M11.02 - Airframe Structures-GenConcept - Supplementals

Fundamentals
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M11.2 Airframe Structures-

General Concepts
Supplementals
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P66 A M11.02 SUPP E

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GENERAL CONCEPTS
M11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
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M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS

REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
General
Safety means more than only that the aircraft must be capable to withstand the
most severe loadings it will encounter during its service life. It should not be
difficult for the flight Crew to control it under all circumstances.

This means the aircraft should also show sufficient positive stability during all
flight phases and attitudes through out its flight envelope.
Since the development of civil air transports that fly at altitudes requiring pres-
surization, the structure has been made strong enough to withstand many
pressurization cycles. These cycles are all recorded by engineers and contrib-
ute to ’lifting’ the aircraft. The number of permitted cycles is limited.
Although the designer takes into account the strain a fuselage is subjected to
during the aircraft’s life, we still have to be aware of, and look for, signs of early
failure.
The discovery of fatigue cracks, and failures of major structural elements on
aeroplanes in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s, forced the development of the
safelife design principle. The safelife design principle requires that major struc-
tural elements be replaced after a fixed number of flight cycles. These parts
cannot be repaired or refurbished to extend the components life. The basis for
safelife design is fatigue analysis.
When the cause of the structural failure was determined, new emphasis was
placed on fail−safe design of aircraft structures. Stress risers, or portions of the
structure where eliminated.
Joints and connections are carefully prestressed to minimize the cyclic
stresses from the flight loads.
For Training Purposes Only
HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 2

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Damage Tolerance
Corrosion Resistance
(Stress Corrosion Resistance) Crack Propagation
Maintenance
and Repair
Fatigue Properties / Resistance
Loads
Ground Conditions :
MATERIAL Fracture Toughness
Taxiing, Maintenance
Take off and Landing
Flight Conditions :
Maneuvers, Gust, Turbulence
Price
Stiffness Properties
Strength Properties
Manufacturing Costs
Weight
Figure 1 Requirements for Structural Strength

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
General
When designing aeroplanes, loads to which the various parts are exposed
must be taken into consideration. These loads are different for each part of the
construction.
Therefore the structure of the aircraft is classified either as primary or secon-
dary structure.
Primary Structure
Primary structure is that structure which contributes significantly to carrying
flight, ground and pressurization loads.
Within the primary structure there are elements that are designated PSE.
PSE’s are those elements that contribute significantly to carrying flight, ground
and pressurization loads, and whose integrity is essential in maintaining the
overall structural integrity of the airplane.
Secondary Structure
Secondary structure is that structure which carries only air or inertial loads gen-
erated on or within the secondary structure.

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Figure 2 Primary and Secondary Structure

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONCEPTS

Safe Life
The discovery of fatigue cracks, and failures of major structural elements on
aeroplanes in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s, forced the development of the
safe life design principle. The safe−life design principle requires that major
structural elements be replaced after a fixed number of flight cycles. These
parts cannot be repaired or refurbished to extend the components life. The ba-
sis for safe−life design is fatigue analysis.
Fail Safe
The design of a safe aircraft structure is extremely complex, and evolves over a
period of time, supported mainly by full-scale airframe testing, fatigue analysis
and service experience. This method is commonly known as the fail-safe
method.
The fail-safe method relies upon a duplication of certain structural members to
ensure that if one member failed, the other would assume the load of the failed
member.
Fail−safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well for many decades. In
fact, fail−safe design still provides the basis for most new aeroplane designs.
However, operational experience shows that some of the assumptions of fail−
safety do not hold true.
Damage Tolerance
improves on fail−safety by considering multiple site cracking, and the residual-
strength of partially failed structural elements. Damage tolerance also consid-
ers the effects of environmental damage (corrosion), and discrete damage (ac-
cidental).
Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the beginning of an aero-
plane’s life. The operating loads are much smaller than the ultimate strength.
As the aeroplane ages, the strength slowly reduces, due to crack growth and/or
corrosion damage. Before the strength becomes less than the residual require-
ment, the damage is detected and repaired back to original capability.
This process continues throughout the life of the aeroplane.

