Gas Production Operations H. Dale Beggs OGCI Publication: Ot & Gas Coneutants Intemational inc TulsaGas Production OperationsCOPYRIGHT 1984 BY OIL &. GAS CONSULTANTS INTERNATIONAL, INC. ‘and H. Dale Beges P.O, Box 35448, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74153-0448 All rights reserved. No part of this fext ‘may be reproduced or transcribed in any form or by any means without the written permission of Oil & Gas Consultants Intemational, Inc Its use in adult training programs is specifically reserved for Oil & Gas Consultants Intemational, Ine ‘Primed in the United States of America Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 83-063489 International Standard Book Number: 0-930972-06-6 First printing - July, 1984 ‘Sevond printing - November, 1985 Third printing - June, 1991 Fourth printing - Ociober, 2002Contents 1 Introduction 1 Geographical Occurrence of Natural Gas 1 Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas 1 Occurrence of Natural Gas in the United States 2 Geological Occurrence of Natural Gas 2 Modification by Migration and Burial 10 Characteristics of Natural Gas 11 Gas Composition 11 Other Sources of Gaseous Fuel 12 Liquefied Natural Gas 12 Goal Gasification 12 Substitute Natural Gas 12 Gas from Devonian Shale 13 Tight Formation Gas 13 Gas from Geopressured Aquifers 13, Gas Production Operations 13 References 14 2 Gas Properties 15 Ideal Gases 15 Early Gas Laws 15 Boyle's Law 15 Charles’ Law 15 Avogadro's Law 15 The Ideal Gas Law 16 Ideal Gas Mixtures 17 Dalton’s Law 17 Amagat’s Law 18 ‘Apparent Molecular Weight 18 Real Gases 22 Real Gas Mixtures 22 Gas Formation Volume Factor 30Correction for Nonhydrocarbon impurities 30 Other Equations of State 31 Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation 31 Rodlich-Kwong Equation 32 Gas Isothermal Compressibilty 33 Ideal Gas Compressibility 33 Real Gas Gompressibilty 39 Gas Viscosity 34 Carr Method 35 Lee Method 35 Gas-Water Systems 96 Solubility of Natural Gas in Water 37 Solubility of Water in Natural Gas 37 Gas Hydrates 37 Gas-Condensate Systems 39 Phase Behavior 39 ‘Single Component Fluid 39 Multicomponent Fluids 39 Separation Processes 40 Types of Gas Reservoirs 40 Flash of Equilibrium Separation Calculations 41 Determination of Equilibrium Ratios 44 K-Values from Equations of State 45 ‘Adjustment of Properties for Condensate Mixtures 45, Specitic Gravity of Mixtures 46 References 47 3 Gas Reservoir Performance 49 Reservoir Gas Flow 49 Flow Regime Characteristics 49 Steady-State Flow 49 Unsteady-Siato Flow 50 Pseudosieady-State Flow 514 Flow Equations 51 Steady-State Flow 51 Pseudosteady-State Flow 53 Unsteady-State Flow 53 Noncircular Reservoirs 57, Rock Permeability 59 Well Deliverability or Capacity 59 Flow-Alter-Flow Tests 61 Isochronal Testing 62 ‘Modified isochronal Testing 63 Jones, Blount, and Glaze Method 64 Laminar Inertia Turbulence (LIT) Analysis 66 Factors Affecting Inflow Performance 69 Transient Testing 70 Principle of Superposition 70 ‘Superposition in Time 70 ‘Superposition in Space 774 Pressure Drawdown Testing 71 ‘Two-Rate Tests 73 Reservoir Limit Test 73Pressure Buildup Testing 74 Real Gas Pseudopressure Analysis 77 Gas Reserves 80 Reserve Estimates—Volumetric Method 80 Reserve Estimates—Material Balance Method 81 Energy Plots 82 Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs 83 Well Completion Effects 83 Open-Hole Completions 84 Perforated Completions 84 Perforated, Gravel-Packed Completions 87 Tight gas Well Analysis 87 Guidelines for Gas Well Testing 90 Testing Equipment 90 Sweet Dry Gas 90 Sweet Wet Gas 91 Sour Gas 92 Fiow Measuring 92 Pressure Measuring 92 Test Design 92 Problems in Gas-Well Testing 94 Liquid Loading 94 Hydrate Formation 94 Wet Gas Streams 94 regular Flow 94 Sour (H»S) Gas 95 Reporting Data 95 References 95 4 Piping System Performance 97 Basic Flow Equation 97 Laminar Single-Phaso Flow 99 Turbulent Single-Phase Flow 99 ‘Smooth-Wall Pipe 99 Rough-Wall Pipe 99 Flow in Wells 104 Static Bottom-Hole Pressure 104 Average Pressure and Temperature Method 104 Cullender and Smith Method 105 Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure 105 ‘Average Pressure and Temperature Method 196 Cullender and Smith Method 107 Annular Flow 108 Flow in Pipelines 109 Pipelines in Series 111 Pipelines in Parallel 111 Effects of Liquids 112 Well Performance 112 Gravity Adjustment 112 Hagedom and Brown Method 112 Pipeline Performance 115 Flanigan Method 115 Beggs and Brill Method 116Gas Flow Through Restrictions 120 Use of Pressure Traverse Curves 122 Liquid Removal from Gas Wells 122 Minimum Flow Rate for Continuous Liquid Removal 122 Liquid Removal Methods 126 Beam Pumping Units 126 Plunger Litt 127 ‘Small Tubing 127 Gas-Lit 127 Soap Injection 127 Erosional Velocity 127 Predicting Flowing Temperatures 128 Flowing Temperatures in Wells 128 Flowing Temperatures in Pipelines 129 References 129 5 Gas Compression 131 Types of Compressors 131 Positive Displacement Compressors 182 Dynamic Compressors 135 Ejector Compressors 136 Compressor Design 137 Design Methods 137 Reciprocating Compressors 138 Power Requirement 139 Multistaging 143 Effect of Clearance 143 Effect of Specific Heat Ratio 144 Centrifugal Compressors 145 References 146 6 Total System Analysis 19, Tubing and Flowline Size Etfect 149 Constant Wellhead Pressure 149 Variable Wellhead Pressure 152 ‘Separator Pressure Effect 153 Compressor Selection 153 Subsurface Safety valve Selection 154 Effect of Perforating Density 156 Effect of Depletion 158 Relating Performance to Time 159 Nodal Analysis of Injection Wells 160 Analyzing Multiwell Systems 161 Summary 164 7 Flow Measuring 165 Introduction 165 Ottica Metering 165 Orifice Constants 166 Basic Orifice Factor F166 Pressure-base Factor Fie 166 villTemperature-base Factor