Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Supplementals
Lufthansa Technical
Training
Dept HAM US
Lufthansa Base Hamburg
Weg beim Jäger 193
22335 Hamburg
Germany
GENERAL CONCEPTS
M11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
Page: 1
Lufthansa Technical Training
M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Damage Tolerance
Corrosion Resistance
(Stress Corrosion Resistance) Crack Propagation
Maintenance
and Repair
Fatigue Properties / Resistance
Loads
Ground Conditions :
MATERIAL Fracture Toughness
Taxiing, Maintenance
Take off and Landing
Flight Conditions :
Maneuvers, Gust, Turbulence
Price
Stiffness Properties
For Training Purposes Only
Strength Properties
Manufacturing Costs
Weight
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
General
When designing aeroplanes, loads to which the various parts are exposed
must be taken into consideration. These loads are different for each part of the
construction.
Therefore the structure of the aircraft is classified either as primary or secon-
dary structure.
Primary Structure
Primary structure is that structure which contributes significantly to carrying
flight, ground and pressurization loads.
Within the primary structure there are elements that are designated PSE.
PSE’s are those elements that contribute significantly to carrying flight, ground
and pressurization loads, and whose integrity is essential in maintaining the
overall structural integrity of the airplane.
Secondary Structure
Secondary structure is that structure which carries only air or inertial loads gen-
erated on or within the secondary structure.
For Training Purposes Only
Fail Safe
The design of a safe aircraft structure is extremely complex, and evolves over a
period of time, supported mainly by full-scale airframe testing, fatigue analysis
and service experience. This method is commonly known as the fail-safe
method.
The fail-safe method relies upon a duplication of certain structural members to
ensure that if one member failed, the other would assume the load of the failed
member.
Fail−safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well for many decades. In
fact, fail−safe design still provides the basis for most new aeroplane designs.
However, operational experience shows that some of the assumptions of fail−
safety do not hold true.
Damage Tolerance
improves on fail−safety by considering multiple site cracking, and the residual-
strength of partially failed structural elements. Damage tolerance also consid-
ers the effects of environmental damage (corrosion), and discrete damage (ac-
cidental).
Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the beginning of an aero-
For Training Purposes Only
plane’s life. The operating loads are much smaller than the ultimate strength.
As the aeroplane ages, the strength slowly reduces, due to crack growth and/or
corrosion damage. Before the strength becomes less than the residual require-
ment, the damage is detected and repaired back to original capability.
This process continues throughout the life of the aeroplane.
Fail Safe Design / Single Load Path Damage Tolerant Design / Multiple Load Path
Major Zones
Major zones are identified by hundred as follows:
S 100 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION
S 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION
S 300 STABILIZERS
S 400 NACELLES
S 500 LEFT WING
S 600 RIGHT WING
For Training Purposes Only
Major Sub-zones
Unit Zones
For Training Purposes Only
REFERENCE PLANES
Reference Planes (Boeing)
The reference planes, are along the three aircraft axes:
S the vertical axis
S the lateral or transverse axis
S the longitudinal axis
Boeing measures reference planes in „inches“ .
Body Station
The body station is a vertical plane at a right angle to the body centerline.
The body station is measured by the distance from a point in front of the nose
of the aircraft.
The abbreviation for the body station is
S BS or STA (say B,S or S,T,A)
Body Waterlines
The body waterlines are horizontal planes at a right angle to the body stations
and the body buttock lines.
They are measured from a parallel imaginary plane, body waterline 0, below
For Training Purposes Only
RBL
BSTA 0 LBL
For Training Purposes Only
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinate System (Airbus)
On Airbus aircraft the body coordinates have „X“ values along the longitudinal
axis, „Y“ values along the lateral axis and „Z“ values along the vertical axis.
You can see the 0 points for the „Y“ and „Z“ coordinates on the graphic on the
left. You can also see that the coordinates have negative and positive values.
The „X“ values are all positive. They are measured in relation to station 0,
which is a fixed imaginary point in front of the aircraft nose.
In our example 6382mm
For Training Purposes Only
Torsion Loads
Torsion is stress that causes twisting. During Flight this happens when the rud-
der is deflected by the pilot.
Shear Load
For Training Purposes Only
Torsion Load
Bending Load
Drain Ports
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
tail unit to drain any fluids overboard. These drains are always open.
Drain Valves
Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the pressure cabin. These
drain valves are open when the aircraft cabin is unpressurised, but close when
the cabin is pressurised to prevent loss of cabin pressure.
In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the seal. Sometimes a levelling
compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities. The compound directs
fluid to the drains.
Ventilation Provisions
The internal structure of an aircraft is provided with tubes, channels, dams and
drain holes to direct the flow of fluid towards external drain points. An example
of this is the holes drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain down to the bilge
area.
