AirbusFDTSubject02-Is 1

Airbus Fatigue & Damage Tolerance Course January 2005
Presented by
Hans-Jürgen Schmidt
Retired from Airbus
AeroStruc – Aeronautical Engineering
Subject 2
Tips on fatigue behavior
F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc

Contents
• General goal of fatigue design
• Fatigue and damage tolerance – effects on fatigue life
• Design precautions
• Major design parameters influencing the fatigue life of joints
• Major design parameters influencing the fatigue life of general
structure
• Design of aluminum, titanium and steel lugs
• Effect of shot peening on the fatigue life
© AIRBUS DEUTSCHLAND GmbH. All rights reserved. Confidential and proprietary document.
• Effect of CAA treatment on the fatigue life

• Effect of secondary bending in butt joints on the fatigue life
• Effect of too deep countersink in riveted joints on fatigue life
F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 2

General goal of fatigue design
• FAR 25.571 starts with the requirement: “An evaluation of the strength,
detail design and fabrication must show that the catastrophic failure due
to fatigue, corrosion, or accidental damage, will be avoided throughout the
operational life of the airplane.”
• This requires a damage tolerance design and evaluation, i.e. the
airworthiness of the aircraft is based on sufficient damage tolerance
behavior and an adequate maintenance program.
• However, the majority of the manufacturers perform fatigue life analysis
for two purposes:
- demonstration of the reliability of the structure up to the design
service goal or the extended service goal.
- determination of the inspection threshold for “multiple load path and

crack arrest ‘fail safe’ structure”.
• Consequently, the design of the aircraft should be fatigue resistant to
fulfill the objectives given above.
• This chapter includes proven fatigue resistant design concepts, which
have been used by the major aircraft manufacturers. The given design
concepts and details have been successfully certified and used during
operation.
Fatigue and damage tolerance –
notches & radii
b b
STRESS CONCENTRATION
FACTOR
σmax
Related to Gross Stress:
σmax
Kt = σmax / σnu
σnn
σnn
r
Related to Net Stress:
S Kt = σmax / σnn
d t
S
σnu
σnu

notches & radii - contd. -
40 x t’
LOW
t’
Improvement of
fatigue life
Kt
HIGH
Major design parameters influencing
the fatigue life – Kt – R.E.Peterson
Contents of Stress Concentration Factors by R.E. Peterson
A Wiley-Interscience Publication
• List of Symbols
• Definitions and Design Relations
• Deckblatt • Notches and Grooves
von
Peterson • Shoulder Fillets
• Holes
• Miscellaneous Design Elements
• References

the fatigue life – Kt – R.E.Peterson
Stress concentration introduced by notch

the fatigue Life – Kt – R.E.Peterson
Kt for tension case of a

flat bar with a circular
hole displaced from c
r
Ktg = σmax / σ
centerline
Ktg = σmax / σ σmax
3.0
Ktn based on net section A-B
Ktn
2.0
Stress concentration factor Kt

for tension case of a
flat bar with a circular hole
displaced from center line
(based on mathematical analysis of Sjöström)
1.0
0 0.2 r/c 0.4
notches & radii – effect on life
Stress concentration KT
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.1 1 10 100
Cycles N/Nref

major parameters and their effect
Stress concentration KT
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.1 1 10
Cycles N / Nref

Fatigue and damage tolerance – holes
– effect on fatigue life
Kt
Open hole
Not deburred
Open hole
deburred
Hole deburred
and filled
Cycles N
Holes have to be deburred
No open holes (recommended)

the fatigue life – e.g. Kt
(1)
LIFE N NO
BOLT (2)
HOLE DEBURRED FIRST
OPEN HOLE
CRITICAL
DEBURRED LINE
OPEN HOLE
NOT DEBURRED
OPEN HOLEEDGE MARGIN = YES
DEBURRED 1 HOLE DIAMETER
OPEN HOLES
DEBURRED
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

EFFECTIVE Kt
(3)
NO YES
F F F F

edge margin and rivet spacing effect
Minimum edge margin:

approximately 2 D
Rivet spacing:
approximately 3.5 D to 5.0 D
D = rivet diameter

knife edge and countersink effect
BAD Min: 0.4 mm
Knife Effect GOOD
No knife edge
Die force Die force

