World Geothermal Power Generation in The Period 2001-2005

Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690
World geothermal power generation

in the period 2001–2005夽
Ruggero Bertani ∗
Enel, Generation and Energy Management – Renewable Energy – Geothermal Production,
Via A. Pisano 120, 56122 Pisa, Italy
Received 1 July 2005; accepted 23 September 2005
Available online 25 October 2005
Abstract
A review has been made of all the country update papers submitted to the World Geothermal Congress 2005
(WGC2005) from countries in which geothermal electricity is currently being generated. The most significant
data to emerge from these papers, and from follow-up contacts with representatives of these countries, are:
(1) a total of 24 countries now generate electricity from geothermal resources; (2) the total installed capacity
worldwide is approximately 8930 MWe , corresponding to about 8030 MWe running capacity and electric
energy production is nearly 57,000 GWh (early 2005 data); (3) Costa Rica, France (Guadeloupe), Iceland,
Indonesia, Italy1 , Kenya, Mexico, Nicaragua, Russia, and the USA have increased the capacity of their power
plant installations by more than 10% with respect to the year 2000; (4) the new members of the geothermal
electricity generating community comprise Austria, Germany and Papua New Guinea; (5) the installed
capacity in Argentina and Greece is now null since their geothermal power plants have been dismantled;
(6) nineteen countries have carried out significant geothermal drilling operations since 2000, with 307 new
wells drilled.
© 2005 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: World update; Geothermal electricity generation
夽 This paper is a revised and updated version of a Keynote Address presented at the Plenary Session of the World
Geothermal Congress 2005 (Proc. WGC2005), Antalya, Turkey, and published on the relevant CD-ROM.
∗ Tel.: +39 050 618 5705; fax: +39 050 618 5893.
E-mail address: ruggero.bertani@enel.it.

1 Although the increase in installed capacity is small, 10 new units totaling 254 MW have been installed in Italy, to
e
replace old and obsolete units.
0375-6505/$30.00 © 2005 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2005.09.005
652 R. Bertani / Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690
1. Introduction
This paper discusses the latest developments in geothermal electricity generation worldwide.
It focuses on the changes with respect to previous similar reports (Huttrer, 1995, 2000, 2001). For
each country producing electricity from geothermal resources, the information from the relevant
Country Update Report presented at the World Geothermal Congress 2005 (WGC2005) held on
24–29 April 2005 in Antalya, Turkey has been integrated with first-hand data provided by members
of the International Geothermal Association (IGA). Detailed information is not provided here,
but can be readily obtained from the papers listed in the References.
The primary objective of this paper is to identify the geothermal fields that are currently
under exploitation to generate electricity, their characteristics (e.g. reservoir depth, and fluid
temperatures and pressures) and the status of operating geothermal power plants. Limited emphasis
will be given to data on field geothermal potential. Table 1 is a summary of the data: the geothermal
capacities in early 2005, the annual energy production, the number of geothermal units installed,
the percentage of national power capacity that is contributed by geothermal, and the percentage of
energy produced nationally from geothermal resources. Table 2 presents the changes in installed
geothermal power generating capacity worldwide over the last 10 years.
Before proceeding any further, two terms frequently used in the paper should be defined. The
installed capacity (in MWe ) is the reference value for the power plant, set by the manufacturer
as its target output when the plant is operating under design conditions. Possible reserve units
should not be considered as part of the installed capacity, but may be accounted for separately.
The running capacity (in MWe ) is the highest average value over a 1-h period during the time of
investigation of the output from the power plant as measured at the generator transformer supply
voltage terminals, when operating at its stated design conditions or corrected to the design point
conditions (Spielberg-Planer et al., 2001). The running capacity can be correlated directly with
the energy produced and with the relevant reservoir characteristics (Table 3). Table 3 presents the
main characteristics of geothermal fields worldwide, but includes only fields providing at least a
few MW running capacity and fields for which some relevant data were available.
It is worth recalling the final part of the message delivered by Phillip Wright, President of the
IGA at that time, during the 2000 World Geothermal Congress:
“At the 1975 United Nations Conference on Geothermal Energy, held in San Francisco, Cal-
ifornia, Mr. Patrick Muffler reported that some 1300 MW of geothermal electrical power
generation capacity were installed in 10 countries. At this meeting, WGC2000, Mr. Gerry
Huttrer reported that installed geothermal generation capacity has reached 7974 MW in 21
countries. In 25 years, we have added 6700 MW of installed capacity around the world.
This amounts to an average of only 270 MW of new geothermal generating capacity per
year since Mr. Muffler’s report in 1975, and an average of only 240 MW of new geothermal
generation capacity per year since the last WGC in Florence, Italy, in 1995. Mr. Huttrer
also reported that the worldwide electrical energy production from geothermal power plants
has reached 49,000 GWh/year. Energy production is a much better measure of our contri-
bution than installed capacity since geothermal power plants usually operate at a higher
capacity factor than other types of power plants. But, how are we to understand this figure
of 49,000 GWh/year of energy production? To help form a perspective, let us note that the
International Energy Agency reports that total electricity consumed worldwide in 1996 was
13,700,000 GWh. In other words, geothermal energy accounts for less than 0.4 percent of
the world’s electricity.”
R. Bertani / Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690 653
Table 1
Worldwide geothermal power generation in early 2005
Country Installed Running Annual energy Number Percent of Percent of Source
capacity capacity produced of units national national of data
(MWe ) (MWe ) (GWh/year)a capacity energy
Australia 0.2 0.1 0.5 1 Negligible Negligible WGC05
Austria 1.2 1.1 3.2 2 Negligible Negligible WGC05
China 28 19 96 13 30% of Tibet 30% of Tibet WGC05b
Costa Rica 163 163c 1145 5 8.4 15 WGC05d
El Salvador 151 119 967 5 14 22 WGC05
Ethiopia 7.3 7.3 0 2 1 n/a WGC05
France (Guadeloupe) 15 15 102 2 9 9 WGC05e
Germany 0.2 0.2 1.5f 1 Negligible Negligible WGC05
Guatemala 33 29 212 8 1.7 3 WGC05
Iceland 202 202g 1483h 19 13.7 17.2 WGC05i
Indonesia 797 838 6085 15 2.2 6.7 WGC05j
Italy 791 699 5340 32 1.0 1.9 WGC05
Japan 535 530 3467 19 0.2 0.3 WGC05
Kenya 129 129 1088 9 11.2 19.2 WGC05k
Mexico 953 953l 6282 36 2.2 3.1 WGC05m
New Zealand 435 403 2774n 33 5.5 7.1 WGC05o
Nicaragua 77 38 271 3 11.2 9.8 WGC05
Papua New Guinea (Lihir island) 6 6 17p 1 10.9 n/a WGC05q
Philippinesr 1930 1838 9253 57 12.7 19.1 WGC05s
Portugal (Sao Miguel island) 16 13 90 5 25 n/a WGC05
Russia 79 79t 85 11 Negligible Negligible WGC05
Thailand 0.3 0.3 1.8 1 Negligible Negligible WGC05
Turkey 20 18 105 1 Negligible Negligible WGC05
USA 2564 1935 17,917u 209 0.3 0.5 WGC05v
Total 8933 8035 56,786 490

n/a: Data not available.
a Data for year 2003, unless otherwise specified in the table.
b Personal communication from K. Zheng (May 2005).
c No data were available for “running capacity”; it was therefore assumed to be equal to installed capacity. A rough estimate based on the
energy produced, with a load factor of 90%, gives approximately 145 MWe .
d Personal communication from A. Mainieri Protti (July 2004).
e Personal communication from R. Schellschmidt (May 2005).
f Year 2004 production data.
g No data were available for “running capacity”; it was therefore assumed to be equal to installed capacity. A rough estimate based on the
energy produced, with a load factor of 90%, gives approximately 190 MWe .
h Year 2004 production data.
i Personal communication from E. Gunnlaugsson (November 2004), A. Ragnarsson (June 2005), and V. Stefansson (July 2005).
j Personal communication from S. Bahari (November 2004).
k Personal communication from M. Mwangi (May 2005).
l No data were available for “running capacity”; it was therefore assumed to be equal to installed capacity. A rough estimate based on the
energy produced, with a load factor of 90% (corrected for Los Azufres units 13-14-15-16, which started-up in 2003), gives approximately
850 MWe .
m Personal communication from L. Gutiérrez-Negrı́n (May 2005).
n Year 2004 production data.
o Personal communication from I. Thain (November 2004), and J.V. Lawless (May 2005).
p Year 2004 production data.
q Personal communication from P. Bixley (November 2004).
r After rehabilitation of plants in Tiwi and Mak-Ban, their running capacity will be 232 and 402 MW , respectively.
e
s Personal communication from A. Menzies (December 2004).
t No data were available for “running capacity”; it was therefore assumed to be equal to installed capacity. The value obtained from the
produced energy is not realistic.
u Year 2004 production data.
v Personal communication from J. Lund (June 2005).
Table 2
Variation in installed geothermal generating capacity worldwide between 1995 and early 2005
Country 1995 2000 Early 2005 2000–2005 Percent increase
(MWe ) (MWe ) (MWe ) Increase (MWe )
Australia 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 Unchanged