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Old Design (B727) Current Design (A310)

Fail Safe Design / Single Load Path Damage Tolerant Design / Multiple Load Path
Figure 3 Design Concepts

GENERAL CONCEPTS
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ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

General Major Sub- Zones and Unit Zones
You need zones, reference points, lines and planes to calculate the primary Unit zones are identified by a three digit number. An example of a location
dimensions of an aircraft. identification system is Zone 212:
Each section of the aircraft has a measurement system; the wings, including S 200: Upper half of body (major zone)
the ailerons and flaps, the body, the horizontal stabilizer surfaces, the vertical, S 10: Cockpit (major sub−zone)
stabilizer surfaces and the nacelles.
2: Zone number on the right−hand side (unit zone)
S
Aircraft Zones
The aircraft is divided into specified zones and areas by reference planes or
coordinates. This helps you to identify the location of components quickly and
is useful for the calculation of the center of gravity and the distribution of
weight.
The zones are the major areas of the aircraft like the fuselage, the wings and
the engines. Please note that the Zones are subdivided as follows:
S Major zones
S Major sub−zones
S Unit zones
Major Zones
Major zones are identified by hundred as follows:
S 100 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION
S 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION
S 300 STABILIZERS
S 400 NACELLES
S 500 LEFT WING
S 600 RIGHT WING
S 700 LANDING GEAR

S 800 DOORS

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Figure 4 Major Zones

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Major Sub-zones
Unit Zones
Figure 5 Sub Zones

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REFERENCE PLANES
Reference Planes (Boeing)
The reference planes, are along the three aircraft axes:
S the vertical axis
S the lateral or transverse axis
S the longitudinal axis
Boeing measures reference planes in „inches“ .
Body Station
The body station is a vertical plane at a right angle to the body centerline.
The body station is measured by the distance from a point in front of the nose
of the aircraft.
The abbreviation for the body station is
S BS or STA (say B,S or S,T,A)
Body Buttoc Line

The body buttoc lines are vertical planes parallel to the body centerline plane.
Body buttoc line 0 is the body centerline.
The abbreviation for the body buttoc lines are:
S LBBL (say L,B,B,L) for the left side of the centerline
S RBBL (say R,B,B,L) for the right side of the centerline
Body Waterlines
The body waterlines are horizontal planes at a right angle to the body stations
and the body buttock lines.
They are measured from a parallel imaginary plane, body waterline 0, below
the aircraft fuselage.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
RBL
BSTA 0 LBL
Figure 6 Reference Planes (Boeing)

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COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinate System (Airbus)
On Airbus aircraft the body coordinates have „X“ values along the longitudinal
axis, „Y“ values along the lateral axis and „Z“ values along the vertical axis.
You can see the 0 points for the „Y“ and „Z“ coordinates on the graphic on the
left. You can also see that the coordinates have negative and positive values.
The „X“ values are all positive. They are measured in relation to station 0,
which is a fixed imaginary point in front of the aircraft nose.
In our example 6382mm

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Part-66
Figure 7 Coordinate System (Airbus)

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STRESSES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

General Bending Loads
Five major types of stress that can affect the structure of an aircraft are Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. In this example,
S Tension compression occurs on the lower side of the fuselage and tension occurs on
the upper side of the fuselage.
S Compression
S Torsion Compression Loads
S Shear and Compression is stress that resists a crushing force. It causes the aircraft parts
S Bending to shorten or squeeze together. Generally, you can also measure compressive
strength in psi.
Tension is stress that resists the forces which pull it apart. For example, engine
thrust pulls the aircraft forward,but air resistance holds the aircraft back and Fatigue
thus the result is tension. In order to calculate the tensile strength of a
If an increasing load is applied to a piece of material, a value of the load will
material, divide the load (in pounds) of the material by its cross−section area (in
eventually be reached at which the material fractures. This is the ultimate
square inches). The result is psi.
static load the material can take. In most cases this situation will not apply to
Tension Loads the structure of the aircraft. If we assume that only a fraction of the ultimate
static load is applied to the aircraft, then the structure may bend or stretch but
Tension is stress that resists the forces which pull it apart. For example, engine
will not break. Once the load has been removed, the structure reverts back to
thrust pulls the aircraft forward,but air resistance holds the aircraft back and
its normal shape.
thus the result is tension. In order to calculate the tensile strength of a
material, divide the load (in pounds) of the material by its cross−section area (in The loading cycle may be repeated many times and each time the structure
square inches). The result is psi. reverts back to its original shape. On visual inspection there would seem to be
no degrading of the structure, but if this cycle loading were to continue a suffi-
Shear Loads cient number of times, the material will break. This phenomenon of fracturing
Shear is stress which resists a force which causes a layer of material to slide after a series of cyclic loads, maybe much less than the ultimate load, is known
over an adjacent layer of material. When there are 2 riveted plates that are as fatigue.
under tension, shear stress causes the rivets to be affected by a shearing Therefore Fatigue is not considered as a major stress but as a result of the
force. major loads stated above.
Shear strength of a material is usually either equal to or less than its tensile or
compressive strength.
Torsion Loads
Torsion is stress that causes twisting. During Flight this happens when the rud-
der is deflected by the pilot.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
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Tension Load Compression Load
Shear Load
Torsion Load
Bending Load
Figure 8 Stresses on Aircraft Structures

