An ankle created using a 3D printer has replaced a cancer victim's joint in a world-first

operation that many are suggesting is just the beginning of a medical technology revolution.

1. Transcript

LEIGH SALES, PRESENTER: Advances in 3D technology have had a major impact in almost every walk of life, on everything
from TV's to houses to cars.

GREG HOY, REPORTER: He was an interesting choice as a world-first test case. Aged 71, builder Len Chandler had
survived prostate cancer, two knee replacements and lost an eye on a building site before doctors told him he had a
cancer-riddled heel and would have to lose his leg.

LEN CHANDLER: I think the wife was more upset than I was. She was crying, but I thought, "Oh, you know, if I've got to
do it, I'll do it."

GREG HOY: Len Chandler's luck changed remarkably, however, when he was sent to see orthopaedic surgeon Professor
Peter Choong of St Vincent's in Melbourne.

LEN CHANDLER: And then he sat at the computer there for about three minutes and never said a word and I thought,
"What's going on?" And he said, "Oh, I've got some mates in CSIRO." He said, "I'll ring them." He said, "We might be able
to put a - titanium foot in."

GREG HOY: With the help of Melbourne technologists Anatomics, the CSIRO set about hurriedly building an intricate
replica of Len Chandler's ankle bone out of titanium by using a 3D printer.

PETER CHOONG, SURGEON, ST VINCENT'S MELBOURNE: We had to make something that was not too heavy. It sits in a
very precarious position that unites a number of joints in the foot. We also had to make sure that it was designed in such
a way that we could suture to it some ligaments that exist around the ankle and foot to give it the sort of stability it
would need.

GREG HOY: Straight onto the metal?

PETER CHOONG: Correct.

JOHN BARNES, CSIRO ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: Well, it began on a Monday and by Thursday we delivered the "semi-
finished final version" to Anatomics. They did the preparatory work on it, sterilised it and provided it to Dr Choong on
Friday for the operation.

GREG HOY: It's the now 14 weeks since the surgery. Both the patient and surgeon are delighted with the results.

LEN CHANDLER: And I think it's not hurting, so why - you've got to feel your way, the same as anything else.

PETER CHOONG: Well the surgery went very well. There were no issues related to this. His progress has been excellent.

GREG HOY: Another day, another milestone in the remarkable advance of 3D printing, where the future is limited only, it
seems, by the imagination of experts.

PETER CHOONG: 3D printing offers an amazing future for medicine. We have always been frustrated at getting
something small enough, fine enough, using what has been a manufacturing process that has remained fairly stable for
perhaps the last century or so.
 GREG HOY: The 3D revolution is advancing on multiple fronts. At an exhibition in Chicago this month, US company Local
Motors unveiled its 3D-printed car.

JAMES EARL, ENGINEER, LOCAL MOTORS: The thing that this lends most to is customizability, so you can get a car that
really suits your needs.

GREG HOY: Also in the US, they are now printing with living cell structures and are making great progress in the bid to
print human organs complete with tiny blood vessels.

ANTHONY ATALIA, WAKE FOREST INSTITUTE: And we're creating ears in the project we're doing right now with the
military to provide these kinds of structures to our injured warriors.

GREG HOY: Across town from St Vincent's, meantime, at the RMIT MicroNano Research Facility, scientists are using
another revolutionary type of 3D printer to build objects so tiny, they are invisible to the human eye.

What are we seeing here and on what scale?

SHARATH SRIRAM, MICRONANO RESEARCH FACILITY, RMIT: So this is an example of a three-dimensionally-printed

prancing horse. The height of the structure is about 70 micrometres.

GREG HOY: Which is equivalent to?

SHARATH SRIRAM: Which is about half the thickness of a human hair.

GREG HOY: Researchers are using this technology to develop micro robots like this that will travel through the blood
system to clear blocked arteries and for targeted drug delivery. Amazingly, they are also researching new fabrics that
deflect and manipulate light to make invisible clothing or objects.

SHARATH SRIRAM: A 3D printer will allow you to build structures which are invisible at different wavelengths into one
composite material.

GREG HOY: From invisible clothing to haute couture, today 3D printing is also shaking up the fashion world on the
catwalks in Paris.

NEDRI OXMAN, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY: You can now print continuous surfaces without seams or
without parts and they're just gradients - almost like gradients of energy, only gradients of material.