Rivet Gun Rivet Gun
Countersink not greater than the height of rivet head

run–outs – effect on fatigue life
BAD
GOOD

secondary bending effect

Effect of interference fit
on the fatigue life
Df
Db
IN-SERVICE
STRESS
FITTING BY FREEZING INTERFERENCE

FITTING BY DRIVING
CLEARANCE
Dh Dh
N FLIGHTS
If = (Df-Dh)/Dh INTERFERENCE RATE Ib = (Db-Dh)/Dh
WITH Df > Dh WITH Db > Dh

(IF ≤ 2%) (IF ≤ 1%)

Design precautions – cold working
TOOL: NOSE OF GUN
EXPANSION GUN
LUBRICATED
SPLIT BUSH CLEARANCE
EXPANSION + CLEARANCE
IN-SERVICE
STRESS EXPANSION + MODERATE
MANDREL INTERFERENCE
BUSH RETAINING RINGS HIGH INTERFERENCE
PART EXPANSION + HIGH
INTERFERENCE
STRESSES:
N
+ LIFE
TENSION
- -
COMPRESSION
TANGENTIAL
RADIAL STRESS
STRESS
Design precautions – cold working –
cont‘d
Without cold working
With cold working

Design precautions – cold working –
contd. -

Design precautions – effect of cold
working on life
Fatigue Life Benefit Factors for Bottom Wing Surface – High Load Transfer
Joint – Low Secondary Bending – Titanium Bolts – Spectrum Loading
Production Modification L97 RR58
CF IF 3.0 3.0
CF = Clearance Fit fastener
CF IF CX 6.0 6.0
IF = Interference Fit fastener CF TL 6.0 6.0
TL = Taper Lock fastener
CX = Cold Working
Retro-fit Modification L97 RR58
CF IF (1/64" o/s) 3.0 3.0
L 97 = 2024
CF IF (1/32" o/s) 2.3 2.3

RR58 = 2618
CF IF (1/16" o/s) 1.5 1.5
CF CX + IF (1/16" o/s) 3.0 3.0
CF CX + IF (<1mm crack) (1/16"o/s) 3.0 3.0
CF TL (1/64" o/s) 6.0 6.0
CF TL (1/32" o/s) 4.5 4.5

CF TL (1/16" o/s) 3.0 3.0
Design precautions– effect of cold
working on life - contd. -
Fatigue Life Benefit Factors for Top Wing Surface - High Load Transfer
Joint – Low Secondary Bending - Titanium Bolts – Spectrum Loading
Production Modification L95 RR58
CF = Clearance Fit fastener CF IF 2.0 2.0
IF = Interference Fit fastener CF Steel IF 3.0 3.0

TL = Taper Lock fastener CF TL 2.0 2.0
Retro-fit Modification L95 RR58

L 95 = 7075
RR58 = 2618 CF IF (1/64" o/s) 2.0 2.0
CF IF (1/32" o/s) 1.5 1.5
CF IF (1/16" o/s) 1.0 1.0
CF Steel IF (1/64" o/s) 3.0 3.0
CF Steel IF (1/32" o/s) 2.3 2.3

CF Steel IF (1/16" o/s) 1.5 1.5

Design precautions – effect of cold
working on life - contd. -
Effect of cold working on cracked and un-cracked open hole specimens
made of 7075T7351, 5mm thick, CAA treated before hole drilling, width
42 mm, hole dia. 7.1 mm, crack 1 mm at both sides of one hole
one hole with crack one hole with crack

both holes cold worked no cold working
stress amplitude Ơa (MPa)
confidence:level
net section net section
cycles N
the fatigue life of joints
Guidance for a fatigue resistant design of high loaded joints of fuselage
structures (e.g.longitudinal lap joints)