Fa 166 Specitic-gravity Factor F, 166 Flowing-temperature Factor Fy 166 Reynolds-number Factor F, 166 Expansion Factor Y 168 ‘Supercompressibility Factor F, 167 Manometer Factor F, 167 Metering System Design 167 Straightening Vanes 168 Orifice Location 168 Size of Orifice and Meter Run 168 Recorder 169 Chart-Reading Accuracy 171 Conditions Affecting Accuracy 172 Condition of the Orifice Edge 172 Condition of the Meter Tube 172 Pulsation 172 Effect of Water Vapor 172 Wet Gas Measurement 173 Other Metering Methods 173 Orifice Well Tester 173 Critical-flow Prover 173 Pitot Tube 174 Turbine Meters 174 References 188 8 Gas-Condensate Reservoirs 189 Well Testing and Sampling 190 Well Conditioning and Sampling Procedures 191 Laboratory Testing 191 Calculation of Initia In-Place Gas and Condensate 191 Compositional Analysis Not Available 192 Compositional Analysis Available 193 Recovery Estimates 194 Laboratory Simulation 194 Flash Calculations 197 Empirical Correlations for Estimating Performance 198 Effects of Water Drive 199 Gas Cycling 199 ‘Areal Swoop Efficiency (E,) 199 Vertical Sweep Efficiency (E.) 199 Displacement Efficiency (Ep) 200 Reservoir Cycling Efficiency (En) 200 Feasibily of Gas Oycling 200 References 200 9 Fleld Operation Problems 201 Pressure-Cumulative Production Plots 201 p/Z versus G, Plots 201 Energy Plots "202 Rate Versus Time Plots 20210 Hydrate Formation 205 ‘Causes, Occurrence, and Prediction 205 Hydrate Formation in the Flow String and Surface Lines 207 Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Orifices, and Back-Pressure Regulators 208 Hydrate Control 210 ‘Sour Gas Production 210 Corrosion 210 Corrosion Control with inhibitors 211 The Short Batch Method of Application 211 The Tubing Displacement Mettiod 212 Methods of inhibitor Application Using Nitrogen Gas 212 Method of Continuous Treatment with inhibitors 212 Formation Squeeze 214 Sultur Deposition 215 Safety 215 Well Testing 217 Gas Processing 219 Field Treatment of Natural Gas 219 ‘Types of Separators 220 Separator Controls 221 Stage Separation 221 Low Temperature Separation 224 Condensate Stabilization 225 Gas Plant Operations 226 Liquid Hydrocarbon Recovery 227 ‘Compression Processing 227 ‘Absorption Processing 229 Cryogenic Processing 230 ‘Adsorption Processing 230 Gas Dehydration 232 Gas Sweetening 233 References 234 Appendices 235 ‘A. Equilibrium Constants for 5000 psia Convergence Pressute 235 B. Matthews-Brons-Hazebrook Curves for Various Reservoir Shapes 249 C. Mollier Diagrams for Natural Gas 255 D. Computer Subroutines 259 E. Pressute Traverse Curves 281 F. Summary of Equations 295 Index 305Nomenclature area gas formation volume factor ‘gas formation volume factor at bubble-point conditions oil formation volume factor oil formation volume factor at bubble-point conditions total (two-phase) formation volume factor water formation volume factor formation (rock) compressibility gas compressibility oil compressibility pseudoreduced compressibility ‘water compressibility coefficient of gas-well back-pressure curve concentration condensate or natural gas liquids content diameter depth efficiency areal efficiency displacement efficiency invasion (vertical) efficiency pattern sweep efficiency reservoir recovery efficiency, overall volumetric efficiency fraction friction factor fugacity force Dimensions Le fm Le/m Le/m LP /m Dm various various L L m/Le mL/P xixii instantaneous producing water-oil ratio cumulative water-oil ratio acceleration of gravity conversion factor in Newton’s Second Law of Motion total initial gas in place in reservoir cumulative gas injection initial condensate liquids in place in reservoir ‘cumulative condensate liquid produced ‘cumulative gas produced cumulative wet gas produced ‘Bas produced during an interval thickness (general and individual bed) enthalpy (always with phase or system subscripts) injection rate productivity index specific productivity index absolute permeability (fluid flow) effective permeability to gas effective permeability to oil relative permeability 0 gas relative permeability to oil relative permeability to water effective permeability to water equilibrium ratio (y/x) natural logarithm, base € common logarithm, base 10 length ‘moles of liquid phase mass ratio of initial reservoir free-gas volume to initial reservoit oil volume slope mobility ratio molecular we ‘exponent of back-pressure curve, gas well total moles moles of component j initial oil in place in reservoir cumulative oil produced Reynolds number (dimensionless number) ‘il produced during an interval pressure atmospheric pressore Dbubble-point (saturation) pressure critical pressure Dimensions Lye mL / FP 2 D e D 2 B P L mL] Lhe Li/m L1jm B R B various Bb v BR mpfr m/l? rife (LPPre RR Pe casing pressure, flowing casing pressure, static dew-point pressure dimensionless pressure extemal boundary pressure initial pressure pseudocritical pressure pseudoreduced pressure reduced pressure pressure, standard conditions separator pressure dimensiontess pressure function at dimensionless time fp ‘tubing pressure, flowing tubing pressure, static bottom-hole pressure, general bottom-hole pressure, flowing bottomhole pressure at sandface, flowing bottom-hole pressure, static average pressure Pressure, reservoir average capillary pressure production rate or flow rate dimensionless production rate 28 production rate production rate, gas, dimensionless oil production rate production rate, oil, dimensionless water production rate production rate, water, dimensionless dimensionless fluid influx function at dimensionless time t radial distance radius of drainage dimensionless radial distance ‘external boundary radius radius of well damage or stimulation (skin) well radius apparent or effective wellbore radius (includes effects