Austria 0 0 1.2 1.2 New plant
China 29 29 28 −1 Unchanged
Costa Ricaa 55 143 163 20 14%
El Salvadorb 105 161 151 −10 −6%
Ethiopia 0 7.3 7.3 0 Unchanged
Francec 4.2 4.2 15 10.8 250%
Germany 0 0 0.2 0.2 New plant
Guatemala 0 33 33 0 Unchanged
Icelandd 50 170 202 32 19%
Indonesiae 310 589 797 208 35%
Italyf 632 785 791 6 1%
Japan 414 547 535 −12 −2%
Kenyag 45 45 129 84 186%
Mexicoh 753 755 953 198 26%
New Zealand 286 437 435 −2 Unchanged
Nicaraguai 70 70 77 7 11%
Papua New Guineaj 0 0 6 6 New plant
Philippinesk 1227 1909 1930 21 1%
Portugal 5 16 16 0 Unchanged
Russial 11 23 79 56 243%
Thailand 0.3 0.3 0.3 0 Unchanged
Turkey 20 20 20 0 Unchanged
USAm 2817 2228 2564 336 15%
Total 6833 7972 8933 961 13%
a New 18 MWe Miravalles V binary unit.
b Decommissioning of two 5 MWe well-head units at Berlı́n.
c New 10 MW single-flash plant La Bouillante II at Guadeloupe.
e
d New plant at Nesjavellir and Husavik for 32 MW .
e
e Online plants already installed but not operating in 2000 (one unit at Darajat of 80 MW , at Dieng 60 MW and at
e e
Wayang Windu 110 MWe ); new plant at Lahendong of 20 MWe . The running capacity for the country is 838 MWe , due
to the over-production of three units at Salak and Darajat.
f Despite the modest increase in installed capacity, several plants have been constructed and put online to replace an
old plant, with 10 new units totaling 254 MWe .

g New plants for total of 70 MW at Olkaria II and 12 MW at Olkaria III (binary units).
e e
h New units at Cerro Prieto IV (100 MW ), Los Azufres (100 MW ) and Las Tres Vı́rgenes (10 MW ).
e e e
i New binary unit at Momotombo.
j New unit at Lihir Island; further 30 MW under construction.
e
k New 22 MW unit at Tongonan.
e
l New 50 MW unit at Mutnovsky.
e
m Despite the increase shown in installed capacity, the situation should be considered stable, because the data given in
the year 2000 were underestimates as regards The Geysers capacity and Casa Diablo plants. In the last 5 years only Salton
Sea Unit V (60 MWe ) has been added.
The trend has not improved since 2000: the installed capacity has increased by approx-
imately 960 MWe (Fig. 1 and Table 2); that is, only about 190 MWe per year were added
during the 2000–2005 period. Worldwide, the contribution of geothermal to the total electric-
ity generated is less than half of one percent; the world net electricity generation for 2003 was
Table 3
Main characteristics of the geothermal fields worldwide (early 2005)
Country Field Drilled area Type of Reservoir Reservoir Number of Number of Running
(km2 ) reservoir depth (m) temperature (◦ C) production reinjection capacity
wells wells (MWe )
China Yangbajain 4 Liquid 200 140–160 12 6 15

Costa Rica Miravalles 30–35 Liquid 1000–2000 240 32 20 163
El Salvador Ahuachapán 3–4 Liquid/steam 600–1500 230–240 19 5 63
El Salvador Berlı́n 2–3 Liquid 2000–2500 300 9 15 56
France Guadeloupe 4 Liquid 300–1100 250 6 n/a 15
Guatemala Amatitlán 6–9 Liquid/steam 1000–2000 300 4 n/a 5
R. Bertani / Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690

Guatemala Zunil I 4 Liquid 1500–2300 300 6 2 24
Guatemala Zunil II 8–10 Liquid/steam 800–1200 240 2 n/a 5
Iceland Krafla 5–6 Liquid 300–1200 190–210 20 2 60
1000–2000 240–340
Iceland Nesjavellir 6–8 Liquid 1000–2000 270–320 15 n/a 90
Iceland Svartsengi 6–8 Liquid/steam 1000–2000 240 10 1 46
Indonesia Darajat 10 Steam 2000 245 17 n/a 135
Indonesia Dieng 12 Liquid 1000–2000 280–330 25 n/a 60
Indonesia Kamojang 15–20 Steam 1400–1600 245 29 n/a 140
Indonesia Lahendong 4 Liquid 1000–2000 260–330 15 n/a 20
Indonesia Salak 20–25 Liquid 1000–2000 240–310 30 15 371
Indonesia Wayang Windu 30 Liquid 1000–2000 250–270 18 n/a 110
Italy Bagnore 5 Liquid 1000–3000 200–330 7 4 19
Italy Larderello 250 Steam 1000–4000 150–270 180 23 473
350
Italy Piancastagnaio 25 Liquid 1000–3000 200–300 19 11 60
Italy Travale 50 Steam 1000–4000 190–250 22 0 147
Radicondoli 350
Japan Kakkonda 6 Liquid/steam 500–1000 230–260 29 29 80
2500–3000 350–360
Japan Matsukawa 4 Steam 1000–1500 260 10 1 24
Japan Mori 6 Liquid 500–1500 230–250 10 9 50
2000–2500
Japan Ogiri 8 Liquid 1000–2000 260 11 6 30
Japan Onikobe 8 Liquid 500–1000 250 7 7 12
655
656
Table 3 (Continued )
Country Field Drilled area Type of Reservoir Reservoir Number of Number of Running
(km2 ) reservoir depth (m) temperature (◦ C) production reinjection capacity
wells wells (MWe )
Japan Otake 8–10 Liquid 1000–2500 240–300 20 13 122

Hatchobaru
Japan Sumikawa 5 Liquid 1500–2500 250 8 12 50
Japan Takigami 5 Liquid 2000 160–260 5 9 25
Japan Uenotai 9–10 Liquid 1000–2000 300–320 9 3 29
Japan Yanauzu 10 Liquid 1000–2600 270–320 19 2 65
Nishiyama

Kenya Olkaria E 5 Liquid 500–2000 250–300 26 0 45
Kenya Olkaria NE 9 Liquid 1800–2700 250–300 9 n/a 12
Kenya Olkaria W 12 Liquid 1000–2000 250–300 1 n/a 70
Mexico Cerro Prieto 150–200 Liquid 2800 300–340 149 9 720
Mexico Las Tres Vı́rgenes 30 Liquid 2100 280 4 2 10
Mexico Los Azufres 35 Liquid/steam 1600 150–200 29 6 188
2000–3000 280–300
Mexico Los Humeros 20 Liquid 1000–2000 290–320 17 2 35
New Zealand Kawerau 2 Liquid 1000–2000 240–300 6 2 14
New Zealand Mokai 12 Liquid 2000 270–320 4 3 51
New Zealand Ngawha 25 Liquid 600–2800 220–240 2 2 9
New Zealand Ohaaki 5–8 Liquid 1500–2500 230–280 24 n/a 96
New Zealand Rotokawa 25 Liquid 2000–2500 270–330 2 3 29
New Zealand Wairakei 15 Liquid/steam 1000–2000 160–260 60 n/a 204
Nicaragua Momotombo 4 Liquid 300–800 180–200 12 4 38
800–1700 200–240
1700–3000 240–300
Papua Lihir 3–5 Liquid/steam 300–1000 250–300 3 n/a 6
New Guinea
Philippines Bac-Man 25–30 Liquid 1000–2000 260–280 24 12 150
Philippines Mak-Ban 14 Liquid 900 345 72 21 402
3400
Philippines Mt. Apo 8 Liquid 500 240–280 16 4 108
1500
Philippines Palinpinon 15–20 Liquid 2000–3000 280–320 43 26 192
Philippines Tiwi 13 Liquid 900 320 43 16 263
2800
Philippines Tongonan 120–150 Liquid 1000–2000 260–300 75 26 723
2000–3000 300–320
Russia Mutnovsky 12–15 Liquid/steam 700–2500 240–300 17 4 62
Russia Pahuzhetka 1–2 Steam 300–800 180–210 7 n/a 11
Turkey Kizildere 4 Liquid 500–1000 240 15 2 17
USA-CA Casa Diablo 12 Liquid 200 160 8 5 27
USA-CA Coso 20 Liquid 500–3500 200–330 90 20 230
USA-CA East Mesa 24 Liquid 1500–2500 150–190 35 44 98
USA-CA Heber 5 Liquid 1200–1800 160–180 21 23 65
USA-CA Salton Sea 16 Liquid 1000–2500 290–310 31 26 336