GENERAL CONCEPTS
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DRAINS AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS

General
At places in aeroplane structures where collection of fluids may be expected,
drainage points are provided. To prevent unintended pressure differentials and
the accumulation of hazardous gases, structures are supplied with means of
ventilation.
External and internal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to
prevent water and other fluids collecting within the structure. These fluids could
cause a fire or corrosion.
Drain Ports
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
tail unit to drain any fluids overboard. These drains are always open.
Drain Valves
Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the pressure cabin. These
drain valves are open when the aircraft cabin is unpressurised, but close when
the cabin is pressurised to prevent loss of cabin pressure.
In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the seal. Sometimes a levelling
compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities. The compound directs
fluid to the drains.
Ventilation Provisions
The internal structure of an aircraft is provided with tubes, channels, dams and
drain holes to direct the flow of fluid towards external drain points. An example
of this is the holes drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain down to the bilge
area.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Internal View
Figure 9 Drains and Ventilations

GENERAL CONCEPTS
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SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROVISIONS

General
Consideration needs to be given to the construction of the fuselage where it
may be necessary to increase its structural integrity.
System Supporting Structure

The installation of brackets for the attachment of system components such as
hydraulic system reservoirs, fuel filter modules and system shut off valves etc.
Increasing structural strength will be required in areas of high load; landing
gear and engine attachments would be a good example of this.
The installation of firewalls to prevent the spread of fire from hot sections of the
aircraft such as engine nacelles and APU housing. Some system fluid lines,
ducking and controls will have to be routed through the aircraft structure. This
will weaken the structure; the manufacture will keep this in mind during the de-
sign stage and keep this to a minimum.
Control Cable System

Control cables are used extensively throughout the aircraft to operate different
aircraft systems, these control cables will be routed through the aircraft struc-
ture, special consideration will need to be given to the routing of these cables
to protect the aircraft structure from the cables. This is accomplished by the
use of grommets, fairleads and pressure seals.
Hydraulic System
Not only is the routing of control cable important, the routing of hydraulic sys-
tem fluid lines, electrical cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducting and air−
conditioning distribution must be considered and provisions made for the at-
tachment and correct routing of these system components.

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LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION

General Lightning Strike Zones
Aircraft require electrical contact between all metallic and composite parts in The aircraft is divided into three zones related to the probability of lightning
order to prevent arcing or fiber damage. Aluminum is used to provide a conduc- strike:
tive path for the dissipation of the electrical energy. The aluminium may be pro- S Zone 1:
vided in a number of ways depending on the manufacture of the aircraft. No
− surfaces where there is a high probability of initial lightning attachment
matter whether an aircraft is aluminum or composite, when lightning hits an
(entry or exit).
aircraft it needs a path for the electricity to flow through.

S Zone 2:
When a lightning strike occurs, there is an acoustic shock wave. If the intensity
of this shock wave is high, it can cause deformation of thin metal skins or rup- − surfaces where there is a high probability of a swept stroke zone. The
ture of thin composite skins. lightning strike has its initial point of attachment in Zone 1 and moves
into Zone 2.
Aluminium Structure S Zone 3:
On an aluminium skin, the electricity will flow through the skin and discharge − this zone includes all of the aircraft surfaces that are not in Zone 1 and 2.
out to the static discharger. In Zone 3 there is a low probability of attachment of a lightning strike.
However, high lightning currents can go through Zone 3 by direct con-
Composite Structure
duction between 2 attachment points. Zone 3 currents will also go into
Since composites do not conduct electricity, lightning protection has to be built Zones 1 and 2.
into the component. If there is no lightning protection in the composite and the
lightning exits through the composite component, the resins in the composite
will evaporate, leaving the bare fiber.
Carbon composite are protected by Aluminium or Steel Plates. A barrier, such
as a layer of fiber glass, should be used to prevent a galvanic potential be-
tween the carbon material and aluminium.
Electromagnetic Fields
The electromagnetic fields related to the lightning attachment can cause un-
wanted transient voltages and currents in the aircraft wiring and systems. In
some conditions (low intensity strike, high protection), the effect on the systems
can be temporary and the systems can operate correctly again after the strike.
In other conditions (low protection, no circuit protection devices), the damage
can be permanent and it will be necessary to replace parts.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Figure 10 Lightning Strike Protection Provisions