of well damage or stimulation) producing gas-oil ratio universal gas constant (per mole) cumulative gas-oil ratio Solution gas-ol ratio (gas solubility ie oi) solution gas-oil ratio at bubble-point conditions initial solution gas-oil ratio Dimensions m/l mL m/Le m/Le m/Le m/LP m/LP mf m/Le m/e? m/e m/le m/LP m/Lt m/Le m/Le ft? Dh vi Lit Lye ao poe mi? /PT xiiixiv p SP Ee EEE sees pepeereerocere Sno PSS 25° ° 8555 Dimensions ‘gas solubility in water skin effect saturation 26 saturation critical gas saturation ‘residual gas saturation total (combined) liquid saturation oil saturation intersttial-oil saturation in gas cap residual oil saturation water saturation critical water saturation interstitial-wates saturation in gas cap idual water saturation time , dimensionless time time for stabilization of a well ‘ temperature ay critical remperoture iz; formation temperature T pseudocritical temperature T pseudoreduced temperature reduced temperature reservoir temperature Tr temperature, standard conditions Tr specific volume Dim velocity Ly moles of vapor phase volume ve bulk volume B volume per mole B Pore volume v ‘mass flow rate mie initial water in place in reservoir B water (always with identifying subscripts) various work mi3/P ‘cumulative water influx (encroachment) u cumulative water injected 2B cumulative water produced v water influx (encroachment) during an interval Le water injected during an interval rig water produced during an interval Lv ‘mole fraction of a component in liquid phase mole fraction of a component in vapor phase ‘gas deviation factor (compressibility factor, z = pV/nRT)bee es aN 2 CF RRRR ERE S Pe Pe Pe ‘mole fraction of a component in mixture elevation referred to datum alpha gamma gamma gamma gamma delta eta theta lambda lambda lambda sigma tau phi angle specific gravity as specific gravity cit specific gravity water specific gravity difference (Br = x) — torn — x) hydraulic diffusivity Ck/deu oF A/c) angle ‘gas mobility oil mobility water mobility viscosity air viscosit gas viscosity cil viscosity water viscosity kinematic viscosity density fluid density gas density ‘matrix (solids, grain) density oil density water density surface tension (interfacial tension) tortuosity porosity Dimensions eit Lf Dt/m Lt/m m/Ls m/Lt [Lt om/Le vit mit? xvIntroduction LTHOUGH natural gas has been utilized as fuel for more than 150 years, the large de- mand for it has developed fairly recently. The principal reason for this is the greater diffi- culty of storing and transporting gas as compared to liq- uid fuels. Initially, natural gas was used only in the areas in which it was produced, with excess production being vented to the air or flared. This was especially true of ‘gas produced along with the oil in oil fields. The development of large diameter, high pressure pipelines and compressors, along with the technology of ‘gas storage in reservoirs, has spurred both the demand for natural gas and the development of the technology required to produce and transport it. This is illustrated in the United States by the fact that natural gas supplied ‘more than 30% of the total energy demand in 1980 as compared to 18% in 1950 and less than 4% in 1920. Natural gas supplied about 20% of the energy worldwide in 1980, ‘The increased demand has also greatly increased the price obtained for the gas. In 1950 the average price for natural gas in the United States was about $0.07 per thousand standard cubic foot (Mscf), and as late as 1970 the price averaged only about $0.17/Mscf. In 1980 the average price had increased to more than $0.90/Mscf with gas in some areas selling for as much as $9.00/ ‘Mscf. The large difference in the average and maximum selling price is due to the huge quantities being sold at very low prices under long term contracts made many years ago, Natural gas is used primarily as a fuel for space heat- ing and for generating steam for electric power plants, although its use as a feedstock for petrochemical plants increasing rapidly. Because of the necessity of using very high pressure to store significant quantities of n tural gas in small spaces, its use as a fuel for motor ve- hicles is very limited. However, as the supply of liquid fuels such as gasoline diminishes, it is likely that tech- nology will be developed to overcome this problem. GEOGRAPHICAL OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS Geological conditions necessary for commercial at- ‘cumulations of natural gas exist in various locations worldwide. The tables and graphs presented in this sec- tion locate and quantify the known reserves and the pro- duction rates of various countries. These data are also presented for various states in the United States. Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas ‘The worldwide reserves of natural gas has steadily in- creased during recent years, while the United States re- serves declined from 1967 to 1983. Table 1-1 shows that the United States’ share of the total world reserves decreased from 27.8% to 6.7% dur- ing the 1967-1983 period. As of 1983, the proved world gas reserve was 3,033 trillion cubic feet. The changes in reserves by area from 1967 to 1983 are shown in Table 1-1. These statistics are also reported by country for the twenty leading gas producing countries in Table 1-2. Although the United States has less than 7% of the total world reserves, it currently produces more than 34% Of the gas produced worldwide. Production statistics by area for the 1975-1981 period are presented in Table 1- 3. The production statistics for the twenty leading coun- tries are presented in Table 1-4 for 1980, 1981 and 1984. At the 1981 worldwide production rate of 160 billion cu ft/ 1Gas Production Operations TABLE 1-1 Estimated Proved World Reserves of Natural Gas Annually As