GREG HOY: This raises the prospect of people having their bodies scanned to order garments that are perfectly tailor-
made with a 3D printer.

WOMAN: Obviously, it's taking designers to a new level of things that have never been done before and it's just the
beginning, so I think the imagination is - would make the limit because, you know, it's endless, endless possibility.

GREG HOY: Other advances abound. The next generation of NASA's Space Exploration Vehicle has 70 unique 3D-printed
parts to maximise mobility. The Chinese are even developing huge 3D printers to build small houses.

JOHN BARNES: We just don't where it's going to end. I think its impact is going to be so widespread that it's going to be
very commonplace.

1. LEIGH SALES: Greg Hoy with that report.

Robots And 3D Printing

The robots are coming. Of course, you knew that. There is a fair amount of news recently about how robots can help
healthcare workers with the Ebola virus, as well as with numerous other industries from manufacturing to the military.
The BBC reported on social robots this week online and in a special conference (Oct 21) called BBC Future: World
Changing Ideas Summit.

Disclosure: I am traveling the USA on an independent journey exploring 3D technologies and their use in big and small
companies, as well as cool stuff happening in education. Autodesk ADSK +2.49%, Stratasys, HP, Nvidia are some of the
key sponsors that keep this 8+ month project called 3DRV.com rolling along.

Roboticists, or robot makers, have been constrained by existing off-the-shelf parts, until recently, can now design and
print their own parts and shells with affordable or free design tools and the increasingly affordable 3D printers. The so-
called next industrial revolution is alive and well with robot makers. As I travel around the USA exploring 3D printing and
3D design, I’m meeting a fair number of entrepreneurs who are building robots, enabled by tools that didn’t exist just a
few short years ago.

3D, in all its forms, is integral to many, if not all, of their efforts. Philip Walker, from Transcend Robotics, is one such
example: He is an entrepreneur building a robot that can climb stairs. But he needed a durable tank tread, a non-
marking tread, and when he could not find one; he set out to build his own, and succeeded, with a 3D printer.

I spent a couple of hours with Kyle Dell'Aquila at Rise Robotics in Somerville, MA (outside Boston) hearing about
advances they are making in electromechanical linear actuators. In layman’s terms, because that is the best I can do,
think about how an upper arm muscle pulls – their robotic device is mimicking that motion, a very hard-to-solve problem
in robots.

Forbes staffer Parmy Olson wrote earlier this year about Telepresence Robots (post link to the left) and how they are
finding their way into the workplace, to give remote workers a way to be present in the office. I had heard about the
Double Robotics telepresence robot, but actually saw one in action yesterday at GeekBeat TV as we toured the studio to
prepare for a livestream about 3D tech. Pretty sweet device: an iPad on a Segway that a remote user can direct around
the office.

My take is that as 3D technology adoption continues to increase we will see an even greater acceleration in robot
building with 3D printers because it reduces the costs of prototypes, and in many cases, final parts. If some of the robot
makers like Double Robotics grant access to their technology (perhaps an open SDK), DIY robot builders will create small,
iterative innovations that will benefit the industry. The telepresence aspect makes them far more useful, and as the BBC
points out, more social, more lifelike, which will make it more likely for consumers to want one, too, not just business.
Entrepreneurs like Phil and Kyle are iterating rapidly and solving problems that were not possible to crack, at least not as
inexpensively as now.

These robots may seem like they are all prototypes, but they are showing up in final form faster than we can imagine. As
Wohlers Associates points out in its research work for the Wohlers Report 2014, final part production is now over more
than one third (34.7 percent) of the additive manufacturing market. Most people think that prototyping and toys are the
limits of 3D printing, but it is vastly more than that. The robots are not coming at some future date; they are here,
rolling off the 3D printers near you.

Currently I am traveling around the USA on an 8-month roadtrip (in a bright blue RV) exploring 3D printing, 3D scanning,
and 3D design. You can follow me on Twitter or at 3DRV.com.
The 'chemputer' that could print out any drug

When Lee Cronin learned about the concept of 3D printers, he had a brilliant
idea: why not turn such a device into a universal chemistry set that could
make its own drugs?