GENERAL CONCEPTS
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AIRCRAFT BONDING
General
In general the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which en-
sure an excellent electric conductibility; however certain insulating intermediate
parts stop the continuity in large zones.
The continuity is restored by means of:
S strips
S screws / rivets
S grounding lugs
fitted between metallic assemblies.
Hinged parts (control surfaces, doors, hatches, etc....), removable parts (un-
hinged inspection doors, etc....), are provided with one or several bonding
means shunting each part where conductibility may be interrupted. For particu-
lar zones such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, the bondings provide an effi-
cient circulation of static potential; bonding strips and screws are connected to
the main structure.
External protruding parts, metallic or not, are provided with electrical lead con-
nected to the main structure. Antennas and other equipment are not bonded
due to the fact that flash of lightning could damage only the element struck
without endangering the other parts of the aircraft. Different manufacturers use
different methods to dissipate the electrical charge on composite structures.
Bonding Methods on Composite Structures
S Aluminium wires may be woven into the top layer of composite fabric. This
is usually done with fiber glass or Kevlar and not with carbon/graphite.
S A fine aluminium screen may be laminated under the top layer of fabric. If
this method is used on a carbon/graphite component, it is usually sand-
wiched between two layers of fiber glass to prevent a galvanic potential.
S A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of composite
during the manufacturing process.
S Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the component. This is molten alu-
minium that is sprayed on like a paint. Some companies will just paint the
component with an aluminised paint.
S In some structures, a piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow the
dissipation of the electrical charge out to another metal component or static-
wick.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Bonding of Rivets Bonding of Composites

Bonding of movable Parts
Figure 11 Aicraft Bonding

M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Introduction
Aircraft structures have evolved fully as much as have their powerplants. The
very first airframes were made of open trusses of either wood strips or bam-
boo. The aerodynamic surfaces were made of lightweight wood covered with
cotton or linen fabric, shrunk and made air tight with a syrup−like collodion
product that dried to a hard film.
Today most of all aircraft structures are made of alloyed aluminium because
pure aluminum was found as too weak and not durable enough. During World
War I, the Germans discovered that by alloying aluminum with copper, manga-
nese, and magnesium, they could increase its strength without increasing its
weight. This new alloy was called Duraluminum, and it was the first step to the
high−strength and lightweight alloys such as AA7075 and AA2024 that we use
in aircraft construction until today.
Metal structure has been the standard since the 1930s, but a new era is dawn-
ing, that of composites. Composite structure can be made stronger, lighter in
weight, more rigid, and less costly than metal.
Modern composite materials use fibres of graphite and Kevlar as well as glass
for most applications, with boron and ceramic used in some special applica-
tions. These fibres are primarily bonded into an epoxy resin matrix. Composite
structural components have the advantage over metal of being lighter in
weight, stronger, more rigid, and better able to withstand the sonic vibrations
that are commonly encountered in aircraft structure.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
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GENERAL CONCEPTS
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Fuselage Shell
The fuselage is the main structure or the body of the aircraft. It provides space
for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment. In single-
engine aircraft, it also houses the powerplant.
In multi-engine aircraft the engines may either be in the fuselage, attached to
the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure.
There are two general types of fuselage construction:
S Truss Type Construction

S Monocoque Construction
Truss Type Construction

A truss is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts, and
bars to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is gen-
erally covered with fabric.On some aircraft, principally the light, single-engine
models, truss fuselage frames are constructed of aluminium alloy and may be
riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-bracing achieved by using solid
rods or tubes.
The truss type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded to-
gether in such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension
and compression loads.
Monocoque Construction
This is further classified into the true monocoque construction and the more
common semi-monocoque construction.
The name monocoque means single shell, and in a true monocoque structure,
all the strength of the structure is carried in the outside skin.The formers give
the structure its shape, but the thin metal skin riveted to them carries all the
flight loads.
A monocoque fuselage is in its strength similar to a tube, its cross section is of

high bending and torsion strength. There is no need for cross−struts, which
would demand to much space from the cabin and cargo compartments.
Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to
keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest problem involved in monocoque
construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within
allowable limits.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Longeron (tubular steel)
Diagonal web members

(tubular steel)
Trusstype Construction Vertical

web
members
Skin
Stringer
Frame
Monocoque Construction
Figure 12 Trusstype and Monocoque Construction

