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    26 views16 pages

    3 Enhanced Oil Recovery 2 SPE

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    Abhi Shetty

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    ats Chapter 8 Thermal Recovery Processes 8.1 Introduction ‘Thema recovery processes rely on the use of thermal energy in seme formboth to inctease he reservoir temperature thereby reuc- ing ol viscosity, and to displace oil to a producing wel. The pro- cesses have evolved over the past 30 years to the pont of commer- tialaplication. These are eelicstam stilton, steam, and forward in-situ combustion. The history ofthe development of ther- imal recovery processes is well documented by Prats! ‘The motivation for developing thermal recovery processes was the existence of major reservoirs all over the word hat Were known ‘contin billions of barrels of heavy ol and tar sands that could not be produced with conventional techniques. In many reservoirs, he sil viscosity was so high tha primary recovery onthe order of few percent of orginal olin place (OOP) was common, In some reser. irs, primary recovery Was negligible ‘This chapter introduces mechanisms conribuing ool displacement by theonal covery proceses, Simple models are used to describe the isplacement processes. Inclading ll uch models snot posible, Ex tensive meatment of thermal models with comparisons ae found in Ref 1 trough 4. Feld results are introduced where appropri. ‘Thermal recovery processes are the most advanced BOR pro- ‘esses and contribute significant amount of el to diy production. “Most ermal oil production isthe result ofeyelie steam injection tnd steamarve, In 1993, worldwide production from eyelic steam nd stamdrve was more than 700,000 B/D. Consequently, more emphasis is placed on these processes, Reservoirs under restment by these processes are shallow (generally < 3,500 fin depth) In-sit combustion hasbeen ested extensively in aVarey fre evoirs with mixed results. Daily production from in-situ combus- ‘ion in 1993 was approximately 22,000 B/D. Although steam inj ‘in aod insta combustion have been used succesflly inthe same ‘seco, steam injection hasbeen the proces of choice foreasons| the than process eficieny. Insta combustion isthe only thermal "scovery process that can bo used in deep high-pressure reservoir ial ecovery processes are applicable tom wide range of res voir. Table 1.1 presents screening criteria for BOR proceses tht ‘es introduced in Chap. 1. Table 81 summarizes the criteria for recovery proceses. These criteria are to be used asa guide ‘i sleting candidates for thermal recovery processes. Exceptions ‘oe criteria may be found in specifi reservoir. Many ofthe ereria are identical fr steam ad in-situ combus- Consequently its not uncommon to find that a reserve Will Sythe criteria for both processes. Three criteria where there are _‘bsficane differences willbe discustd inthis section: depth, reser 7 pressure, and average reservoir permeability. Steam processes are limited to depths onthe order of 3,000 fe be ‘cause wellbore heat losses can become excessive. As discusted later i this chapter, insulated injection tubing ean be used to reduce Neat losses and increase this deh, Although the dept imitation for situ combustion s suggested oe 11,500 this snot a process l= imitation if sircan be injected atthe eservoir pressure and the crude «il deposits suficent fuel to sustain the combustion front. ‘Reservoir press isthe second eriterion where the two processes ier. Insteamdive projets, the fraction of energy anspor as atent heat decreases as pressure increases. The temperature of seam i creases with pressure, as does heat loss to the suroundings. Conse ‘quently, under the same conditions, the volume ofthe reservoir that can bb contacted by steam decreases with injection pressure. Reservoir Pressure bocomes liming factor inthe application of tame pro ‘xses. The maximum injection presse i easy to establish tis not Practical to inject steam inthe field near the eral pressure of seam, ‘which is 3,206.2 psi (nical temperature is 705.4°F).Allbough steam hasbeen injected at pressures of 2500 psn ed projects, most suc- cxssfl steaninjecton projects operate at pressares on the order of 1,500 psicrlower Reservoir presses ot ited by asiilar mecha nism inthe inst combuston proces, Reservoir presar for in-sit ‘combustion projects js affected by compression costs and injection rates Projects are under consideration that have reservoir presses sig- rifles higher than the 2000 pl in he screening eter. Permeability ofthe reserves the third eiteron where there are substantia differences between steamdtive and isita combustion In-situ combustion can be applied in reservoirs that have lower permeability than the permeability init for teamdrive Because the Airinjction rats are sufficient 9 sustain the combustion front. In ‘contrast, the steam zone can advance only at long ashes loses froth the steam zone to the surrounding formations can be maintained by the steam injection ate Ta low-permeability reservoir, itis nt pos- sible to injec steam at sufficient rates to propagate a scam zone ap- precable distances into the reservoir. Modes to predict the mii- ‘mum rate of steam injection ae presented ltr inthis chapter. ‘Thecmal recovery processes rely on the fat that ere ol iscos- lity decreases markedly with temperature, as illustrated for selected ‘crude oils in Fig, 8:1. Thus, reservoir heating isan essential partof| all thermal recovery processes. We begin ou examination of ther- mal recovery methods by discussing wellbore htt losses when hot ‘uid is injected from the surface to heat a reservoir. Fundamental concepts of reservoir heating by hot-fuid injection ae introduced. ‘Then, we focus on oil recovery processes, beginning