Ellipsoid is a three dimensional figure defined by two axes (i.e. semi-major axis
and semi-minor axis), used as an Earth model in geodesy. The authalic
sphere is the reference surface for small-scale maps of countries, continents
and larger areas because the difference between sphere and ellipsoid is
negligible while mapping large areas on page size maps. A sphere proves
adequate along the equator (equatorial plane) but fails at locations closer to the
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poles. With large scale (1:10,000) maps, however, the difference between
spherical and ellipsoidal approximations can be significant, and hence we need
to take the Earth’s oblateness into account. The ellipsoid is a much better
approximation for the shape of the Earth than the sphere; the poles are slightly
flattened and the equator bulges. Unlike sphere, an ellipsoid can handle
dissimilar dimensions.
Datum is a set of control points whose geometric relationships are known either
through measurement or calculation. We can refer to datum as a known and
constant surface which can be used to describe the location of unknown points
on Earth. Datum helps to define the position and orientation of the ellipsoid in
relation to the Earth surface, and also the origin of the coordinate system.
Geoid is a representation of the Earth as an equigravitational surface. Geoid
(meaning earthlike) is an approximated figure of the Earth. It is a three
dimensional shape approximated by mean sea level, on which the gravity force
is constant and equal to its strength at mean sea level. However, it is not a
smooth surface. The gravitational pull is not uniform throughout the Earth
surface. This is mainly because of density variation inside the Earth. For
example, gravitational is stronger in areas rich in iron and other dense
materials. This results in undulating geoid surface which is not smooth and
regular. Due to variations in gravity, the geoid does not follow the ellipsoid
exactly. The difference between the geoid and the ellipsoid is known as geoidal
height.
The three approximations i.e. Geoid, Sphere and Ellipsoid are used to define
Earth’s true shape in different ways. The geoid is considered as a reference
surface for ground survey from which elevations or heights can be measured.
The horizontal and vertical positions are mapped with reference to the geoid
surface. Horizontal positions are later adjusted to the ellipsoid surface, because
the irregularities on the geoid surface would make projection and other
mathematical computations extremely complex. On the other hand, elevations
are determined with reference to the geoid surface.
2.2.2 Terms Associated with Branches of Geomorphology
We will now discuss some terms associated with branches of geomorphology.
Tectonic geomorphology – It is the branch of geomorphology that deals with
the study of interactions between tectonic and geomorphic processes. Areas
such as Himalaya are the regions of interest from tectonic geomorphology point
of view. It involves mathematical modelling and computer simulation of
landscape evolution and testing the simulations with topographic responses
from the data obtained using quantitative geochronology of geomorphic
surfaces and drawing inferences based on the understanding of tectonic and
geomorphic processes, structural geology, geodesy, quaternary geology, etc.
Climatic geomorphology – We know that landforms and climate are linked to
different types of landforms developed under different climatic settings. Climatic
geomorphology is the branch that deals with the study of landforms with an aim
to explain their nature, processes and distribution in terms of climate. Study of
tropical landscapes i.e. tropical geomorphology is considered as a part of
climatic geomorphology.
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Megageomorphology – We know that scale is an important component in
geomorphology. Many of the recent studies involve extensive use of satellite
based remote sensing data for local scale to regional to global scale studies.
This branch seeks to study landforms at the global scale in the context of
continental or regional evolution through geological times scale.
Applied Geomorphology – It is the branch that focuses on applied aspects of
geomorphology in finding solutions to various problems. We have learnt in Unit-
1 that geomorphology has applications in various fields such in natural hazards,
natural resources management, regional planning, mineral exploration,
engineering projects, and military science. According to Goudie (2004), some of
the roles of an applied geomorphologist are to map landforms, resources and
hazards, establishing rates of change and their causes, assessing management
options, post-construction assessment of engineering projects, post-event
evaluation and prediction of future events and changes.
Palaeogeomorphology – It is the branch that deals with the study of buried
landforms which include both land and submarine features such as fossil reefs.
It is useful for mineral exploration such as that of oil, gas and some ores which
are related to buried features.
Anthropogeomorphlogy – We are now aware that besides the natural
geomorphic processes, human can also affect or modify landscapes. The role
of human in creating and modifying geomorphological processes and the
landforms produced by direct and indirect anthropogenic processes are the
subject matter of anthropogeomorphology.
Planetary geomorphology - There are planets and their moons which have
their own landscapes. Study of surface processes and landforms of other
planets and their moons (Fig. 2.1) is the subject matter of planetary
geomorphology.
2.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF INDIA

India is a vast land consisting of unique geomorphic diversity and beautiful
landscapes. The three sides of India are bounded by sea waters and the young
Himalayan mountain system separates it from Asia on its fourth (northern) side.
As a result, it becomes an independent geographic entity, which is broadly
known as the Indian subcontinent. India contains almost all geomorphic
features present on the surface of the Earth like snow-clad folded mountains in
the north, plateaus and uplands in the peninsular India together with plains in
between them and narrow coastal plains along the coastal lines. These
geomorphic features consisting of distinct landforms and landscapes, are
formed by various internal (for example volcanic) and external (glacial, fluvial,
aeolian, coastal, lacustrine and karst) geomorphic activities. These activities are
variedly operating in different parts of the country. For example, glacial
geomorphic processes are active in higher parts of the Himalaya, aeolian
geomorphic agents are dominant in the great Thar Desert of the western India,
fluvial processes are operating in almost all parts of the country and marine
processes are active in the eastern and western coastal regions.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2.1: a) A view of an impact crater on Moon; b) Dunes as observed in North
polar region of Mars at location 74.98°N 300.02°E; Image taken by High
Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera on board
NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) spacecraft; (c) Layered
rocks within Schiaparelli Crater in Mars at location near 0.96°S 13.86°E;
Image taken by High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment
(HiRISE) camera on board NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO).
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You may note that the landforms of India as we see today have developed over
a long span of geological time. It has been well established that the two main
tectonic events namely, break-up of India from Gondwana during the Jurassic
about 170 million years ago and collision of India with Asia during the Eocene
around 55 million years ago, greatly shaped the geomorphic diversity of the
country (Kale, 2014; Valdiya, 2016). The volcanic eruptions of the Reunion
mantle plumes during the Upper Cretaceous produced Deccan plateau in
peninsular India whereas India-Asia collision produced the world’s youngest
and highest fold mountains belt on the Earth, known as Himalaya. The extent
and height of the Himalaya is so huge that it changed global climate system
and established a distinctive monsoon system for the Indian subcontinent
(Chatterjee and others, 2013; Verma and others, 2016).
The major geomorphic divisions of India would be discussed in the next
section. However, let us now get a glimpse of major landforms of India. The
country is bestowed with spectacular landforms developed by various
geomorphological processes and also by tectonic and volcanic activities under
different climatic conditions and rock types. Geomorphic diversity i.e.
occurrence of a large variety of landforms and associated features make India
a very interesting country to study diverse landforms. Many of the landforms
are also the major tourist attractions.
Some of the notable landforms of India developed by various processes are:
 the Deccan Traps, one of the largest igneous provinces,
 Barren island, the only active volcano, A & N,
 the Great Rann of Kachchh, a very large saline playa,
 sand dunes of various types in the Thar desert,
 estuaries and extensive deltas in the eastern coast,
 highly braided Brahmaputra river in the plains of Assam and the large
riverine island, Majuli,
 vast alluvial plains of Ganga and Brahmaputra in the Indo-Gangetic plain
 the Lonar Crater, a meteoritic impact crater,
 one of the great escarpments of the world i.e. the Western Ghats, the
Kaimur scarp of the Vindhyan,
 megafans of Kosi and Gandak,
 glacial valleys and lakes at numerous places in the Himalaya
 large tidal mudflats in the Gulf of Kachchh and Khambhat,
 granite landforms of Hampi, Karnataka
 volcanic plug in Mount Girnar, Gujarat,
 lagoons such as Chilika, Odisha; Pulicat, A.P.,
 typical atoll type coral reefs with their central lagoons in Lakshadweep,
 backwaters of the Malabar Coast,
 mangrove swamps at several locations across India,
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 rift valleys of Narmada and Tapi,
 picturesque gorges in Himalaya; canyons on the Narmada River near
Jabalpur; Kaveri Canyon, etc.
 numerous waterfalls across India,
 gullies, ravines and badland topography in Siwalik Foothills; Yamuna-
Chambal; Chotanagpur zone;
 typical karst landforms such as the Borra and Belum caves in eastern India;
Kutumsar caves in Chhattisgarh; Mawmluh (and others) in Meghalaya;
Pachmarhi in M.P., Tapkeshwar in Dehradun, Baratang and Middle
Andaman in Andaman and Nicobar, etc.
After getting an idea of numerous kinds of landforms of India, let us study about
the geomorphic divisions of India. However, let us check what we have learnt in
this Unit till now.
SAQ 1
a) What is the difference between landscape and landform?
b) Define relief.
c) List some of the landforms of India which are major tourist attractions.
d) Define applied geomorphology.
2.4 GEOMORPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA

As we have discussed in the previous section, India is characterised by a great
diversity in its geomorphic features. On the basis of geologic, tectonic,
structural and geomorphic attributes, India is divided into following three main
geomorphic divisions (see Fig. 2.2):
 Himalayan Mountains System
 Indian Peninsula
 Indo-Gangetic Plains
Apart from the above main geomorphic divisions, the other subdivisions include
Thar (Indian) desert, coastal regions and Islands as you can see in the Fig. 2.2.
2.4.1 Himalayan Mountain System
The Himalayan range is one of the longest systems of mountain chains in the
world. It is situated in the northern margin of India and also known as extra-
peninsular region. It extends for over 2500 km from Pamir in the west to Mishmi
Hills in the east (Fig. 2.3). It bears some of the loftiest mountain peaks,
including the famous world’s highest peak the Mount Everest (height 8848 m
above the mean sea level) and other peaks rising more than 7500 m above the
mean sea level such as Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri and Naga Parbat). It is an
arcuate range with convexity to the south and its width ranges from 150 to 400
km. The northern margin of the Himalaya is marked by a lineament known as
Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (Fig. 2.3). While the bulk of the Himalayan range
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is in India, it also extends into Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. The Himalaya
comprises a chain of parallel mountain ranges (as shown in the Fig. 2.2) that
started developing around 55 million years ago when the Indian plate collided
with the Eurasian plate.
Fig. 2.2: Map of India showing geomorphic divisions of India.
The Himalaya is linearly divided in five sub divisions from north to south. The
subdivisions are separated by prominent thrusts (i.e. faults showing maximum
compression in horizontal direction) (Fig. 2.3). These subdivisions are
described below:
(i) Trans Himalaya: It consists of southern region of Eurasian plate and
northernmost part of the India plate. It is located north of the Tethys
Himalaya and mainly developed in northern Ladakh and the northernmost
Pakistan. Its height ranges from 3000 to 6000 m and consists of Kohistan,
Shyok, and Karakoram regions. The Trans Himalaya is also known as the
Tibetan Himalaya because its major part occurs in Tibet.
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Fig. 2.3: Map showing major subdivisions of Himalaya. (Source: simplified after
Kumar, 1988)
(ii) Tethys Himalaya: It is the northernmost region extending partly into