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Semi-Monocoque Construction
To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque construction, a modifi-
cation called semi-monocoque construction was developed.
In addition to formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi-monocoque
construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members.
The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of struc-
tural members. Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of
the two classes, but most aircraft are considered to be of semi-monocoque

type construction.
The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of the alloys of alumin-
ium, although steel and titanium are found in areas of high temperatures.
Advantages of Semi-Monocoque Fuselage

There are a number of advantages in the use of the semi-monocoque fuselage.
The bulkheads, frames, stringers and longerons facilitate the design and con-
struction of a streamlined fuselage, and add to the strength and rigidity of the
structure. The main advantage, however, lies in the fact that it does not depend
on a few members for strength and rigidity. This means that a semi-monocoque
fuselage, because of its stressed-skin construction, may withstand consider-
able damage and still be strong enough to hold together.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
A320 Section 15/21
Frame Skin Clead (Clip)
Fuselage Shell (Internal view)

Stringer
Skin
Semi-monocoque Construction
Figure 13 Semi-Monocoque Construction

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Frames
Frames help to maintain the shape of the fuselage and reduce the column
length of the stringer, which prevents general aircraft instability. They also help
to carry and distribute different loads which are caused by structural stress, for
example, shear and tension.
When frames are used in constructing the fuselage they are normally spaced
20 inches apart.
Stringers
Stringers give shape to the fuselage shell and they are located on the inner
side of the aircraft skin panel. They are designed to carry loads because of the
fuselage bending, shear, torsion and cabin pressure. Stringers are connected
to each other by stringer splices on production breaks and make way only for
structural openings such as windows and doors.
Stringers pass through cut−outs in the frames and are attached to the skin by
rivets. You also find them attached to the frames by angle−shaped or
T−shaped clips.
One final point to mention about stringers is that they are usually spaced about
seven to ten inches apart.
Skin
The skin forms the external surface of the fuselage. The skin and its
reinforcements are the largest item of the fuselage structure and therefore form
the most important part of the structure. As the stringers and frames are
spaced at regular intervals, it is the skin that carries all of the primary loads
Thus, the skin helps to prevent buckling and maintains the fuselage
cross−section. Finally, all exterior skins are clad aluminum or treated with
chromic acid anodizing or treated with alodine to prevent corrosion.
Longerons
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in
turn, hold the stringers. All of these joined together to form a rigid fuselage
framework.
Longerons, like stringers, are usually made of aluminium alloy; however, they
may be of either a one-piece or a built-up construction.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Window Frame
Shear Tie
Longeron
Frame (milled)
Frame (formed)
Stringer
Skin
Figure 14 Structural Members I

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Shear Ties and Skin Cleads
Clips or Skin Cleads are usually found on the inner surface of the skin and are
attached to the frame and also to the stringer. The main purpose of these items
is to transfer the pressure load from the skin panel to the frame.They help to
break up the very long rows of stringers and assist the frame in carrying
compression stress.
Shear ties extend along the two sides of the fuselage and are level with the
floor beams. They are attached to floor beams, frames and skin stringer and
provide an additional path for distributing cabin pressure loads.
Bulkheads
A partition within the structure. Usually lateral but can be longitudinal. If it forms
the boundary of pressurized structure it is called a pressure bulkhead
Bulkheads carry and distribute different loads of the fuselage. They are located
in areas such as the wings, the tail surfaces and the landing gears. In this
location, there is a higher concentration of forces. The structure of the
bulkhead is important. It distributes applied loads to the fuselage skin.
Several pressure bulkheads form part of the pressurised cabin of a fuselage,
for example, the forward pressure bulkhead and the aft pressure bulkhead.
Pressure bulkheads are installed to withstand cabin pressure.
Floor Structure
Floor beams lay horizontally and are adjacent to the skin panel. They are
attached to the frames and help to carry the pressure loads across the
fuselage.
Floor beams are also able to support cabin pressurisation and can absorb the
normal loads of the seat tracks and floor panels.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Sarma Rod
Pressure Bulkhead
Seattrack
Support Structure
A320 Rear Pressure Bulkhead
Bulkhead MLG Bay