with cyclic steam stimulation and steam displacement. We conclude with n-sita 02 [ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY [ ‘TABLE 6.1—SCREENING PARAMETERS FOR THERMAL RECOVERY PROCESSES: ~ Thermal Recovery Sereening Parameters __ Seam In-Sits Combustion on gay, “API tots 101095 Ineo ios, =15000 +=5,000 Depth, 0,8 «3,000 <11500 Pay-zone thickness, ft 220 220 Reservoir temperature, Ty °F = Porosity, fraction 2020 2020 ‘Average permeability, k, md 250 35 ‘ranemiaibity,Khje,matUep 25 = Reser pressure, > pi 21,500 =2,000 Minimum oll content at star of process, Sp action 2010 0.08 Salinity of formation brine (otal dissolved solids (TDS), ppm = Fock yp0 - ‘Sandstone orcarbonate _Sandstoneor carbonate ‘combustion, in which reservoirheatngs accomplished by injetion ofr or oxygen to react with the reserve ol, We note that in-situ ‘combustion isan effective displacement process and isnot limited tw reservoirs with viscous oils KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, CENTISTOKES: ‘TEMPERATURE , OFGRCES FANRENHEIT LeoENo 1 e- eaurom cane (aster a. 9 macntuen a9 ot 2c UMN ene coeao|fe. e- som rons came > wenTaeN ASIEN (uxstan fio cor ent ete (eastiny {Ce eure cE (Use ara, 2~ mbgorTMGe UHT MMIC OC $0 ameamtne emo sees (zat ais, o- eM wgaBN TUATES GTAP IMENTNGHT MAW ATOR OK. (2 AP) 9 oN HE eur ny HT eUME (as ao]. y= MBvATMENT PesseD oTKATE e82"4PD BETH ADGA MEAT RUNES AD 8.2 Heat Losses During Steam Injection Steam for eyclic steam and steamdcive processes is usually supplied by once-tirough steam generators that produce 80%-quality seam al he steam generator out In some cases, steam is generated ata “Fig. 8.1— Typical viscosityfemperature relationship fora heavy oll THERMAL RECOVERY PROCESSES Water Insulated Intake [Steam |_Distrbution Line Generator (Overburden, a ee iss as Fig. 82-Steam flow in cyclic and steamdrive projects. _| cogeneration plant, where natural gas is used to fire steam generators snd partof the steam isusedto produce electricity. Beonomy of ale dictates use of large generators located at central sites. Steam i is- tributed to individual wells through a series of insulated lines. Fig. 82 depicts the route taken by steam leavin the genetator ‘Some eat is lost in the disbution lines. Usually, steam i injected ito ting ston «packer withthe annulus between the wing and the packer boiled dry. Heat i Tosti the welhore by convection and radiation btween the tubing string andthe casing. Therate of heat lest ‘an be reduced by ure of insulated ting if economically justifies. “Thetemperature and quality ofthe steam thatreachesthe injection point ina well is detemined by a complex interaction between hest losses and fictional losses asthe steam lows. This section presents rmethods of estimating heat losses during steam injection. 82.1 Heat-Loss Rate From Distribution Lines, Most ieam-is- tsbuion lines are insolsted with such material as calcium siieate ‘wrapped with an aluminum cover, as shown in Fig 83. Heat ransfer ‘cet by condition trough te insulation tothe aluminum cover, where heats lost by radiation and combination of forced ornatural convection to the sueroundings. Heat ransfer resistances cased by fcale onthe surface ofthe steam line and conduction through the ‘Hoo are usually negligible. In addition, hea-ransfereoefficentsfor ‘condensation ae so large thatthe temperature ofthe disteibution ine {essentially the same asthe team temperature. ‘eat transfer through the insulation occurs by conduction and is aiven by 2ahye(T, ~ Te) (et) where Qyy=heat-ose sate per unit length of pipe, Baur): y= radi of outside surface of insulation, jp =radius of outside Srface of pipe, Tt Ray thermal conductivity of insulation Bru/(-f°F) 7; =temporaare of the steam, °F; and Ty = tempers ture ofthe surface ofthe insulation, *F. The hea tha lows through the insulation is exchanged with the surroundings through the mechanisms of convection and radiation. ‘These heat-ransfer mechanisms actin parallel. Thus, Diy = Dee + Bea vor sess CD where (,, =heat-los ate per unit length of pipe owing to ra ston, Beart), and Q,, = heat-loss ate pe unit length of pipe as ‘result of convection, Bul), ‘Convective heatoses from heated pipe are quite sensiiveto the ‘velocity and direction of the wind. When the wind velocity i 20, heat lortes oocur ate retlt of fee convection curents generated by the temperature difference between the surface ofthe heated pipe snd the ambient sr At high wind velocities, Forced convection dom- nates the heat exchange 0% Dp 208 Fig. 6.3—Ineulated steam-distribution tine. Heat transfee from convection is described in terms of a he teunsfer coefficient defined by Op. = arg hdy ~ TD, 6) here Ac = eat transfer coefficient for convection based onthe outer Turfac tea ofthe inslation (27) and the temperature difference ‘between the surface ofthe insulation andthe ambient st, Bru 2."P, and Ty average ambient air temperature, °F. ‘The heatransfer coefficient for convection can be estimated from corclations developed for certain geometicel configurations. is convenient touse a coreation developed for heat transfer fom circular eylinder to wind lowing at velocity vy normal to the axis ofthe cylinder. Correlations are available that cover a wide range of ‘wind velocities, When forced convection dominates the heat-ans eer lnm canon nano may touad yg = Oana, a stare ex-ante conn fled xnytcton, Bate £82 °Pjfng = thermal condveiity of ait, Btuli-A2 "PI re =X temal radius of conduit exposed air, and Nge=modifed Rey- ‘olds number for air flow iormal tothe pie. es were sy =wind velocity normal to the pipe, miles; 2,=density of tir evthuated ar ambient ar emperature Ibm; andy = vscos ity of ar, cp. Te properties ofthe air (ly, andj) ate evaluated at the average film temperature (Ij-+7,)2. This lads to an iterative sltion