of January 1 (Billions of Cubic Feet) Wistor Hemisphere usa ‘western Tout amet Lain Homisphoc Miso sia Fros Communist Total_—"Toah Canada _Amefea Tota East Alice Pace Word Nalons——Workd_—_ Word Yoar “W9as0 64550 Go7a08 215070 150165 92450 ‘91.590 150000 1041.00 278 1967 451682 67.101 405601 20870 67.223 40.050 967500 215.500 11en009 2481968 47666 62900 aT SIG 22877 168AMS 52728 969,508 549,000 126.098 21.7 1960 51951 165,150 80210 205275 197.149 67.500, 1.140928 490.908 1970 53376 73,100 417222 64202 191516 56.500 11367,061 "607,061 971 62 72700 0g968 343.990 199.018 69,600, 176.968 a7 966 1972 52906 79218 990209 944.150 109015 101.206, tara 1875.40 41973 $2457 9tset 380728 13305 187,729 114200 30070 2038.17 1974 e700 100214 94054 672670 344974 115,800 1.700.408 2546404 1975 5897S 90407 575.562 500649 207.152 111,560, 1649.97 2200097 1976 0202 90325 964009 536460 200077 120010 1372005 2.28,005 1977 sea72 100460 37680 719680 207504 172.725, 1504909 2518,800 1878 ‘59000 112.950 972252 700660 186280 110,850, 382912 2as7aie 1979 1860 194917" 5500 144500 424917 140.90 210.950 128815 195276 1,600,158 2574180 7.8 1900 1861 190021" G7200 teat 448.190 752418 208470 126200 159.915 188Ca2> 980800 2edeaze 75 «1901 $862 201,790" 05200 176.92 467.953 762400 211667 t27e16 1SN8SO 72097 1.194700 2918G76 69 1982” 1869 204000" $7,000 106501 487591 760730 109429 146247 156706 1740727 1.200000 2022527 67 1080" $905 190.000" 92:00 164.901 475,25 96955 187,176 166,190 200873 11904005 1497400 3402005 581905 $805 197000 90.700 189272 485971 955665 198322 171497 226407 1.908.069 1646000 3.48406) 561906 $888 187200 S600 Zas.i61 $18.81 1.182123 253.810 240650 200.117 Basser 781908 1988 165000 94.200 ZaRGB4 9200 1.226.150 206.790 aeBOsI 191914 2aaseia 68 1988 1901 106,200 97500 242.204 S081 124285 285.143 208561 175.265, 119.900 4200315 39 1908 Freed eratminary ‘pique leas 26 Ullon cubic foot a Pros Bay, Alaska (lscovered £968) for which wansporaon facts ar not yot aval ated on Energy Inrmation Adminicvaton estas. day, known resesves exist to sustain this rate for another forty-five years. Occurrence of Natural Gas In the United States ‘The United States is not in the same condition as the total world with respect to supply of natural gas. As shown in Table 1-5, almost eleven years would be required to deplete the 1981 known reserves at 1981 production rates. This does not mean that the gas will be depleted in ten years, however, as new supplies are being found con- tinuously. The changing reserve situation in the United ‘States is illustrated graphically in Figure 1-1. Table 1-6 shows estimates of the total remaining resources of nat- ural gas in the United States. Depending on the source of the estimate, the resources remaining in 1979 range from 502 to 1202 arlfion cubic feet. ‘Fable 1-7 presents salient statistics related to the gas industry in the United States for the period 1970-1981. Approximately 5% of the gas consumed is imported, pri- marily from Canada. Some liquefied natural gas is im- ported from Algeria. Of the gas produced in the United States, almost 90% comes from only five states. These are Kansas, Loui- siana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. The state of Louisiana is by far the largest producer, accounting for about 34% of the total gas produced in the United States in 1981. Much of this gas is produced offshore. Table 18 lists the gas production by states for the period 1972 1981. ‘Consumption of natural gas is of course more evenly distributed among the states, with Texas being the larg- est consumer. Table 1-9 shows where the United States- produced gas was used in the period 1977-1981. ‘The large growth of the ges industry in the United States is attributable to the comprehensive transmission systern that has developed since the late 1940's. In 1977 the network of gas pipelines consisted of more than 250,000 miles and served almost 45 million gas cus- tomers, The pipeline grid is shown in Figure 1-2, and the distribution of pipelines and customers among the states is listed in Table 1-10, GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF NATURAL GAS Certain requirements must be met for a commercial deposit of petroleum to exist. These are:Introduction 3 TABLE 12 Estimated Natural Gas Reserves—Leading Nations (As of January 1) (Billion Cuble Feet) 1984 1986 1909 7 mot wat ‘ot Tota otal Total Word Word World Nation Reserves Reserves Nation Reserves Reserves Nation Reserves Reserves 1. USSR. 1,450,000 42.621. USSR 15500 4271. USSR. 15000876 2 tran '478,600 14072 tran 4500 ©1242. Iran $000 125 3. United States “198,000 502-3. USA 1854 5.13. Abu Dhabi 12946 4 Qatar 150,000 4414. Quatar 1620 424. Saudi Arabia 11345 5. Saudi Arabia —«*128.270-««8.62 5S. Saudia Arabia © «1240 «34S. United States e504 6. Algoria 109,100 321 too 28 tex1 4 7. Canada 92300 271 1032 2B 7, 140029 8. Norway 891000 2.62 9.6 27 8. Venezuela 1008 25, 9, Mexico 7,000 226 90 259. rag e 2 10. Netherlands 68.480 201 75 2110. Canada 24 11, Venezuia 85370 163 704 1.911. Nigeria sae 12, Malaysia 50,000 1.47 590 1.8 12. Indocasia e702 18, Indonesia 40,000 1.18 484 14 13. Norway e220 Bt 14, Nigeria 35,600 1.05 494 1414, Moxico 734 45. Kuwait 32,500 0.86 470 13-18, Netheriands ont 16. China 90,900 0.81 16. United Kingdom 33.4 16. Malaysia S19 17. aq 26800 0.85 17, China 300 17, Kuwat 486 18. United Kingdom 27,800 0.8218, Iraq 230 18. China 353, 18. Argentina 24690 0.72 19. Argentina 230 18. Argontina 273, 20. Libya 24,200 0.82 20. Libya a2 20. Ubya 255 104 21. Abu Dhabi 20,750 061 21. Australia 1875221. India 230 22. bustraia 17,850 052 22. Pakistan 187 22. United Kingdom 208 23. Pakistan 18760 086 2. Inda 78 23. Pakistan 180 24. India 15000 0.44 24, Australia 165 Others 150,120 441 Others 2235 62 Others 2758 TOTAL WORLD 3402030 