Major design parameters influencing the
fatigue life of joints – e.g. eccentricity
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8 skin
skin with
0.6
extended shim
0.4 doubler
0.2
0.0
Td1/Ts1 for skin
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
Note: valid up to a sheet thickness of 3.2 mm

fatigue life of joints – e.g. fastener diameter
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2 doubler
1.0
0.8
skin
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Note: valid up to a sheet

thickness of 3.2 mm
fatigue life of joints – e.g. fastener type

Note: valid up to of
thickness a sheet
3.2 mm
thickness of 3.2 mm
fatigue life of joints – e.g. fastener pitch

thickness of 3.2 mm

fatigue life of joints – e.g. edge margin

thickness of 3.2 mm

Major design parameters influencing the fatigue
life of joints – e.g. no. of fastener rows

thickness of 3.2 mm

fatigue life of joints – e.g. row distance

thickness of 3.2 mm
Major design parameters influencing the fatigue
life of joints – e.g. countersink depth

thickness of 3.2 mm

Major design parameters influencing the fatigue life
of joints – e.g. inner fastener row distance

Major design parameters influencing the fatigue life
of joints – e.g. inner fastener row distance
Pm/Td SM
< 15 0.50
15 - 25 0.70
≥ 25 1.00
thickness of 3.2 mm
fatigue life of joints – e.g. material
Note: General data, if no exact data for 7075T6 are available

Design of aluminum, titanium and
steel lugs
Tips to improve the fatigue strength of lugs (Ref. HSB 63511-01):
• Improve lug geometry to meet σa > σaS
σa : allowable stress amplitude for specific lug
σaS : allowable stress amplitude for standard lug
σa =σaS • [1 + Θ • (k1 • k2 – 1)]

with: Θ = 0.25 for N ≤ 103
Θ = 0.25 • log N – 0.5 for 103 < N < 106
Θ = 1.0 for N ≥ 106
k1 = (a • d / c2)1/2 for light alloys (e.g. Al, Mg alloys)

k1 = (a • d / c2)1/3 for titanium and steel
k2 = (10 / d)1/5 for light alloys (e.g. Al, Mg alloys)
k2 = (10 / d)1/8 for titanium and steel
Θ and k2 are also given in the diagrams on the next page.

steel lugs - contd. -
Factor Θ acc. to HSB 63511-01:
c
Θ
d F
s: thickness
N c
of lug
a
Factor k2 acc. to HSB 63511-01:

Standard lug
k2 10
Ti and steel
10 F
Light alloy
d (mm) 10
10
The method is valid for:
s/d ≤ 0.8 for steel and Titanium, s/d ≤ 1.0 for light alloys
-1 ≤ R < +1
For determination of k1: a/c =2, if a/c >2; c/d = 0.3, if c/d < 0.3
steel lugs - contd. -
Tips to improve the fatigue strength of lugs:
• Installation of steel bushes (e.g. cadmium plated) with high

interference (σ in Al lug = 60-120 MPa and σ in Ti lug = 90-180
MPa) Precaution: no permanent stress in ST is acceptable.
• Thickness of steel bushes in Al or Ti are between 5 and 10
percent of diameter of bore hole in lug.
• Surface quality of lugs 3.2 µm and 0.8 µm for bore holes
• Surface quality of bushes 0.8 µm
• Lugs made of steel are cadmium plated* including the bore hole
to improve fretting corrosion.
* Alternative plating should provide a similar pre-caution against

fretting

steel lugs - contd.-
Comparison of allowable stresses for standard lugs in MPa for
the following conditions: N= 100.000, R=0, average values
Material Fit Bush Permanent Allowable
Lug Bush Lug/ Bush/ Thickness/ Ring Stress Stress
(Cadmium Bush Bolt Lug Hole in Lug in Lug
plated) 1/1000 1/1000 1/100 MPa MPa
Steel
2014 T6 Rm = 1050 MPa -5 +/- 2 +9 +/- 2 9 ≈0 74
Steel
2014 T6 Rm = 1050 MPa -31 +/- 2 +9 +/- 2 9 65 - 76 90
Steel
2014 T6 Rm = 1050 MPa -45 +/- 3 +9 +/- 5 4.5 73 - 86 86
Steel
7009 T6/T62 Rm = 1050 MPa -9 +/- 1 +9 +/- 1 9 6 - 13 58
Steel
MgAl7Zn Rm = 1050 MPa -12 +/- 2.5 +6 +/- 2 9 8 - 18.6 44
Steel
6AL 6V 2 Sn Rm = 1050 MPa -6.7 +/- 2 +13 +/- 2 10 ≈0 142

FTI ForceMate procedure for
aluminum and titanium lugs
The ForceMate procedure developed by FTI is another method to
improve the fatigue life of lugs.
ForceMate
process

aluminum and titanium lugs - contd. -
Constant amplitude tests have been carried out to compare the effects
of the ForceMate procedure and the shrink fit procedure.