A320 Section 15/21
Figure 15 Structural Members II

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
STRUCTURE ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Introduction
There are many different assembly methods used by the aircraft manufacture,
it should be remembered that it is far easier to remove a nut and bolt than it is
to derivet a component.
Those items that are removed on a regular basis are normally secured by the
nut and bolt method.
Riveting
Rivets are metal pin−type fasteners designed primarily for shear−type loads.
Thousands of rivets are used in aircraft to join sheet−metal skins and to fasten
the skin to the aircraft structure. Rivets are fastened in place by forming, or up-
setting, a second head on the end of the shank.
As the rivet’s upset head is being formed, the entire shank of the rivet swells in
diameter and completely fills the hole. With the hole filled, all play between the
rivet and the sheet metal is eliminated, forming a very tight joint.
The majority of rivets for aircraft are made of aluminum alloy material. The ma-
terial, from which the rivet is made of can be determined by the head marking
of the rivet.
There are many locations on an aircraft where it is not possible to reach both
sides of the structure, and blind rivets must be installed. Rivets and other per-
manent types of fastener used in aircraft construction may be divided into four
classes:
S Solid
S Blind
− Cherrylok
− Cherrymax
− Huck
S Hollow
− Olympic
− Pop
S Special
− Lockbolt
− Taper-Lok
− Hi-Lok

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Hi-Loks
Lockbolts
Solid Rivets
Fuselage Lap Joint Area
Taper Loks
Wing to Fuselage Attachment
Figure 16 Riveting
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Bolting
Maintenance accesses, replaceable and movable structural parts are normally
attached by bolts. Boltings are non permanent fasteners. This are necessary in
order to perform periodic inspections and maintenance work. The replacement
of parts and system components also require the use of non permanent fasten-
ers. Some examples are:
S Bolts and Nuts
S Screws
S Studs and Inserts
S Pins
S Clamps
S Bayonet Fittings

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Hi- Lok
Bolt
Nut
Bonding Braid
Cotter Pin
Hi- Lok
Horizontal Stabilizer Attachment
Nut
Horizontal Stabilizer Attachment
Figure 17 Bolting
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
General
In contrast to traditional joining methods such as riveting and bolting, bonding
has no adverse effect on the material characteristics of the surfaces to be
bonded; e.g.: drilling of holes in the joined parts, damaging and weakening
them.
In the manufacturing environment, bonding technology permits characteristic
material properties to be utilized to the utmost.
Metal to Metal Bonding

First, there are the metal−to−metal bonded structures, which are locally rein-
forced by bonded doubler−plates, or components composed of bonded multiple
laminations where each layer progressively increases the cross−sectional area,
such as stringers and spar caps.
Sandwich Structures
The second category of adhesive−bonded structures is that which contains
bonded joints between skin sheets and low−density core material, called sand-
wich structures.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Potting Compound
Metal Cap
Adhesive
Sleeve
Elevator Trailing Edge (Detail View)
A320 Stabilizers
Sandwich Panel
Bonded Elevator (Section View)
Figure 18 Bonding
GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
SURFACE PROTECTION METHODS

Surface Cleaning
The purpose of surface cleaning the external area of the aircraft is to remove
all dirt, oil, fuel, fluid, dust deposits and accumulated dirt from landing gear and
wheel for inspection and maintenance purposes. Since airborne dust, chemical
vapours and wet−landing soils react with aircraft metals if allowed to remain too
long, it is recommended that each aircraft be thoroughly washed at the pre-
scribed frequency.
In order to clean the aircraft it is necessary to use the approved cleaning solu-
tion recommended by the manufacture. The cleaning solution can be applied
by using a soft brush, a spray gun or a special applicator.
After cleaning particular attention should be paid to the following:
S Loose, flaking or damaged paint
S Areas around battery trays and battery vents for evidence of spilt electrolyte
S Areas immediately in the vicinity of toilets
Corrosion Protection Procedures

The aircraft structure is given protection against corrosion and fluids. Special
attention is given to areas of high contamination, high condensation and areas
where different materials touch.
On the metal structure, the protective treatment gives protection against corro-
sion and damage by corrosive fluids and prevents erosion.
Composite structures have a protective treatment to protect against the effects
of lightning, ultra violet rays and erosion.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66


GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Electrochemical Conversion Procedures
Probably the most important treatment for aluminium alloys is the anodizing
process. It is usually performed on aluminum for protection and cosmetic pur-
poses, builds up both on the surface as well as into the metal.
This oxide layer can be made in different colours depending on the post chem-
istries that are employed. The anodised parts are quite durable and do not tar-
nish and maintain their cosmetic appearance for a long period of time.
Anodized coatings are usually dielectric in nature.