Professor Lee Cronin is a likably impatient presence, a one-man catalyst. "I

just want to get stuff done fast," he says. And: "I am a control freak in
rehab." Cronin, 39, is the leader of a world-class team of 45 researchers at
Glasgow University, primarily making complex molecules. But that is not the extent of his ambition. A couple of years ago, at a TED conference, he
described one goal as the creation of "inorganic life", and went on to detail his efforts to generate "evolutionary algorithms" in inert matter. He still
hopes to "create life" in the next year or two.

At the same time, one branch of that thinking has itself evolved into a new project: the notion of creating downloadable chemistry, with the
ultimate aim of allowing people to "print" their own pharmaceuticals at home. Cronin's latest TED talk asked the question: "Could we make a really
cool universal chemistry set? Can we 'app' chemistry?" "Basically," he tells me, in his office at the university, with half a grin, "what Apple did for
music, I'd like to do for the discovery and distribution of prescription drugs."

The idea is very much at the conception stage, but as he walks me around his labs Cronin begins to outline how that "paradigm-changing" project
might progress. He has been in Scotland for 10 years and in that time he has worked hard, as any chemist worth his salt should, to get the right mix
of people to produce the results he wants. Cronin's interest has always been in complex chemicals and the origins of life. "We are pretty good at
making molecules. We do a lot of self-assembly at a molecular level," he says. "We are able to make really large molecules and I was able to get a
lot of money in grants and so on for doing that." But after a while, Cronin suggests, making complex molecules for their own sake can seem a bit
limiting. He wanted to find some more life-changing applications for his team's expertise.

A couple of years ago, Cronin was invited to an architectural seminar to discuss his work on inorganic structures. He had been looking at the way
crystals grew "inorganic gardens" of tube-like structures between themselves. Among the other speakers at that conference was a man explaining
the possibilities of 3D printing for conventional architectural forms. Cronin wondered if you could apply this 3D principle to structures at a
molecular level. "I didn't want to print an aeroplane, or a jaw bone," he says. "I wanted to do chemistry."

Cronin prides himself on his lateral thinking; his gift for chemistry came fairly late – he stumbled through comprehensive school in Ipswich and
initially university – before realising a vocation for molecular chemistry that has seen him make a series of prize-winning, and fund-generating,
advances in the field. He often puts his faith in counterintuition. "Confusions of ideas produce discovery," he says. "People, researchers, always
come to me and say they are pretty good at thinking outside the box and I usually think 'yes, but it is a pretty small box'." In analysing how to apply
3D printing to chemistry, Cronin wondered in the first instance if the essentially passive idea of a highly sophisticated form of copying from a
software blueprint could be made more dynamic. In his lab, they put together a rudimentary prototype of a chemical 3D printer, which could be
programmed to make basic chemical reactions to produce different molecules.

He shows me the printer, a nondescript version of the £1,200 3D printer used in the Fab@Home project, which aims to bring self-fabrication to the
masses. After a bit of trial and error, Cronin's team discovered that it could use a bathroom sealant as a material to print reaction chambers of
precisely specified dimensions, connected with tubes of different lengths and diameters. After the bespoke miniature lab had set hard, the printer
could then inject the system reactants, or "chemical inks", to create sequenced reactions.

The "inks" would be simple reagents, from which more complex molecules are formed. "If I was being facetious I would say that to find your inks
you would go to the periodic table: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and so on," Cronin says, "but obviously you can't handle all those substances very
well, so it would have to be a bit more complex than that. If you were looking to make a sugar, for example, you would start with your set of base
sugars and mix them together. When we make complex molecules in the traditional way with test tubes and flasks, we start with a smaller number
of simpler molecules." As he points out, nearly all drugs are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, as well as readily available agents such as
vegetable oils and paraffin. "With a printer it should be possible that with a relatively small number of inks you can make any organic molecule," he
says.

The real beauty of Cronin's prototype system, however, is that it allows the printer not only to control the sequences and exact calibration of inks,
but also to shape, from a tested blueprint, the environment in which those reactions take place. The scale and architecture of the miniature printed
"lab" could be pre-programmed into software and downloaded for use with a standard set of inks. In this way, not only the combinations of
reactants but also the ratios and speed at which they combine could be ingrained into the system, simply by changing the size of reaction chambers
and their relation with one another; Cronin calls this "reactionware" or, because it depends on a conceptualised sequence of flow and reorientation
in a 3D space, "Rubik's Cube chemistry".