Tibetan plateau. It is given the popular geological name “Tethys domain” or
“Tethys Himalayan Zone” for want of any other suitable topographic
nomenclature. The region is over 3000 m in height sloping gently
northwards. It consists of sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks of all
different ages. The contact of the Tethyan and Greater Himalaya is termed
as Tethyan Thrust.
(iii) Greater Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Tethys Himalaya and is the
higher part of Himalaya. It bears some of the highest mountain peaks
(ranging from 6000 to 8000 m). This part is almost perpetually snow
covered and constitutes the watershed for all Himalayan rivers, except
Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra which cut across this region. Greater
Himalaya is made up mainly of deformed (crystalline) metamorphic rocks.
The Main Central Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Greater
and Lesser Himalaya.
(iv) Lesser Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Greater Himalaya. Its height
ranges from 1000 to 2500 m. The Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba and
Mahabharat are common high ranges of the Lesser Himalaya. The terrain is
consisting of thrust sheets and Precambrian metamorphic rocks. However,
sedimentary and igneous rocks of other ages are also present. The Main
Boundary Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Lesser and Outer
Himalaya.
(v) Outer Himalaya: The southern-most part of the Himalaya is called Outer
Himalaya or Sub-Himalaya. It comprises low hills less than 1000 m in height
that merge finally with the Indo-Gangetic plain. Siwalik is one of the
predominant ranges of this part of the Himalaya. It is composed mainly of
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sedimentary rocks of Cenozoic age. The boundary between the Outer
Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plain is marked by the Himalayan Frontal
thrust.
In the Himalayan region, geomorphic processes associated with glacial, fluvial,
fluvio-glacial, orographic and monsoonal rainfall are dominantly operating.
Additionally, aeolian processes are operating in a few parts of Himalaya
particularly in Ladakh (e.g. Shyok valley) where they have developed sand
dunes. The Himalayas reveal rugged relief, which is formed by tectonic
upliftment, followed by valley incision, glacial erosion and landslide movements
(Kale, 2014). The Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra are the main three river
systems of the Himalayan region. The majority of rivers of these river systems
are antecedent and flow across mountain. These rivers do extensive river
erosion and form deeply incised valleys at various places. The Himalayan
Mountains bear continental and maritime glaciers, which largely occur at high
altitude regions, dominantly in the western Himalaya. The Himalayan
landscapes reveal numerous geomorphic features such as cirques, glacial
troughs, U-shaped valleys, valley fills, moraines, erratic boulders, kettles,
glacial melt water streams, etc.
2.4.2 Indian Peninsula
The Indian Peninsula is more or less a triangular area enclosed within the low
mountain ranges as you see in Fig. 2.1. To the north, it is bounded by the
Vindhyan hills and the Satpura chain (2.1). The Vindhyan hills comprise low
mountains and plateaus that extend from Gujarat in the west to Bihar in the
east. The average elevation is between 500 and 600 m though some peaks
may go as high as 900 m. The Satpura range is a short chain, but higher than
the Vindhyan chain, with some of its peaks higher than 1000 m, for example
Pachmarhi (~1335 m).
The Indian Peninsula is also termed as ‘Indian shield’ because it represents
ancient and stable blocks of the Earth’s crust. It is the oldest and broadest
geomorphic division of India. It is a mixture of many Precambrian stable blocks
such as cratons and mobile belts (Fig. 2.4). The cratons are largely made up of
granite (igneous) as well as gneisses and migmatites (metamorphic rocks). The
mobile belts consist of metamorphosed Proterozoic rocks, in which gneiss,
amphibolites and migmatites are dominant rock types. The Indian Peninsula
largely shows erosional landforms and landscapes. These landforms are
granitic, gnesissic, basaltic, sandstone and limestone terrains. The fluvial
geomorphic processes are dominantly active in the region. The block
mountains, open and wide valleys, gorges, pediments, plateaus, residual hills,
inselbergs, mesas, cuestas, and steep escarpments are the main geomorphic
features of the Peninsula (Kale, 2014).
The Deccan Plateau region of the Indian Peninsula forms a major geomorphic
unit (Fig. 2.4). Its western margin running parallel to the Western Ghat, reveals
a 1500 km long escarpment, which is known as Sahyadri. The basaltic rocks of
the Deccan Plateau have been experiencing fluvial erosion and tropical
weathering for a very long time. This has resulted in development of flat-topped
plateau-like topography with step-like terraces. The weathering of Deccan trap
basalts forms black soil. This soil is suitable for growth of cotton. The coastal
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lowlands surround the Deccan traps on the western and eastern sides. The
Western coastal lowlands are narrow and consisting of hills and plateaus
whereas Eastern coastal lowlands are mainly aggradational and consisting of
deltas and deltaic plains (Vaidyanadhan, 2002; Kale, 2014). The eastern side of
Indian Peninsula is bounded by the Eastern Ghat consisting of discontinuous
and isolated hills.
Fig. 2.4: Map showing cratons, mobile belts and rifts of peninsular India. (Source:
simplified after Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008).
Western Ghats represent a continuous chain of hills extending from South

Gujarat to Kerala. They constitute low hills of an average height of less than
1000 m though the highest peak called Anaimudi is 2693 m high. The height of
the Western Ghats increases from north to south. Western Ghats constitute the
watershed for most peninsular rivers, notably, the Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery. The Eastern Ghats comprise a chain of detached hills extending from
Odisha to Tamil Nadu. They constitute low hills with a maximum elevation of
about 1500 m at Mahendragiri in Odisha. The Western and Eastern Ghats join
together at Nilgiri hills.
All rivers of Indian Peninsula are ephemeral, monsoon-fed, and active during
the monsoon season and develop broad and shallow valleys by incising
bedrock. The Krishna, Cauvery, Godavari and Mahanadi flow from west to east
and drain into the Bay of Bengal where they form large deltas. The Narmada
and Tapti rivers flow from east to west along the Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament
and drain into the Arabian Sea. A majority of peninsular rivers are in the stage
of incision. The badlands are developed along the banks of the Chambal, Mahi,
Narmada and Tapti rivers due to incision and gully erosion.
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2.4.3 Indo-Gangetic Plain
The major part of northern and eastern India, lies to the south of the Himalayan
arc and comprises the Indo-Gangetic plain (see Fig. 2.2). The plain comprise
sediments brought down and deposited by the two Himalayan river systems,
namely, the Ganga and Brahmaputra along with their tributaries during the
Recent (Holocene) times. The plain covers the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and part of
Rajasthan. They extend from west to east through which the rivers of the
Ganga system flow. The rivers of the Indus system flow towards the south west
into the Arabian Sea, while the rivers of the Ganga system flow towards the
south east into the Bay of Bengal. The Aravalli mountain chain lies in the middle
in a north northeast – south southwest direction. The Aravalli mountain chain
extends from Gujarat through Rajasthan upto Delhi. The highest point
Gurushikhar (1722 m high) is in Mount Abu. However, the main range
comprises low hills that project out from the desert sand. Aravalli mountain
chain acts as a water divide between the Indus and Ganga river systems.
The Indo-Gangetic plain is a flat country comprising mainly the alluvial
sediments, which are not more than 2000 m deep. It is the most fertile region of
the country. It is bounded to the south by the Vindhyan sedimentary rocks. The
plain bears many geomorphic features such as alluvial fans, floodplains,
channels, deltas, palaeochennels, meandering, natural levees and ox-bow
lakes (Kale, 2014). The river channels are unstable and frequently change their
route. The channel shifting is more common in the Kosi river. Meandering
channel is a distinctive geomorphic feature of the Yamuna river where as
braided river pattern occur along the Ganga, Satluj, Kosi and Brahmaputra
rivers. These plains have two types of alluvial deposits. The older ones
consisting of clay and calcareous alluvium are known as Bhangar and the
younger ones consisting of fine silt and clay are termed as Khadar.
The Thar or the Great Indian Desert is located in northwestern margin of the
Indo-Gangetic plain and spreads in the states of Rajasthan, partly in Gujarat,
Haryana, and Punjab. It represents an interfluve region between the Indus and
Ganga rivers (Kale, 2014). The Thar Desert is largely a dry land area of arid
region and here aeolian activity strongly prevails. Numerous geomorphic
features formed by aeolian activity such as hilly and rocky uplands, pediments,
alluvial plains, colluvial plains, dunes, desert pavements and playas (saline
lakes) frequently occur in the Thar Desert.
SAQ 2
a) Write names of the geomorphic divisions of India.
b) List the main geomorphic features of the Himalayan region.
c) List the common geomorphic features of the Thar Desert.
2.5 ACTIVITY
Given here is a blank map of India (Fig. 2.5). Perform the following activities:
i. Demarcate geomorphic divisions of India and label them.
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ii. Mark the area covered by the Deccan plateau.
Fig. 2.5: Map of India with administrative boundaries.
2.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit:
 We have learnt several terms such as landform, landscape, terrain,
topography, topographic map and also terminologies associated with
branches of geomorphology.
 We have become familiar with the major landforms of India.
 Two tectonic events namely breaking of India from Gondwana and collision
of Indian plate with the Tibetan plate played important role in shaping the
geomorphology of India.
48
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Almost all types of geomorphic processes including glacial, fluvial, aeolian,
coastal, lacustrine and karst have been operating in India.
 Himalayan Mountain System, Indian Peninsula and Indo-Gangetic Plain are
the main geomorphic divisions of India.
 The Thar (Indian) Desert, coastal regions and Islands are minor geomorphic
subdivions of India.
 Glacial landforms are dominantly present in the Himalayan region and
fluvial geomorphic processes are dominantly active in Indian Peninsula.
 The Indo-Gangetic plain comprises of alluvial sediments brought by the
Himalayan rivers.

1. Discuss the main geomorphic divisions of India.
2. Name and briefly describe the five tectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya
from north to south. Also draw them on a map.
3. Discus main geomorphic features of Indian Peninsular region.
4. Mark the extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain on a map.
2.8 REFERENCES
 Chatterjee, S., Goswami, A. Scotese, C. (2013) The longest voyage:
tectonic, magmatic, and paleoclimatic evolution of the Indian plate during its
northward flight from Gondwana to Asia, Gondwana Research, 23: 238–
267.
 Goudie. A.S. (2004) Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Volume 1,
Routledge, London, 1156p.
 Hoffman, M. (1988) Dictionary of Geology, GOYLsaaB, New Delhi, 572p.
 Kale, V.S. (2014) Landscapes and Landforms of India. Springer, Dordrecht.
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008) Geology of India, Volume
1, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Vaidyanadhan, R. (2002) Geomorphology of the Indian subcontinent.
Monograph of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Dehra Dun.
 Valdiya, K.S. (2016) The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Society of
Earth Scientists Series, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.
 Verma, O., Khosla, A., Goin, F.J., Kour, J. (2016) Historical biogeography of
the Late Cretaceous vertebrates of India: comparison of geophysical and
paleontological data, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science
Bulletin 71: 317–330.
49
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Panigrahy, R.K. (2012) Unit-8 Datums, Map Projections and Coordinate
Systems, in MGY-001 Introduction to Geoinformatics, Block-3 Basics of
Mapping, https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/39517/1/Unit-8.pdf
2.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Biyani, A.K. (2007) Dimensions of Himalayan Geology, Satish Serial
Publishing House, Delhi.
 Dubey, A.K. (2014) Understanding an Orogeny: Structural Evolution of the
Himalaya, Springer, Germany.
 Valdiya, K.S. (1984) Aspects of Tectonics: Focus on South-Central Asia,
Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
2.10 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) Landforms are defined as three dimensional geomorphic features (i)
having specific physical characteristics, (ii) of varying sizes, (iii) formed
as a result of interactions of various geological agents. Landscape is a
surface comprising an assemblage of all the landforms occurring in an
area. Landscape of a region depends on its geological history, which
determines the rocks that are exposed due to tectonic activities,
structural deformation, igneous activities, and erosion, etc.
b) Relief is the difference between the maximum and minimum elevations in
a given area. It is a measure of roughness of a terrain.
c) List some of the Indian landforms which are of major tourist attraction.
d) Applied geomorphology is the branch of geomorphology that focuses on
applied aspects of geomorphology. This helps in finding solution to
various problems in different fields such in natural hazards, natural
resource management, regional planning, mineral exploration,
engineering projects, and military science.
2. a) The Himalayan Mountain system, Indian Peninsula and Indo-Gangetic
plains are the main geomorphic divisions of India.
b) The main geomorphic features of the Himalayan region are cirques,
glacial troughs, U-shaped valleys, valley fills, moraines, erratic boulders,
kettles, glacial melt water streams.
c) The hilly and rocky uplands, pediments, alluvial plains, colluvial plains,
dunes, desert pavements and playas (saline lakes) are common
geomorphic features of Thar Desert.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to Section 2.4.
2. Please refer to Subsection 2.4.1.
3. Please refer to Subsection 2.4.2
4. Please refer to the Fig. 2.2.
50
UNIT 3
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
Structure______________________________________________________________
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Weathering Products
Expected learning Outcomes 3.6 Hillslope
3.2 Geomorphic Processes Elements/Segments of Hillslope
Definition Classification of Hillslopes
Classification of Geomorphic Processes Hillslope development
3.3 Endogenic Processes Hillslopes and Mass wasting
Diastrophic Forces and Movements 3.7 Let Us Sum Up

Sudden Forces and Movements 3.8 Activity
3.4 Exogenic Processes 3.9 Terminal Questions
Weathering: Sediment Production 3.10 Answers
Mechanical or Physical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Biological Weathering
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have read about geomorphology of India and spectacular landforms of
India developed by various geomorphic processes. You have already been introduced to the
geological/geomorphological processes in Unit 5 Rock Weathering of the course BGYCT-131 and
learnt that they are of two types i.e. exogenic and endogenic. The geological processes started
operating on our planet immediately after origin of the Earth. These processes that operate bringing
about visible changes at the interface of lithosphere and the atmosphere are known as geomorphic
processes. Development of various fascinating landforms is the product of these processes. The
materials and the dynamics by which these landforms are made, are the focal
51
theme of Geomorphology. In this unit, we will read about geomorphic
processes, their types, and also about hillslope.
Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the reasons for ruggedness on surface of the Earth;
 classify the geomorphic processes;
 list the differences between endogenic and exogenic processes;
 describe the interrelation between geomorphic processes and geomorphic
agencies;
 identify elements of hillslope, and
 discuss classification of hillslope and also their development.
Instruction: You are advised to read thoroughly the basic concepts of
exogenic processes discussed in Unit 5 Rock Weathering of BGYCT-131
Course.
3.2 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