because Te, the ouside surface fempertur, i not known {prior Bq, 84s valid for 1,000 = ge =50,000. eat lost fom the eylindscal surface depicted in Fig. 83 owing. to radiation is etimated with 0, = m7 200 be ~ Td + Oa Td 66 where ¢emissvity ofthe surface; 0 = Stefan Boltzman const 1713 % 10-? Brwhr-f-°R; r= rads of the surface thats radia ing, f, Tay absolute temperature of surface, "R="F+460, Tpa™ average absolute temperature of the sky, "R= °F +460; and ‘al=average absolute temperature ofthe surface ofthe earth un demeath the pipe (02 Fig. 83), "R=°F + 460. a, 8.6 was desived by assuming thal radian-heatansfer occurs between the surface of the insulation (or oatr pipe surface if na in- Slated) and the sky ftom the upper half ofthe surface. Raditing- heat oes lzo oocurs fom the lower half of the insulation surface to 204 the Barth, The temperature ofthe sky, Tag, ranges from 414°R for clear sky to515 R when he sky is warm and cloudy.® Consequent. 'y, an average value (460°R) is used in heat transfer calculations. “This analysis noplects the contact resistance between the ins tion and the distibuton line. Because the thermal conductivity of aluminum, commonly used to cover the insulation, i high there is litle temperature drop across the aluminum cover. Consequently, 's equal tothe temperature ofthe outside surface ofthe aluminum protective covering. Example 8.1 illustrates the computation ofthe heat-oss ate from a steam-distribution tine, Example 8.1 Heat Loss Froma Steam-Distibution Line. Stearn 81 600°F is distributed o injection wells through i. ine pipe, The lines are bare bur will be insulated by adding Li, of ealeum silicate insulation, Compare the heat-lss rate, in Bt), forthe bare line with the insulated line. The ealiam silicate insolation will be protected with thin aluminum covering (eq, =0.76), The estimate Wwillbedone for average annual conditions, Consider the Wind veloc. Igy to be 15 miles andthe average air temperature tobe 70°F. The ‘ean temperature of the earth surface is 55°F The average sky tem. erature wil be taken as O°F (460°R). Solution, Part I: Heat Loss From Uninsulated Pipe. We begin by ‘computing the heat loss from the bare line pipe. To compate the forced convection heet-tanster coefficient, he, from Eqs, Band 85, itis necessary to estimate the density andthe viscosity ofthe it a the average film temperate, T= (0.4 Tyo = (600 + 70/2 = 335° ‘The following values were obtained from references at 335°F and 14.606 psa: fy =0.0246 ep and Igy = 0.0211 Btalete*). The density of air is evaluated atthe average ambient of 70°F and 14.696 psa. The value of yi 0.0750 Ibm ‘The Reynolds number is computed from Eg, 8.5. My = 4365 “Pete = (4, 365)3.5/24 10.0750 tbm/t)(15 miles/he) OO oe = 29,111 ‘Because this is within the range of 1,000 < Ne-< 50,00, the follow ing corelation is valid. 0.12 ba RS = (0.120.021 Bau/he-1+°F 29,111) 7 = 828 Bult} ‘he heat ranser ate esoing from forced convection is Qe, = 2804 hyde ~ T) ac.siso(35 (828 = 4,021 Bry/t-, Bq. 8.6 is used to compute the heat transfer rate caused by radic ‘ation from the surface ofthe pipe. Assume that T= Tax therefore, ©, = arseo{(Ti.~ T3,) + (rd, - 72)] (35/26 AORN, 1.713 > 10-9 Babe ENHANCED O1L RECOVERY fa.) — ee] + [0609 — sis = (6278 x 10-241 x 10%) = 1,513Bu/{hr) ‘Therefor te oa oss eueis4021+ 1513065534 Approximately 73% of the heat loss is a rest of forced come ‘Part: Heat Loss From Insulated Pipe. When Lin of clean: ¢ate insulation i added othe pipe, the heat losis reduced ue ally because ofthe low thermal conductivity of ean area ‘Tie thermal conductivity of calcium silicate insulation vases neg temperature, as shown by 0256 + (7, ~ 503.67 x 10-4) Bu/tty, Ke 6 where T}= average temperature ofthe insulation, “F Heat loss from the insulated line i given by Bg. a 2thaelT. = T,) lead rad ‘The surface Lempert is determined by Seting 0,= Qx+ Oy and solving itsratvely for T, This procedure is esl doe wis spreadsheet ora small computer program. The basic approach wi beillustated here. For purposes of computing Auys, assume that T/=(F,+Tay2 35°F Then, ey = 00256 + (335 ~ S0}0.65 10-5, a = 0056 Bt. Ao ae tht ip 3.540145 and 23.14159)(00356(600 ~ 7, ) TORTS 5458) = 089600 7) For this aeons hat = 828 Bute) de tenia in Po Ths wile sevat oor bese oct {od tema condavy a cele hein Ea who dbase bc eee et Mo ae by ean “The ea ow ovingto radiation ibe rece astral b- cause 7 wil dextese Applying Bq 86 we cba ritucl(Ts, T+ (18, - T]] (.14159H0.187530.76)1.713 x 10%) 57241875 hs, 2 x [arg ~ c60y*— (51594 = 7.6687 x 10-mfars, — (1.1512 x 10")} ‘The value of 7 that satisfies the fllowing heat balance atthe su face ofthe insilation is Qe = Ou + Oy 0.89(600 ~ T,) (224 0.181508284T, — 70) + {7.6687 x 10-274, = (1.1512 x 10". ‘The solution to this equation was found by'teraive techniques wih a spreadsheet tobe T= 107.64°F. This solution can bec substitution into Bg, 82 Qe 0.89 600~ 107.64) = 438.4 Brut, 9.255 (107.64—70) 367.2 Biutt. Ow TULL af Tubing Packer 98 Production "Casing | Reservoir Parfareions Le (Limited Entry) iL ' w | | {8.4 iell completion for stam injection though tbh sont pete : — Q,.= 7.668710 X [2(460+107.64)"~ (1.1512 101) = 7095 Butt), Oct Oy, 438.15 Buvthet), hich is close enough ‘Therefore, adding 1 in. of calcium silicate insulation wll reduce ‘hehe loss from 5,534 to 438.4 Btu) tis recognized that the optimum thickness of the insulation is & ‘rateoff between the cos of heat losses ad the capital ost ofthe in ‘ston. An optimum insulation can be determined if desired. {nextemely cold environments, its necessary to bury steanin- ‘ection ine orto protectinsulated ines in uity boxes. Methods are ‘alae to estimate heat losses under these situations. 