Test results for
Aluminum lugs
with Al-Ni-Br or
steel bushes

Test results for
Titanium lugs with
Al-Ni-Br or steel
bushes

Effect of shot peening on the fatigue life of
notched and un-notched Al-structures
• Door corner cut-outs,fillet radii and other structural areas are often fatigue
sensitive depending on stress level, stress concentration and surface
condition as roughness and treatment.
• Constant amplitude tests with un-notched specimens and specimens with
two holes made of 2024T351 showed the effect of shot peening. The
bending specimens were tested at +/- 206 MPa. The same effect applies for
flap peening.
• The effect of shot peening / flap peening is only achievable on bare
material of after removal of cladding.
Un-notched Specimen
Notched Specimen

Test results of un-notched specimens:
∆ : no shot peening (specimen mechanically milled and polished)

o: no shot peening (specimen mechanically milled)
x : wet shot peening
• : dry shot peening
0.15 N = glass beads 70 –110 µm – wet shot peened

0.25 N = glass beads 100 – 200 µm – wet shot peened
0.15 A = steel wire beads ∅ 0.4 mm – dry shot peened
0.20 A = steel wire beads ∅ 0.4 mm – dry shot peened

Test results of notched specimens:
0.15 N = glass beads 70 –110 µm – wet shot peened

0.25 N = glass beads 100 – 200 µm – wet shot peened

notched and un-notched Al-structures - contd. -
The shot peening intensities given as 0.xx N or 0.xx A on the
previous pages are defined as:
• So-called Almen plates are specified as shown below.
Material of plates:
b
Cold rolled hardened Carbon Steel
SAE 1070 (hardness of 44-55 RC
a
c
for “A” intensities for “N” intensities

notched and un-notched Al-structures - contd. -
• The selected Almen plate is shot peened on one side with the
required intensity. Due to the shot peening the plate is curved to
the peened side.
• The arc height is measured:
The shot peening intensity is
the arc height in millimeter
related to A or N plate.
E.g. 0.25 N is an arc height of
0.25 mm using an N plate.

Effect of CAA treatment on the fatigue life
Results from constant amplitude tests with un-notched specimens: Material:
2024 T351,7075 T651 and CM 003G T651 grain directions: L and LT, specimen
types: bending specimen, Surface: Alodine or CAA, R=0.1
2024 2024clad CM003G 2024 2024 2024 7075 material
Surface treatment:
Alodine
CAA

- contd. -
Results from constant amplitude tests with riveted specimens: Material: 2024
T3, grain direction: L, specimen types: single shear, double shear and doubler
specimens, Surface treatments: Alodine or CAA, R=0.1
Alodine CAA
Material: 2024 clad

- contd. -
A-D A-E A-F Saab Hurel-Dubois Alenia
Fatigue values values values values values values
reduction CAA 0.8 0.67 0.75 0.7

factor 0.7 (theoretical 0.6 0.65 0.7
value)
applied on CAA + sealing 0.65
nominal
CAA for bonding 0.6
stress for
average SAA 0.65 0.6
fatigue life
HA 0.5
on N = 105
cycles (for TSA 0.9
(high temperature)
SAAB PSA 0.8
results 106
PSA / TSA 0.75
cycles) in
comparison PAA 0.75
to untreated BSAA 0.75

material Alodine 0.9 0.8
Alodine 1 0.95
(without pickling)
Shot-peening 1.15 1.1
For 1 to 5 Blasting 1
see next
page 1 2 3 4 5