USA-CA The Geysers 100 Steam 600–3000 300 424 43 888
USA-HI Puna 1–2 Liquid 2000 200–300 3 4 27
USA-NV Brady 10 Liquid 300–700 180 6 9 21
USA-NV Beowawe 3 Liquid 1000–2500 215 3 1 16
USA-NV Dixie Valley 5 Liquid 1800–2500 230 7 10 68
USA-NV Soda Lake 8 Liquid 500–1500 180 5 5 17
USA-NV Steamboat 5 Liquid 200–800 160 11 5 66
USA-NV Stillwater 16 Liquid 1000–1500 160 4 3 13
USA-UT Roosevelt 3 Liquid 500–2000 240–270 4 3 20
n/a: Data not available; this table includes only fields providing at least a few MW running capacity and for which some relevant data were available.
657
Fig. 1. Installed capacity and electricity generation 1995–2005.
15.8 million GWh/year (US Department of Energy source from website http://www.eia.doe.gov/
pub/international/iealf/table63.xls), while the geothermal generation was only 0.057 million
GWh/year.
Fig. 2 is a world map showing the countries that generate electricity using geothermal resources,
and their installed capacity in early 2005. Table 4 reports the changes in installed capacity during
the last 30 years, as well as the changes in electricity generation between 1995 and 2005.
The recent increases in oil prices and the predicted decline in oil reserves over the coming
years could lead to a boost in the amount of geothermal electricity produced. However, this will
be affordable only with appropriate government policies and regulations, and with some sort of
incentives to attract investors. The acceptance of the Kyoto Protocol by many countries might
also help the geothermal electricity market to achieve a 1% share in world electricity production
Fig. 2. Geothermoelectric installed capacity worldwide in early 2005.

Table 4
Variation in installed capacity over the last 30 years and in electricity generation over the last 10 years
Year Installed capacity (MWe ) Electricity generation (GWh/year)
1975 1300 n/a

1980 3887 n/a
1985 4764 n/a
1990 5832 n/a
1995 6832 38,035
2000 7972 49,261
2005 8933 56,786
n/a: Data not available.
by 2010. This is still a long way from fulfilling the world’s renewable energy target, but for the
next 5 years it is a reasonable objective with the technology currently available.
2. Geothermal power generation: activities during 2001–2005
This section highlights new geothermal projects worldwide that were initiated and completed
between 2000 and 2005. Plants that started-up after the year 2000, but are related to activities that
began earlier, have not been included. The new installed capacities are reported in Table 5. Plants
that are currently under construction for a total of 551 MWe are listed in Table 6.
It is also possible to estimate the short-term prospects for additional installed capacity, as
there are some geothermal projects needing only financing and final approval for plant con-
struction. Thus, it is realistic to expect an increase of at least 1300 MWe in installed capacity
worldwide before 2010. These projects (or areas) are: Deep Yangbajain field (China); Miravalles,
Rincón de la Vieja, Las Pailas, Borinquen (Costa Rica); San Vincente, Chinameca, Obrajuelo,
Cuyanausul (El Salvador); Langano (Ethiopia); Bouillante III (France, Guadeloupe); Amatitlán,
Zunil (Guatemala); Hellisheidi, Reykjanes (Iceland); Darajat, Lahendong, Kamojang (Indone-
sia); Larderello, Travale, Bagnore (Italy); Olkaria (Kenya); Los Humeros, La Primavera (Mex-
ico); Wairakei (New Zealand); San Jacinto-Tizate (Nicaragua); Northern Negros (Philippines);
Terceira (Azores, Portugal); Kamchatka-Mutnovsky, Kuril Islands (Russia); Glass Mountain,
Table 5
Geothermal power plants that came on line during the 2000–2005 period
Country New project completed in 2000–2005 MWe
Costa Rica Miravalles V 18

France Guadeloupe-La Bouillante II 10
Iceland Nesjavellir 30
Indonesia Sulawesi-Lahendong 20
Italy Larderello, Travale, Bagnore 250
Kenya Olkaria II & III and Oserian 86
Mexico Los Azufres and Las Tres Vı́rgenes 110
Nicaragua Momotombo 7
Papua-New Guinea Lihir 6
Philippines Leyte-Tongonan 22
Russia Kamchatka – Mutnovsky 50
USA Salton Sea V 60
Total 669
Table 6
Geothermal power plants under construction in early 2005
Country Geothermal field/power plant Installed capacity (MWe )
El Salvador Berlı́n III 40