100.0 TOTALWORLD 96260 1000 TOTAL WORLD 3988.1 1000 Source: Oi and Gas Joumal, “Worldwide Repor issue. TABLE 13 World Marketed Production of Netural Ges by Area (Millions of Cublc Feet) vs WESTERN HEMASPHERE xo Weson “et Foo Sot a lun Heme eso tse Wore Fee Cormunst Tous Wort Word Yeu Sur _Carate_Arorca Tom! East_—— Aca Patio Eup Wud ona Werd_— Taal Total Your ‘ore T7aS000 eeoteaia 149na10 erase oases Saeeso sgasioso WaaTEan araoTam ws as WIS ve trezt08 ose sirsame Cocos suasrane Mania Gard S803 wn ‘ansra4 Sioaee Taamote escasne Soso00m ses sao io Zorese Sstiso0 urate Lage Geaaas Siro sso Se i 2eiome 2672770 ‘nero azr900 Saesane Sraccas 58 385 two" aoamzer 2eeaano S207 aesuaser wean 2880400 668.700 sayeser 1 7 toare Sorrzro1 26000 Szzc00 agacr701 34700 _27e8.000 é5oa0 sauorror 51534600" Freed Siuce: 1975-7: US. Eno nbrnaton Admieton, Wa! Nahr! Gas, Al, 1970-1961: U.S Egy eration Arete, Une Sale oy: et 3 Wo, Ol ané Gas seal outa 8 Arta Pen tite| 4 Gas Production Operations TABLE 1-4 Estimated Netural Gas Reservee—Leading Nations (As of January 1) (Bilion Cuble Feet) 1904 1986 1969 eo oF mor Markoted Total Markotod Total Marketed Total Production Worl Production _ World Production _ World Nation Total Production Nation Total Production Nation Total Production 1 USSR. port 57 1. USSR. 242158 «3801. USSSA. 28.1450 379 2. United States 18,0680 30.15 2 United States 16,688.0 282-2, United States. 17,9170 24.1 3. Notheriands «2.6775 4473. Canada $1683 50 3. Canada 41610 58 4, Canada 26518 4424. Netherlands = 2.6233 41.4, Notherlands 26063 835 5. United Kingdom 1423.3 2375. United Kingdom 1,694.0 2.85. Alger 2365 31 6. Mexico 13733 229 6, Mexico 1.2523 206, United Kingdom 15208 20 7. Algoria 1126002107. Ageria 1.2383 197, Indonesia 136718 8, Romania 1240-207. Romania 12102198. Mexico 1207418 9. Norway 19226 1.549. Indonesia 11559 18 9, Romania 126617 10. Indonesia 7320 © 12210. Norway 9062 1410. Saudia Arabian «1078815 11, Argontina 6532 1.0911. Argentina 661.8 11. Norway 104914 12, West Gormany 648.2 1.08 12. China 646.0 42. Argentina 462 18, tly 6389 1.0718. Vonozuola erst 18. kan 7939 14, Venezuela 6086 © 1.02 14, West Germany 545.4 14. United Arab 790.7 Emiratos 18, Australie 444074 18, Naty 8273 8.015, Venezuela 740.4 16, China 4200 0.7016. Austaia 5241 46. Maly mrs 82 7 tran 3600 © 060. 17. iran 4893 17, Australia 6297 18. Pakistan 3552 059 18. Pakistan 3903 18, Gormany, Fed. 5872 Rep 19. Brunel 3120 082 19. United Arab 3621 19. Malaysia 526.0 Emirates 20. France 3120 052 20. Saudia Arabia 928.7 20. China 5162 Top 20 558845 9325 Top 20 59,1824 92.9 © Top20 63,7674 926 Others 40478 675 Others 45008 7.41 Others SAS74 74 TOTAL WORLD 69,9923 1000 TOTALWORLD 68,6832 100.0 TOTAL WORLD 1000 ‘Source: Oil and Gas Journal, “Worldwide Report issue. TABLE 1-5 ‘The Reserves of United States Natural Gas (Milions of Cuble Feet—14.72 psla at 60°F.) vices. ecco Etensns Net change aa Suri ts ° a cnn, “year, Prd Races avesie — Undaeuns tnreswnes, —" bwe vee (iat Your Owegvenr ‘Some Donna Yeates Yas Buneer arma tomer maser aaa oa ie joe faze eaminem —“Yassaan ters rasta "87 419 err fwopagare® —Zrecenore®—siagn sae a 500 “reste 844079, 47a Sezarrag™ © oarrara’ fasonses 1709 Teamin ba ae 497 aaonor™ sonar” Saangaet ns 250 ‘sa te moar se7mmo Mk ~1s78000 100 sar teapo00 Basco v270800 joa! Temes gures extae 26sec etn Poe Bey, sha (covers I E68] wich aot yet avait ar mat du oe ck of npn face, gues won eae ote Pron Bey ata (re nt ounce nate gas sre nd gs iw far undogcnd serage ese, nda ol eusrais and nave gs anton ier erected. (joes re cane of reporg Base aang 173 w report omy gu eer cred recover, nw rH Da eras by 1,024,140 MMC al oud Ie toon nga ss 172 ig frm tat) ‘ce: 1975-1979-Amerean Gas Aasalan, Cartas en Nu Gat Resa. {900-1601—US. Depron of Ew. Energy nomaron Adria, Cateye Aneta Pole nthe4 Gas Production Operations TABLE 1-4 Estimated Natural Gas Resorves--Leading Nations (As ot January 1) (Billon Cuble Feet) 1984 1996 1980 %ot wot sot Markotod Total Marketed Total Marketed Total Production Word Production World Production World Nation Total Production Nation Total Production Nation Total Production 1. USSR. 20711 9487 1. USSR, 242158 3801. USSR. 281450 «O78 2 United States 18,068.030.15 2. United Silas 16,880 «282-2. United States 17,0170 24.1 3. Notherands «28778 4.87. Canada, 31683 50 3. Canada 4361058 4. Canada 26518 442 4, Netherlands 26233 © 41 4. Nothorlands 26083 «35 5. Unted Kingdom 114233 «237 5. United Kingdom 1.6340 2.6.8. Algoria 2ai65 3. 6. Mexico 19738 2.296. Mexico 112523 206, United Kingdom 1.5208 20 7. Nigeria 172000 © 2107, Agetia 12383 1.97, Indonesia. 1308718 8. Romania 12490 ©2078. Romania 12102198 Mexico 107418 9. Norway 9228 — 1.549. Indonesia 11559189. Romania 12368017 10. Indonesia 7320 © 122 10. Noway 9082 56 10, Saude Arabia 10708 18 11. Argentina 6532 1.0911, Argentina oo 11, Norway roe 14 12 West Gormany 6482 1.08 12. China 6480 12, Argentina 846.2 13, Maly 6389 1.0713. Venezuola 6151 13, Iran 7339 14, Venezuela 608.6 1.0214. West Germany 545.4 14, United Arab 790.7 Emiratos 15, Australia 4444 0.74 16. Italy 5273 8015, Venezuela 740.1 16. China 4200 0.7016, Australia 528.1 46. taly mre 82 47, ran 3600 060 17. kan 4905 17. Australia 6297 18, Pakistan 3552 059 18. Pakistan 3003 18. Germany, Fed. 5672 op 18. Brunel 3120 0.52 19. Unted Arab 3621 19, Malaysia 5260 Emirates 20. France 3120 052 20, Saudia Ambia 9287 20. China 5152 Top 20 558845 9325 ‘Top 20, 50,1824 929 Top20. 