- contd. -
Explanations to previous page
1 2 3 4 5
1
Materials: Materials: Materials: Materials: Materials:
2024 T3 2024 T351 / 2027 T351 2xxxx
7175 T7351 2027 T351 / 2650 T6 7xxx
C460 / 2096
6056 T78
7175 T7351 / 7055 T7751
7349 T76511 / 7449 T7651
7010 T??? / 6013 T76 7010 / 7040 / 7050 7010 T7451 7050 T7451
T7451 or T7452-54
Coupons: Coupons: Coupons: Coupons: Coupons:
Smooth Kt 1 Smooth Kt 1 Notch Kt 1.5 Smooth Kt 1 Notch Kt 1.7

Hole Kt 2.5 Notch Kt 1.3 / 1.7
Hole Kt 2.3
Pocket / Lug

Effect of secondary bending in butt joints
on the fatigue life
Simplified estimation of the fatigue behavior for flat butt straps between 2.0
and 2.5 mm – design solution 1
tSD tS
tB
40
Stress
amplitude
in tSD (MPa) tB / tSD = 1.35 to 1.4
30
tB / tSD = 1.14 to 1.2
20
104 105 106
Ngross (EF flights)
N = Ngross • fRT • fI • fRR• fM

(factors fRT, fI, fRR, fM see 3 pages down)
on the fatigue life - contd. -
Simplified estimation of the fatigue behavior for elevated butt straps between
2.8 and 3.0 mm - design solution 2
tB1
tSD tB2 tB1 / tB2 = 1.4
tS
40
Stress
amplitude
in tSD (MPa)
tB1 / tSD = 1.5
30
20
104 105 106
Ngross (EF flights)
N = Ngross • fRT • fI • fRR

(factors fRT, fI, fRR see 2 pages down)
Simplified estimation of the fatigue behavior for tapered butt straps
-design solution 3
tD ≈ 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm
tB1
tD tB2 tSD
tSD between 2.2 and 2.4 mm tSD between 2.6 and 3.0 mm
40 40
Stress Stress
amplitude amplitude
in tSD (MPa) in tSD (MPa)
30
30
tB1 / tSD ≈ 1.25

tB1 / tSD ≈ 1.35
Ngross
20 Ngross (flights) (flights)
20
104 105 106 104 105 106
N = Ngross • fRT • fI • fRR

(factors fRT, fI, fRR see next page)
Simplified estimation of the fatigue behavior - correction factors
fRT – influence of rivet types and additional reinforcement
fI – influence of interference fit
fI

Simplified estimation of the fatigue behavior - correction factors - contd. -
fRR – influence of third rivet row
fM – influence of butt strap material
2024

Effect of too deep countersink in riveted
joints on fatigue life
A countersink depth greater than the height of the rivet head does not
allow a correct riveting. Due to missing deformation of the rivet, the
rivet hole is not correctly filled leading to a degradation of the life up to
factor 4…5.
Die force Die force
Rivet Gun Rivet Gun

Recommendation: The rivet head should protrude 0.01…0.03

mm after the rivet process to reach the required hole filling.

joints on fatigue life – contd. -
Comparative fatigue tests with longitudinal lap joint specimens with
and without protruding of the rivet head after the rivet process.
Specimen thickness: 1.6 mm, 3 rivet rows NAS 1097-7050T73 – 4.0
dia., rivet gun, specimen material 2024T3
Too deep Protruding of
Stress countersink rivet head
amplitude
(MPa)
100
50
30
20
10
103 104 105 106 107 N (cycles)
Influence of countersink diameter (6.1/6.7 mm) on the fatigue life