Guatemala Amatitlán Hybrid Plant 20
Iceland Nesjavellir, Hellisheidi and Reykjanes 210
Italy Larderello 60
Mexico La Primavera 50
New Zealand Wairakei, Rotokawa and Mokai 55
Nicaragua San Jacinto-Tizate 10
Papua New Guinea Lihir 30
Philippines Palinpinon 20
Portugal Azores-Pico Vermelho 16
Russia Kamchatka, Mutnovsky and Pauzhetka 40
Total 551
Fig. 3. Predicted increase in installed capacity worldwide to 2010.
Salton Sea (California), Steamboat, Desert Peak (Nevada), and Cove Fort – Sulphurdale (Utah)
(USA).
Considering these short-term prospects (at least 1300 MWe more) and the plants already under
construction or likely to be installed (additional 551 MWe ), the forecast for installed capacity for
2010 is approximately 10,800 MWe (Fig. 3).
3. Geothermal power generation: country reports
The paragraphs that follow describe the situation in each country currently producing electric
energy from geothermal resources, along with the relevant data. Tables and figures are provided
only for countries or, in the case of the USA, states, with more than 200 MWe installed.
3.1. Australia
At the moment only one unit is generating electric power from geothermal resources, the
150-kWe binary cycle plant at Birdsville, southwest Queensland (Chopra, 2005).
The electricity demand for the small town of Birdsville follows a familiar seasonal pattern with
highest demand in the hot summer months when air-conditioning is used extensively (250 kW)
and relatively low demand in winter (120 kW). The geothermal power plant, with a nominal power
rating of 150 kWe, supplies the base load, using 98 ◦ C fluid from a 1200 m deep well. The plant,
installed in 1992, was upgraded and refurbished in 1999 and is currently in operation.
Australia has also conducted research on Hot Dry Rock (HDR) technology. The most advanced
project is in the Cooper Basin region of northeastern South Australia, where two wells have already
been completed, for a total drilled depth of 6 km, and a third is scheduled to reach 4 km depth. So
far, downhole measured temperatures are 248 ◦ C, but stabilized conditions have not been reached
yet.
The Mandatory Renewable Electricity Target (MRET) Scheme introduced in 2001 requires
that, by 2010, approximately 2% of Australia’s annual electricity needs should be supplied by
renewable energy resources. Geothermal energy and, in particular, HDR technology are expected
to contribute to these goals.
3.2. Austria
Geothermal research is fairly active in Austria, but focused mainly on tapping low-temperature
geothermal waters for use in balneology. Two small binary plants have been installed, at Altheim
(in the north-west) and Blumau (in the south-east) (Goldbrunner, 2005).
Altheim is an excellent example of a successful geothermal exploration and exploitation project
by a small (5000 inhabitants) community. A production/reinjection doublet with bottomhole at
2500 m depth produces fluid at a wellhead temperature of 105 ◦ C. The fluid is utilized both for dis-
trict heating and for electricity generation, in an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) plant. The net out-
put is 500 kWe, after accounting for the 350 kWe parasitic load, mainly for the submersible pump.
The Blumau project taps the hottest geothermal water in Austria so far: 110 ◦ C at 2000–3000 m
depth. It is used to heat a spa facility and to generate electricity in a 180 kWe net output ORC
plant that has been in service since 2001.
3.3. China
Geothermal exploration effectively began in China in the early 1970s. During the socialist
economy, geothermal exploration was managed by government entities using public funds. Pro-
ductive wells were transferred free-of-charge to the final user. Since the mid-80s, as a result
of privatization and liberalization of the economy, there has been a steady decrease in national
investment in geothermal exploration. No new plants were commissioned in the period 2000–2005
(Battocletti and Zheng, 2000; Zheng et al., 2005). The only fields used for electricity generation
are those in Tibet.
The most important of the Tibetan fields is Yangbajain, with eight double-flash units for a total
capacity of 24 MWe ; 18 wells with an average depth of 200 m tap a shallow, water-dominated
140–160 ◦ C reservoir. The field covers an area of only 4 km2 , although there are clear indications
that the thermal anomaly is spread over 15 km2 . The annual energy production is approximately
95 GWh, about 30% of the needs of the Tibetan capital, Lhasa.
A deeper, high temperature reservoir has been discovered at Yangbajain, but has not yet been
exploited. A 2500 m deep well was drilled in 2004, reaching the deep reservoir at 1000–1300 m;
temperatures in the 250–330 ◦ C range have been measured at 1500–1800 m depth. The total
potential for Yangbajain is estimated at about 50–90 MWe .
A total of 80 geothermal wells have been drilled in Tibet for electricity production, to an accu-
mulated drilling depth of 20 km. Additional plants have been installed in Langju, western Tibet
(two 1 MWe double-flash units) and a 1 MWe binary power station (using brine at inlet temperature
of 110 ◦ C) in Nagqu. Two small 300 kWe plants are operating in Guangdong and Hunan.
In Taiwan, a 3 MWe single-flash unit went online in the Qingshui field in 1981 (the reservoir
is shallow, less than 500 m depth, with 150–220 ◦ C temperatures). A 300-kWe binary unit (Tu
Chang) was installed in the same field, exploiting fluid with a maximum temperature of 170 ◦ C.
In 1994 both plants stopped operations.
3.4. Costa Rica
The only operational field in Costa Rica is Miravalles, which extends over a 20 km2 area. The
reservoir, at 1000–2000 m depth, is water-dominated and has a temperature of 240 ◦ C (Mainieri
and Robles, 1995). The first plant (single-flash, 55 MWe ) came on line in 1994 followed by a
small 5 MWe wellhead back-pressure unit and a second single-flash 55 MWe unit (Miravalles II)
in 1998. In 2000, Miravalles III (single-flash 29.5 MWe ) and in 2003 the binary unit Miravalles
V (18 MWe ) brought the total installed generating capacity in the field to 162.5 MWe . The total
electricity generated in 2003 was 1145 GWh/year (Mainieri, 2003, 2005). The project uses 52
deep wells (32 for production and the remainder for gravity reinjection).
The binary unit Miravalles V has been the major improvement since WGC2000. This plant
exploits the heat from the separated brine on the reinjection streamline.
At present, the geothermal installed capacity represents 8.4% of the country’s total, and 15.1%
of the electricity produced. To date, 131 geothermal wells have been drilled in Costa Rica, to a
total drilled depth of 124 km.
There are plans to extend the Miravalles field further eastwards. Recently, well PGM-55, drilled
to 1.5 km depth, identified a new high-permeability productive zone, hydraulically connected with
the reservoir presently under exploitation. The potential of this well is estimated at 4 MWe . Since
it is located near a protected natural area (virgin rain forest), directional drilling will be required
in future for environmental reasons. This will be the first time in Costa Rica that multiple wells
are drilled from the same drilling pad.
Geothermal energy is the second most important contributor to electricity generation in Costa
Rica; it is of strategic economic importance, because of this country’s strong dependence on
imported oil for the thermal plants. Although these plants represent 17% of the total installed
capacity, they contribute only 2% of the electricity produced annually. With such important
geothermal (and hydroelectrical) resources available, it is possible to operate the oil-burning
plants as reserve units.
In the northern part of the country, near the Nicaraguan border, a second geothermal area, near
the Rincón de la Vieja volcano, will be exploited in the near future. On the southern slope of the
volcano, in the Las Pailas field, five exploration wells were drilled in 2001–2002. The proven
resource, associated with the 250 ◦ C reservoir, is estimated at 18 MWe , with possible expansion
up to 35 MWe . On the northwestern slope of the Rincón de la Vieja volcano, in the Borinquen field,
the first of four planned exploratory wells is being drilled. Preliminary results have confirmed the
presence of an important thermal anomaly.
Fig. 4. Location of the geothermal fields, power plants and volcanoes in El Salvador (from Rodrı́guez and Herrera, 2005).
3.5. El Salvador
Electricity has been generated from geothermal resources in El Salvador since 1975 (Rodrı́guez
and Herrera, 2005). In the competitive energy market adopted in this country, geothermal elec-
tricity supplies 22% of the national requirements, with a production in 2003 of 967 GWh. There
are two major geothermal fields, Ahuachapán and Berlı́n (Fig. 4).
The Ahuachapán field has been exploited since 1975, with three condensing units: two 30 MWe
single-flash and one 35 MWe double-flash; because of reservoir decline, only two of the three
units are currently in operation. A project for reaching the full capacity of the units (Ahuachapán
optimization) is under way. The 230–240 ◦ C reservoir is at shallow depth (600–1500 m). There
are 19 production and five reinjection wells over 3–4 km2 area. In 2004, total reinjection of all the
produced fluid was achieved; they are reinjected at Chipilapa, 6 km from the Ahuachapán area.
The former policy of sending the cooled geothermal fluids to the ocean through a canal has now
been abandoned. The possibility of utilizing the residual heat through a 3.5 MWe binary plant is
being investigated, with plans to begin operations in 2006.
The Berlı́n field was explored in the 1970s but because of civil unrest commercial operation did
not begin until 1992, when two 5 MWe wellhead units came on line. They were decommissioned in
1999 and two 28 MWe single-flash units were installed. The 300 ◦ C reservoir is at approximately
2000–2500 m depth. There are 9 production and 15 reinjection wells in the field. An extensive
upgrading, aimed at the installation of an additional 40 MWe , is currently scheduled. The first
four wells for this project have already been drilled, near the southern border of the reservoir. The
presently exploited area is quite small, only 2–3 km2 . An additional 6.5 MWe binary unit is under
evaluation.
Projects are on-going in other geothermal areas of the country: in Cuyanausul, near the Chipi-
lapa reinjection field, an exploratory well is being drilled. Should the estimates of field potential
Fig. 5. First regional electricity grid: the SIEPAC (Sistema Eléctrico para América Central) line (from Lippmann, 2003).
be confirmed, one or two 5 MWe back-pressure units might be installed. Further concessions have
been released for exploration in San Vincente, Chinameca and Obrajuelo. The overall potential
of these fields could be around 100 MWe .
In 2002, the Salvadoran and Honduran electricity grids were interconnected via a 230 kV
transmission line. This is the final link of the Central America grid: now power can be traded from
Panama to Guatemala within the Regional Electricity Market (MER) (de la Torre, 2002; Lippmann,
2003). The new regional SIEPAC (Sistema Eléctrico para América Central) transmission line with
a transfer capacity of 300 MW (Fig. 5) is expected to be operative during the first half of 2008.
3.6. Ethiopia
Aluto-Langano is the only geothermal area currently exploited for electricity production in
Ethiopia. It is located on the floor of the Ethiopian Rift Valley, about 200 km southeast of Addis
Ababa. Eight deep wells (maximum depth of about 2500 m) have been drilled in the field, four of
them productive (Teklemariam and Beyene, 2005). The maximum reservoir temperature is about
350 ◦ C. The potential of the field has been evaluated at up to 30 MWe for 30 years.
A 7.3 MWe binary geothermal plant was installed in 1999. It is not fully functional because of
a lack of operational experience. The 5-year plan of the government includes the rehabilitation of
the plant, and the possible installation of an additional 20 MWe unit if financial support becomes
available.
In the Tendaho field, in the Northern Afar, three deep (2100 m) wells found temperatures above
270 ◦ C.
3.7. France
At present, the only geothermal power production in France is that taking place in the French
Overseas Department, at La Bouillante on the island of Guadeloupe. The old Bouillante-1 double-
flash power plant is still operating after its rehabilitation in 1995–1996; an 11 MWe power plant
(Bouillante-2) came on line in 2004, bringing the total capacity at the field to 15 MWe (Laplaige
et al., 2005), with a production in 2004 of 102 GWh. Three new production wells were drilled
for Bouillante-2 (single-flash, 10 MWe plant). The project for Bouillante-3 is currently in its pre-
feasibility phase. After the installation of the third unit, geothermal electricity should cover nearly
20% of the electricity needs of the island.
Geothermal exploration programmes are planned for the near future on the islands of Mar-
tinique and La Réunion, in the French Antilles.
The HDR project at Soultz-sous-Forêts, in Alsace, is now in the scientific pilot plant module
construction. The enhanced geothermal system, based on a three-well system in granite at a depth
of 5000 m, is expected to go into operation during 2006.
3.8. Germany
The first geothermal power plant in Germany, at Neustadt-Glewe, has been online since 2003
(Schellschmidt et al., 2005). It has an installed capacity of about 230 kWe using an Organic Rank-
ine Cycle. In addition, 10.7 MWt are used for district and space heating. The energy production
of 1.5 GWh/year will provide 500 households with electric power. The plant uses a flow rate of
100 m3 /h at a temperature of 98 ◦ C; at the end of the cycle the water is cooled to 72 ◦ C.
Currently six new installations for power generation are being planned: Groß Schönebeck, Bad
Urach, Offenbach, Speyer, Bruchsal and Unterhaching.
3.9. Guatemala
Geothermal exploration began in Guatemala in 1972, but commercial exploitation only started
in 1998, at Zunil. This area has two geothermal fields located close together, Zunil I and II. Despite
their proximity, they have separate reservoirs with different heat and fluid sources.
Zunil I, located on the border of the Quetzaltenango caldera west of Guatemala City, has
temperatures of 300 ◦ C at 1500–2300 m depth. There are seven binary units with a total installed
capacity of 28 MWe (24 MWe running capacity). The research and development project for Zunil
I was completed recently with the installation of a reinjection facility. There are nine producing
and four reinjection wells in this field, with six production and two injection wells currently
operative.
At Zunil II a small steam cap linked to a deep hot aquifer has been discovered at shallow
depth. Its potential has been estimated at up to 50 MWe . A development project was launched
in 2003, with the drilling of two production wells and one for reinjection. In the near future,
a long-term test will be performed to evaluate the reservoir and its possible decline with fluid
production.
The other Guatemalan field, at Amatitlán, also came online in 1998. An old 5 MWe back-
pressure unit is still in operation. Following the first four deep exploratory wells (two of them
producing steam), two new wells have been successfully drilled in order to define the extension
of the geothermal anomaly. As a result of a positive field assessment, a project has been initiated
to increase the installed capacity gradually with modular binary units totaling up to 50 MWe over
the next 5 years. A 20.5 MWe hybrid power plant is currently under construction at Amatitlán
and is expected to go online in 2005 (Lima Lobato et al., 2003; Roldán Manzo, 2005).
In 2003, the total geothermal power production in Guatemala amounted to 212 GWh/year.
The developments at Zunil and Amatitlán are supported by the new renewable energy law
(2004), which provides a series of tax exemptions for renewable energy projects. The government’s
commitment to renewables has also been confirmed in a 4-year geothermal development program,
signed in 2003.
Geothermal exploration is under way in other parts of the country: Tecaumburro, San Marcos,
Moyuta, and Totonicapán, but no drilling has been carried out as yet.
3.10. Iceland
Fig. 6 shows the location of the geothermal areas in Iceland and the fields are listed in Table 7.
Geothermal electricity generation has increased significantly in Iceland since 1999, with the
installation of new plants at Nesjavellir and Husavik; at present the total installed capacity in
Iceland is 202 MWe . An additional 30 MWe single-flash unit at Nesjavellir is at an advanced
stage of construction (Gunnlaugsson, 2002; Ragnarsson, 2005). Two other geothermal power
Fig. 6. Location of the geothermal fields in Iceland (from Ragnarsson, 2005).