68,7674 928 thors 40478 675 Others 45008 74 Others 64s 74 TOTAL WORLD 59.9823 1000 TOTAL WORLD 63,6832 1000 TOTAL WORLD 1000 Source: Ot and Gas Joumal, “Workwide Report issue. TABLE 1-5 ‘The Reserves of United States Natural Gas (Millions of Cuble Feet—14.72 psia at 60.) won a, Ermone Year Sie os Predvten Net Change, of Yared Pre Baers ora Intesenes, "Prone Yor out You Dang Yate ‘eat prow Rowers at Yau-ond _—__Outeg Yess anoves Your we fiviaeaar® aor teaa7™ ronan Tayiesve aczzoo.re” — pogamore ——-aosaati waa" 16% 1078 sore zone Zanzi” "755408 teste —somanore® —Dyepagao) ——asrarog ‘70 ns sore 1s Yeoman Deane” srastae {arrow teaurrare® —Zoearrame’ pening 401039 sar? ism Mtearzarg® nareaye® —togactea iano estiote | frason7a7™ = pagror®) ara 9% 104 tare wr Taaoipor™ asowvor”” — Saaueaer © aapsed_—f9gt0 363 senoeae™ —pgaresed") © -Saasoed bs 98 1078 tw20 eager co semom NA ingongwo tonne. c0!® ros! 1900 ‘9e1__Yenaat ooo" Bae ersron _aonpa0 27am toa set Sues ae 2 ikon cil let Price ay, Aue (leaner 858 won a ot a aval rma te ck et Hanpotan nts ‘etc 26 vos ibe lth Pthow Sy, Asa. hal eon bate ues das whe Hom degre drage reser, lh fetes a ave as ansler am te an ates. (daar uc ange ot eperig Bal string 197 Tope ty gs rrones cord cova, nec rd Gas eee Dy 024,140 MMCE ht woud hoe ten eats bree 1972 tang fr Bs) ‘Sone: 197% 3879—Anercan Gas fas, Cammetue on Natural as Resores, ceutey ho AneroePetloan tte 1990-1961 Dopatnnt of Eng. Energy nomaton AonoIntroduction 2 “Tllon eubie foot U.S, NATURAL GAS RESERVES 320 300 —-PROVED RESERVES. 200 280 a * oa 2 180 — = — 160 - - 40 35 = = i 20 L | 25. —AboImIONs. : 0 f|__. + 6 i HI rT 0 yy HH L = 5S 5 I _ 1947 1950 1955, 1900 1965 s@70 1975 Fig. 1-1. U.S. natural-gas reserves. Used by permission of the copyright holder, American Gas Association. TABLE 1-8 Estimated Gas Resources and Reserves (Trillion Cublc Feet) Including Alaska Source of Yoar of Potential Resources! 1979 Proved Total Remaining Estimate Eslimate New Fiolis Old Folds Totat Raoserves. Resources? US. Geological ‘Survey 1980 504 162 756 195 922 atonal Academy ‘of Sconces, 1974 590 118 648 195 m7 Boron Base 1974 342-942 56-221 425-1143, 198 502-1202 Potential Gas Commitios 1980 720 193 913 195 1089 "Does not include possible resources from unconventional sources such as coal-bed degasiiction. Devonian shale, Rocky Mountain vight- gas formation, goopressured resources, and biomass and coal gasification “As of Decomber 31, 1981. Estimates are corrected for gas consumed since the date of resource estimat Used by permission of the copyright holder, American Gas Association,6 Gas Production Operations TABLE 7 Sollent Statistics of Natural Ges in the U.S, (Millon Cube Feet) YA AT WEED Tos homge Emam ys at # Yihemn Lost vet tnt vomit “Soot Sy Means ee tae, ‘oe a Prati ets sry __"Sran Port Poaon cannon Sirage Sung curaon! Fired Your zona wa ene Sarge Wie aan arm vasneor psbver—ae0 aa a9 Bisioe mae fice ‘nee ies Gay” soreontaongen Satan caer rt Bie Too sommes ‘Gaee tue 02 ha Nvarate tamegee Sonat cuatte tre Benes Te Vien iosore sg hasaamtaveame tosand 2eaane 1 Fisica Tan ae mie ns esos sseoe 4S on 47 sass ima zasgos ang19 78 ‘Sosa Gort Sart oanoe so 03 Sethe seem fteato ate to Bama a song tans mo 82 $s tmme Sumoas aoe Sanger? enms Sa feone Tenecote bos 03ers Savonee aman stad W8 im menses en vos Mims rs 03 Gh abe anenon Smgamo stan 1 m0 man a7 seve7 sotsarea 100248 taenaca aan eugaretasasn 80” imt_mimimr Seam fine setae too 03 tS smart Sosons ‘anon? tet ‘hse carr ne pad se a gs aI Sort: US. ray non Aiton Nl Cas mae cue hn Pelt te TABLE 1.8 U.S. Marketed Production" of Natural Gas by State (Million Cubic Feet) fie momo ts tore tomer awe wou wah gas aia nara) am sane sa vie wor wgon_= eau. ore. tuvamo Sane ebage tO na 1 m a we 0 ws a au ‘arse wees was waars isnot tat tuine ene tmaaz_—inape saan Gone trae atom ecaseStgam = tam athupe tame aspen an Sone ‘cow farras_—facams = trvago nara tone tengso, fgg fooate tonnes Fon "san ‘err "usm “taves “amis ‘Staes—“sotoo“tarue‘Shoo8 ve sae se woth tomate tae ta ‘one os im Se ‘ae te ° aS ey ‘rose ooze ame oases omni Toiams esa Tonfee Seon rom ‘See mare “soars “anwar "ene “rouse "anamy“onswo “orate cae rae rrssest —tomous 7050580 © 7athoo © TaTeaaT —Taweai? gman anion ant 4 2 2 7 e A = a 2 tecioe wan Pe econ ena ‘oer “rage ‘Tome ‘tags tonto. unary Neaes aa ‘coo : 2 > = > oS = a rene nee am ame woue Seas amr sts teense a0 ase aes ast ame ae 2m aa terwecc —saiean vam avi sam tamara raion swore anita tere ad ‘two 'yee aoe Nome “tawm tea “gee tone tenure Fe ) oe Ss moe tom tag, toaer, steams ane ssuase en won conser sane pao yeasts 1700818 song enage 2g Oven . 5 = 5 ° : : Pesopase Tass Ce meas oes za ene E 2 * : E os ee ime Semoun Pa » ” 2 ” = “ ee eas tesrpm —asigas Gime Tage 7018S) TaSLaay RBI) 7astare —rosoa0r co mee Vans “mae | “ewe “Sree mtg one Samosa “ata Soe amr ‘eit Yame ‘aan “tam St amo Stee ay rata “ono Wervosa —avaanl amare audaggteuamt,= shag ssater_ abana mom sessh tas Woon” meso San Sesasr_— Sat) enes oreo. Soraerstaatnlonstt_ toa rest massme tana _themosza Meas asa MOR saNTAOD ATI maMATET ams. 74 aand di eee Ge erases Gos winckovas or Oe wed Toetclg On Gallas vod are ‘Souee: US. Eoay oman ASneaton Nr as Aman Janay 188, ctu tn Anan Patou esteIntroduction TABLE 19 5 US. Consumption of Natural Gas by State (ailton Cuble Feet) 1977 1978 1978 1901 2ai2a7 737.256 263,85 74280 116.278 ‘45005 157238 tara 167002 75041 172738 102153 229.858 220,809 0747 24787 1772041 1.589,172 s.st03e1 1.988.178 2a2ts 287838 meoare 211,700 64.068 65,191 75820 15.787 203826 60 ® ® 2 mae 1834 397857 254.685 2rezr2 16.619 45597 44210 24,980 1.167.008 1174894 1.061.957 ‘see288 “40.955 ‘96340 200.286 238.220 253.201 s0s.s10 519946 429,190 210.821 2raet 199.445 210088 2240,172 1701.76 e ° ae 169.898 161,605 201.504 175280 100343 100303 156.480 194575 741295 709556 e75726 00873 299.381 313209 94202 206.202 197.689 209,718 254.366 253.530 242'907 966970 358,05 47257 181 masta 70986 e680 cogs core ease 185.004 163.051, 170018 163,078 99322 Th0s2 64508 2449 58.454 13608 14000 4361 9474 2475320 2888 280579 09.805, 229013 213.608 21182 zeu7e3 95.212 Now