"What we are trying to do is to combine the notion of a reaction with a reactor," he says. "Conventionally the reactor is just the passive space or
the environment in which a reaction takes place. It could be something as simple as a test tube. The printer allows it to be a far more active
context."

So far Cronin's lab has been creating quite straightforward reaction chambers, and simple three-step sequences of reactions to "print" inorganic
molecules. The next stage, also successfully demonstrated, and where things start to get interesting, is the ability to "print" catalysts into the walls
of the reactionware. Much further down the line – Cronin has a gift for extrapolation – he envisages far more complex reactor environments, which
would enable chemistry to be done "in the presence of a liver cell that has cancer, or a newly identified superbug", with all the implications that
might have for drug research.

In the shorter term, his team is looking at ways in which relatively simple drugs – ibuprofen is the example they are using – might be successfully
produced in their 3D printer or portable "chemputer". If that principle can be established, then the possibilities suddenly seem endless. "Imagine
your printer like a refrigerator that is full of all the ingredients you might require to make any dish in Jamie Oliver's new book," Cronin says. "Jamie
has made all those recipes in his own kitchen and validated them. If you apply that idea to making drugs, you have all your ingredients and you
follow a recipe that a drug company gives you. They will have validated that recipe in their lab. And when you have downloaded it and enabled the
printer to read the software it will work. The value is in the recipe, not in the manufacture. It is an app, essentially."

What would this mean? Well for a start it would potentially democratise complex chemistry, and allow drugs not only to be distributed anywhere
in the world but created at the point of need. It could reverse the trend, Cronin suggests, for ineffective counterfeit drugs (often anti-malarials or
anti-retrovirals) that have flooded some markets in the developing world, by offering a cheap medicine-making platform that could validate a drug
made according to the pharmaceutical company's "software". Crucially, it would potentially enable a greater range of drugs to be produced. "There
are loads of drugs out there that aren't available," Cronin says, "because the population that needs them is not big enough, or not rich enough. This
model changes that economy of scale; it could makes any drug cost effective."

Not surprisingly Cronin is excited by these prospects, though he continually adds the caveat that they are still essentially at the "science fiction"
stage of this process. Aside from the "personal chemputer" aspect of the idea, he is perhaps most enthused about the way the reactionware model
could transform the process of drug discovery and testing. "Over time it may redefine how we make molecules," he believes. "In particular we can
think about doing complex reactions in the presence of complex chemical baggage like a cell, and at a fraction of the current cost." Printed
reactionware could vastly speed up the discovery of new proteins and even antibiotics. In contrast to existing technologies the chemical "search
engine" could be combined with biological structures such as blood vessels, or pathogens, offering a way to quickly screen the effects of new
molecular combinations.

After publishing some of this thinking and research in recent papers, Cronin has of course been talking to various interested parties – from
pharmaceutical companies intrigued by its implications for their business models, to Nato generals responding to the idea of the ultimate portable
medicine cabinet on the battlefield.

He hopes that large-scale humanitarian organisations – the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the rest – might take a hard look at the public
health and cost benefits of introducing such a possibly revolutionary technology to the developing world. As a scientist, Cronin tends to play down
the potential legal and practical obstacles that will no doubt challenge the idea – "I don't imagine gangsters printing their own drugs, no" he says to
one question – and sees only benefits.

"As yet," he says, "we don't even know what the device would look like." But he believes that now the idea is established "there is no reason at all –
beyond a certain level of funding – why it all couldn't happen very soon." Cronin is impatient to get on with it as quickly as possible. "As well as
transforming the industry and making money," he says, "we could be saving lives. Why wait?"
3D printing: A force for revolutionary change Comments (25) A Star Wars character printed on a 3D printer May the prints be with you: A recent
example of a 3D-printed object

It was Neil Gershenfeld who introduced me to the potential of additive manufacturing, also
known as 3D printing, getting on for 10 years ago, and I got very excited about its possibilities.
And now, years later, here he is, trying to dampen my enthusiasm.

Professor Gershenfeld has been one of the stars of Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT
for a long time. I first encountered him at the famous MIT Media Lab nearly 20 years ago when
he was part of a team investigating Things that Think: the wearable computer, for example.