You have learnt about landform and landscapes in the earlier units. You also
know that landforms develop due to interplay of geomorphic processes and
agents. We will now discuss the geomorphic/geological processes responsible
for their development. The developed landforms may be modified in terms of
size, shape and configuration due to change in climatic conditions, horizontal/
vertical movements of Earth’s crust and change in intensity of geomorphic
processes. Thse modification are called evolution of landform and includes
various stages of transformation such as youth, mature and old stage. Thus,
you can study evolution of landforms through changes in the pattern of
landforms with passage of time.
3.2.1 Definition
You have also been introduced to geomorphic processes earlier. The
endogenic and exogenic forces, which cause physical stresses and chemical
actions on Earth materials and bring about changes in the configuration of the
Earth’s surface, are known as geomorphic processes. They are the
processes responsible for formation and alteration of the Earth's surface. The
attributes of landforms are governed by driving forces and resisting materials in
terms of shape, size and overall configuration of landforms. The natural
agencies like running water, groundwater, ice, wind, waves, currents, etc.,
which are responsible for eroding, transporting or depositing Earth materials to
various degrees, are known as geomorphic agents.
In the next subsection, we will get to know more about different types of
geomorphic processes.
3.2.2 Classification of Geomorphic Processes
We have learnt earlier that there are numerous external and internal driving
forces that continuously act within the Earth as well as over the surface
52
(endogenic and exogenic forces, respectively). The forces affecting the crust
very often change the Earth's surface. The geological changes can be long-
period changes or short-period changes. Long-period changes occur so slowly
that we cannot observe during our life time. While short-period changes take
place suddenly that these can be noticed within few seconds to few hours, e.g.
earthquake, volcanic eruptions, etc. Such movements are the result of sudden
movements and the forces responsible for their origin are called sudden
forces.
You have already read in Block 2 Earth Surface Processes of BGYCT-131
Course that geomorphic processes are performed by various geological
agents. Forces, which affect the crust of the Earth, can be divided into two
broad categories on the basis of their sources of origin: (i) Endogenic forces,
and (ii) Exogenic forces.
The main sources of energy behind endogenic and exogenic forces are gravity,
solar energy, and geothermal energy. In nature, both endogenic and exogenic
processes operate simultaneously. The whole system works on the principle of
mass balance and mass distribution. The endogenic processes result in uplift
and thus addition of mass in crustal region, while exogenic processes
(denudation) result in redistribution of mass in terms of lowering of elevation
(Fig. 3.1).
Endogenic forces elevate the surface of the Earth and exogenic forces level it
down. Out of this interplay of these two forces, formation and deformation of
landforms takes place on the surface of the Earth. Constructional
geomorphic processes are those through which there is an increase in mass,
height, or area of a land unit and they involve building of land unit. The product
of constructional geomorphic processes is known as constructional landform
created by mass redistribution. Examples of constructional landform include
volcanic landforms, isostatically uplifted areas and depositional landforms
resulting from glacial action or action of wind, etc.
Fig. 3.1: Schematic showing the interplay of endogenic and exogenic processes
in development of landforms.
Destructional geomorphic processes are the ones that destroy landforms

and remove Earth materials thereby resulting in an overall lowering down of
surface relief by weathering and erosion. The product of destructional
53
geomorphic processes is known as destructional landform. The examples of
destructional landforms include valleys of rivers and glaciers which form due to
erosional processes. The constructional and destructional geomorphic
processes go hand in hand in nature, giving rise to variety of landforms.
3.3 ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

We now know that the driving forces responsible for endogenic processes
originate in the interior of the Earth whereas those responsible for exogenic
processes originate on or above the surface of the Earth. We will learn about
endogenic processes in detail here.
Endogenic forces can cause two types of movements in the Earth, viz.
horizontal and vertical movements. Endogenic forces give rise to various types
of vertical irregularities that cause many types of relief features to develop on
the Earth’s surface, e.g. plateaus, mountains, valleys, fold, faults, etc. These
processes are classified into diastrophism and sudden endogenic processes on
the basis of rate of movement of the crust. The processes causing slow
movement, elevation or building up portions of the Earth’s crust come under
diastrophism and the processes causing sudden changes come under sudden
endogenic processes. The endogenic processes are also called as
constructional (or endogenetic or hypogenetic) processes.
3.3.1 Diastrophic Forces and Movements
Let us learn that diastrophic forces include both vertical and horizontal
movements. These movements are caused due to forces deep within the Earth.
The effects of diastrophic forces are visible after a long time period such as
thousands or millions of years because they operate very slowly. These forces
affect large areas of globe and produce mesoscale reliefs, e.g. mountains,
plateaus, lakes, plains, big faults. The diastrophic forces and movements can
be divided into two groups:
A. Orogenic movements
B. Epeirogenic movement
(A) Orogenic movements: Orogenic processes result in mountain building
through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the Earth’s
crust. Orogeny has already been discussed in Block-4 of BGCYT-131. The
word orogenic has been derived from two Greek words ‘oros’ (meaning
mountain) and ‘genesis’ (meaning origin or formation). Orogenic
movements are caused due to endogenic forces operating in a horizontal
manner. Horizontal forces and movements are also called as ‘tangential
forces’. Orogenic forces work either in opposite directions or towards each
other. Orogenic force is called ‘tensional force’ when it operates in
opposite directions. Thus, tensional forces create rupture, fracture, cracks
and faults in the crustal parts of the Earth. Therefore, such types of force
and movement are also called as divergent forces and movements. The
forces working towards each other face to face are called compressional
forces or convergent forces. Resultants of compressional force are the
following:
 crustal bending leading to the formation of folds
54
 crustal warping leading to local rise or subsidence of crustal parts.
The ultimate consequence of action of tensional and compressional forces is
the phenomenon of faulting and folding, respectively. Crustal bending is
caused due to resultant compressional and tangential forces, i.e. when the
horizontal forces work face to face, the crustal rocks are bent. In other words,
crustal bending occurs when crustal parts move towards each other under the
influence of convergent or horizontal forces. The crustal bending can occur in
two ways: (i) warping, and (ii) folding.
The process of crustal warping affects larger areas of the crust wherein the
crustal parts are either warped (raised) upward or downward. The compressive
force resulting from convergent horizontal movement causes upward rise of the
crustal part due to upwarping. And, downwarping is caused when the crustal
part moves downward in the form of a basin or depression. When upwarping or
downwarping of crustal rocks affect larger areas, the resultant mechanism is
called broad warping.
You have read about types of folds, causes of folding and its effects on
outcrops in Unit 10 Folds in BGYCT-131 course. When the compressive
horizontal forces or convergent forces cause buckling and squeezing of crustal
rocks, the mechanism is called folding, which results in several types of folds.
The displacement of rocks along a plane due to tensional and compressional
forces acting either vertically or horizontally and even sometimes in both ways
is known as crustal fracture. The fracturing depends on the strength of rocks
and intensity of tensional forces which can be moderate or intense. However,
when the rocks are subjected to intense tensional force, the rock beds undergo
dislocation and displacement resulting into the formation of faults. The fractures
can be categorised into joints and faults. You now know that a joint is a
fracture in the crustal rocks wherein no appreciable movement of rock has
taken place. The fracture becomes fault when there is an observable
displacement of the rocks on the either sides of a fracture. You have already
read about types of faults, causes of faulting and its effects on outcrops in Unit
11 Faults and Unit 12 Joints and Unconformity in BGYCT-131 Course.
(B) Epeirogenic Movements – We have read earlier that the word Epeirogenic
consists of two words viz. ‘epiros* (meaning continent) and ‘genesis’
(meaning origin). The upliftment and subsidence of continental masses
through vertical upward and downward movements are caused by
epeirogenic movement. These movements affect larger parts of the
continents and can be divided into two types:
(i) upward movement
(ii) downward movement.
The upward type epeirogenic movement causes upliftment of continental
masses. It can be caused in two ways either the upliftment of whole or part of
the continent or it can be the upliftment of coastal land of continents. Such type
of upliftment is called emergence. Downward movement causes subsidence of
continental masses in two ways: (i) subsidence of land area is a type of
downward movement, and (ii) submergence is the downward movement of the
area near coast.
55
You have already read about the difference in epiorogeny and orogeny.
Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas epeirogeny is continental
building process. Epeirogenic processes involve broad uplift or warping of large
parts of the Earth’s crust due to thermal or dynamic mechanisms. This broad
regional tectonic movement with no local deformation can be either positive
movement like upliftment or negative movement like subsidence. You have
read in this section that vertical movement causes upliftment of either whole
continent, or a part of it. When upliftment of the coastal land of the continents
takes place, it is called emergence. Subsidence of the continental masses
includes subsidence of the land area inside the continental mass and
subsidence of land near coasts resulting in submergence under sea water. In
Norway, terraces of 183 meters altitude have been reported to contain fossils of
marine organisms, it means that this part of land was once submerged under
water and is now emerged due to epeirogenic process. An example of
submergence of land under sea water is reported near Mazgaon Dockyard, to
the south east coast of Mumbai, where evidence of submergence of forest
covered land is reported in the form of occurrence of tree trunks at some depth
in the sea.
3.3.2 Sudden Forces and Movements
Sudden movements are caused by sudden endogenic forces originating deep
within the Earth. They cause sudden and rapid events leading to massive
destruction at and below the surface of the Earth. We observe their quick and
sudden cumulative effects on the surface. Sudden endogenic processes
include earthquakes, volcanism and landslides that occur in short periods.
Geomorphologically, these sudden forces are termed as constructive forces.
This is because these create certain relief features on the Earth's surface. For
example, volcanic eruptions result in formation of volcanic cones and
mountains. In case of fissure flows, the lavas form extensive lava plateaus, e.g.
Deccan plateau of India, Columbian plateau of the USA and lava plains. The
phenomena like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes or landslides are called
extreme events. These phenomenon or events become disastrous hazards
when they occur in densely populated areas. These forces work very quickly
and their results are seen within minutes. These forces are the consequence of
long-period of preparation deep within the Earth. The earthquakes may create
faults, fractures, lakes, etc. Upward movement of magma towards the Earth’s
surface through narrow volcanic vents or holes is called volcanism. We have
learnt about Earthquakes and volcanism in Block-1 of BGCYT-131. Landslides
can occur both as slow or fast movement of Earth material due to slope failure.
Gravity is their main driving force and they can be triggered due to seismic
disturbances, heavy rain fall, floods, etc. The characteristics and various types
of mass wasting processes have been dealt with in Block-2 of the course
BGYCT-131.
3.4 EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Exogenic processes are also called as denudational (or destructional or
exogenetic or epigenetic) processes. Exogenic processes originate from the
atmosphere. The destructional forces are continuously engaged in destruction
of relief created by the endogenic forces, through processes like weathering,
56
erosion and deposition. Exogenic processes are, therefore also called as
planation processes. Denudation includes both weathering and erosion.
Weathering is a static process which includes disintegration and decomposition
of rocks in situ whereas erosion is dynamic process which includes removal of
materials and their transportation to depositional basins.
You have read about exogenic processes in Unit 5 Rock Weathering of
BGYCT-131 course. Exogenic processes are driven by stress induced in Earth
materials by various forces that come into existence due to solar energy,
climate and gravity (Fig. 3.2). These include the action of ice, wind, water, and
biota. All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general
term, denudation, which means to strip off or to uncover. Denudation is a
combination of various processes which results in wearing away of the Earth’s
surface and causes a general lowering and levelling of the surface.
Fig. 3.2: Diagram showing relationship between mass wasting (landslide),

soil/rock fragments, weathering, erosion and denudation.
The process of denudation includes weathering, mass wasting movements,

erosion and transportation. It is the process of exposing fresh surface of country
rock or laying bare the country rock for further action of the natural geological/
geomorphological agencies such as wind, running water, glaciers, etc. You may
note that denudation and sedimentation are complementary in nature.
3.4.1 Weathering: Sediment Production
You have read that weathering is combined action of the processes that cause
rock to disintegrate physically and decompose chemically and biologically
because of its exposure near the Earth’s surface through the elements of
“weather” such as temperature, rainfall, frost, ice, etc. (Fig. 3.3)
57
Fig. 3.3: Diagram showing types of physical, chemical and biological weathering.
You know that weathering is in situ disintegration and decomposition of rocks