Table 7
Geothermal fields in Iceland
Field Installed capacity (MWe )a Number of unitsa Annual electricity
production (GWh/year)b
Nesjavellir 90 3 692
Krafla 60 2 401
Svartsengi 46 11 368
Namafjall 3.2 1 12
Husavik 2 1 9
Reykjanes 0.5 1 1
Total 202 19 1483
a Early 2005 data.
b 2004 data.
plants are currently under construction, at Hellisheidi and Reykjanes. Their combined installed
capacity will be about 180 MWe , which will almost double Iceland’s total.
At Krafla, in the northern part of the country, there are two 30 MWe double-flash units.
The geothermal projects at Svartsengi and Nesjavellir include power plants with an installed
capacity of 46 and 90 MWe , respectively, and the transmission of hot waters to the Reykjavik
and Hitaveita Sudurnesja district heating systems. Hellisheidi, a new field that is part of the
large Hengill geothermal area in the southwestern part of the country, is currently under explo-
ration, with plans to install 80 MWe and increase the amount of hot water supplied to the city of
Reykjavik.
There has been a great deal of drilling activity in Iceland over the last 5 years; 39 new wells
have been completed, reaching a total drilled depth of 55 km.
3.11. Indonesia
Despite the huge geothermal potential of Indonesia there has been relatively little development
during the 2000–2005 period, mainly because of a severe economic crisis that has adversely
affected power demand and growth (Ibrahim et al., 2005). Currently, the 797 MWe of installed
geothermal capacity from the fields listed in Table 8 and shown in Fig. 7 are being fully utilized.
Note that the total running capacity for the country is 838 MWe .
Table 8
Geothermal fields in Indonesia (early 2005 data)
Field Location Installed capacity (MWe ) Number of units Annual electricity
production (GWh/year)a
Gunung Salak Java 330 6 n/a

Kamojang Java 140 3 n/a
Darajat Java 135 2 n/a
Wayang Windu Java 110 1 n/a
Dieng Java 60 1 n/a
Lahendong Sulawesi 20 1 n/a
Sibayak Sumatra 2 1 n/a
Total 797 15 6085
a The only data available are for total production referred to late 2004 (Ibrahim et al., 2005).
Fig. 7. Location of the geothermal fields in Indonesia (from Sudarman et al., 2000, modified).
The 20 MWe geothermal unit at Lahendong is the only one that has been installed in Indonesia
after 2000 (it came online in 2002), but the situation may change in the future. An investment
plan for a new 100 MWe unit at Darajat was approved in 2004. A tender has been launched for an
additional 20 MWe at Lahendong. There are also plans to expand Kamojang by a further 60 MWe ,
but it has not yet been ratified.
3.12. Italy
One of the major events of the period 2000–2005 was the centennial celebration of the first
successful experiment in producing geothermal electricity, which took place in Larderello in 1904.
The first commercial power plant in that field was put into operation in 1913 (250 kWe); since
then, geothermal power generation in Italy has increased steadily to the current 791 MWe installed
capacity (699 MWe running capacity). Electricity generation reached a historical maximum of
5340 GWh in 2003, as shown in Fig. 8 (Cappetti et al., 2000; Cappetti and Ceppatelli, 2005). The
geothermal fields in Italy are listed in Table 9 and their location shown in Fig. 9. The two major
fields are those of Larderello-Travale/Radicondoli and Mt. Amiata.
Ten new power plants (254 MWe installed capacity) have been commissioned and put online
at Larderello-Travale/Radicondoli during the last 5 years, to replace old and obsolete units and
to develop a deeper reservoir that was found in the old shallow fields. A deep exploration pro-
gram has also been launched, which includes a 3D seismic survey and 11 deep (3000–4000 m)
wells. A total of 21 wells for a total depth of 64 km have been drilled between 2000 and
2005.
Fig. 8. A century of electric power production in Italy (from Cappetti and Ceppatelli, 2005).
Table 9
Geothermal fields in Italy
Location Installed capacity Number of Annual electricity
(MWe )a unitsa production (GWh/year)b
Larderello 543 21 3606

Travale-Radicondoli 160 6 1109
Mt. Amiata (Bagnore and Piancastagnaio) 88 5 625
Total 791 32 5340
a Early 2005 data.
b 2003 data.
Fig. 9. Location of the regions containing the geothermal plants in Italy (from Cappetti and Ceppatelli, 2005).
The adjacent Larderello and Travale/Radicondoli areas are part of the same deep field that
extends over a large (approximately 400 km2 ) area. The deep super-heated steam reservoir has
the same temperature (300–350 ◦ C) and pressure (4–7 MPa) throughout the field (Bertani et al.,
2005).
The exploited area at Larderello covers 250 km2 , with 180 wells and 21 units totaling
543 MWe installed capacity; the Travale/Radicondoli area (50 km2 ) has 22 wells, which send
steam to six units totaling 160 MWe installed capacity. The condensed water from Travale
is carried through a 20 km-long pipeline to the center of the Larderello field, where it is
reinjected.
Sixty additional MWe are under construction (Nuova Larderello 3 and Nuova San Martino).
The Mt. Amiata area comprises two water-dominated geothermal fields, Piancastagnaio and
Bagnore. In the 1980s, a deep reservoir was discovered in both fields, under the shallow geothermal
reservoir being exploited at that time. The deep resource is characterized by 20 MPa, 300–350 ◦ C
water (at 3000 m). Objections on the part of the local communities have delayed the development
of this deep system of high potential.
At present, there are five units with a total of 88 MWe installed capacity at Mt. Amiata, one
in Bagnore and four in Piancastagnaio. A 20 MWe unit that had been online since 1987 was
decommissioned in 2000.
In 2003, the 40 MWe geothermal plant at Latera was closed because of environmental and
technical problems, so this field is no longer under exploitation.
Liberalization of the electricity market has been completed in Italy: the incentive scheme for
renewables (Green Certificates) should lead to further exploration for, and development of, deep-
seated geothermal resources. On the basis of the positive results achieved so far, some 100 MWe
are expected to be installed in Italy within the next 5 years.
3.13. Japan
Seventeen geothermal power plants are in operation in Japan, most of which are located in the
Tohoku and Kyushu districts (Fig. 10); the total installed capacity amounts to 535 MWe (Kawazoe
and Combs, 2004; Kawazoe and Shirakura, 2005). The geothermal locations in Japan are listed
in Table 10.
Table 10
Geothermal fields in Japan
Location (Prefecture) Installed capacity Number of Annual electricity
Oita 153 7 1108