Under its founder Nicholas Negroponte, the MIT Media Lab was one of the definers of the new digital era: a world where bits and bytes take over
from atoms in many familiar activities and where everything that can be digitised will be digitised.

“3D individualises industries which until now have been dominated by mass production”

In 2002 Neil Gershenfeld spun off from the Media Lab something called The Centre for Bits and Atoms. It was inspired by MIT classes he had started
in making things - physical things, not the computer software that had become such a large part of the MIT experience.

The classes continue: "How to Make (Almost) Anything" and "How to Make Something that Makes (Almost) Anything". They've been wildly
successful; packed with hundreds of brainbox MIT students from many disciplines anxious learn how to use advanced machines to make things for
themselves.

The Centre for Bits and Atoms is where I first encountered a 3D printer. They're not new: they've been around for 20 or 30 years, used by designers
to make rapid prototypes of products they are developing.

It's a sort of extension of Computer Aided Design which has so transformed professions such as engineering and architecture.

You draw the design on a computer screen, and the data then drives a machine which spreads thin layers of plastic or metal powder on top of each
other. Each layer is solidified by a sort of laser welder or sinterer; at the end of the process you blow off the unsintered powder and the object you
drew on the screen is transformed into complex, intertwined three dimensional reality.

3D printing takes weeks or months off the design process, but for years it stayed as a prototype process, trying things out.

Now that's changing. Better techniques and materials are turning 3D printers into manufacturing operations - so-called additive manufacturers - as
opposed to the cutting and grinding and sawing that has typified engineering up to now.

This is a great big step. It individualises industries which until now have been dominated by mass production. In theory, every single product can be
different, made to measure, as operators learn how to make things with mixed materials on larger and larger scales.

In theory, it seriously reduces the need for factories, production lines, warehouses, transport around the world from great production hubs. Many
things can be printed up for digital instruction in a neighbourhood print shop, and carried home under your arm, rather than shipped in container
loads around the world.
Darker side

3D-printed gun parts A student at the University of Texas managed to create a gun using 3D
printing

In New York, I dropped in on a refurbished warehouse in Long Island City where a Dutch
company called Shapeways is building a battery of 3D print machines to make things sent in by its customers -as data - over the Internet.

The products—lots of jewellery and individualised smartphone cases, but it could be anything—are then shipped back to them a few days later. 3D
printing fr people who don't want to spend upwards of $1,000 dollars on their own machine.

This is not necessarily nice. Sex toys are obvious personal 3D products. At least one American company is making headlines for printing guns and
making the designs available to others. The authorities are investigating.

In theory this is a very disruptive change indeed, a new industrial revolution.

Neil Gershenfeld Neil Gershenfeld thinks journalists have got carried away by 3D printing

You might say that the development of printing ushered in the modern era 500 years ago.

In the same way, the combination of the internet, broadband-powered interactivity and the 3D printer could create a new nimble industrial era of
individualised, localised goods escaped from the grip of huge manufacturing companies with vast capital investments and cumbersome making and
delivery processes.

A great opportunity for entrepreneurs and start-up companies, these 3D printers. Turn an idea into a design, into a product almost instantly, and
then reach an internet marketplace at the click of a mouse. Capitalism without capital, or without much of it. A new 3D world.

'Strange meme'

At least, inspired by Neil Gershenfeld, that is what I thought.

But the other month at the Centre for Bits and Atoms, he put a big shot across my bows.

"Three D printing is a strange meme that is being misrepresented in the press by people who don't actually use it", he said.

"You're pointing at me," I said. "You and your peers," he replied.

"Ouch!" I said, with some disappointment.

3D printing is not—according to one of the prophets of the new personal manufacturing age—going to change the world on its own. ”

End Quote

Neil Gershenfeld thinks that the press has got carried away with 3D printing, something which is interesting, but of limited application compared
with all the things a creatively inclined person can do with the other machines.

Gaze on the products a 3D printer can make and you go a bit soft in the head, he thinks, especially when (like me) you have never used one in your
life.

The thing is, what Neil Gershenfeld has at the Centre of Bits and Atoms is room after room of superb and expensive digitally driven machines that
he hopes one day to compress into one quite small piece of kit for the home-based maker.

They're the components of what he calls Fab Labs, community fabrication centres where anyone can drop in and learn to use really advanced
digital machinery.