into a residuum of original matter and alteration products in equilibrium with the
stress within the environment. Weathering is a static process which does not
involve seizure and removal of material by a transporting agency. Erosion is
the sum total of breaking down of rocks into smaller fragments and their
dislodging or removal from the original site.
Erosion involves detachment, entrainment, and transport of particles in a
sequential manner. These three processes are often closely related and
sometimes not easy to be distinguished from each other. A single particle may
undergo detachment, entrainment, and transport many times. The particles or
fragments are detached from main mass by various geological agencies
through physical, chemical or biological weathering. The particles are lifted up
by geological agencies and this process is called entrainment. Fluid drag is
mainly responsible for lifting up the particle. Transportation of particles takes
place in many ways such as traction, saltation, suspension and solution. The
process of weathering and transportation has been discussed in Block-2 of
BGYCT-131.
Weathering acts upon rock masses resulting in solid, colloidal and soluble
weathering debris materials. These materials differ in size and behaviour. The
solids range from clay to silt, sand, and boulders. The fragments of solids can
vary from large, medium, to small fragments and can be subjected to
disintegration and decomposition. In addition, new materials such as secondary
clays formed from the weathering products by a process called neoformation.
3.4.2 Mechanical or Physical Weathering
We know that mechanical processes reduce rocks into smaller fragments. The
disintegration of rock fragments increases their surface area exposed to
58
chemical attack. The main processes of mechanical or physical weathering are
unloading, frost action, thermal, and stress which can be caused by heating and
cooling, swelling and shrinking due to wetting and drying, and pressures
exerted by salt-crystal growth. Fatigue is a significant component in mechanical
weathering. This is originated due to repeated generation of stress, for example
by heating and cooling, in a rock.
1. Unloading/ Pressure Expansion
The confining pressure on the underlying rocks is released when the erosional
processes remove surface material. On removal of the surface material, the
mineral grains move further apart and voids are created. Thus expansion or
dilation in the rock takes place when the pressure is lowered. Under natural
conditions, rock dilates at right-angles to an erosional surface. Large or small
cracks, faults and joints running parallel to the surface are produced due to the
dilation. The dilation joints facilitate rock falls and other kinds of mass
movement. The small fractures and incipient joints provide lines of weakness.
Exfoliation or sheeting occurs along these lines of weakness and the rock
surface spalls or peels off in layers due to the sudden drop in pressure (Fig.
3.4). Along these lines of weakness individual crystals or particles may
disintegrate and exfoliation may occur. In some rocks, such as granite, it may
produce convex hills known as exfoliation domes (Fig. 3.4). Spheroidal
weathering is a type of exfoliation that produces rounded features which is
caused when chemical weathering moves along joints in the bedrock (Fig. 3.5).
Fig. 3.4: Exfoliation dome in granite at Mansabal, Kashmir valley. (Photo credit:
Prof. Meenal Mishra)
59
Fig. 3.5: Spheroidal weathering in basalt. (Photo credit: Dr. Nishi Rani)
2. Frost Action
Frost action or frost wedging, also called ice wedging, uses the power of
expanding ice to break apart rocks (Fig. 3.6a). Let us recapitulate what we have
read about frost action in Unit 5 Rock Weathering of the BGYCT-131 course.
The water present in cracks, voids, and crevices of rocks or soil freezes and
expands with great force. When the ice melts, the liquid water moves further
into the widened spaces of the cracks. Water occupying the pores and
interstices within a soil or rock body expand by 9 per cent upon freezing. This
expansion builds up stress in the pores and fissures, causing physical
disintegration of rocks. The cycles of freezing and melting also called freeze-
thaw cycle, are repeated to eventually pry or tear the rocks apart. These cycles
can occur daily especially in the regions where fluctuations of temperature are
very high, day and night go from freezing to melting. This phenomenon plays an
important role in mechanical weathering in cold environments.
If water-filled cracks, fissures and pores freeze rapidly at the surface, the
expanding ice induces a hydrostatic pressure also called as cryostatic
pressure. This pressure is transmitted with equal intensity through all the
interconnected spaces to the still unfrozen water below. The force produced is
large enough to break and shatter rocks. This process is called
hydrofracturing. Frost shattering may occur below the depth of frozen ground.
The water vapour circulating through the open pores and fissures comes into
contact with the ice, which condenses and freezes in the unsaturated soils. This
results in the formation of ice lenses that grow while pushing up the overlying
layers of soil. This process is called frost heaving and is common in glacial
and periglacial environments. Repeated heating and cooling produces a fatigue
effect, which enhances thermal weathering. Some clay minerals such as
kaolinite, smectite and vermiculite, swell upon wetting and shrink when they dry
out. Rocks like shale and mudstone containing these clays, expand
considerably on wetting. This induces formation of micro-cracks and widening
of existing cracks, or the disintegration of the rock mass.
60
3. Salt-crystal Growth
Crystals may grow on evaporation from saline solutions in arid and coastal
areas, Stress is produced as the salt crystallises within the interstices of rocks.
This creates widening leading to granular disintegration. This process is known
as salt weathering. When salt crystals formed within pores get heated, or
saturated with water, they expand and exert pressure against the confining pore
walls. This produces thermal stress or hydration stress, respectively, both of
which contribute to salt weathering. Tafonis or holes are weak points, which
become prone to increased weathering. Salt expansion is one of the causes
of tafoni.
4. Root Wedging
Like frost wedging, root wedging takes place when plant roots force
themselves into cracks, prying the bedrock apart as they grow (Fig. 3.6b).
Sometimes, these roots may become fossilised. Rhizolith is the term for these
roots preserved in the rock record. Organisms such as termites, ants,
earthworms may bore or create tunnels. They also act as biological agents that
induce weathering similar to root wedging.
(a)
Fig. 3.6: a) Diagram showing frost wedging; and b) Root wedging in granite.
(Photo credit: Prof. Meenal Mishra)
61
SAQ 1
a) What do you understand by geomorphic processes?
b) What are endogenetic activities?
c) What are exogenetic processes?
d) What is spheroidal weathering?
e) Define denudation.
3.4.3 Chemical Weathering

You have read about chemical weathering in Unit 5 Rock Weathering in
BGYCT-131 Course. You have learnt that process of weathering involves a
huge number of chemical reactions on many different types of rocks under
different climatic conditions. Let us discuss six main chemical reactions
involved in rock decomposition:
1. Solution
2. Hydration
3. Oxidation and reduction
4. Carbonation
5. Hydrolysis
6. Chelation
1. Solution: Water is a very efficient and effective solvent. It dissolves
minerals and salts and this process is called solution or dissolution.
This process involves dissociation of the molecules into their anions and
cations. Dissolution is a mechanical rather than a chemical process,
however is normally discussed under chemical weathering because it
occurs in partnership with other chemical weathering processes.
Dissolution or solution is readily reversed. Some of the dissolved
material precipitates when the solution becomes saturated. You know
that minerals vary in their solubility. Quartz mineral has a very low
solubility. Good examples of soluble natural minerals are chlorides of
the alkali metals: rock salt or halite (NaCl) and potash salt (KCl). These
are found only in very arid climates. Gypsum also has fair solubility, as
is limestone. Water reacts with CO2 and forms carbonic acid, which is a
weak acid but dissolves limestone quite rapidly as shown in the
equation:
H2O + CO2 → H2CO3
water carbon dioxide carbonic acid
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2

limestone soluble
insoluble
62
2. Hydration: Hydration is a transitional process between chemical and
mechanical weathering. This occurs when minerals absorb water molecules
on their surfaces and edges in their crystal lattices without changing the
chemical composition of the original material. For example, gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) is produced on adding water to anhydrite (CaSO4). Under
humid mid-latitude climates brownish to yellowish soil is a result of hydration
of the reddish iron oxide hematite to rust-coloured goethite. The absorption
of water by clay particles is also a form of hydration giving rise to swelling of
clays.
3. Oxidation and reduction : Oxidation occurs when an atom or an ion loses
an electron, thus increasing positive charge or decreasing its negative
charge. It involves oxygen combining with a substance. The oxygen
dissolved in water is a common oxidising agent in the environment.
Oxidation weathering commonly affects minerals containing elements such
as iron, although elements such as manganese, titanium and sulphur may
also be oxidised. The oxygen dissolved in water comes in contact with iron-
containing minerals, as given in the equation below:
4Fe2+ + 3O2 + 2e → 2Fe2O3 [e = electron]
The ferrous iron, Fe2+occurs in most rock-forming minerals. They may be
converted to its ferric form, Fe3+ upsetting the neutral charge of the crystal
lattice. This causes it to collapse and makes the mineral more prone to
chemical attack. If rock or soil becomes saturated with stagnant water and
becomes oxygen-deficient with the aid of anaerobic bacteria. The process
is known as reduction. Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. It promotes
the changes known as gleying.
4. Carbonation : Carbonation is the formation of carbonates, which are the
salts of carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbon dioxide dissolves in natural water to
form carbonic acid. This reaction is reversible which facilitates combination
of water with carbon dioxide, which then dissociates into a hydrogen ion and
a bicarbonate ion. Carbonic acid attacks minerals, forming carbonates. The
process of carbonation dominates the weathering of calcareous rocks such
as limestone and dolomite where the main mineral is calcite or calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The reaction may be written as:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 ⇔ Ca2+ + 2HCO3−
CO2 + H2O ⇔ H+ + HCO3-
Carbonate ions from the dissolved limestone react at once with the
hydrogen ions to produce bicarbonate ions:
CO32− + H+ ⇔ HCO32−
5. Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is an important process of chemical weathering and
can completely decompose or modify vulnerable primary minerals present
in rocks. Water splits into hydrogen cations (H+) and hydroxyl anions (OH−)
and reacts directly with silicate minerals in rocks and soils during the
process of hydrolysis. The exchange of hydrogen ion with a metal cation of
the silicate minerals takes place. Commonly the metal ions can be
potassium (K+), sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), or magnesium (Mg2+). The
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released cation combines with the hydroxyl anion. The hydrolysis of
orthoclase can be expressed as:
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + 2OH−→2HAlSi3O8 + 2KOH
6. Chelation: This process involves the removal of metal ions, particularly the
ions of aluminium, iron, and manganese, from solids. Further, these metal
ions are bound with organic acids such as fulvic and humic acid to form
soluble organic matter–metal complexes.
The chelating agents are in part formed by the decomposition products of
plants and in part secretions from plant roots. Chelation promotes chemical
weathering which leads to transfer of metals in soil or rock.
3.4.4 Biological Weathering
You have read about biological weathering in Unit 5 of BGCYT-131. Movement
and mixing of materials by animals, production of carbon dioxide by animal
respiration or organic decay, changes in the moisture content of soils and
action of bacteria, fungi, lichens and moss were discussed. It may be noted that
some organisms attack rocks mechanically, or chemically, or by a combination
of mechanical and chemical processes. Plant roots, and especially tree roots,
penetrate the bedding planes and joints have a biomechanical effect because
they grow pressure mounts which may lead to fracturing of rock. You must have
observed that the dead lichen leaves a dark stain on rock surfaces.This dark
spots absorb more thermal radiation than the surrounding lighter areas thus
encouraging thermal weathering. In coastal areas, marine organisms bore into
rocks and graze them. This process is effective particularly in tropical
limestones. The boring organisms include bivalve molluscs and echinoids,
chitons, e.g. blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). Thus under some conditions,
bacteria, algae, fungi, and lichens may chemically alter minerals in rocks. Later,
these altered minerals may be removed. This process is known as biological
rock erosion.
We have discussed different types of weathering processes. Let us discuss
about weathering products.
3.5 WEATHERING PRODUCTS