222 Meliore Heat-Loss Rates. ig. 84 shows « typical well esto for steam injection into a shallow sand. Tubing ran the injection interval set on a pcket, The annulus is baled dry ental stages of seam injection, leaving it filed with ama. agit and water vapor, Heat oss othe formation occurs by ase pag beattsfer mechanisms thatinclidescondton tough ic ent: ation and natal convection seoss the annul nd con, Bs gen ttO"th the casing sce! and cement into the formation. Fig Pies the temperature distribution inthis sitution, c Fig, 85—Tomperatue distribution in an annular comple- ‘Heat transfer tothe formations a transient process. Ramey? dem ‘onstrated tat the hes-ransfer at atthe dil-hoe radius could be approximated by risen. - @8) where fy = thermal conductivity of the formation, Buu 2-"it; Th=temperstue at the cemenvformation interface, "F, and 40) ~ warsicnt time function, dimensionless, Ramey’s model assumes ‘that heat low occurs only inthe radial direction, For long injection times (1> 1 week), Ramey found tht In(2 fata.) ~ 029, 6» Willhite™ integrated Remey’s mode! fr heat loss into general Wwellbore-heat-transfer model to predict easing temperatures and wellbore heat loses. In this model, heat transfer in the region be {ween the flowing fuid andthe cemenvformation interface iss. sumed to be quasisteady. That is, any temperature change in the flowing Muidis propagated instantaneously actos the annals. Heat transfer inthis region is approximated by a series of steady-state mechanisms and is piven by 7 Q, = BargiglT, ~ T, 6.10 Where Uy =overall heat-transfer coefficient between the fd and the cemene/dril-hole interface based onthe outside tubing surface sea andthe temperature difference 7; — Ty, Beult-f2-"P), and 1, = [Flo + (tyro/a) r/R + (yru/0)} ey For short imes, the value off) isa function of Uj and can be ob- tained from Table 8.2" when the value of Ue is known, ‘An expression fr the overall heat-ransfer coefficient forthe an ‘ulus configuration shown in Fig. 8.5, developed by Willie jy siven by Tas ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY ‘TABLE 6.2—TIME FUNCTION 1(#) FOR THE RADIATION BOUNDARY CONDITION MODEL ‘where fy=film bea-ransfer coefficient or condensation heat trans- {er coefficient between flowing hid andthe inside ofthe tubing, BiulQ-f2-°R}; ye eattransfer coefficient for natural conver” tion nthe tabing/easing annulus based onthe outside ring surface and the temperature diferences between the outside ring and in- side easing surfaces, Bulthr-@2-°F); b= heat-vansfer coefficient forraiaton based on the outside tubing surface and the temperstare difference between the outside tubing and inside easing surfaces, Buu/(r-f2°F); Kas = thermal conductivity of the easing material a the average casing temperatre, Bru); Iam = thermal ‘conductivity of the cement atthe average temperature and pressure of the cement, Buvheft"F); figs = thermal conductivity of the tubing, Buy/hr-f2-"F/); ry =inside rads of tubing, fo = ou side rads of ting, ry =inside radius of easing, fi og outside radius of casing ff and ug = rads of dill hole, In some reference! Eg 8.10 is writen as Q = (I~ TYR : @1) where R = 1/2074 Ui thermal resistance prunit length of pipe, (But-D-Fy"! In most eases Katy Ad Mus a so large that Fa 8,12 ean be approximated by vs liz | ott] : ay Evaluation of Up with Eq. 8.14 roqites estimation of fy ad “The heat-transfer coefficient for radiation, by, i derived in Ret. 10 and is given by hy = OF a(S + T3\Tw + Teh . @.1s) whee hm + fe (1), 619 = emissivity ofthe extemal tubing surfice, dimensionless emissivity ofthe internal tubing surface, dimensionless; T= abso. lute temperature, °R; and o= Stefan Boltzman constant (1.713% 10~* Buu t?-te-°R4), Emssiviies of material are found in standard heat-ransfer texts, ‘The emissivity of mil scale may be taken a= 09. The value of hy canbe computed and Ty are known, The cas- ing temperature is given by ro Tea 1 + ue) it, — 7) sess GID, [Note that T, and 7 depend on Up and ime. ‘Theheat-transfer coefficient for natural convection, is given by Inc = Hafli (ral : is where fy hg = 0.019 No Ne NEM. 19 91 002 005 01 02 05 10 20 50 10 2 % 10 = 0918 0819 Os14 O31 318 0523 0590 04S 0973 0996 O417 0499 0409 Dads, 023 0429 0424 0427 0490 0499 0452 0473 OSII 059 0508 0572 0578 0508 0616 0617 O619 0629 0629 644 0.605 0608 0.745 O72 0.790 0802 0.805 Bt 0.902 0809 0.908 O81 0.820 0842 0872 0910 0.958 0984 1.00 101 101 to 102 102 4091.04 105 108.115 120 122 2412412525 196 137 197 198 140 144 143 152156187 188159 159150 165 108168167 169 «173177481 1844801868187 18788 196 187 197 1.99 200 205 209 212 215 216 216 217 217 27 500 299 299 240 242 244 248 251 254 255 257 257 257 253 258, foo 273 273 274 275 277 281 264 286 288 289 280 289 209 290 Fig. 8.6—Varaton of Up with tubing temperature for parame- fore of Table 823.2 (a> ra'e02 BTe Ted and No, = 2a 2) Mi = Cael @2y were Nox=Grashof number, dimensionless Nor= Pan nun ‘dimensiones; C= eat capacity ofthe Mun th annus the average nous emer, Buln) yg =the co civ ofthe arin the anus atthe average temperature and Presa ofthe annulus, thf" Incense heal Eondectvity ofthe annals fd with natural comvetion eas vale athe average temperate and presse of the as Balirt*F);¢= acelerton eased by gravity 817 1 10h Tqaverage temperature of the fd in the enna, (snd 7.)20, °f=thermal volun expnson exelent of he fiid in he annulus, *R!