Basically, the aluminum is treated electrochemically in a dilute solution of chro-
mic acid that produces a gray, opaque coating which effectively retards corro-
sion and roughens the surface which provides good corrosion resistance and
as an excellent basis for paint and adhesive bonding.
Some Chromic Acid Anodize films can be dyed to give an attractive finish. In
aircraft industries one method is commonly used:
S Cromic Acid Anodizing (CAA)
− process uses a weak chromic acid solution, which is less corrosive than
sulphuric acid, and is only used for anodising components, which involve
folded or riveted joints or crevices in which the electrolyte could be
trapped. However it produces only a very thin oxide film and is therefore
not recommended very often.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
A320 Section 15/21

Outer Skin after CAA Treatment
Figure 19 Electrochemical Conversion Procedure

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Chemical Conversion Procedures
By chemical conversion coating the surface is roughened which provides a
good contact for paint coatings. Also, an aluminium-chromium-oxide cover is
formed and provides for a certain corrosion protection.
This process converts the aluminum surface into a complex aluminum chro-
mate, which is up to 0.001mm thick and provides good corrosion resistance
and as an excellent basis for paint and adhesive bonding even without paint
coating.
This coating is insoluble by water and organic solutions and can endure minor
deformation without cracking. Cutting edges, bores and worked out scratches
are chemical conversion coated with Iridite 14E or Alodine 1201.
Chemical conversion treatment of the surface is used when anodic oxidation
(eloxation) is not possible or not advisable.
This procedures are commonly known as „Alodine“ or „Alochrom.“

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Alochrome (Paper Technique) Alodine (Spray Technique)
Alodine 1201 (Henkel)

Alodine Pen
Parts after Alodining process
Figure 20 Chemical Conversion Procedures

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Painting Procedures
One painting system uses Chromatin, to protect the base metal then a two
pack epoxy or polyurethane primer and then a top coat of two pack polyure-
thane or epoxy finish. Another painting system uses wash primer (two pack −
filiform corrosion resistant), followed by a two pack polyurethane or epoxy
primer and then a two pack polyurethane or epoxy top coat.
There are also different types of primer specifications for components that are
ferrous or contain ferrous elements. Nowadays high tech. paints are used that
are more environmentally friendly, for example paint containing no solvents,

this lowers the VOC (Volatile Organic Components) emissions. The newer trial
paints are based on two pack water based paints.
However, the latest technology does not include paint at all, rather a film of self
adhesive plastic (similar to placards) that is removable simply with hot soapy
water.
Paint Coating
Paint coatings can be divided into the following:
S Primer
− The primer increases the corrosion resistance properties because it con-
tains corrosion inhibitors. The primer also protects the surface against
corrosive agents and gives a good surface for the adhesion of the subse-
quent paint coatings.
S Top Coat
− The top coat or finish paint has the function to protect the layers of the
primer and gives the aircraft the necessary appearance.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
USA (Boeing) EU (Airbus)

DD Topcoat
PU (Polyurethan)
EP (Epoxy)
Primer
PU (Polyurethan)
EP (Epoxy)
Wash Primer
FCR Filiform Corr. Resistent
Pre-Treatment
Alochrome/Alodine/Iridite
SAA/CAA/PAA
Base Material
2024/7075 (USA)
3.1354/3.4364 (EU)
Figure 21 Paint Systems (USA/EU)

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Special Coatings
This type of Coating is used to cover protected surfaces or to protect unpro-
tected surfaces. Although they can be readily removed by the use of solvents
some are as durable and protective as paints and are intended to have a long
life.
These coatings are wax based Super penetrating, water displacing, heavy−
duty, corrosion inhibiting compounds. They form a tack−free, more or less firm
film which depends on the type.
Some examples are Dinitrol AV8, AV15, AV30, etc.

Applied as a coating to protect metals commonly used in airframe structures
and in aerospace components they can be used in all areas of the airframe on
painted and unpainted surfaces. It combines good penetration properties with
excellent corrosion inhibiting characteristics and a low applied film weight. The
viscosity of this products is optimised to ensure an effective protective coating
and to promote penetration into otherwise inaccessible areas of the airframe.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Dinitrol AV15
Boeing 737 Rear Pressure Bulkhead

Corrosion Inhibiting Compound (Detail View)
Figure 22 Special Coatings

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
AIRCRAFT SYMMETRY
Methods of Alignment and Symmetry Checks
For smaller types of aircraft the measurements between points are usually In the event of important deviations, visually check for presence of the following
taken by means of a steel tape. It is recommended that a spring balance failures:
should be used on the longer distances to obtain an equal tension, 5lb usually S Localised structural failures such as:
being sufficient.
− Buckled or cracked skins, stiffener, machined parts.
To check larger types of aircraft, it is usual to chalk the floor locally under the
− Peeled − off paint.