All the clays, soils, and other substances dissolved in river water and being
carried to seas are the products of weathering. Soil is a thin layer of
unconsolidated materials that covers the Earth's surface and is produced by
gradual weathering and erosion on slopes, beneath glaciers, in stream valleys,
on beaches, and in deserts. The composition, size, degree of sorting, and
degree of roundness of the soil particles are governed by the nature of parent
rock, nature of the weathering, erosion and transportation processes. You have
also studied about types and formation of soils in Unit 5 Rock Weathering of
BGYCT-131 Course. Soil is an important resource that provides food for
world’s population. Geologists use the term soil to describe layers of material
derived from weathering of rocks. These materials i.e. soil experience additions
of new materials, loss of original materials, and modification through physical
and chemical reactions. We know that formation of soil is affected by various
factors such as time, climate, topography and parent material.
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The weathered mantle or regolith is the weathered material lying above the
unaltered or fresh bedrock. It may include lumps of fresh bedrock. Typically the
weathered mantle or crust can be differentiated into visible horizons and called
as weathering profile (Fig. 3.7). In this context, another term weathering front
is used, which is the boundary between fresh and weathered rock. The layer
immediately above the weathering front is known as saprock. This represents
the first stage of weathering. The saprock is overlain by saprolite. Though it is
more weathered than saprock, it still retains most of the structures found in the
parent bedrock. Saprolite lies where it was formed, undisturbed by mass
movements or other erosive agents. The process of weathering can produce
distinct mantles. The intense frost weathering of exposed bedrock produces
blockfields also called as felsenmeer, block meer, and stone fields.
Blockfields are large expanses of coarse and angular rock rubble occurring
within polar deserts and semi-deserts.
Talus (scree) slopes and talus cones are the result of weathering processes
on steep rock faces aided by some mass wasting. The soluble materials
precipitate within or on the weathered mantle to form duricrusts, hardpans, and
plinthite. Duricrusts act like a band of resistant rock and may cap hills in
addition they are important in landform development. They occur as hard
nodules or crusts, or simply as hard layers. Duricrust may be named on the
basis of richness of certain element/mineral. It is termed as ferricrete (iron rich);
silcrete (rich in silica); calcrete (rich in calcium carbonate); gypcrete (rich in
gypsum); alcrete (rich in aluminum); magnecrete (rich in magnesite), and
manganocrete (rich in manganese). Ferricrete occur in humid to subhumid
tropical environments and are associated with deep weathering profiles.
Laterite is a term used to describe weathering deposits rich in iron and
aluminium. Bauxite refers to weathering deposits rich in aluminum. Hardpans
and plinthite are hard layers but unlike duricrusts, not enriched in a specific
element.
Fig. 3.7: Typical weathering profile in rocks such as granite and granodiorite.
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We have read about geomorphic processes and products of weathering. Let us
now study about hillslope.
3.6 HILLSLOPE
We know that all the landforms comprise slope(s) hence slopes are the basic
element of all landscapes. Their study is important in geomorphology because
they comprise a greater part of landscapes and are also a medium to provide
water and sediment to streams in a drainage system.
Slope is the inclination of a surface or plane with respect to horizontal. You
have read about dip in Block-3 of course BGYCT-131, so you know that a slope
may or may not be parallel to the bed. Slopes of a landscape may have varying
shape, inclination, orientation and dimension. The term slope has two
meanings. Firstly, it refers to the angle of inclination of the ground surface, and
is expressed in degrees or as a percentage. Secondly, it refers to the inclined
surface itself. Earth surface is composed of slopes of various angles generally
ranging from 0 (horizontal) to 90 (vertical).
We generally use the terms inclination, slope angle and slope gradient as
synonymous. The term hillslope usually applies to the inclined surface and the
terms slope angle, slope gradient, or simply slope to its inclination. A
hillslope is an inclined landform unit that occupies most of the Earth surface.
They occur in variety of sizes and forms.
Let us now study about elements of hillslope.
3.6.1 Elements/Segments of Hillslope
If you recall the landforms that you have studied in the course BGYCT-131, all
the landforms comprise one or more slopes of variable inclination, orientation,
length, and shape. If we see longitudinal profile of a hillslope, we generally do
not find uniformity in slope angle from hill tops to valley floor. Rather, in a slope
profile we find distinct parts having different slope angles and surface
characteristics. For example, convexity at top of the hills (summit), concavity at
the base, and free face (vertical) in cliffs and rectilinearity (straight/linear) in
between. These distinct parts are called slope elements or slope segments
(Fig. 3.8). However, you may note that all the four segments may not be
present in a slope profile and the sequence may vary, especially, in coastal
areas.
Hill tops (crests) are characterised by convex element as they tend to become
rounded off due to denudation. If a hillslope profile is dominated by convex
element, it is known as waxing slope. The crest rounding off is also called
upper wash slope. The free face segment of hillslope is characterised by
steep slope. It facilitates free downfall or rolling down of loose materials under
the influence of gravity, hence devoid of any debris. Since there is instant
downslope transport of materials, the segment is also known as slope of
derivation. Base of hills are characterised by decreased slope angles and
concave slope hence this segment is also known as waning slope, valley
floor basement slope or lower wash slope. It stretches to the valley floor or
other local base level with a gradual decrease in the angle. The straight or
linear segment between the free face and concave segments in a slope profile
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is characterised by uniform slope and is known as constant or uniform or
regular slope. In this segment, sprinkling of fragmental rock materials may halt
for some time.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3.8: a) Block diagram of a hillslope and its different segments; and b)
Longitudinal profile of the hillslope.
We will now study about classification of hillslopes.

3.6.2 Classification of Hillslopes
Slopes can be classified based on several parameters as discussed here.
(A) Genetic Classification: The shape of slopes is governed by their internal
structure and external processes, such as slope wash, creep and other
mechanisms of sediment transport. Based on the stage of formation, slopes
can be genetically categorised into (i) primary slope, and (ii) secondary
slope. Primary slopes are formed by processes that tend to promote relief.
For example, V shaped valleys with gorges and canyons by rivers, U
shaped valleys with steep slopes by glaciers, cliffs by sea waves, and also
fault scarps. Secondary slopes are minor slopes formed by processes that
tend to decrease relief. For example, slopes of talus cones, which are
formed due to accumulation of debris coming down along the hillslopes.
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Secondary slopes evolve from erosion and modification of primary slopes.
However, it is difficult to distinguish between primary and secondary slopes
because primary and secondary processes do not operate independently.
According to another classification, based on mode of genesis, slopes can
be categorised into (i) tectonic slopes (formed due to tensional and
compressional forces), (ii) erosional slopes (formed due to erosion by
various geomorphic agents), and (iii) slopes of accumulation (formed due to
deposition of eroded sediments by denudation).
(B) Quantitative Classification: This classification is based on the angle of
slope as deduced from topographic maps or through measurements in the
field. Based on steepness, slopes can be classified into the following:
S. No. Class Description Symbol

1 0˚ to 5˚ Very Gentle A
2 5˚ to 10˚ Gentle B
3 10˚ to 15˚ Moderate C
4 15˚ to 25˚ Moderately Steep D
5 25˚ to 35˚ Steep E
6 >35˚ Very Steep F
Let us now study about the factors affecting hillslope development.

3.6.3 Hillslope Development
The stability of rock slope is governed by topography, geological features,
physical environment, and anthropogenic activities. These includes nature of
slope; weak lithology; adversely oriented discontinuities (bedding, foliation,
joints, faults, etc.); weathering grade; intense rainfall; erosion; earthquake
tremors; vegetation removal/deforestation; and excavation methods during
construction; loading of slope crest; unscientific mining; etc.
Hillslope is the resultant of erosive and resisting forces. Erosive forces exerted
by gravity driven processes such as running water and mass movements tend
to remove material from the surface and transfer it at lower elevations. Slopes
are more prone to erosion if they are steep and are in areas of (i) weak rocks,
(ii) devoid of vegetation, (iii) presence of large amount of water, (iv) vulnerable
geological structures, and (v) tectonic activities. Human activities can also
modify slopes directly or indirectly. Resistive forces (also known as shear force)
tend to resist the removal of materials. Slopes are less prone to erosion if they
are low gradient and are in areas of (i) massive hard rocks, and (ii) good
vegetation.
To better understand hillslope development, we need to understand two terms
viz. ‘supply-limited’ and ‘supply-unlimited’. In supply-limited slopes, rates of
material transportation are higher than the rates of weathering whereas in the
supply-unlimited slopes, weathering rates are higher in comparison to rates of
transportation. Availability of material allows mass movement hence the areas
of unlimited material supply i.e. supply-unlimited slopes are characterised by
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formation of a soil cover. And we can say that thicker the soil cover, the more
supply-unlimited the area is. However, we should remember that rates of
weathering and transportation are not constant and they vary with space and
time. Tectonic activities and change in climatic conditions may drastically
change and reverse the rates of weathering and transportation and therefore
the system itself may change. Further, slope gradients may reach threshold
with time and that may shift a supply-limited system to a supply-unlimited
system.
Study of slopes is of vital importance for landuse planners and geologists. We
now know that slope is an inclination of surface between hills and valleys. It
forms most significant aspect of landscape assemblages. It is more noticeable
in mountainous areas. Slopes determine morphological characteristics of a
given region. Since physical landscapes are the result of combinations of
slopes, they govern simplicity or complexity of any landscape.
3.6.4 Hillslopes and Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is classified on the basis of rate of movement and type of
material which slides down the slope (as shown in Fig. 3.9). It is a generalised
term and includes almost all types of slides and flow. Movement of Earth
materials from higher elevation to lower elevation under the influence of gravity
(mass wasting) along a slope is an important component of the denudation
process. This movement occurs when the shearing force component exceeds
normal component of gravitational force, when the material is lying on a sloping
surface.
(a)
(b)
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(c)
(d)
Fig. 3.9: (a) Schematic showing pull of gravity for a brick on a flat surface; (b)
When the slope is gentle and normal force is greater than the shear force, the
brick is stable and mass wasting is unlikely; (c) The material starts to move/ slide
down the slope when the slope is steep and shear force is greater than the
normal force; (d) Angle of repose for a heap of sand. Note that the slope is at the
angle of repose at which the shear force is in equilibrium with the normal force.
The angle of repose depends on the nature of material i.e. grain size, grain
composition, and water content.
With an increase in angle of slope, shear force increases whereas the normal
force decreases. The angle of repose is the angle measured relative to a
horizontal plane and is the steepest angle at which rock and soil material is
stable and will not move down the slope. When a slope is at the angle of
repose, the shear force is in equilibrium with the normal force. If the slope
becomes just slightly steeper, the shear force exceeds the normal force, and
the material starts to move downhill. The angle of repose is governed by nature
of material i.e. grain size, grain composition, and water content. The types of
mass wasting can be classified as rockfall and debris fall, rockslide and debris
slide, slump, debris flow and mudflow. All these types have been discussed in
Unit 5 of BGYCT 131 course.
SAQ 2
a) What is chelation?
b) What is weathering front?
c) Define slope.
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d) What are the elements of hillslope?
e) List the factors that govern stability of rock slope.
3.7 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit. We learnt that
 Landforms develop due to interplay of geomorphic processes and agents
that modify their size, shape and configuration. This modification called
evolution of landform is due to change in climatic conditions, horizontal/
vertical movements of Earth’s crust and change in intensity of geomorphic
processes.
 Endogenic and exogenic forces cause physical stresses and chemical
actions on Earth materials and bring about changes in configuration of the
Earth’s surface.
 There are numerous external and internal driving forces that continuously
act within the Earth as well as over the surface of the Earth and are known
as endogenic and exogenic forces, respectively. The main sources of
energy behind endogenic and exogenic forces are gravity, solar energy and
geothermal energy.
 Exogenic processes are also called destructional processes as they destroy
landforms and remove Earth materials whereas endogenic processes are
called constructional processes as they create new landforms.
 Orogenic processes are caused by endogenic forces and result in mountain
building through severe folding a faulting. Epeirogenic movements are also
caused by endogenic processes. They affect larger parts of continents and
results in upliftment and subsidence of the continental masses.
 Weathering is in situ disintegration and decomposition of rocks into a
residuum of original matter and alteration products. Erosion involves
detachment, entrainment, and transport of particles in a sequential manner.
 Weathering is of three types namely, physical, chemical and biological
weathering. Physical weathering happens by unloading/ pressure
expansion, frost action, salt crystal growth, and root wedging. Chemical
weathering takes place by the process of solution, hydration, oxidation and
reduction, carbonation, hydrolysis, and chelation. Biological weathering
takes place due to organic activities.
 Soil and regolith are the products or weathering. Formation of soil is
affected by factors such as time, climate, topography and parent material.
Regolith is the weathered material lying above the unaltered or fresh
bedrock. Laterite and bauxite are weathering deposits rich in iron and
aluminum, respectively.
 Slope is the inclination of a surface with respect to horizontal. Earth surface
is composed of slopes of various angles ranging from 0 to 90. There are
four slope elements. Slopes can be classified based on stage of their
formation, mode of genesis, and the slope angle. Mass movements are
influenced by hillslopes.
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3.8 ACTIVITY
 Create heaps of gravel, fine sand and coarse grained sand each. Observe
angles of repose of the three heaps and draw schematics as in Fig. 3.9d.
 Find out which of these angles is highest and why.