= gy for an idea ga, o general y= ~(U/owlapa/a, wher’ p is he annul pressure, sd fg = isos of te dn the nul a oy bh 3g, 8.19%s valid when the product of he Grsha number andthe Prantl number (ats between x 10¥ and 7-2 18 Extapo- Inn toes than 3108 shouldbe doe with auton. Te iting Yalu fea 1.0 at ow valves of Np. Atamospri pres" Site (14.7 pi), Np-0-71 forthe ange of temperatures eacoun™ tered in wellbore heariosclelatons, MAL RECOVERY PROCESSES ‘wen ment ‘ioe pay seca Fig.8.7—Schomatic ofhigh-performance insulated tubing." Fig pots Uy vs ting temperature fr several modifications ofan annulus completion, Steam Was injected down 2jrin.rabing in in,casng for I days, The casing was cemented to the surface- sina9%/-n, bole with high-temperature resistance cement. Table ‘83 summarizes parameters used in these calculations ‘The five completions in Fig. 8.6 illustrate heatrnsfer mecha- ism in the anal of stem and hot-water injection wells A stan ‘ard completion is 2in ting (il scale surface) set ona packer WithannulusatO psig. Radiation the dominant hea-ansfer mech- ‘im in this case n principal, radiation canbe reduced by reducing the emissivity ofthe tabing with aluminum paint The overall hea transfer coeficient decreasesby afactor of two ormorein this exam- ple. However, in practice, ts difficult to keep te aluminum surface t ean il fe) 50 this method has limited efectiveness. When tis ‘otposibleto isolate the annulus with packer us of high-pressure 8 wih a smal page as been used. Increasing the annulus pres- $urein 1,000 and 2500 psig by injection of nitrogen causes large in- ‘ceases in th overal heat transfer because natural convection ithe ‘tubing casing/annulus dominates wellbore heat transfer. Lowest overall heat-ranfercoetficients occur when the roing, sting is insulated, Bq, 8.22 sth comesponding expeesson for Up ‘when insulated tubing i used. In Eq. 8.22, te thickness ofthe in Salton is ry—rip andthe thermal resistance ofthe outer cover of| the inslated tubing string is neglected, Hea-transfercoeicients| fn! anh are based onthe outside rads ofthe insolation, "TABLE 8.3—PARAMETERS FOR CALCULATION OF Ui, (FIG, 88) AND CASING TEMPERATURE (FIG.8.8) Hl iin _ 9625 sing (in, acing, 28m. 58) 7.900 ee oo 02a in, 64m, ‘OO a 2075 f ‘Din eat f fn Beto 14 Socom Buh ost hing Bluestk 0.0256 +(50)3.67x10-) atine 0.04 “= sale) 09 {piesa sor rain rin fl tt @2) InFig, 86, lin, of calcium silicate insulation was used to insulate ‘he tubing string. Heat loses ina dry annulus ae significantly lower ‘than in the other cases, The low effective thermal conductivity ofthe insulation dominates heat flow: Insulated injection sigs ace aval- tbl wit effetive thermal conductivtios a low as 0.006 to 0.0097 Bru/hi-R-"F, Fig. 8:7 isa schematicof «high-performance nsult- ing tubing string for stam injection! ‘Computation of wellbore heat losses is complicated by the fact that radiation and natural convection coefficients, hy and, respec- tively, vary with casing temperature, Tz, which also varies With me land Up. Atria-and-errrorterative solution required ta compat Uy, and T, fora particular vale of ime, “fhe following procedure is suggested. I. Select a value of Up comesponding to the temperature of the ‘uid or tubing from Fig. 8.6 fr the coresponding well completion ‘orestmate a valve of Ui for the completion, ‘2 Determine f() from Eq. 8.9 or Table 8.2 3. Calculate 7 using Ea. 8.11. 4 Caleulate from Ea, 8.17 5, Estimate (Eq 8.15) and he (Eqs. 8.19 through 8.21). 6, Determine a new value of Uy from Eq. 8.12 oF 822. 7. Compare the calculated value of Uj with the value used in ‘Steps 2 through 5 and repeat Steps 2 through 6 uni satisfactory ‘agreement is obained between sbccessive tials. Convergence rapid, and three iterations are usually sufficient. This is well suited {or computer or spreadsheet computation 8. Compate heat loss, ‘Example 82 llusiaes the computation ofthe overall heat-rans- {er coefficient and the eat loss for stam injection into a wel, Example 8.2 Wellbore Heat Loss During Steam Injection. Steam 600° is injected down 3Y¥in. tubing set ona packer in S/cin., '58.5tbmlft, N-80 casing. The annulus contains a stagnant gas at 1427 psa, and the casing is cemented to surface in a T2-in. hole. A temperature survey inthe well indicates a mean subsurface tempera- ture of 100°F. The reservoirs at 3,000 ft. Estimate the overall heat- tuansfer coefficient, average casing temperature, and wellbore heat loss after 21 days of continoous injection Dita y= 0.16 1 = 0355 fg = 04008 00286 ‘RM, y= LO Biull REFIM), Gy Jxgqn =02 Baal fF), ‘Solution. 1. Estimate Uj from Fig. 86 for an injection emperatire of G0°F and the low-pressure annlus: Ujp=4.05 Bathe tt="F). 2. Calculate). Becaure *=21 days, Ea, 89 canbe used, 109 = [Info /aji/r)] - 029 = (oles 3. Call (Ea 8.11 n= [rt + (eyo Ue) | + (Bra/ | __ (6002.43) + [1.0/00.14644.05).100) 2.83 + [1.0/(0.146)405)] ‘4. Calculate Ti, neglecting casing and surface resistances (Fig. 8.17). Tay = Ty + (ro Uso/ Kron) blr / Peo Ts = Ta) (e.149,405), 02 0.500. ind ERED ]} ~ 039 = 243 = 299. 5 6609 — 95 + In 600 ~ 395) 208 5. Estimate A, (Eqs 8.15 and 8.16), hy OF (Ty + T2 me + Tad 4, = (04.713 > 10° 600 + 4609 + (530 + 4603] % [600 + 460) + (530 + 460)] = 639 Bry/lie--*} estimate hy Eqs 8.18 through 8.21) axing the following parame~ ters. Tay =565°F, y= 0.0388. Ibm, yy 0069 Tome, Gon =0245 Brule, fy =00258 BiahPih, B= To, ad Tay 9.95 10° oR Calculate py with Bg, 821 Nn Caen = Ho2ssyo061/0.0255 = 0.6, te = 0.208 fe Calculate No, with Ea. 8.20 Nox = [a re02 AT» — Ted) /u2, = [00209)44.17 x 10°(0.0388)'(0-95 x 10-4) x (600 ~ sap]/006oy = 826 x 10° And cali fom Ea 8.19 Aaah, = 0.89 (N,N) = 0.049}(8.26 x 10%}0.66}™%0.66)" = 181, f= 0.086 Buu /(e--"F, TheD, hae = hr ra) 046/[0.146 no.385/0.14)) 36 Bru/(- 82°F) 6. Calculate Uy (Eq 8.14), 1 0.14610(0.5/0.4) +— ++ 53+ 036 oes Fig. 8. —Calculated casing tomperatures when 650°F steam 22 Bru/[re?-P) fs Injected down tubing. "TABLE 6.4—SUMMARY OF CALCULATIONS TO FIND Up _Asumed Calculated Ue Tey 7m or Tiel Buwtrk2-n) CF) CF) (BWI) [BUPIRRY UINehery 1 405 50 5:39 036 322 2 322 387487 6.00 042 315. 