Iwate 104 3 643
Akita 88 3 619
Fukushima 65 1 400
Kagoshima 60 2 416
Hokkaido 50 1 185
Miyagi 12 1 81
Tokyo 3.3 1 15
Total 535 19 3467
a Early 2005 data.
b 2003 data.
Fig. 10. Location of the geothermal plants in Japan (Kawazoe and Shirakura, 2005, modified), showing the prefectures
to which they belong (see Table 10).
As a result of a lack of financial support and of favorable regulations, there have been no
major geothermal developments in recent years. Only a small 2 MWe binary unit was set up at the
Hatchobaru geothermal power station in February 2004: this is the first binary-cycle geothermal
power plant in Japan. On the other hand, during 2000–2005 there has been significant drilling
activity, with 41 geothermal wells totaling 74 km of drilled depth, equally distributed over the
exploration, production and reinjection sectors.
Deregulation of the Japanese power generation market started in 2000. As a consequence,
electric power companies changed their investment policy as regards the development of new
power plants. This process, in addition to a drastic reduction in the commitment of the New Energy
and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) to geothermal, was responsible for
the hold-up in geothermal development in Japan in recent years. The recent renewable portfolio
standard (RPS) system promulgated in 2003 may be a useful tool for attracting private investment
in geothermal energy. It should be noted that only binary-cycle geothermal plants are covered by
the RPS.
Within this context, the development of small-scale geothermal fields is the new trend. In
2004, NEDO launched its Geothermal Development Promotion Surveys, based on the concept
of “local energy for local areas”. Three new target areas were carefully selected, based on eco-
nomic and social aspects, as well as the estimated potential for installing binary power plants of
10 MWe or less. Although these plants will be relatively small, this program may lead to further
utilization of geothermal energy. The results of the surveys will be evaluated by the end of March
2006.
A strategy has recently been proposed by the Ministry for Education, Culture, Sports, Science
and Technology (MEXT) for developing Japanese geothermal resources in a way that is consistent
with global environmental expectations for the 21st century: the so-called “EIMY, or Energy In
My Yard”. The idea is that local energy requirements should be met by an optimum combination
of local renewable sources. Shortfalls and surpluses would be accommodated through interface
with the national electricity grid (Niitsuma and Nakata, 2003).
These integrated renewable energy systems offer considerable advantage over independent uti-
lization of renewable resources. In rural areas of Japan, such systems could reduce CO2 emissions
and energy costs. Geothermal energy will play a key role in these EIMY systems. Heat pumps are
of primary importance, together with other geothermal technologies such as reinjection, HDR,
“Hot Wet Rock”(HWR), and binary systems. This innovative concept is expected to give a wel-
come boost to geothermal power generation, as it will obviate many problems with local permits
and encourage local acceptance of the small-scale installations involved.
3.14. Kenya
Geothermal electricity generation capacity in Kenya has increased by 84 MWe since 2000.
Olkaria is the only geothermal field developed to date. Exploitation has grown from 45 in 1999
to 129 MWe in 2004, a 186% increase (Mwangi, 2005). The production in 2003 was 1088 GWh.
The Olkaria geothermal system is located in the East Africa Rift valley about 120 km northwest
of Nairobi. The greater geothermal anomaly covers 80 km2 ; only three sectors (east, west and
north-east) are being exploited at this time.
In the Olkaria East field, the three 15 MWe turbo-generating units of the Olkaria I power
plant have been online for the last 23 years. The first of the 33 drilled wells were shallow
(<1200 m); subsequent deeper wells assessed the resources down to 2500 m. Five percent of the
waste brine is reinjected hot and 20% cold back into the reservoir; the rest evaporates in an open-air
pond.
In the Olkaria North-East field, the two 35 MWe units of Olkaria II geothermal power plant
were commissioned in 2003. This new plant has a lower specific steam consumption (7.5 t/h/MW)
than the Olkaria I plant (9.2 t/h/MW).
A private geothermal company is the developer of the Olkaria West area (Olkaria III). It drilled
nine wells to depths of 1800–2800 m. Currently some of the geothermal fluids are being utilized
in three 4 MWe binary units.
In 2005, the Olkaria IV project received financial support for appraisal drilling.
A minor project, with a 1.8 MWe binary plant, was commissioned for North-West Olkaria by
a flower-growing company in September 2004.
The overall geothermal potential of Kenya is large and has indeed been evaluated at as much
as 2000 MWe . Many projects have already been defined and funding sought. The Kenyan Gov-
ernment has proposed the creation of a special geothermal development company (GDC), with
mandate to explore and sell geothermal energy for electricity generation and other uses. Risks
associated with geothermal exploration will be covered by the Kenyan government. These policies
may lead to private investments in developing Kenyan geothermal resources.
Table 11
Geothermal fields in Mexico
Location Installed capacity Number of Annual electricity
Cerro Prieto 720 13 5112

Los Azufres 188 14 852
Los Humeros 35 7 285
Las Tres Vı́rgenes 10 2 33
Total 953 36 6282
a Early 2005 data.
b 2003 data.
3.15. Mexico
Currently there are four geothermal fields in production in Mexico: Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres,
Los Humeros and Las Tres Vı́rgenes (Gutiérrez-Negrı́n and Quijano-León, 2005). The total
installed geothermal capacity in the country is 953 MWe (Fig. 11 and Table 11).
Mexico is one of the leading countries in geothermal development for electricity production.
Since 2000, eight new single-flash units went online: four at Cerro Prieto (100 MWe ), four at
Los Azufres (100 MWe ) and 10 MWe in Las Tres Virgines, a new field that has started pro-
duction recently. Further installations are planned at Los Humeros (50 MWe ) and La Primavera
(75 MWe ).
Fig. 11. Location of the geothermal fields in Mexico (from Gutiérrez-Negrı́n and Quijano-León, 2005).
The Cerro Prieto field is located near the Mexico-USA (California) border. Currently, com-
mercial exploitation, which started in 1973, has reached an installed capacity of 720 MWe (four
110 MWe units, four 37.5 MWe , four 25 MWe and one 30 MWe unit), all of them of the condens-
ing type. There are 149 production wells in operation. The waste brine is discharged into a 14 km2
solar evaporation pond; part of it is injected back underground through nine injection wells. The
four 25 MWe units of the Cerro Prieto IV plant came on line in 2000.
The Los Azufres geothermal field is located in the central part of Mexico, 250 km west of
Mexico City, with 14 power units of diverse type (condensing, back-pressure, binary cycle) and
capacities varying from 1.5 to 50 MWe ; present total installed capacity is 188 MWe , with 29
production and six reinjection wells. In 2003, four 25 MWe units went online.
Los Humeros, located in the central-eastern part of Mexico, has an installed capacity of 35 MWe
(seven 5 MWe back-pressure units) and 17 production wells. All the separated brine is injected
back into the reservoir through two injection wells. Two new units for an additional 50 MWe are
scheduled to be installed in 2008.
The Las Tres Vı́rgenes geothermal field is in the middle of the Baja California Peninsula. Two
production wells feed two 5 MWe condensing units.
At La Primavera, near Guadalajara, there are plans to install 50 MWe in 2008 and another
25 MWe in 2009.
Fifty-nine geothermal wells were drilled in Mexico between 2000 and 2003, for a total depth
of 150 km.
3.16. New Zealand
In the 2000–2004 period three new plants came under construction or were completed: (i) start
of construction of a 15 MWe binary plant at Wairakei; (ii) commissioning of an additional 6 MWe
at Rotokawa; (iii) start of construction of a further 30 MWe at Mokai. Table 12 summarizes the
status of the New Zealand geothermal fields. All but one of them (Ngawha) are located in the
Lake Taupo area, as shown in Fig. 12 (Dunstall, 2005).
The Wairakei-Poihipi field has been in continuous operation for close to 50 years, showing a
stabilized decline. The most recent installation of the 55 MWe Poihipi plant is exploiting the steam
cap that formed as a consequence of the exploitation of the liquid-dominated reservoir beneath.
The Mokai field, which started commercial fluid production in 2000, is a unique example
of a geothermal resource fully owned by a local community, the Maori Trust, and operated via
Table 12
Geothermal fields in New Zealand
Field Installed capacity Number of Annual electricity
Wairakei-Poihipi 220 11 1505