1. Describe the difference between diastrophic and sudden forces and
movements.
2. Discuss physical weathering processes?
3. Describe biological weathering processes?
4. Discuss weathering products.
5. Explain classification of hillslopes.
3.10 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions 1
a) The processes, which are responsible for formation and alteration of the
Earth's surface are called geomorphic processes.
b) The processes operating within the Earth surface are known as endogenetic
processes. Examples of endogenetic processes include orogeny,
epeirogeny, earthquakes and volcanism.
c) The processes operating at or near the Earth surface are known as
exogenetic processes. Examples of exogenetic processes include
weathering, erosion, mass wasting, transportation and deposition.
d) Spheroidal weathering is a type of exfoliation that produces rounded
features which is caused when chemical weathering moves along joints in
the bedrock
e) Denudation is a combination of various processes which results in the
wearing away of the Earth’s surface and causes a general lowering and
levelling of the surface.
Self Assessment Questions 2
a) It is a chemical weathering process which involves removal of metal ions,
such as aluminium, iron, and manganese from solids which are then bound
with organic acids such as fulvic and humic acid to form soluble organic
matter–metal complexes.
b) Weathering front is the boundary between fresh and weathered rock.
c) Slope is the inclination of a surface or plane with respect to horizontal. It
refers to the angle of inclination of the ground surface also to the inclined
surface itself. Slopes may range from 0 (horizontal) to 90 (vertical).
d) The distinct parts in a slope profile having different slope angles and surface
characteristics are called slope elements or slope segments.
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e) The stability of the rock slope is governed by topography, geological
features, physical environment, and anthropogenic activities.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to Sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.
4. Please refer to Section 3.5.
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UNIT 4
CONTROLING FACTORS IN
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
Structure______________________________________________________________
4.1 Introduction Along Transform Fault Margin
Expected Learning Outcomes Along Hot Spots

4.2 Concepts of Uplift, Denudation and Due to Faulting in Continents
Exhumation
4.5 Relationship of Climate with Landform
4.3 Isostasy Development
Historical Background Direct and Indirect climatic controls
Theories of Isostasy 4.6 Anthropogenic Impacts on Landscape

Difference between Pratt’s and Airy’s Direct Impact
Hypothesis
Indirect Impact
Implications of Isostasy in Geomorphological
4.7 Summary
Studies
4.8 Activity
4.4 Relationship of Tectonics with Landform
Development 4.9 Terminal Questions
Along Divergent Margin 4.10 Further/ Suggested Readings
Along Convergent Margin 4.11 Answers
4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already read about geomorphic processes such as weathering and
erosion in Unit 5 Rock Weathering of BGYCT-131 Course and also in Unit 3 of
this course. Hence you are aware of the changes brought by these processes
on surface of the Earth with time. The sculptures made by these processes over
the Earth’s surface or land surface are commonly described as landforms. The
landforms widely range in size from small hillocks to continents or oceans
known as landscape.
..................................................................................................................................................................
The development of landform is a continuous process which is a function of the
prevalent climatic conditions, rock types and their structure, agency in action
(air, water, wind, and glacier) and most importantly the time involved. For
example, a glacial landscape may show many landforms such as cirques,
horns, arêtes, U-shaped valleys to moraines, etc., which are different from
landforms sculptured by rivers in a tropical landscape. Therefore, we can say
that the development of landscape is controlled by the rock type, its structure,
rate of geomorphic processes and time. In other words, apart from time the
landform development is controlled by geological and geomorphological
processes about which we will study in this unit.
Expected Learning Outcomes________________________

After reading this unit you will be able to:
 define the geomorphic terms like uplift, denudation and exhumation;
 explain Airy’s and Pratt’s hypothesis of Isostasy;
 describe the major landform types developed due to different movements
of the tectonic plates;
 discuss relationship of climate with landform development; and
 recognise the impact of human activities upon the landscapes.
4.2 CONCEPTS OF UPLIFT, DENUDATION AND

EXHUMATION
Prior to studying the factors controlling development of various types of
landforms, let us first understand a few concepts such as uplift, denudation and
exhumation.
Let us begin with understanding exhumation. The term exhumation in
geomorphology refers to the process by which any rock entity that occurs at
depth inside the Earth approaches to its surface. The process of exhumation
involves upward movement of rocks due to faulting, igneous intrusion or
subsurface chemical reaction, etc. However, if the surface of the Earth is
lowered by the process of removal of overburden then the in situ subsurface
rock may approach closer to the surface causing exhumation.
The removal of overburden is generally caused due to processes of weathering
and erosion, and is collectively called as denudation. These processes are
brought about by actions of various natural agencies such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, river, glacier, wind, etc. You have read about various
geological works of natural agencies in Block 2 Earth Surface processes in the
BGYCT-131 course. Thus denudation is related to removal and downward
transport of broken up rock particles, called regolith. The rate of denudation of
rocks (i.e. removal of materials) is dependent on the rate of weathering, mobility
of the regolith and the slope angle. When a rock is exposed on the Earth’s
surface, the natural agencies and atmospheric forces start their action upon
them. These forces can break the rocks into smaller fragments (by weathering
process) that may be removed later by transportation. The fragmentation and
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simultaneous removal of the rock materials can also be done by natural
agencies (such as water, wind glacier, etc.) by the process known as erosion.
The process of weathering and erosion removes the broken rock particles thus
exposing a fresh rock surface. The fresh rock exposure allows the process of
denudation to continue. Gravity plays a major role in denudation because all the
broken rock fragments ultimately move downslope and promote planation. The
erosion surface is the name given to such topographical surfaces which are
almost plain (with some undulating grounds) and have low relief, created by
denudational processes.
We will discuss in detail the concepts of uplift, denudation and exhumation
because of their significant role in landform development. These three
processes namely involve displacements in vertical direction. Therefore, let us
understand the concepts of these three processes.
The surface of the Earth refers to the interface between rocks, soil and air. In
the tectonic and geomorphic considerations, let us understand that terms like
‘surface height’ and ‘surface uplift’ have some kind of quantification in about the
average height. For example, the height of the Mt. Everest is around 8.8km but
if we take the average height of that terrain in surrounding area of 1ox1o latitude
and longitude, it amounts to around 5km. The other important consideration is
that where from these heights are measured. Obviously, in the given example,
the reference height is the mean sea level (msl) but in more precise geodetic
considerations the reference datum could be the ‘geoid’. While considering the
displacement of the surface, we may come across the following:
a) Displacement of the Earth’s surface with respect to geoid (or msl), is
‘surface uplift’ as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Here, interface of the rocks with air
(or water) is over a region whose area may be thousand to tens of
thousands (103 to 104) of square kilometers.
b) Displacement of rocks with respect to the geoid (or msl); is referred to as
‘uplift of the rocks’ (Fig. 4.1).
c) Displacement of rocks with respect to the surface is referred to as
‘exhumation’ as shown in the Fig. 4.1.
From the consideration it is evident that

Surface uplift = Uplift of rock – Exhumation
All these displacements cannot be equal in general (excepting the zero value).
Hence, if the surface and rock uplifts are equal, there is no exhumation. This
also implies that the rate of exhumation is simply the rate of erosion or the rate
of removal of the overburden by tectonic or geomorphic processes. There may
be other ways of exhumations that may be broadly categorised as geomorphic
and tectonic exhumations (Fig. 4.2).
4.3 ISOSTASY
Now we will study about isostasy and its link to development of landforms.
The general term ‘isostasy’ was coined in 1989 by the American geologist
Clarence Dutton to express the ideas about buoyancy of Earth’s solid crust
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floating over liquidus mantle. The term was first used to express the balance
between the mountain range and the low lands over the surface of the Earth.
The term is derived from the Greek words ísos (meaning equal),
and stásis (meaning standstill).
Fig. 4.1: The concepts of uplift and exhumation: a) The top panel shows initial
locations of points A and B with respect to sea level and ground surface
levels; b) The middle panel shows uplift of point A and ground surface
with respect to point B due to faulting. There is no exhumation at point A
because it is at same depth with respected to the ground surface as
earlier; c) In the bottom panel, the ground surface is lowered due to
denudation. In this case, point A is exhumed because its depth is
reduced with respect to the ground surface.
Fig. 4.2: The different geomorphic and tectonic ways of exhumation.
The term Isostasy or isostatic equilibrium is now used to express the state of
gravitational equilibrium between Earth’s crust and mantle. It is linked to
development of landforms.
Let us briefly discuss the historical background that ultimately lead to the theory
of Isostasy.
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4.3.1 Historical Background
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) believed that the Earth was perfectly rigid
and changes in its relief, such as mountain building and erosion would
displace the center of the Earth.
 Clüver (17th century) considered that mountain should either displace the
Earth’s center of mass, or sink into subterranean cavities, if they exist.
However, Clüver pointed out that this does not happen because mountain
columns are made up of rocks with an average specific gravity of 2.5.
Based on the denser rocks found at the base of the mines, he expected that
the Earth’s inner part had a specific gravity varying from 3 to 5.
 Peirre Bougour (1735-1745) measured a meridian arc at the foot hills of
Peruvian Andes using a plumb line to determine the vertical. He presumed
that the plumb line would be deflected by the mass of the adjacent mountain
but he found that the gravitational attraction of the Andes was much less
than the expected value.
 Boscovich in 1755 explained this mass deficiency by assuming voids below
the mountains that compensate the overlying mass.
 Nevil Maskelyne and Charles Hutton (1774 - 1776) compared the specific
gravity of the Earth with that of the mountain Schiehallion in the Grampians
of Scotland by evaluation of the deflection of plumb line from the vertical at
two stations near the foot of the Schiehallion (Schiehallion Experiment).
They estimated the mean density of the Earth as 4.713.
 John Henry Pratt in 1854 commented on the geodetic results obtained by
George Everest in the Indo-Gangetic plains that an error of vertical angles
had been introduced because of unexpected deflection of the plumb lines
due to mass deficiency of the Himalayas.
 G.B. Airy in 1855 suggested that the anomalous deflection of the plumb line
should have been expected as mountains are buoyed up by light roots
‘floating’ over a heavier substratum.
 Clarence Dutton in 1889 explained that in the substratum area underlain by
rocks of low density would bulge outward. Those underlain by high density
rock will tend to depress because all components of the crust would tend to
reach a gravitational equilibrium, the phenomenon which he termed
‘Isostasy’. Dutton also pointed out that in order to maintain isostatic
equilibrium, the eroded areas would have to rise whereas the area receiving
sedimentation would have to sink. Although Dutton coined the term
Isostasy, Pratt is regarded as the originator of the theory of isostasy.
4.3.2 Theories of Isostasy

We have now discussed the historical background leading to the theory of
isostasy. The two main hypotheses are:
a) Pratt’s Hypothesis of Isostasy
b) Airy’s Hypothesis of Isostasy.
We will now discuss both these theories in some detail.
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(a) Pratt’s Hypothesis of Isostasy
The Pratt hypothesis was developed by John Henry Pratt, an English
mathematician and Anglican missionary. During his studies in 1854, Pratt found
that density of the high mountain rocks is less than the density of the plateaus.
Further, density of the plateaus is less than that of the plains and the density of
the plains is less than that of ocean floors and so on. This means that there is
inverse relationship between height of the relief and the density. He assumed
that the relief features as column in which density from top to bottom does not
change. He also assumed a line or ‘level of compensation’ in the substratum.
According to Pratt, equal surface area must underlie equal mass along the line
of compensation.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.3: a) Weight balance showing two pieces of same weight (i.e. 5kg) (made of
iron and wood) to understand Pratt’s postulation of Isostatic equilibrium.
Keeping the base area of both the weight scales same, the lighter density
material will have higher column height; b) Pratt’s model of level of
compensation. The lighter density column of the continental crust will
stand higher in topography from the line of compensation in order to
attain the same weight.
We will try to understand Pratt’s idea with the help of an analogy. Let us take
two weight measuring pieces (say of 5 kg each), one made from higher density
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material (iron) and the other from a lower density material (wood) having equal
length and width dimensions of the base. The height of the wooden column will
be more than that of the iron piece (Fig. 4.3a). Pratt assumed on the same line
and postulated that in order to maintain equilibrium in the substratum the lower
density material column would stand higher. Therefore, the mountain columns
are higher because they are made from lighter density rocks than plateaus.
Similarly, plateaus are higher than plains and plains are topographically higher
than ocean floors because of their relative densities. According to Pratt,
elevations at the Earth’s surfaces are compensated by columns of rocks whose
density is an inverse function of topographic elevation (Fig. 4.3b). All columns
are assumed to extend downwards to a uniform ‘Level of Compensation’ at
slightly less than 100 km depth.
(b) Airy’s Hypothesis of Isostasy
Sir George Biddell Airy, an English mathematician and astronomer postulated a
hypothesis in 1855 that the crust of lighter density material floats on the
substratum over relatively denser materials. Airy was of the opinion that
densities of the rocks on the land whether mountain, plateau or plane remain
same and do not change with depth. So any block or column of the crust floats
over a denser substratum like the pieces of icebergs floating over water. They
show some portion above water level and the rest i.e. the much larger portion
remains below the water level. The same can be seen in an experiment where
if columns of wooden blocks of different sizes are allowed to float on water
body, you will notice that the columns that are higher above the water level
have deeper roots in proportion below the water level (Fig.4.4a).
Fig. 4.4: a) When wooden pieces of different column heights having same density
are allowed to float in water you will observe that the column standing
highest above water level has deepest immersion under water; and b)
Airy’s model of flotation of crustal blocks over denser substratum is
similar to the wooden block experiment. According to Airy, crustal
segments have same density and the topographically higher standing
crustal column also has the deeper root in the substratum.
Airy postulated a hypothesis following the law of flotation, which states that if
the land column above the substratum is larger, its greater part would be
submerged in the substratum and if the land column is lower then its smaller
part would be submerged in the substratum (Fig. 4.4b). Hence elevations in
accordance with Archimedes’ principle are directly proportional to the depth of
the columns of continental crust below them. Therefore, according to Airy’s
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theory of isostasy the mountains which are topographically high above on the
ground have deeper roots in the substratum compared to lower lying grounds
such as plateaus and planes. In other words the Moho (the boundary
separating crust and mantle) lies deeper below the mountains than in oceans
(Fig. 4.4b).
4.3.3 Difference between Pratt’s and Airy’s Hypotheses
We have read about Pratt and Airy’s hypotheses of isostasy. Let us learn about
the difference in their views.
John Henry Pratt (1809-1871) was Sir George Biddell Airy (1801 –
a British clergyman, astronomer and 1892) was an English
mathematician and Archdeacon mathematician and astronomer.
of Calcutta.
Views of Pratt Views of Airy
Varying density of crustal material Uniform density of crustal material
Uniform depth upto which crustal Varying depth upto which crustal
material reaches material reaches
All crustal material do not go below Crust below the mountain has
the Line of Compensation deeper root than planes
We have read about views of Pratt and Airy’s hypothesis of isostasy. Let us
learn about the strengths and weaknesses of both the hypothesis. Both the
theories predict a relative deficiency of mass under high mountains. However,
Airy’s theory is now known to be a better explanation of mountains within
continental regions, whereas Pratt’s theory essentially explains the difference
between continents and oceans. Because we know that the continent crust is
largely of granitic composition, which is less dense than the basaltic ocean
basin.
4.3.4 Implications of Isostasy in Geomophological