3 315 364405, sor 042 34 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY 7. Because the assumed and calculated values of Updo not age, repeat Steps 2 through 6 until agreement is blained betwects ts successive tral, Table 8.4 presents results of successive ications ‘The wellbore het loss canbe calculated from Ea, 8.10: eas = (2}0.146)03.14 (600 ~ 36413, 000) = 2,040,000 Bru/h. IF the steam quality at the wellhead, fi 0.75, the steam quality tering the formation, fg, canbe estimated provided tha the sea temperate doesnot vary with depth and the steaminjection rae ig Specified Suppose thatthe steam-njecton tis ,000 B/D col ‘er equivalent (CWE), Then the wellbore het loss i equivalent to. 2,040,000_Bru/he 11000 B/D)G30 thm BN{D/2an0) ‘The latent heat of vaporization at 600°F is approximately 548.4 Bru Tom. Therefore, the change in quality would be San Sag = 139.9/5484 39.9 Buy/lbm, 026 and fg=0.49, Insulated injection tabing set on a packer is used in deep steam wells andin wells where injection temperatures ar high (> 550°), ‘When the tubingeasing annulus is dry, heat losses can be reduced ‘Sgnifcanly over those with uninsuated tubing. However ifthe ae glucan bie ry efling mayoral of bling inthe vicinity of the packer and condensation onthe easing Walls and can reduce the effectiveness ofthe insulation, ‘Casing Temperatures. Casing tmperatures increase during steam ‘injecion and are estimated as part ofthe wellboe-het los ealul tions. Predicted casing temperatures for the five well completions shown in Fig. 86, are shown in Fig 88 fr injection times ranging from Oto 14 days, When casing temperatures becom igh, thermal stresses may cause casing failure. Methods of completing wells to prevent casing failure ae discussed in Ref. 1,2 and 13. TUTTITOUTUITTUUUAUUITULVVUITUAIUUUUL UU U/AVULAT/TUAIIUAIIDILATL) 3 i = alei ae Se a seitdats oa eo £823 Pressure Drop in Two-Phase Flow in Steam Injection. The heals relationships presented in Secs.8.2.1 and 8.22 were devel coped by assuming thatthe temperature of the flowing steam was ‘Constant. This sa good fist approximation for many steam-injc- tion projets. However, friction losses occur when steam flows though a ine of injection tubing, leading to changes in pressure ‘with nth or dept. The weight of te uid must be included when ‘simating pressure in injection wells. Because the temperature of ‘strated stam is a dzet fonction ofthe pressare heat losses may change wit he length ofthe line or injection tubing. The quality of the flowing steam may also change ‘Changes in pressure and quay of steam flowing in line en be estimated by solving the conservation equations fr thermal and me- ‘hanicl energy inthe flowing uid over the length of low." Eqs, '523 and 824 describe the conservation of thermal energy and me cfunicl energy forthe flowing fluid, In Eqs. 823 and 8.24, itis as sumed that the coordinate zs inthe direction of low. When zishor- ota, the component of the gravitational acceleration inthe 2 ‘ection (horizontal, g, i 22, a, Satya a + ae gd de gd * me Cy dy ge dp ig VP ea et eet gD Co) here H'=nthalpy of flowing steam, Brafbms 0, ‘os fom the pipe or tubing othe surroundings, Blt); y=spe- ‘fie volume of flowing fui, bm; and fy = two-phase friction factor, dimensionless. na. 8.23, tho first term represents the change in enthalpy ofthe ‘owing fui with length, the second term represents the change of ‘iets energy ofthe flowing ud with length, the third term repre ‘seat the change of potential energy ofthe flowing fui wit length, ‘aod the fourth term isthe rate of heat loss pe unit length per unit ‘mas of lowing uid. ng, 8.24, the mechanical-energy equation, the first term ree Sens the change in kinetic energy with length; the second term rep "seats the change in potential energy with length; the third term is the change inthe pressure volume work with length; and the fourth term represents the Toss in mechanical energy by the ireversible aversion of thermal energy to mechanical energy, commonly ction loss. Specific terms in Eqs. 8.23 and 8.24 ae defined ‘nthe Nomenclaate. Tascam ines where there is no change in cross section, the change {nice energy with length is small ad he term (G2sy/ge yf) "sual omited when Bas. 823 and 8.24 aze solved LLLP ‘To solve Eas. 8.23 and 8.24, it is necessary to replace the deriva tive ofthe enthalpy with respect to distance with its equivalent ex- pression in terms of steam quality. fj and pressure, p.” Because Hen, «25 aH _ (att) oh , (an) a we () 2 (a 4% where 1 far tht ean Eqs, 8.28 and 8.29 ae obtained when dFde is eliminated from gs. 823 and 8.24 (628) Se - (8),(8) ‘The derivatives (2#/ép), and (Hf), ae obtined rom thermo Aynamie ble or eonelons. For example, Faouy Al?” devel oped corclations for Hyr an H, asa function of pres. These correlation re givenin Bs. 6.30 (Odra) + [f= yea} vs 638) ‘wet vw = spel volume of the sata wate, fb y =p cif volime of the saturated vapor, bm; y= iid hay, foe, onan y specie volume of he owing id. bm, Whee cp Js nlite flowing steams vexed sft were homoge andthe old, ys replaced by the seam quay [Tez are many two phase-ow coneations avaible inthe ite. ature that permit computation ofthe specif volume tod he oe phase fiction fator from the process vaabes tea Redo) through 26) Coneatons were developed primarily ioc hsscenea «al flow because there are limited data for downward flow Moki je and Bril’s® comeation was developed fiom s dacboe including downvard flow data and is preferable for two-phase en, in injection well. ‘The peste and quality at ny distance xis obtained by solving gs 8.28 and 8.29 simultaneously by use of a method ike ie fourth-order Runge-Kutta method.