York 561.698 69,700 e231 rors e083 Net Carton 72827 81.900 190804 152406 ert Dakota 37.680 9007 20236 4s ohio ears 829.508 996,008 erat Okleroma 765906 209 24900 eros7t Oregon 728% 96,140 93,707 75.562 Ponyvania esa.s07 673.770 vaoat8 Te4sot hode land 25601 ‘aoe 2210 zo.02 Sou Carina 136585 w7573 119310 va1g28 auth Dakota 38.097 95423 2s.ra4 22058 Toanessoo 202,195, 124048 pasar 223509 Tore 49023 aziiase 4001385 3.926.687 van ‘oss ‘nest3 126087 102299 vere ° " ° 4383 Virginia toate 134088 158470 181797 Washagton 1277200 1543515 128,770 124942 West Vigle 151,899 1453538 143087 5;27 Wisconsin 370728, 367517 351857 seaett Wyong era 93,797 68.975, 69.056, Us. Toa 19.627, 000,781 1997,280" 19.403 058 ‘incloded wits Now Harponre inca wits Mangers otal incudos 9,181 MMet tom Hawa in 1900 and 200 MM In 1964 (Totals may no add du fo Independent rounding. ‘Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Nabral Gas Anruls, January 1989, Courtesy the American Petcleum lotiGas Production Operations “LL6} UF S8IEIS PeHUN By) UI SaUYedd seB-ye:nyeU JOfeW 2-1 ‘BlyIntroduction TABLE 1-10 ‘Transmission Pipelines and Natural-Gas Customers by State ‘Transmission Pipolines Gas Customers st (Mies) (Thousands) ‘Nabari 901 oa ‘Alaska 115 30.4 ‘Atzona 5041 561.0 California 7813 6622.2 Colorado 6219 7266 Connecticut 538 3902 Delaware 27 824 Distict of Columbia 23 1532 Florida 3,01 4099 Georgia 4982 973 Hawai 0 245 ‘daho 1312 1090 Hinois 91355, 93,1583 Indiana 5.655, 1,198.3 twa 6.142 7028 Kansas 15547 679.0 Kentucky 6,950, era Louisiana 2,607 9433 Maino 538 176 Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnosota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada ‘New Hampshire Now Jersey New Mexico New York ‘North Carolina ‘North Dakota tio Ofdahoma Oregon Pennsyivania Rhode Island South Carona South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Vieginia 2,952 Washington 1.707 West Virginia 5890 Wesoonein 3,166 Yyoming 2,985 Total US. 252,012 Source: Interstate Wetural Gas Association of America, Washing ton, Di 1. A source; that is, material from which the petroleum is formed. 2. Porous and permeable beds in which the petroleum ‘may migrate and accumulate after being formed. 3. A trap or subsurface condition restricting further movement so that it may accumulate in commercial ‘quantities. Natural gas and crude oil are generated from organic ‘matter under the influence of increasing temperature and time. Both the type of organic matter and the tempera- ture it experiences have a role in controlling whether oi ‘or gas is formed. Organic matter can be divided into two broad categories depending on whether it was derived from organisms growing on the land surface or growing in water, that is, whether it is terrestrial or aquatic. It is ‘generally thought that the terrestrial matter produces nat- ural gas and some waxy crudes, whereas aquatic mate- rial produces normal crudes. ‘This distinction is important in estimating the maxi- ‘mum depth to which crude oil or natural gas may occur. Rivers have played a critical role in transporting terves- trial material to the depositional environment. Therefore, ‘Stage 1. Gas, ol, and water above spill point. Both ‘land gas continue to be trapped vie water is dgplaced. This stage onds when ollwator Interace reaches spil point. ‘Stage 2. Stage of selective entrapment and gas flushing Gas continues tobe trapped but ois spiled Lp dip. This stago ends when oil-gas interface reaches spi point Water for ‘Stage 3. End stage. Tap filed with gas. Excess gas pis up dp a more gas enters trap. Ol by ‘passes trap and continues upward migration. Fig. 1-3. lustration of differential entrapment principle, ‘showing various stages of hydrocarbon accumulation in an ‘aniline. Solid and dashed arrows denote oll and gas ‘movement respectively. (After Gussow) Courtesy American Association of Petroleum Geologists.10 Gas Production Operations "tap 4 Fig. 1-4. Final conciion of diferential entrapment in a series of interconnected traps. (After Gussow) Courtesy American ‘Association of Petroleum Geologists, deltas are very gas-prone depositional environments. The coldest and deepest sediments were deposited in the con- tinental rift and are rich in terrestrial organic matter. They ate overlain by increasingly marine sediments containing greater amounts of aquatic matter so that a vertical se- quence develops with the gas-generating organic matter at the bottom 2nd the oil-generating material at the top. Modification by Migration and Burial il and gas may be remobilized after it has formed in reservoirs. This secondary migration is inost frequently caused by regional tipping and may lead to a marked separation of oil and gas. Gussow! used the term “if- ferential entrapment’ for the case in witich a full trap with a gas cap spits oil from the bottom into the next higher trap. This can lead to adjacent traps with gas, o or varying mixtures of the two. The gas-filled reservoirs can be downdip from the oil-filled reservoirs. The pro- cess is illustrated in Figures 1-3 and 1-4. ‘As can be seen from Figure 1-4, natural gas can occur either associated or not associated with oil. Trap 1 in Figure 1-4 is a non-associated gas reservoir while Trap 2 is an associated gas reservoir; that is, the gas occurs as a gas cap in contact with crude oil. In some associated gas reservoirs the oil exists as a thin rim at the bottom of the trap. ‘The temperature increase that accompanies increasing depth of burial has 2 aajor role in determining the com- position of the trapped petroleum. Crude oils are not equilibrium mixtures, and as temperature incteases the hydrocarbons readjust toward equilibrium at an increas- ing rate. This readjustment causes a redistribution of hy- drogen, ultimately giving methane and a solid carbon- Tich