For Training Purposes Only
Internal View
Hydraulic System
Not only is the routing of control cable important, the routing of hydraulic sys-
tem fluid lines, electrical cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducting and air−
conditioning distribution must be considered and provisions made for the at-
tachment and correct routing of these system components.
For Training Purposes Only
Electromagnetic Fields
The electromagnetic fields related to the lightning attachment can cause un-
wanted transient voltages and currents in the aircraft wiring and systems. In
some conditions (low intensity strike, high protection), the effect on the systems
For Training Purposes Only
can be temporary and the systems can operate correctly again after the strike.
In other conditions (low protection, no circuit protection devices), the damage
can be permanent and it will be necessary to replace parts.
AIRCRAFT BONDING
General
In general the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which en-
sure an excellent electric conductibility; however certain insulating intermediate
parts stop the continuity in large zones.
The continuity is restored by means of:
S strips
S screws / rivets
S grounding lugs
fitted between metallic assemblies.
Hinged parts (control surfaces, doors, hatches, etc....), removable parts (un-
hinged inspection doors, etc....), are provided with one or several bonding
means shunting each part where conductibility may be interrupted. For particu-
lar zones such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, the bondings provide an effi-
cient circulation of static potential; bonding strips and screws are connected to
the main structure.
External protruding parts, metallic or not, are provided with electrical lead con-
nected to the main structure. Antennas and other equipment are not bonded
due to the fact that flash of lightning could damage only the element struck
without endangering the other parts of the aircraft. Different manufacturers use
different methods to dissipate the electrical charge on composite structures.
Bonding Methods on Composite Structures
S Aluminium wires may be woven into the top layer of composite fabric. This
is usually done with fiber glass or Kevlar and not with carbon/graphite.
S A fine aluminium screen may be laminated under the top layer of fabric. If
this method is used on a carbon/graphite component, it is usually sand-
wiched between two layers of fiber glass to prevent a galvanic potential.
For Training Purposes Only
S A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of composite
during the manufacturing process.
S Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the component. This is molten alu-
minium that is sprayed on like a paint. Some companies will just paint the
component with an aluminised paint.
S In some structures, a piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow the
dissipation of the electrical charge out to another metal component or static-
wick.
Skin
For Training Purposes Only
Stringer
Frame
Monocoque Construction
Stringer
Skin
Semi-monocoque Construction
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in
turn, hold the stringers. All of these joined together to form a rigid fuselage
framework.
Longerons, like stringers, are usually made of aluminium alloy; however, they
may be of either a one-piece or a built-up construction.
Window Frame
Shear Tie
Longeron
Frame (milled)
Frame (formed)
Stringer
For Training Purposes Only
Skin
Bulkheads
A partition within the structure. Usually lateral but can be longitudinal. If it forms
the boundary of pressurized structure it is called a pressure bulkhead
Bulkheads carry and distribute different loads of the fuselage. They are located
in areas such as the wings, the tail surfaces and the landing gears. In this
location, there is a higher concentration of forces. The structure of the
bulkhead is important. It distributes applied loads to the fuselage skin.
Several pressure bulkheads form part of the pressurised cabin of a fuselage,
for example, the forward pressure bulkhead and the aft pressure bulkhead.
Pressure bulkheads are installed to withstand cabin pressure.
Floor Structure
Floor beams lay horizontally and are adjacent to the skin panel. They are
attached to the frames and help to carry the pressure loads across the
fuselage.
Floor beams are also able to support cabin pressurisation and can absorb the
normal loads of the seat tracks and floor panels.
For Training Purposes Only
Sarma Rod
Pressure Bulkhead
Seattrack
Support Structure
Riveting
Rivets are metal pin−type fasteners designed primarily for shear−type loads.
Thousands of rivets are used in aircraft to join sheet−metal skins and to fasten
the skin to the aircraft structure. Rivets are fastened in place by forming, or up-
setting, a second head on the end of the shank.
As the rivet’s upset head is being formed, the entire shank of the rivet swells in
diameter and completely fills the hole. With the hole filled, all play between the
rivet and the sheet metal is eliminated, forming a very tight joint.
The majority of rivets for aircraft are made of aluminum alloy material. The ma-
terial, from which the rivet is made of can be determined by the head marking
of the rivet.