*7 The temperstare at 2 {sined fiom thermodynamic tables pressure pormty been dae] ftom the coreaton developed by Faroug Ale T= 1s.1p0™, 635) With an eror of 1% for 15 to 3,000 psa, In solving Eqs. 828 and 829, the distance is divided int equal in- crements of distance, Az. Computations are made fora peceulee {alu oftime. Solution ofthe set of equations begin at Dand peor zis in increments of Az unt the specified length (or Jeph oft wel is reached. If all stam is condensed, the computatin oa the depth where the quality becomes zero. The remainder ofa at ‘tstions rated as hot-water injection. Computation proceatnes oe ‘outlined by Pacheco and Faroug Ait and Griton snd Wille Figs 89 and 8.10 show typical results In Fig, 89, prodcted ad ‘measured lemperatues are compared afer 117 hou injcsios ot steam n 1,600-t well completed with-in casing and >in te ing set ona packer Sicam was injected et sn averse ro of Sd BAD and an injetin pressure of 260 psi. Steam qusliy wes sumed tbe 70% atthe wellhead. The daa in Fig 8102 were oh tained from a stcam-injection well inthe Kern River Geld, Kory County, CA. Steam was injected into 1,000 A well complet ih ‘Yin, easing and 2a. tubing set on apackee Average vel conditions were $00 B/D, 680 psi, and 79% stam Deviation oti ompated results from the measured results below 900 itis cece ofthe presence ofa downhole choke, Simultaneous injection of stam into wo zonesisdesited (Fig Bl), Grision and Wilt? present an extensive analysis of he concen, {sc injection string in Fig. 8.11, including limitations derived troop simulation of fuid flow and heat transfer inthis completion, 8.3 Cyclic Steam Stimulation Historically, primary production from heavy. servis before {he development of thecmal recovery techniques Was 5% OOI? or less, Production rates were low, declining with time ashe reserve nergy was depleted. In some wells, production dectines noes known tobe catised by deposition of solids, parafins, or anphals fe the region around the wellbore. Hotoil squeezes of swabbing te wel witha diluent, uch s kerosene, would increase the prodieton ‘Production have been attempted and largely discarded, {Cyclic stam stimulation was discovered by accident in the Mene Grande field in Venezuelan 1959 when steam broke ou behind ae ing ina steaninjection we Ths wel, which had prodhcedacil previously, flowed ola rates of 100 to 200 B/D when the well war blown down. Fig, 8.12 illustrates the response ofa well inthe Mid ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY May Sunset field to eyetc steam injection The discovery that Sam inestion into a heavy-oleservoe could increase prose piloCalfori, and, by 1965 projects were underway in moet ne {or beavy-ol reservoirs in California, in cyt steam stimulation, steam i injected ito a production ‘ellfora period of2t04 weeks. The wells shut inandaloweasy ‘ressre near the wellbore. With ime, the heated one tempers dlins as a result of heat removed with te produced fled any Cyclic steam stimulations a precursor tosteamdsve in most n0tn. When the patem spacing is smal, interference borecen Wells may be noticed during sear injection. This isan indiewicn that the heated regions from adjacent wells may overap srtht sn steam-sog volume isto large. If interference occurs ahr once {eles have been conducted, consideration of conversion losieene dive may be appropriate, Cyclic steam stimulation i pee} Jnhen the natural reservoir energy has not been deplete. Sterna is ued when the reservoir energy is depleted ‘This section inoduces fundamen concepts of cyclic steam inj. {ion Simple models willbe used ilste he process, We ees Production Mechanisms—Cyclie Steam Stimulation, Heavy-oil reservoirs are characterized by oil viscosities ‘emperatures onthe order of 100 010,000 cp. When ascsorioa ot Fig. 8.11—Concentrc steaninjection well 12 ES THERMAL RECOVERY PROCESSES Well McCulloch MEM No. 7 Completed Apri 9,192; nal Production=25 B/D 205 fof 40+ zone open io producton (01 Production, 8D a aye srg 7000 0 : an ‘source of natural energy to displace oil fom the reserve tothe rodoction wells, the oi ates conolled primarily by the flow ee- sistance in the immediate vicinity ofthe wellbore, Cyclic seam in- {eton heats the reservoir rock around the wellbore and permit this ‘egion to emai at an elevated temperature for lng periods of time. The essential requirement for sucessful cyclic seam stimulation fs souce of natural reservoir energy. Reservoir energy may be saben the frm of (1) fluid expansion by solution gas drive or ‘eduction in reservoir pressure, (2) natural waterdrve, 3) gravity Ataingge, or () compaction. Examples ofeach of these sources of| "servo energy are found in the literature desribing sucessful ey- ‘lie steam injection project. 2 Celie steam stimulations examined by irstconsideringadeple- tion ype reservoir. Consider a heavy-ol primary production rate fiom a reservoir. The reservoir is developed on l0-ate spacing. Pemeablity is 3 darcies, and thickness is 100. Table 8.5 sums. ‘es reservoir rock and fui properties. ‘The olrateatreservoir temperature can be estimated provide that ‘tees sufficient reservoir energy to maintain the reservoir pressire 5500 ps at he effective dainage radius of the well, defined by TABLE 85_RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES FOR ESTIMATING THE EFFECT OF CYCLIC STEAM _STIMULATION ON PRODUCTION DATA. Thickness, 0 Permoabiy, ma 3 Wel seca aces 10 i isos atT, op 11900 Reser pressure, psi +500 ‘nao EVE, pousT 44 Wettore rads, Sackpressurin pressure wel ps VAHL Fig. 8.12—Response of production welltoeyele steam stimulation? 