Ohaaki 105 4 300
Mokai 55 7 470
Rotokawa 31 5 290
Kawerau 14 4 130
Ngawha 10 2 79
Total 435 33 2774
a Early 2005 data.
b 2004 data.
Fig. 12. Location of the geothermal fields in New Zealand (from http://www.eeca.govt.nz/programmes/renewable/, mod-
ified).
a state-owned enterprise. This is a key element for the local acceptance of geothermal energy
development. Another 40 MWe of capacity are currently under construction at Mokai.
The total installed capacity in New Zealand in early 2005 was 435 MWe , with a running
capacity of 403 MWe .
3.17. Nicaragua
Despite Nicaragua’s very large geothermal potential, in the order of a thousand MWe , the only
exploited area by the end of 2004 was Momotombo field, which has been in operation since 1983.
Recently, the project has been rehabilitated, including the installation of a 7.5 MWe binary unit.
The running capacity increased from 12 MWe in 1999 to the present 38 MWe ; the total installed
capacity at the field is 77.5 MWe (Zuniga, 2005), with a production in 2004 of 271 GWh.
Four reinjection wells have been drilled at Momotombo, stabilizing production from the current
12 producing wells. There are plans to achieve full production by drilling new deep wells and
expanding exploitation of the deep part of the reservoir (at 1700–3000 m depth), because the
shallow production zone is affected by lake water infiltration, with consequent severe cooling
effects.
Two 5-MWe back-pressure units are currently being installed at the nearby San Jacinto-Tizate
field, where seven exploration wells (between 700 and 2200 m deep) encountered temperatures
from 264 to 289 ◦ C; these units are expected to be operational in early 2006, with planned expan-
sion to a total of 66 MWe over the next few years.
Ratification of the new geothermal law and energy policies should help to attract local and
foreign private investment in geothermal projects. The economic development of the entire Central
American region should also improve when the SIEPAC transmission line begins operation.
3.18. Papua New Guinea
Geothermal power development is focused on the tiny Lihir Island, located about 700 km
northeast of Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea’s capital, where there is the unique combination of
a significant geothermal resource, a gold mining operation, and an isolated location (Booth and
Bixley, 2005).
Hot (250 ◦ C) water from 1000 m depth, from large-diameter wells used to dewater the mines
and regular geothermal wells, will be used in the geothermal project. A 6 MWe back-pressure
plant was commissioned in 2003 and began generating electricity in 2004. The new plant is a
substitute for diesel generation, with fuel cost savings of US$ 2,000,000 per annum. An additional
30 MWe geothermal power project was commissioned in 2005.
3.19. Philippines
The Philippines is the world’s second largest producer of geothermal energy for power genera-
tion, with an installed capacity of 1930 MWe and a running capacity of 1838 MWe . The geothermal
fields are listed in Table 13 and their location shown in Fig. 13. In the last 5 years, the total installed
Table 13
Geothermal fields in the Philippines
Field Location Installed capacity Number of Annual electricity
(MWe )a unitsa produced (GWh/year)b
Tongonan Leyte 723 21 4746

Mak-Ban Luzon 426 16 1538
Tiwi Luzon 330 6 442
Palinpinon Negros 192 7 1257
Bac-Man Luzon 151 5 457
Mt. Apo Mindanao 108 2 813
Total 1930 57 9253
a Early 2005 data.
b 2003 data.
Fig. 13. Location of the geothermal fields in Philippines (from Benito et al., 2005, modified).
capacity has shown only a slight increase (i.e. 22 MWe at Tongonan). Drilling activity mainly
consisted of 28 wells, totaling 63 km of drilled depth (Benito et al., 2005).
Running capacity at Tiwi has been de-rated from 330 to 263 MWe because of decommissioning
of an old plant. A minimum value of 232 MWe is expected in 2005.
Mak-Ban has been in commercial production since 1979, despite its small surface area
(∼14 km2 ). Recharge from the extensive surrounding aquifer has played a key role in its sus-
tainable development over such a long productive lifetime. Make-up wells have been drilled, with
10 new wells completed in the deep reservoir (2800 m). Running capacity will reach 402 MWe
once the current rehabilitation activities have been completed.
Tongonan and the adjacent geothermal fields on the island of Leyte are the most important
geothermal project in the Philippines, with 723 MWe of installed capacity. Drilling of make-up
and replacement wells, well workovers, and solving corrosion, erosion and scaling problems have
all contributed to sustaining high levels of power generation, with 4746 GWh produced in 2003.
Palinpinon has a total installed capacity of 192 MWe , and has been in operation since 1983.
There is an expansion project for an additional 20 MWe that is scheduled for completion in
2006.
Bac-Man has been in operation since 1993 without substantial modifications or additions.
Mechanical problems have affected the operating life of its unit I (55 MWe ).
Mt. Apo is the sixth Filipino operating geothermal field; its total installed capacity amounts to
108 MWe . The most recent addition is a second unit in 1999 (Mindanao II, 54 MWe ). A project
for another 20 MWe is currently under evaluation.
New areas are under study, the most promising of which is in Northern Negros, where a
feasibility study for 40 MWe has already been performed; development is expected to begin in
2006.
3.20. Portugal
The geothermal resources of the largest and most populous Portuguese island of the Azores,
São Miguel, are utilized for electric power generation. The high-enthalpy resource is exploited
in the Ribeira Grande plant, where four binary units were installed in 1998. On the same island,
another geothermal project is being developed at Pico Vermelho. A 10 MWe binary unit will
replace an old 3 MWe unit. The total geothermal capacity, currently at 16 MWe , will represent
38% of the electric energy produced on São Miguel. In addition, a 12 MWe plant project is under
way on the island of Terceira.
The installed electricity generation capacity on the Azores is expected to double by 2009, with
45% coming from geothermal sources (Bicudo da Ponte, 2002; Carvalho et al., 2005).
3.21. Russia
The high-enthalpy fields under exploitation at present in Russia are located in Kamchatka
and on the Kurili islands (Kononov and Povarov, 2005). On the Kamchatka peninsula several
geothermal power plants are in operation, with installed capacities of 12 and 50 MWe at Mutnovsky
and 11 MWe at Pauzhetsky (Fig. 14). On the Kurili islands of Kunashir and Iturup, two small units
of 2.6 and 3.4 MWe are in operation. Thus, the present total installed capacity in the far eastern
part of Russia is 79 MWe .
The increase in capacity over the last 5 years is a result of the installation of a 50 MWe single-
flash power plant at Mutnovsky in 2002; at present a 100 MWe unit is under consideration, as
well as a small binary unit.
The high-temperature North Mutnovsky field is the primary target for electric power production
at Kamchatka. Eighty-two wells in the 200–2000 m depth range have been drilled. A shallow
vapor-dominated reservoir was found at 700–900 m, which is underlain by a liquid-dominated
250–310 ◦ C reservoir. Presently, 17 wells producing 330 kg/s of fluids with an average enthalpy
of 1600 kJ/kg are ready for exploitation. This project was supported by a US$ 100 million loan
from the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development.
Another partially explored promising site is Nizhne-Koshelev, whose fluids have an esti-
mated enthalpy of up to 2800 kJ/kg. Other sites of the same kind are the Bolshe-Bannoe and
Kireuna fields, as well as the Semyachik field adjacent to the Kronotsky protected area (Nat-
ural Park), including the famous Geyser Valley. Limited use of the Semyachik field (enough
to construct a small power plant of 5 MWe capacity) could help in the development of tourist
facilities in this environmentally protected area. Leaving aside the geothermal resources of
Fig. 14. Location of the geothermal fields in Kamchatka, Russia (from Battocletti, 2000).
the Kronotsky protected area, the geothermal resources identified in Kamchatka (Fig. 14) to
date could permit the installation of several power plants with an installed capacity of about
1000 MWe .
3.22. Thailand
A small 300 kWe binary plant provides electric power to the small village of Fang, using
116 ◦ C water (Subtavewung et al., 2005). This water is also used in other direct applications,
such as air-conditioning, cold storage and crop-drying, using the 80 ◦ C discharge from the
power plant. The geothermal power plant replaced a diesel unit, saving about US¢ 15 per
kWh.
3.23. Turkey
The only field currently under exploitation for power production in Turkey is Kizildere, where
electricity generation began in 1968. The present plant went online in 1984, with an installed
capacity of 20 MWe and an average running capacity of 12–15 MWe (Simsek et al., 2005, with a
stable production in 2003 of 105 GWh.
3.24. USA
In the USA, geothermal electrical production is restricted to California, Nevada, Utah and
Hawaii; since 1989, only 110 MWe have been added to the country’s installed capacity. Geother-
mal activity in the last 5 years includes the reinjection project at The Geysers, in which recycled
waste and lake waters are sent from a number of local communities to the geothermal field via a
48 km pipeline, which carries 1230 ton/h of effluent. The Southeast Geysers Effluent Recycling
Project (SEGEP) can be considered the first wastewater-to-electricity system. As a consequence
of this massive reinjection of fluid, power generation at The Geysers has increased by an esti-
mated 77 MWe (Fig. 15). A second reinjection pipeline conveys treated wastewater from the city
of Santa Rosa to The Geysers. This project went online in 2004; its beneficial effects are currently
under evaluation.
The trend of production decline has not yet been reversed; the second phase is on-going and is
expected to provide an additional recovery of 85 MWe (Monastero, 2002; Sass and Priest, 2002;
Lund, 2003, 2004; Campbell et al., 2004; Lund et al., 2005).
The present installed gross capacity in the USA is 2564 MWe , with a net running capacity of
nearly 2000 MWe , with a production in 2004 of 17,917 GWh. The difference derives mainly from
the situation in The Geysers plants, where the 21 units currently in operation have an installed
capacity of 1421 MWe . However, because of overexploitation, steam is available to generate up
to 888 MWe only.
Several geothermal plants are scheduled for installation in the western US states (see below).
If all these projects succeed, by 2010 US geothermal electric energy production should grow by
340 MWe , corresponding to a 20% increase over the 2005–2010 period.
3.24.1. Alaska
By October 2005, a 400 kW binary plant is scheduled for installation at Chena Hot Springs,
northeast of Fairbanks. The power will be used at a large tourist facility that includes bathing
pools, an ice palace, a greenhouse, and more than a dozen geothermally heated buildings.
Fig. 15. Reinjection effects at The Geysers, USA (from Lund et al., 2005).
3.24.2. California
The geothermal power plants in California are listed in Table 14 and shown in Fig. 16.
The steam field at The Geysers, with 23 units, after dismantling old units and adding the rein-
jection project, reached a total running capacity of 888 MWe (net) in 2004. Electricity generation
reached a peak of over 1600 MWe in 1987 (Sass and Priest, 2002).
At the Salton Sea field in the Imperial Valley, the operator installed a new 50 MWe unit in 1999,
followed by a second 10 MWe unit, aimed at a zinc-recovery project from spent geothermal brine.
Very recently, this project was abandoned for financial and technical reasons, and the installation
of a new 185 MWe unit has been approved.
Table 14
Geothermal fields in California, USA
The Geysers 1421 23 7784