positions where the dimensions are to be taken, to drop plumb bobs from the
checking points, marking the floor with an ’X’ immediately under the point of − Tore or torn fasteners.
each plumb bob and then to measure the distance between the centre of the S Structural failures resulting in:
markings. This method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate mea- − Fuel leaks in tank areas
surement and reducing the amount of walking necessary on main planes and
− After the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure
tail−planes.
− Air leaks in pressurized areas
Chapter ATA 05−56 of AMM gives the instructions for the levelling, measure-
ment and alignment operations of the aircraft. It gives measurement instruc- − Interference of moving parts of a mechanism
tions to find possible structural deformations after hard landings, too much tur- − Leaks in air conditioning, hydraulic or fuel systems
bulence, after the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure, etc. − Short circuits
Tables give information about the measurements recorded on the first three − Refusal to closure of doors and access panels due to surrounding struc-
aircraft at zero flight hours. They can be used as a guide in appraising the ture distortion
structural and aerodynamic condition of an aircraft after major repairs or after
− Required excessive control surface trim limiting control range.
an aircraft has been subjected to manoeuvres requiring an alignment check.
Deviations from given values do not automatically mean that the aircraft is not
serviceable. These deviations must be appraised from the structural and aero-
dynamic points of view in order to determine their effects on flight safety.

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Ground Target
Figure 23 Symmetry Check Location (Fuselage)

GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66


GENERAL CONCEPTS
Part-66
Figure 24 Symmetry Check Location (Wings)

P66 A M11.2 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
M11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES- GENERAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . 1
M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . 2
REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
REFERENCE PLANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
COORDINATE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
STRESSES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
DRAINS AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
AIRCRAFT BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS . . . . . . . 26
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
STRUCTURE ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
SURFACE PROTECTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
AIRCRAFT SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
HAM US/F5 Krueger

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P66 A M11.2 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Requirements for Structural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 2 Primary and Secondary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Figure 3 Design Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 4 Major Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 5 Sub Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 6 Reference Planes (Boeing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 7 Coordinate System (Airbus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 8 Stresses on Aircraft Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 9 Drains and Ventilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10 Lightning Strike Protection Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure 11 Aicraft Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Figure 12 Trusstype and Monocoque Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 13 Semi-Monocoque Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Figure 14 Structural Members I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figure 15 Structural Members II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 16 Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Figure 17 Bolting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 18 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 19 Electrochemical Conversion Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Figure 20 Chemical Conversion Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 21 Paint Systems (USA/EU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 22 Special Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 23 Symmetry Check Location (Fuselage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure 24 Symmetry Check Location (Wings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
HAM US/F5 Krueger

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TABLE OF FIGURES
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TABLE OF FIGURES
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P66 A M11.2 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
HAM US/F5 Krueger

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M11.02 - Airframe Structures-GenConcept - Supplementals

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Fundamentals

Licensed Copy to JOCSON College

M11.2 Airframe Structures-

EASA Part-66 Cat. A

P66 A M11.02 SUPP E

For training purposes only.

Tel: +49 (0)40 5070 2520

M11.2 (A) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS

difficult for the flight Crew to control it under all circumstances.

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 2

Figure 1 Requirements for Structural Strength

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 4

Figure 2 Primary and Secondary Structure

STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONCEPTS

sis for safe−life design is fatigue analysis.

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 6

Old Design (B727) Current Design (A310)

Figure 3 Design Concepts

ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

S 700 LANDING GEAR

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 8

Figure 4 Major Zones

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HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 10

Figure 5 Sub Zones

Boeing measures reference planes in „inches“ .

Body Buttoc Line

the aircraft fuselage.

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 12

Figure 6 Reference Planes (Boeing)

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 14

Figure 7 Coordinate System (Airbus)

STRESSES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 16

Tension Load Compression Load

Figure 8 Stresses on Aircraft Structures

DRAINS AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 18

Figure 9 Drains and Ventilations

SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROVISIONS

System Supporting Structure

Control Cable System

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 20

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HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 21

LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION PROVISION

aircraft it needs a path for the electricity to flow through.

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 22

Figure 10 Lightning Strike Protection Provisions

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 24

Bonding of Rivets Bonding of Composites

Bonding of movable Parts

Figure 11 Aicraft Bonding

M11.2 (B) AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-GENERAL CONCEPTS

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 26

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 27

S Truss Type Construction

Truss Type Construction

A monocoque fuselage is in its strength similar to a tube, its cross section is of

HAM US/F-5 KrC Apr.2007 Page: 28

Longeron (tubular steel)

Diagonal web members