1 = (apee3, 360 tac), ceeeeeees 836) where A= ell spacing (10 seres) and r=effective drainage rae dis (372). The cil production rate when the wellbore pressure is maintained at p, i given by Eq. 8.37, wher oilfield units (tock- tank bares, days, darces, feet, contipoise, and psi) are used 2.082 ac Pe ~ Ps) Bede nro) the reservoir pressure was S00 pia discovery and the viseosity at reservoir temperature i 1,000 ep, the intl ol rate s computed as = 7.082). dareies){100 £9(S00 — 100) psi i = "(EI BoI/STBKI, 000 ep) in 372/0:5) oa ean = 1166 stB/D, Asis reservoirs depleted the reservoir pressure fills and the prod tion rte declines. For example, when the elective reservoir pressure ste boundary is 0 psi andthe botombole pressure (BHP) inthe pro duction wel is maintained at 10 ps, the reduction rate wll be 4m 1166 (80 ~ 109/800 ~ 1003} = 17 step Next, consider the effects of heating a small region around the wellbore by injecting steam. We assume tat the steam zone moves radially from the injection well andis located at a8 depicted in ig. 8.13. The steam zone is at 7, andthe region beyond the seam zone is at J If Mid flow is radial, incompressible, and at steady ‘tate, the pressure drop between rand ry is givenby Eq 8.38. When the Volumetric flow rte at reservoir conditionsisequalin ested and cold regions, aya Bok = dc Boe ar ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY Fig. 8.19—Hot and cold regions surrounding a production ol ater steam Injection to radius ry ada yf") 4 Bate y(t rem pe = Saat le) + Sere ol). 9) sg = 20H = Pd 09) ooffee(s) «42m oracticean generate & 082{100 10 ~ 10)pi + {lta vois7)2 epy/3 darisfin{s0/0) + [1.1 v01/sTB)(1,000 eps aucesfn(372/50} = 28,328/(3.377 + 735.85) 383. STB/D. ‘In thi illustration, heating the region around the wellbore fora dis- {ance of 0 ftledto an increase in flow rte from 11.7 1038 3 STB/D, a factor of approximately thre, steam stimulation were applied before the reservoirenergy was Aepleted, the inital production rate after the soak period would be 383600 ~ 1007/50 ~ 10) = 3833 sTB/p, ‘This calculation illustrates thatthe response to cyclic steam stimula ‘ion is determined in large measure by the natura reservoir energy. ‘This model does not account forthe decline in the temperature of| te heated zone with ime, which oocus because of heat losses and removal of heat with the produced fuds, In Soe. 83.3, the Boberg and Lantz" model is introduced to account for heat losses. ‘The second important factor inthe response of wells simulated With steam ste emoval of wellbore damage, Consider the rodil- Flow model shown in Fig 8.14, which contains a damaged zone of radi ry (Ref, 2) and penmeabiity ky with fy- {halpy of water at 7, Dab, Vacs of th catay can beep Inte om the sear ables in Appendix B. At SOR Hur = Bu Tym, ACSTOSSE y= 4529 Bom. Ths y= (4529 ~7794709-80) 0962 bawtom=® Ce From Table £2, p, ound from Eq 850. M= (0.75(67 tom/# (0.21 Bruflbos“F) + (0.25}0.2\50 Ibav/3)(0.5 Brwlbm-"F) + (025}0.8)(305 Ibme)0.962 Brubm-"F) 263+ 1254+9.74 373 Buu 30.6 Iba? at 470.9°R. The value of Mis Approximately 70% ofthe energy is used to heat dhe rock matrix. the rock contained 40% wate saturation, 40% saturated water vapor, ad anol seturation of 20% when heated to 470.9°F, the fl- lowing changes would be made. From the steam tables at 500 psig, H,= 12043 Buwbm. Thus, L,= 751.4 Buwbm and G= Get bl—T) = 05621922 2.88 Bub “The density ofsuturted vapor at 470:9°F is 1.11 Ibmv, and M= (0.75)(167 lomut®)(0.21 Brulbm-F) + (0254020 Iomvt(05 BrulF) + (025)(04)(30.6 Ibmvt?0.962 Buulbm-"F) + (025)(04)1.11 Ibm?) 2.88 Bealbm-"F) 263+125+487+0.22 = 3274 Bwt-“F, In this case, approximately 80% ofthe energy is stored in the rock ‘Marx and Langenheim Model for Reservoir Heating. When reset- ‘voir are heated by ht-fid injection, a significant action ofthe in- jected energy is lst to the surrounding formations. The eserves {ng model developed by Marx and Langenbei resin many ofthe ‘seta mechanisms ofthe reservoir esting proces. Tho reservoir is considered to have uniform thickness and fd and rock properties. ‘Steam is uniformly distributed in the vertical cross section thoughout ‘heated region so thatthe temperatures uniform through he vial ‘ross section. Steam and condense donot segregate under the inf tence of gravity. The heated zone advances nto the reservoir as step fiuneion change in temperature, a depicedin Fig 8.16. ou ENHANCED Ol. RECOVERY ‘TABLE 6.6—CALCULATED STIMULATION RATIOS FOR FLOW MODEL SHOWN IN FIG. 8.31 OFRER.2 [Thermal Methods of Ol Recovery, .C. Boberg, 1988. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons ine.) ‘Amount of Damage Stimulation Rao, Hated aon =O Dns) ‘Simulation Rat, Unheated | Pemmeabity Skin Damage Damage Damage Ratlo, Factor, Not 50% 100% Not 50% 100% Se Remove Removal" Removal Removed Removal” Remorar= Undamaged 1 ° 204 208 2.96 1 1 1 Moderately damaged ox a 108 113 ne 1 16 40 Extremely damaged 0 228 503. ora 1000 1 194 240 “tat ai p23 apa 301 sit p30, dahae re ldo (se Mcallen Mil] * to]. te [nd - sei, OVERBURDEN aT, Heat Loss lneremental Volume Son tod Noise Zone re InTime Step at = peaTED zone //Jco.o nesenvoin Reals atl 1 | 1 Grwane Settee Ba Heal Loss SF Eancon UNDERLYING FORMATION at T; [Fie 0:16—Mare and Langenheim reservoir heating model._| “The steam zone forms as soon a sufficient steam s injected to in- ease the reservoir temperature from J oF by condensation ofthe ‘eam, Heat is lost the over- and underying formations by con- Auction, The model assumes tha heat flow in the over and under: ‘burden occurs only in the direction perpendicular tothe direction of fluid flow. This displacement model spstonlike. A the displace- ‘ment foot, the oil satrstion is reduced from St Sy and the inter ‘stal water/gas saturations are displaced by condensate. and steam, Thus, the heated zone consists of the rock mtx filled with oil (re), water (Sj), and saturated water vapor (S,). The model ‘assumes that there i no heat loss to the cold rork etd of the mov: ing steam front by conduction or convection. ‘The Marx and Langenfeim model is derived by making an energy balance over the heated region depicted in Fig. 8.16. The model as- Sumes that thet is sufficient presse drop and mobility ofthe reser ‘oir fluid o allow steam injection at arate of, Ibm. Eg 8.52

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