of 1.6 mm thick lap joints
joints on fatigue life – contd. -
Comparative fatigue tests with longitudinal lap joint specimens with
and without protruding of the rivet head after the rivet process.
Specimen thickness: 1.8 mm, 3 rivet rows NAS 1097-7050T73 – 4.0 dia.,
rivet gun, specimen material 2024T3
Too deep Protruding of
Stress
countersink rivet head
amplitude
(MPa)
100
50
30
20
10
103 104 105 106 107 N (cycles)
Influence of countersink diameter (6.1/6.7 mm) on the fatigue life
of 1.8 mm thick lap joints
Effect of rivet squeeze force on fatigue life
• Investigations have shown that the squeeze force is approximately a linear
function of the ratio SQ = D2/H (mm2/mm), where D is the rivet diameter and
H is the height of the formed head.
• This factor was defined to assess the riveting quality without knowing the
force applied during the riveting process. The LH figure on the next page
contains the coefficient SQ versus the squeeze force for a 4.0 mm rivet
NAS1097DD6 and various protrudings UE of the rivet shunk, i.e. 1.1 D, 1.3 D
and 1.4 D.
• The effect of the coefficient SQ for different protrudings UE on the fatigue
life has been investigated for doubler specimens.
• The RH figure on the next page shows the results for a doubler specimen.
For an alternating skin stress of 58 MPa (related to 1.6 mm skin thickness)
and R = 0.1 the coefficient SQ = 16 leads to 46 000 cycles and SQ = 31 to
approximately 1 500 000 cycles. This range is valid for a protruding of 1.3 D.
The single value of approximately 100000 cycles for SQ = 20 and UE = 1.2 D
falls on the curve for UE = 1.3 D.

Effect of rivet squeeze force on fatigue life
- contd. -

Effect of material on the fatigue life
MATERIAL FATIGUE STRENGTH COMPARISON
1
0.9 N = 100,000 CYCLES
Kt 3.3
RATIO STRESS (REFERENCE: STEELS)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2X24 7XXX TITANIUM ALLOY HIGH STRENGTH
(TA6V) STEELS
This document and all information contained herein is the sole
property of AIRBUS DEUTSCHLAND GmbH. No intellectual
property rights are granted by the delivery of this document or
the disclosure of its content. This document shall not be
reproduced or disclosed to a third party without the express
written consent of AIRBUS DEUTSCHLAND GmbH. This
document and its content shall not be used for any purpose
other than that for which it is supplied.
The statements made herein do not constitute an offer. They

are based on the mentioned assumptions and are expressed
in good faith. Where the supporting grounds for these
statements are not shown, AIRBUS DEUTSCHLAND GmbH
will be pleased to explain the basis thereof.

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Airbus Fatigue & Damage Tolerance Course January 2005

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc

• Effect of CAA treatment on the fatigue life

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 2

- determination of the inspection threshold for “multiple load path and

Related to Gross Stress:

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 4

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 6

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 7

Kt for tension case of a

Stress concentration factor Kt

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 9

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 10

No open holes (recommended)

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 12

Minimum edge margin:

approximately 3.5 D to 5.0 D

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 13

Die force Die force

Rivet Gun Rivet Gun

Countersink not greater than the height of rivet head

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 15

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 16

FITTING BY FREEZING INTERFERENCE

If = (Df-Dh)/Dh INTERFERENCE RATE Ib = (Db-Dh)/Dh

WITH Df > Dh WITH Db > Dh

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 17

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 19

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 20

CF IF (1/64" o/s) 3.0 3.0

CF IF (1/32" o/s) 2.3 2.3

CF CX + IF (1/16" o/s) 3.0 3.0

CF CX + IF (<1mm crack) (1/16"o/s) 3.0 3.0

CF TL (1/64" o/s) 6.0 6.0

CF TL (1/32" o/s) 4.5 4.5

Production Modification L95 RR58

CF = Clearance Fit fastener CF IF 2.0 2.0

IF = Interference Fit fastener CF Steel IF 3.0 3.0

Retro-fit Modification L95 RR58

CF IF (1/32" o/s) 1.5 1.5

CF IF (1/16" o/s) 1.0 1.0

CF Steel IF (1/64" o/s) 3.0 3.0

CF Steel IF (1/32" o/s) 2.3 2.3

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 22

one hole with crack one hole with crack

net section net section

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 24

Note: valid up to a sheet thickness of 3.2 mm

Note: valid up to a sheet

Note: valid up to a sheet

Note: valid up to a sheet

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 28

Note: valid up to a sheet

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 29

Note: valid up to a sheet

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 30

Note: valid up to a sheet

Note: valid up to a sheet

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 32

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 33

Note: General data, if no exact data for 7075T6 are available

F+DT course, H.-J. Schmidt, AeroStruc January 2005 Page 35