Inspired by the MIT Centre for Bits and Atoms, there are now about 100 Fab Labs all over the world, including places such as Afghanistan, Belfast
and Manchester.

Yes, they use 3D printers, but they are well down Neil Gershenfeld's list of priorities.
More useful, he says, is a computer-controlled laser cutter, a numerically-controlled milling machine for making big parts, a sign cutter, a precision
milling machine and programming tools for low-cost high-speed embedded processors.

So 3D printing is not—according to one of the prophets of the new personal manufacturing age—going to change the world on its own.

Ford production line 1928 Mass manufacturing, like Henry Ford's production lines, may soon be replaced

Nevertheless, something is up. Professor Gershenfeld says that it's the suite of digital machines that in his words "blows up industry".

Just as personal computing transformed the computer industry, so many manufacturing corporations are going to be shoved aside by the
personalisation of fabrication, by individualised goods.

Henry Ford's production lines have been the overwhelming model for manufacturing for the past 100 years. That predominance will soon be
replaced by something much more individual, much more local, much more flexible.

And whatever Neil Gershenfeld says, I've still got a hunch that 3D printing is going to have quite a part in the revolution. Even though I have never
done it.

In Business: New Dimensions is on BBC R4 at 8.30pm on Thursday 16th May, repeated at 9.30pm on Sunday 19th May.
3D printers shown to emit potentially harmful nanosized particles

Jul 24, 2013

A new study by researchers at the Illinois Institute of Technology shows that commercially available desktop 3D printers can have substantial
emissions of potentially harmful nanosized particles in indoor air. The study, which was recently published in the journal Atmospheric Environment,
is the first to measure airborne particle emissions from commercially available desktop 3D printers. Desktop 3D printers are now widely accessible
for rapid prototyping and small-scale manufacturing in home and office settings. Many desktop 3D printers rely on a process where a thermoplastic
feedstock is heated, extruded through a small nozzle, and deposited onto a surface to build 3D objects. Similar processes have been shown to have
significant aerosol emissions in other studies using a range of plastic feedstocks, but mostly in industrial environments.

In this work, assistant professor Brent Stephens and graduate students in his Built Environment Research Group in the Department of Civil,
Architectural and Environmental Engineering at Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, IL measured ultrafine particle concentrations resulting
from the operation of a single type of popular commercially available desktop 3D printers inside an office space. Ultrafine particles (or UFPs) are
small, nanosized particles less than 100 nanometers in diameter. The printers were used to print small plastic figures during normal operation. The
resulting concentration measurements were then used to estimate UFP emission rates from these printers.

Estimates of emission rates of total UFPs were high, ranging from about 20 billion particles per minute for a 3D printer utilizing a lower
temperature polylactic acid (PLA) feedstock to about 200 billion particles per minute for the same type of 3D printer utilizing a higher temperature
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) feedstock. The emission rates were similar to those measured in previous studies of several other devices and
indoor activities, including cooking on a gas or electric stove, burning scented candles, operating laser printers, or even burning a cigarette.

Human inhalation of UFPs may be important from a health perspective. UFPs deposit efficiently in both the pulmonary and alveolar regions of the
lung, as well as in head airways. Deposition in head airways can also lead to translocation to the brain via the olfactory nerve. The high surface
areas associated with UFPs also lead to high concentrations of other adsorbed or condensed compounds. Several recent epidemiological studies
have also shown that elevated UFP number concentrations are associated with adverse health effects, including total and cardio-respiratory
mortality, hospital admissions for stroke, and asthma symptoms.

In addition to large differences in emission rates observed between PLA- and ABS-based 3D printers, there may also be differences in toxicity
because of differences in chemical composition of the feedstocks and UFP byproducts. Thermal decomposition products from ABS processing have
been shown to have toxic effects in mice and rats in previous studies; however, PLA is actually known for its biocompatibility in humans. PLA
nanoparticles are even widely used in drug delivery.

Because most of these devices are currently sold as standalone devices without any exhaust ventilation or filtration accessories, the researchers
suggest caution should be used when operating in inadequately ventilated or unfiltered indoor environments. They also recommend that more
controlled experiments be conducted to more fundamentally evaluate particle emissions from a wider range of desktop 3D printers.