residue. The oil changes first to condensate, then to wet gas, and finally to dry gas. Gas developed in this manner is frequently associated with hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide, TABLE 1-11 Total Estimated Potential Supply of Natural Gas by Depth Increments As of December 31, 1982 (Trillon Cublc Fee!) Probable Possible Speculative Onshore (Dring Depth ilonor 48 States Tess than 15000 foot 103189 « 15000 1 90.000 feet 48 rs ii 779 Aska Tess than 15000 fet 6 16 Ey 16000 to 20,000 feet == aS é 6 Ey 7 oan 207 20 2 3 a 3 3 2 59 s 9 2 2 # 12 ie m2 <8 a ie a Although the maximum temperature for oil to exist is fairly well established, the temperature and hus depth limitations on the occurrence of natural gas have yet to te determined, Barker and Kemp? have published the results of a computer study to determine this depth lim- itation and have found that under certain conditions methane can remain stable at depths beyond 40,000 ft ‘The amount of methane surviving is strongly influenced by reservoir lithology with fairly cool, clean sandstones being the most favorable reservoirs. It was found thatIntroduction i Butane Paratin compounds (Saturated straight chain) Fig. 1-5. Hydrocarbon gas molecule structures, ‘methane has less stability in deep carbonates. ‘The Barker and Kemp study implies that natural gas may exist at depths greater than have been presently ex~ plored if porous and permeable reservoirs exist at these depths. Table 1-11 shows that considerable reserves may exist at depths between 15,000 and 30,000 ft. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL GAS. Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases with some impurities, mainly nitrogen (N,), hydrogen sulfide (H,S), and carbon dioxide (CO;). Gases containing sig- nificant amounts of HS or CO, or both are called sour or acid gases. These impurities must be removed before the gas is used as a fuel. The hydrocarbon gases are methane, ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and small amounts of hexanes, heptanes, and some heavier frac- tions. In gas used for fuel, methane is the largest com- ponent, usually 95 to 98%. Natural gas is normally considered to be a mixture of straight chain or paraffin hydrocarbon compounds. However, occasionally cyclic and aromatic compounds ‘ccur in a natural gas. The molecular structures of some of these are shown in Figure 1-5. The general formula for the paraffin hydrocarbons is C,Ha,+2» where n is the number of carbon atoms. Gas Composition The actual composition of a natural gas can vary over wide ranges. Even two gas wells producing from the sarne reservoir may have different compositions. Table 1-12 shows typical hydrocarbon compositions of the gas pro- duced from different types of reservoirs. The composi- tion of the gas produced from a given reservoir may12 TABLE 112 ‘Typlesl Natural Gas Compositions Mol Percent ‘Associated Wet Ory Component Symbol Gas Gas Gas Methane c 27s2—«5082 STAT Ethane c 16.24 538 1.89 Propane cy 29.18 4m (029 Butane on 537 203013 Butane ne 17.18 239042 Hentane iG 238 10007 ‘pPentane nes 172 161 0.05 Haxane & oa7 260 004 Heptares Plus Cre 0. 1998 _024 7000 70000 70000 change with time if liquids condense in the reservoir as pressure declines. This occurs in a so-called retrograde ‘condensate reservoir. Although natural gases contain small fractions of hy- drocarbon components much heavier than heptane, most analyses group all of the heavier components into a cat- egory called Heptanes plus or C,,. Table 1-13, from Katz’, lists some of the components of petroleum and the commercial products that contain these components Only the constituents in the range of condensate well effluents and lighter will be considered in this text Gas Production Operations OTHER SOURCES OF GASEOUS FUEL Alternatives to conventional sources of natural gas are importation of liquefied natural gas, substitute natural ‘gas, coal gasification, and gas from shale reservoirs. The technology required for handling and transporting these gases once they are produced is essentially the same as for natural gases. Liquefied Natural Gas. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is essentially methane that is liquefied at atmospheric pressure by cooling it to ~260°F. The phase change re- duces the volume by 623:1, and approximately 15% of the energy is consumed in the phase change. Most of the LNG imported into the United States comes from Al- ria and is transported in large tankers that hold ap- Proximately 750,000 barrels of LNG. This is equivalent to about 2.5 Bef of gas. Coal Gasification. Synthetic gas from coal has been investigated in several pilot plants in the United States, but the commercial viability has not been demonstrated. The gas derived from coal is usually low in heating value as compared to natural gas. Substitute Natural Gas. Substitute natural gas (SNG) ccan be made from liquid petroleum feedstock such as naphtha, crude oil, propane, and butane. Facilities exist TABLE 1-13 Constituents of Petroloun Product of Commerce Name Fomula Containing Constituent Gaoneral Range of Constivens la Field Siteam Methane cH, Natural gas a | Ehane om Natura! gas z Propane CHe ‘Natural gas, propane a & 2 teobutane HOH Natural gasoline, butane alfa 2/2 ‘Butane nH Natural gasoline, motor ful, butane He g| 3\° Portas cia Nara gaoine, ma alala el [zleé Hexanes Cott Natural gasoline, motor tue! zs i €l5 i $\3 Heptanes Cite Natural gasoline, motor fuel § Bgl 3 Octanes Cote Natural gasofne, motor ue 3 ela Decanes Cites Motor fue! 3 5 Tetadecane Cutt Kerosene, ight fumace ci Sls ; Hexadecans CucHse ‘Mineral seal oil, furnace oil e Tiscontane Cae ght ttcating of, heavy uel of Tetracontane Cate Lubricating ot, noavy uel o Asphatene Cott Asphal, rad ol, bunker fue ol |