There are many locations on an aircraft where it is not possible to reach both
sides of the structure, and blind rivets must be installed. Rivets and other per-
manent types of fastener used in aircraft construction may be divided into four
classes:
S Solid
S Blind
− Cherrylok
− Cherrymax
For Training Purposes Only
− Huck
S Hollow
− Olympic
− Pop
S Special
− Lockbolt
− Taper-Lok
− Hi-Lok
Hi-Loks
Lockbolts
Solid Rivets
Taper Loks
For Training Purposes Only
Figure 16 Riveting
HAM US/F-5 KrC Jan.2007 Page: 37
Lufthansa Technical Training
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Bolting
Maintenance accesses, replaceable and movable structural parts are normally
attached by bolts. Boltings are non permanent fasteners. This are necessary in
order to perform periodic inspections and maintenance work. The replacement
of parts and system components also require the use of non permanent fasten-
ers. Some examples are:
S Bolts and Nuts
S Screws
S Studs and Inserts
S Pins
S Clamps
S Bayonet Fittings
For Training Purposes Only
Hi- Lok
Bolt
Nut
Bonding Braid
Cotter Pin
Hi- Lok
Nut
For Training Purposes Only
Figure 17 Bolting
HAM US/F-5 KrC Jan.2007 Page: 39
Lufthansa Technical Training
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
General
In contrast to traditional joining methods such as riveting and bolting, bonding
has no adverse effect on the material characteristics of the surfaces to be
bonded; e.g.: drilling of holes in the joined parts, damaging and weakening
them.
In the manufacturing environment, bonding technology permits characteristic
material properties to be utilized to the utmost.
Metal to Metal Bonding
First, there are the metal−to−metal bonded structures, which are locally rein-
forced by bonded doubler−plates, or components composed of bonded multiple
laminations where each layer progressively increases the cross−sectional area,
such as stringers and spar caps.
Sandwich Structures
The second category of adhesive−bonded structures is that which contains
bonded joints between skin sheets and low−density core material, called sand-
wich structures.
For Training Purposes Only
Potting Compound
Metal Cap
Adhesive
Sleeve
A320 Stabilizers
Sandwich Panel
For Training Purposes Only
Figure 18 Bonding
HAM US/F-5 KrC Jan.2007 Page: 41
Lufthansa Technical Training
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Alodine Pen
Parts after Alodining process
DD Topcoat
PU (Polyurethan)
EP (Epoxy)
Primer
PU (Polyurethan)
EP (Epoxy)
Wash Primer
FCR Filiform Corr. Resistent
Pre-Treatment
Alochrome/Alodine/Iridite
For Training Purposes Only
SAA/CAA/PAA
Base Material
2024/7075 (USA)
3.1354/3.4364 (EU)
Dinitrol AV15
AIRCRAFT SYMMETRY
Methods of Alignment and Symmetry Checks
For smaller types of aircraft the measurements between points are usually In the event of important deviations, visually check for presence of the following
taken by means of a steel tape. It is recommended that a spring balance failures:
should be used on the longer distances to obtain an equal tension, 5lb usually S Localised structural failures such as:
being sufficient.
− Buckled or cracked skins, stiffener, machined parts.
To check larger types of aircraft, it is usual to chalk the floor locally under the
− Peeled − off paint.
positions where the dimensions are to be taken, to drop plumb bobs from the
checking points, marking the floor with an ’X’ immediately under the point of − Tore or torn fasteners.
each plumb bob and then to measure the distance between the centre of the S Structural failures resulting in:
markings. This method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate mea- − Fuel leaks in tank areas
surement and reducing the amount of walking necessary on main planes and
− After the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure
tail−planes.
− Air leaks in pressurized areas
Chapter ATA 05−56 of AMM gives the instructions for the levelling, measure-
ment and alignment operations of the aircraft. It gives measurement instruc- − Interference of moving parts of a mechanism
tions to find possible structural deformations after hard landings, too much tur- − Leaks in air conditioning, hydraulic or fuel systems
bulence, after the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure, etc. − Short circuits
Tables give information about the measurements recorded on the first three − Refusal to closure of doors and access panels due to surrounding struc-
aircraft at zero flight hours. They can be used as a guide in appraising the ture distortion
structural and aerodynamic condition of an aircraft after major repairs or after
− Required excessive control surface trim limiting control range.
an aircraft has been subjected to manoeuvres requiring an alignment check.
Deviations from given values do not automatically mean that the aircraft is not
serviceable. These deviations must be appraised from the structural and aero-
dynamic points of view in order to determine their effects on flight safety.
For Training Purposes Only
Ground Target
For Training Purposes Only
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES- GENERAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . 1
M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . 2
REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
REFERENCE PLANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
COORDINATE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
STRESSES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
DRAINS AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
AIRCRAFT BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . 26
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
STRUCTURE ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
SURFACE PROTECTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
AIRCRAFT SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Requirements for Structural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2 Primary and Secondary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3 Design Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4 Major Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 5 Sub Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 6 Reference Planes (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 7 Coordinate System (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 8 Stresses on Aircraft Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9 Drains and Ventilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10 Lightning Strike Protection Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 11 Aicraft Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 12 Trusstype and Monocoque Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 13 Semi-Monocoque Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 14 Structural Members I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 15 Structural Members II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 16 Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 17 Bolting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 18 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 19 Electrochemical Conversion Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 20 Chemical Conversion Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 21 Paint Systems (USA/EU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 22 Special Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 23 Symmetry Check Location (Fuselage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 24 Symmetry Check Location (Wings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
TABLE OF FIGURES
TABLE OF FIGURES
TABLE OF FIGURES