Studies
Now let us learn about the implications of isostasy in geomorphological studies.
When large amounts of sediments are deposited in a basin, the immense

weight of the sediments may cause the lower crust to sink. Similarly, when a
large amount of material is eroded away from a region, the land may rise to
compensate. Therefore, as a mountain range is eroded, the (reduced) range
rebounds upwards (to a certain extent) to be eroded further. Some of the rock
strata now visible at the ground surface may have spent much of their history at
great depths buried under the above strata. Eventually the overlying strata will
be eroded away and the lower layers will rebound upwards as exposed rocks.
An analogy may be made with an iceberg, which always floats with a major
proportion of its body below the water surface. If snow falls on top of the
iceberg, due to its weight the iceberg will sink lower in the water. If a layer of ice
melts off from the top of the iceberg, the remaining iceberg will rise. Similarly,
Earth's lithosphere "floats" on the asthenosphere.
Let us spend few minutes here to check our progress.
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SAQ 1
a) What does the term ‘isostasy’ signify and who proposed this term?
b) The Himalayas are higher than the Andes above the sea level but
according to Airy which mountain is expected to have deeper roots below
the surface?
c) What is the meaning of ‘Line of Compensation’ and who proposed this
concept?
4.4 RELATIONSHIP OF TECTONICS WITH

LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
You know that landforms are of various sizes ranging from continents, oceans
and mountains to rivers and waterfalls. Therefore, in geomorphological studies,
the landforms (surface relief features) found over the globe have been
categorised into five orders (i.e. relief features) about which we have studied in
Block1 of the course BGYCT-131.
We have read that the First order relief features or landforms are the largest
ones that are present as continent and oceans over the globe. The forces
involved in the development of these landforms are directly related to the
thermal convection currents that cause movements of the lithospheric or
tectonic plates. The Second order relief features such as the Himalayas and
Kilimanjaro are structural forms developed over continents as mountain ranges,
rift valleys, etc. due to movements of continental platforms and ocean basins.
The third order relief features are smaller than the second order and formed
by erosional and depositional processes. In comparison to the first and second
order features, we can see the entire form of third order relief features such as
discrete mountain ranges, groups of hills and large river valleys, etc. Fourth
order relief features such as individual landforms (e.g. a mountain or a hill) are
the sculptural details of the third order features. The fifth order relief features
are the small individual features such as a cliff, a waterfall or a sandbar that
may be a part of the fourth order features.
The endogenetic diastrophic forces (i.e. epeirogenic and orogenic forces) are
responsible for development of the third order features. These are also called
constructional landforms upon which the lower order relief features are
produced. Smaller or micro-level landforms are developed by exogenetic
denudational forces /processes originating from the atmosphere. These
landforms may be erosional (e.g. glacial valleys, river valleys, etc.), depositional
(drumlins, eskers flood plains, etc.) or residual (monadnock, inselberg) or
related to local tectonics.
We know that tectonics is very important as far as large topographic features
such as oceans, continents and mountain formations are concerned. Tectonics
and related concepts are already discussed in Block 4 of BGYCT-131 Course.
These will be further elaborated in Volume 2 Geotectonics of this course. By
now you must have understood that the large scale landforms of the first and
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second order are related to global tectonics. Let us acquaint ourselves with
salient features about the working principles of geotectonics:
 We have read in Unit 3 Structure and Composition of Earth of BGYCT-131
course that there are three major divisions of the Earth’s interior. These are
crust, mantle and core.
 The lithosphere is comprised of crust and upper part of mantle. The
lithosphere floats over asthenosphere. You have read this in Unit 16 Plate
Tectonics of BGYCT-131 course.
 The lithosphere of the Earth is segmented and each segment is known as
lithospheric plate, tectonic plate or simply as plate. There are seven major
and more than 20 minor plates.
 The convection currents, which are generated deep under the Earth reach
up to asthenoshere and drive the lithospheric plates that float over the
asthenosphere.
 The movement of different plates relative to each other is responsible for
creation of large scale landforms over the globe. The relative motion of the
plates along the resulting plate boundaries has been classified into three
major categories- (a) divergent (b) convergent and (c) transform fault plate
movements.
Now we will discuss the relationship between tectonic activities and landform
development in light of the plate movements along the different plate
boundaries.
4.4.1 Along Divergent Margin
Let us discuss the following landforms, which are developed as a result of
divergent plate boundary.
(1) Ocean: Ocean and sea depressions are the most dominant landform as
they occupy (> 70%) area of the Earth’s surface. Geologists know that
ocean development is a process which is a result of tectonic activities
related to divergent movement of plates. The oceans namely, the Atlantic,
Indian, Pacific, Arctic and Antarctic that we observe on the globe today
have developed due to divergent movement of plates along the mid-
oceanic- ridges. All the continents that were once joined (known as
Pangaea) got fragmented and separated due to divergent plate movements
and the intervening area between the continents remained low lying and
became oceans and seas.
(2) Mid-Oceanic-Ridges (MOR): In the middle part of all the oceans linear
submarine ridges are found as underwater mountains (Fig.4.5) that are
commonly known as Mid-Oceanic–Ridges. They form a linear chain of
approximately 40,000 km in all. These ridges are places of continuous
outpouring of hot molten lava from interior of the Earth. This outpouring hot
molten lava fills up the gap created by movement of two diverging plates.
The new lava forms new crust in the ocean, and adds up to surface area of
ocean floor (often referred to as sea floor spreading). These linear Mid-
Oceanic Ridges act as spreading centers of the sea floors (Fig.4.5).
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.5: Topographies of: a) Atlantic Ocean; and b) Pacific Ocean. [Sources: (a)
https://www.pmfias.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2016/01/Atlantic-Ocean-relief-
trenches.jpg; (b) https://www.pmfias.com/wp- content/uploads/2016/01/Pacific-
Ocean-relief-trenches.jpg]
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(3) Abyssal Plains: Lava outpouring, which comes out from the Mid-Oceanic-
Ridges spreads on both the flanks of the MOR and constructs new oceanic
crust. The divergent forces from the spreading center shift the new floor
towards the continent along with the sea floor spreading. This way, new
plain and flat areas grow on both sides of the MOR. These large flat
submarine plains are known as Abyssal plains (Fig. 4.5). The major parts
of all the oceans are occupied by these abyssal plains.
(4) Continents: Continents comprise the lightest materials in the Earth’s
composition. Hence, according to plate tectonics theory they never subduct
or get destroyed and remain at the uppermost part of the Earth’s crust. Due
to tectonic activities the different segments of the continents may unite or
get fragmented. That is the reason for finding much older rocks on the
continent but not on the oceans. Continental masses were present since
the formation of the Earth (~4200 my). However, no ocean is older than
200my. The present Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, Antarctica, North- and
South-America were once united as Pangaea, and later became separated
due to tectonic activities.
(5) Continental Margins: The continental margins are those areas or zones
where continents meet the ocean. We know that the abyssal plains lie at a
depth of about 4 to 5 km below the mean sea level (msl). However, the
depth is not constant along the continents and gradually increases as we
reach towards the abyssal plains. Thus there exists a sloping submarine
ground at the periphery of the continents till the abyssal plains. These
sloping areas are commonly called as continental margins.
Geomorphologically, the continental slopes have two distinct zones called
continental shelf and continental slope. The continental shelf is attached to
the continent and has gentle slopes (1 to 3º). On the other hand,
continental slope (sometimes called continental rise) directly merges with
the abyssal plain. They have general gradient ranging from 3 to 5º.
(6) Oceanic Rift Valleys: The rift valleys form due to normal faulting in zones
of extensional tectonics. The divergent boundaries are found along the
Mid-Oceanic Ridges, therefore rift valleys are also found over these
submarine ridges (Fig.4.5). The rift valleys are approximately of the same
length as the adjacent Mid-oceanic Ridges and occur together or
juxtaposed; therefore, they are collectively referred to by a common
acronym MOR for the ocean topography.
4.4.2 Along Convergent Margin

You have learnt in Unit 16 Plate Tectonics of BGYCT-131 course that
convergent plate boundaries are those areas where two plates move towards
each other or one plate moves toward the other stationary plate. We will study
about the following landforms observed along or in the vicinity of convergent
plate boundaries:
(1) Oceanic trenches: These are the places where two oceanic (or continent-
oceanic) plates interact with each other. The continued convergence
causes one of the plates to descend below the other plate. This process is
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referred to as subduction. A linear depression is formed at subduction
zones, which is called as trench (Fig.4.5b). The deepest part/ points in the
oceanic trenches are called as ‘deep’. For example, Challenger Deep
(depth 10,924m) is the deepest place in the Mariana trench present in
Pacific Ocean. Please note that the depth of this trench is greater than the
Mt. Everest (height 8, 849m).
(2) Island Arcs and Oceanic Volcanoes: The continued subduction leads the
oceanic plate to move downwards the mantle where it melts because of
high temperatures. The density is reduced in the newly formed melt
(molten material) and it starts rising due to buoyancy. This molten rock
material may come up to the surface as eruption. Since oceanic subduction
is involved in this process, these volcanoes are found in the ocean at some
distance from the trench and form oceanic islands (Fig. 4.6a). This type of
volcanic islands are located at some distance form an arc (e.g. Japanese
and Indonesian islands, etc.). Hence, these islands are called as island
arcs. Among these islands some may represent active volcano, some
dormant and the rest are extinct volcanoes. The island arcs typically show
their concavity towards the nearby continental side.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.6: Formation of (a) trench, island arcs, and (b) Mountain
ranges along the convergent plate boundaries. (Source:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/ understanding.html)
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(3) Fold Mountains: Two continental plates may collide and their collision,
continued convergence, and subsequent subduction leads to formation of
fold mountains as a result of compressive stresses (Fig.4.6b). Himalaya is
a typical fold mountain belt formed by the collision of the Indian and
Eurasian plates.
4.4.3 Along Transform Fault Margin
Conservative plate boundary is that boundary along which the plates slide past
each other but neither crust is created nor destroyed. These boundaries are
represented by transform faults. The relative displacement is parallel to strike of
the fault.
4.4.4 Along Hot Spots

You have been introduced to hot spots in Unit 16 of BGYCT-131 course. Hot
spots are those places over the Earth’s surface where a stream of magma
emerges out directly from the mantle. Such streams are called mantle plumes.
Hot spots form volcanoes. Quiet type of volcanoes may be observed here.
Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean are typical examples (Fig. 4.5).
(1) Aseismic ridges: In some of the oceans, there are linear ridges, which do
not have characteristics of the Mid-oceanic ridges. They are devoid of
divergent/ convergent or transform boundaries and related seismic
activities. Therefore, they are called as Aseismic ridges. Ninety Degree East
ridge in the Indian Ocean and Hawaii –Emperor Ridges in the Pacific Ocean
(Fig.5) are examples of such ridges. They are supposed to form due to
movement of plates over some hot spots.
4.4.5 Due to Faulting in Continents

Sometimes large scale faulting occurs over continents resulting in the following
landforms.
(1) Continental Rift Valleys: Normal faulting may result in large linear
depressions over the continents called as continental rift valleys. The East
African Rift, the Rhine valleys in Europe and Son –Narmada- Tapti river
valleys in India are example of the continental rift valleys. These valleys
develop in grabens (down thrown blocks) of the normal faults. Mahanadi
and Godavari River valleys in India are also example of such valleys.
(2) Block Mountains and Plateau: Because of faulting the flat area may be
uplifted relative to the adjacent low lying areas and form elevated landforms
such as plateau or block mountains. Vosges mountain of France is an
example of highland developed due to faulting.
SAQ 2
Fill in the Blanks with suitable words
a) The Son, Narmada and Tapti rivers flow along a landform known as
………………….
b) Ninety Degree East Ridge is formed due to its association with
………………. activity.
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c) The plate movements along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean is of
…………………. type.
d) The island arc in the oceans are expected to be near ………………… type of plate
boundary.
e) The continents and oceans are considered as …….…….. order landforms.
4.5 RELATIONSHIP OF CLIMATE WITH

LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
In this section we will discuss about the relationship of climate with landforms.
Before that we will learn about the meaning of some related terms such as
weather, climate, climatic variability and climatic change.
 Weather: Weather is the state of atmosphere at a specific time and place
with respect to temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, cloudiness,
precipitation, transparency and calmness. It is observed on daily basis.
 Climate: It is the long-term pattern of weather in an area, typically averaged
over a period of 3-4 decades. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability
of meteorological variables over a time period spanning from months to
millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly
measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,
and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components
of the climate system, which includes the ocean, land, and ice on Earth. The
climate of a location is affected by its latitude/longitude, terrain, and altitude,
as well as nearby water bodies and their currents.
 Climatic Variability: It is instability leading to variation in weather and
climatic conditions in time and space. It is an inherent feature of the climate
because the atmosphere is always in the state of turmoil leading to climatic
variability.
 Climate Change: It is defined as variation and shifts in weather conditions
over space and time of different scales and magnitudes resulting in change
of climate type. Examples: (a) Change form warm and moist climate to warm
and dry climate; (b) From warm and moist climate to cool and moist climate
as it happened during the Carboniferous period; (c) Tectonic processes also
result in climate change. Change in location of continents and oceans may
lead to change in vulcanicity, and atmospheric compositions bringing about
changes in the prevailing climatic conditions.
The change in the climate may be slow and gradual, rapid and catastrophic,
semi-periodic or non-periodic, short term or long term, and it may be local,
regional or at global scale. It may result due to natural factors or anthropogenic
factors. Climatic changes may be short term or long term:
a) Short term climatic changes involve the consideration of changes in the
energy balances of the Earth- atmosphere system leading to periodic
changes in weather and climate. It may be in time span of few years. These
are generally caused by anthropogenic factors.
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b) Long Term climate changes: They persist from thousands to millions of
years and they are exceedingly slow. They are always caused by natural
factors.
c) Only long term climatic changes are geomorphologically significant because
they can introduce changes in landscape mosaic of a region.
4.5.1 Climatic Control on Landform Development

We have read about terms related to climate change in the previous section.
Now we will discuss about the climatic control on landform development. A set
of landforms are generally seen to develop in different climatic regions. The
nature and rate of weathering and erosional processes, vegetation type,
surface runoff etc. differ considerably in different climatic regions thus the
mechanism of landform development may not be same in these regions. You
have read about the landforms developed by different natural agencies such as
glacier (in cold climatic conditions), river (in tropical regions) and wind (in hot
desserts) in BGYC-131 course. Temperature and humidity remain two most
significant climatic parameters that put strong control over the landform
development. Stoddart (1969) recognised the following major themes in
landform developments over the globe:
(1) Landform differ significantly in different climatic regions
(2) Spatial variations in climatic parameters such as temperature, humidity,
precipitation etc and their influence on weathering, erosion and runoff.
(3) There are certain diagnostic landforms, which clearly demonstrate climate
landform relationship
(4) Within a single environment different attributes (such as slope, hydraulic
gradient, form, geometry, lithology, etc) may lead to variation in landforms
As discussed above, temperature remains the most significant direct parameter
of climate in landform development. It influences not only the type of landform
to develop but it also has control over their development. You have read about
the weathering processes in which the effects of temperature depend upon
fluctuation range (highest- lowest in the year, season and daily), length of time
(short or prolonged periods), specific zones (direct heating or shadow zones),
etc. You are also well aware of the importance of humidity in association with
temperature which may cause freezing and thawing of moisture in the cracks/
joints, etc. which enhances rate of weathering. The indirect control over the
landform development comes via water and vegetation that may allow
stabilisation or destabilisation of the landform geometry over a period of time.
Also the type and amount or precipitation in association with temperature has
also major role to play in development of landforms.
4.6 ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON LANDSCAPE

Human has appeared quite late in the history of the Earth. But their appearance
and presence has quite significantly affected the global environment more or
less on every aspect. Therefore, the relationship of man and nature has now
become a burning topic. The anthropogenic activities equipped with modern
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technologies and advanced scientific knowledge have become very important
factor in modifying the environmental processes. You have studied about many
agents of weathering and erosion such as temperature, pressure, humidity that
gradually modifies the landform of any region naturally. But the modern
geologists have begun to realise that man is many more times powerful agent
of denudation than all the denuding factors combined. The constructional and
destructional activities of human have significantly affected the natural
landforms.
Let us now understand the impact of human in different natural geological and
geomorphological processes and their role in the landform development:
4.6.1 Direct Impact

Let us read some direct impacts of mankind on landscape.
 Anthropogenic impact on soil erosion: Soil formation is a natural
process. Human has utilised the soil for agricultural practices. The growing
need and demands of increasing human population require utilisation of
more and more agricultural products. Therefore more and more fertile land
is being utilised for various human activities. The unplanned usage by
human has significantly accelerated loss of soil through soil erosion. The
soil requires thousands of years for its formation but becomes readily
vulnerable for rapid erosion because of activities like (a) landuse change (b)
farm practice changes, and (c) management measures taken for crop and
land using machines and chemical fertilizers.
 Anthropogenic impact on topography: Many natural slopes in hilly
regions have been modified for construction of terraces for farming.
 Impact on deforestation: Man cuts trees and forests to fulfill the
requirement for fuels and building materials resulting in landuse pattern.
 Infrastructure development: This includes new constructions such as
roads, rails, building, canals, dams, reservoirs, urbanisation, etc.
 Mining and quarrying : This activity directly brings about changes in the
landscape.
 Changing soil composition: The extensive use of chemical fertilisers,
pesticides and herbicides gradually change the soil composition.
 Water channelisation and explidation: It results in change in river course,
siltation, etc. Harbours, construction sea wall, breakwaters, dams,
reservoirs, flood control measures straightening and river deepening. River
water diversion to canals, dredging, etc,
4.6.2 Indirect Impacts

 Ground water modifications: It includes contamination, and changes in
chemical composition through leakage of chemical and fertilisers,
insecticides, pesticides.
 Weathering accelerations: By mining activities, for extraction of mineral,
blasting, quarrying, vegetation root destruction, landslides, slumping, debris
fall etc., urban settlement over rocks in hilly region, pipelines, sewages, etc.
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 Impact on coasts: This includes sea wall, breakwaters, stabilisation
measures for coastal dunes, etc. marshland reclamation, harbors, dredging
of ports and harbours, artificial replenishment of eroded beaches, beach
quarrying, devegetation and extensive cultivation.
 Impacts on rivers: This includes direct modification such as hydroelectric
power generation, rail/ road/ bridges, lift irrigation, waste disposal. Indirect
Modification includes reservoir siltation, change in geometry of river
channel, surface runoff, effects of direct modification on upstream and
downstream regions.
 Impacts on glacier margins: It is also known as periglacial process, which
includes excavation activity which disturbs thermal equilibrium.
 Impact on subsurface processes: This includes tunnel construction,
ground water mining, empty cavities, man induced sinkholes, oil and natural
gas extraction, coal and mineral mining and nuclear waste dump.
 Impact on pedological (soil formation) system: Soil largely influences
human activities and vice versa. Soil formation requires thousands of years
to but can be degraded in very short period due to agricultural practices,
ploughing, farm practices; pesticides, herbicides, etc.
4.7 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what we have learnt in this unit. We have learnt that:
 Uplift, denudation and exhumation are vertical displacements involved in
geological and geomorphological processes.
 Isostasy or isostatic equilibrium is related to balance of floating crustal
segments over liquid substratum inside the Earth.
 Pratt’s and Airy’s hypotheses of isostasy explain the flotation patterns of the
crustal blocks over the mantle.
 Landform of the first and second orders which include ocean, continents
and part of the continents ,are largely controlled by the global tectonic
processes, whereas the third order landforms are largely controlled by
geological and geomorphological processes.
 Climate has significant control on the landform development. The effects of
long term climatic changes are quite significant in development of
landscapes.
 Anthropogenic activities have brought about significant changes on natural
landscapes in small time duration.
4.8 ACTIVITY
 Take some ice cubes/ columns from your fridge and allow it to float on cold
water kept in a transparent beaker or tumbler. Measure the proportions of
ice column above and below the water level in order to assess the ideas of
floating mountain columns.
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 Go through the theory of continental drift proposed by Alfred Wegener
discussed in earlier units. Delineate relationships of climate with tectonic
activities.

1. Explain denudation, exhumation and uplift with the help of neat and well
labeled sketches.
2. What do you understand by the term isostasy? Explain the differences
between Pratt’s and Airy’s hypotheses of Isostasy.
3. Explain the landforms associated with convergent plate margins.
4. What do you understand by climate change? Explain how climate change
may occur due to tectonic activities.
5. Mention five major changes in landscapes due to human activities.
4.10 REFERENCES
4.11 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Condie, K.C. (1982) Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, Pergamon
Press Inc.
 Gass, I.G. et al (1982) Understanding the Earth. Artemis Press (Pvt) Ltd.
U.K.
 Holmes, A. (1992) Holmes Principles of Physical Geology Edited by P. McL.
D. Duff. Chapman and Hall, London.
 https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html
 Sharma, H.S. (1990) Indian Geomorphology. Concept Publishing Co. New
Delhi.
 Singh, S. (2018) Geomorphology, Pravalika Publications, Allahabad
 Thornbury, W.D. (1980) Principles of Geomorphology. Wiley Easton Ltd.,
New York.
 Windlley, B. (1973) The Evolving Continents. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
 www.pmfias.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Atlantic-Ocean-relief-
trenches.jpg
 www.pmfias.com/wp- content/uploads/2016/01/Pacific-Ocean-relief-
trenches.jpg
4.11 ANSWERS
SAQ 1
a) Equipoise or Balance; Dutton
b) Himalaya
93
..................................................................................................................................................................
c) A level line in the substratum above which all the crustal parts of different
densities float. J.H. Pratt.
SAQ 2
a) Rift valley
b) Hot Spot
c) Divergent
d) Convergent
e) First
Terminal Questions
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BGYET – 147

Volume Preparation Team

Block 1 Basic Concepts of Geomorphology

Block 3 Fundamentals of Geotectonics

Block 4 Plate Tectonics and Movements

2. Weathering, its Types and Significance

3. Soil : Product of Weathering

4. Landslides : Types and Causes

5. Landslide Hazard Zonation

7. Physical Features of Volcanic Terrain

9. Earth System Science and Society Part-1

10. Earth System Science and Society Part-2

11. Fossils in Himalaya

12. Evolution of Himalaya

13. Himalaya- an Overview

Development of audio/video programmes is a continuous process. For recent materials pertaining

Expected Learning Outcomes

Expected Learning Outcomes

Block Preparation Team

Course Coordinators: Prof. Benidhar Deshmukh and Dr. Omkar Verma

Expected Learning Outcomes

Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs

Digital Elevation Models

Expected Learning Outcomes________________________

Geomorphological studies can be carried out on various scales from local to

1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL

1.3.2 Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism

The main advantage of the concept of geomorphic cycle is that it recognises

1.4 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN

1.4.2 Stereoscopic Aerial Photographs

1.4.3 Satellite Data

Fig.1.3: (a-b) Colour stereo-pair aerial photographs showing coastal landforms ©

Fig.1.4: Sentinel-2 L1C satellite image of Gulf of Khambhat. (Source:

1.4.4 Digital Elevation Models

1.5 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS

1.6 LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS

1.7 APPPLICATIONS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY

1.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.12 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

2.2 BASIC GEOMORPHIC TERMINOLOGIES

2.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF INDIA

2.4 GEOMORPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA

Fig. 2.2: Map of India showing geomorphic divisions of India.

(ii) Tethys Himalaya: It is the northernmost region extending partly into

Western Ghats represent a continuous chain of hills extending from South

Fig. 2.5: Map of India with administrative boundaries.

2.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

2.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

Definition Classification of Hillslopes

Classification of Geomorphic Processes Hillslope development

3.3 Endogenic Processes Hillslopes and Mass wasting

Diastrophic Forces and Movements 3.7 Let Us Sum Up

Expected Learning Outcomes_______________________

3.2 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

Destructional geomorphic processes are the ones that destroy landforms

3.3 ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

3.4 EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Fig. 3.2: Diagram showing relationship between mass wasting (landslide),

The process of denudation includes weathering, mass wasting movements,

You know that weathering is in situ disintegration and decomposition of rocks

3.4.3 Chemical Weathering

water carbon dioxide carbonic acid

CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2