Salton Sea 336 13 3146
Coso 274 9 2785
East Mesa 109 71 859
Heber 85 13 641
Casa Diablo 40 4 315
Others 4 5 26
Total 2269 138 15,556
a Early 2005 data.
b 2004 data.
Fig. 16. Location of the geothermal fields in California, USA (from Lund et al., 2005).
At present, a single operator is in charge of the Heber and East Mesa plants, both in the Imperial
Valley. Projects for optimizing old units and increasing generating capacity at the two fields are
currently under evaluation.
Future developments are planned at Glass Mountain in northern California. Permits for 50 MWe
have been approved for the Fourmile Hill area, but were denied for the proposed 50 MWe at
Telephone Flats.
3.24.3. Nevada
The geothermal power plants in Nevada are listed in Table 15 and shown in Fig. 17. New plants
are scheduled to be installed at Steamboat (42 MWe ) and Desert Peak (30 MWe ). Although no
additional capacity was installed in the state between 2000 and 2005, Nevada is the state where
most future geothermal activity (exploration, development and exploitation) will take place in the
USA.
Table 15
Geothermal fields in Nevada, USA
Dixie Valley 63 1 489

Steamboat Springs 58 13 488
Soda Lake 26 9 206
Brady Hot Springs 21 3 181
Stillwater 21 14 166
Beowawe 16 1 131
Steamboat Hills 15 1 120
Desert Peak 12 2 107
Empire 5 4 38
Wabuska 2 2 17
Total 239 50 1943
a Early 2005 data.
b 2004 data.
Fig. 17. Location of the geothermal fields in Nevada, USA (from Lund et al., 2005).
3.24.4. Utah
There have been no significant geothermal developments in the other states during the period
in question: A 26 MWe unit at Roosevelt Hot Spring came online in 2001; this plant generated
200 GWh in 2004.
There are plans to install a 25 MWe unit at Cove Fort – Sulphurdale.
3.24.5. Hawaii
At Puna, on the Big Island of Hawaii, there are 20 new small binary and single-flash units
totaling 30 MWe for 218 GWh of annual production. The project was affected by well casing
failure from heat and corrosion in 2002. After months of work-over, it is now operating again at
its rated capacity.
4. Conclusions
Based on the information shown in Table 2, the countries that were generating electricity using
geothermal resources in early 2005 can be classified into three groups:
Countries that began geothermal generation after 2000: Austria, Germany and Papua New
Guinea belong to this group. In the two European countries, the power plants are small
binary units (less than one MWe ), whereas in Papua New Guinea the 6 MWe back-pressure
unit can be considered the first stage of a project that will soon see the addition of another
30 MWe .
Countries that began geothermal generation before 2000 but have not increased their installed
capacity since 2000, or only slightly: This group includes Australia, China, El Salvador (but
with an important 50 MWe project on-going at Berlin), Ethiopia, Guatemala, Japan (with some
prospects for EIMY projects), New Zealand (projects for the coming years for Wairakei and
Mokai), Portugal, Thailand, and Turkey.
Four other countries may be added to this group:
• Indonesia: No new units have been installed since a number of plants came online around
the year 2000 (80 MWe at Darajat, 60 MWe at Dieng, and 110 MWe at Wayang Windu). This
increased the country’s installed capacity by 35%;
• Italy: There was only a modest increase in capacity; although 10 new units have been placed
online for a total of 254 MWe , they were replacing old or obsolete units;
• Philippines: There has been only a modest increase (i.e. 1%) in capacity with the commis-
sioning of the 22 MWe unit at Tongonan; and
• USA: The country’s installed capacity grew by only 3% with the new 60 MWe Salton Sea
Unit V.
Countries that began geothermal generation before 2000 and have increased significantly –
percentage wise – their amount of geothermal power over the last 5 years:
The following countries are part of this group:
• Costa Rica, with a 14% increase in installed capacity (18 MWe Miravalles V power plant);
• France, with a 250% increase at Guadeloupe (10 MWe Bouillante II plant);
• Iceland, with a 19% increase (30 MWe plant at Nesjavellir and a 2 MWe binary plant at
Husavik);
• Kenya, where the installed capacity has almost tripled (two new units at Olkaria II and III for
a total of 92 MWe );
Table 16
Geothermal drilling activity in the world for electricity projects for the 2000 to early 2005 period
Country Number of wells Total drilled depth (km)
Australia 2 6
China 1 2
Costa Rica 6 12
El Salvador 5 10
France 3 5
Germany 4 12
Guatemala 5 8
Iceland 39 55
Italy 21 64
Japan 41 74
Kenya 9 22
Mexico 59 150
New Zealand 9 25
Papua New Guinea 7 4
Philippines 28 63
Portugal 6 4
Russia 4 10
Turkey 4 3
USA 54 42
Total 307 571
• Mexico, with a 26% increase in installed capacity (new units at Cerro Prieto, Los Azufres and
Las Tres Vı́rgenes, for a total of 198 MWe );
• Nicaragua, with a 11% increase in running capacity (due to the rehabilitation of Momotombo
and the installation of new binary unit); and
• Russia with a 243% increase in installed capacity (50 MWe unit at Mutnovsky).
5. Drilling activity
Table 16 presents drilling data for 19 countries that use geothermal resources in the generation
of electric power. (The data for Costa Rica, Russia and New Zealand are estimates). More than
300 wells have been drilled to obtain hot fluids for electricity production (and/or reinjection of
spent brines) over the last 5 years, for a total of 571 km. The average well depth is about 1.9 km.
Mexico, USA, Japan, Iceland and Philippines are the most active countries as far as geothermal
drilling is concerned.
6. Power plant classifications
The total installed geothermal capacity worldwide has been classified under the following plant
categories: dry steam; single-flash; double-flash; binary/combined cycle/hybrid; back-pressure
(Table 17 and Fig. 18). The largest installed capacities correspond to dry steam and single-flash
units, covering 2/3 of the total. Binary units, despite their low position in this ranking because of
their smaller capacity ratings, are becoming increasingly more common.
Table 17
Power plant distribution by plant type (early 2005 data)
Plant type Installed capacity (MWe ) Percent Installed capacity Percent
(number of units)
Dry steam 2545 28 58 12

Single-flash 3294 37 128 26
Double-flash 2293 26 67 14
Binary/combined cycle/hybrid 682 8 208 42
Back-pressure 119 1 29 6
Total 8933 100 490 100
Fig. 18. Plant categories: percentage of installed capacity.
There were a total of 490 geothermal units operating in early 2005 (See Table 17). Fig. 19
shows the distribution of the units over the different categories. The maximum corresponds to the
205 binary units (42%), with a total installed capacity of 682 MWe (i.e. 3.3 MWe per unit). The
average size of the single-flash units is 26.2 MWe , followed by the 34.2 MWe of the double-flash
units and 43.9 MWe of the dry steam plants.
7. Geothermal field production indices and other statistics
The data presented in Table 3 should be considered as preliminary and as an indication of

work-in-progress. For many fields it was not possible to obtain all the requested information.
However, power density (i.e. MW/km2 ) was calculated using information from 70 geothermal
fields chosen at random, for which reservoir data were available, by dividing the running capacity
by the estimated reservoir surface (inferred from the drilled area). The results are shown in
Fig. 20. The average value is 7.4 ± 6.0 MW/km2 , but it is clear from the shape of the distribution
that smaller power densities are more common, in the range 2–6 MW/km2 .
It is also interesting to analyze the number of productive wells per square kilometer (Fig. 21).
The average value is 1.9 ± 1.5 well/km2 . On the other hand, the average well productivity is
4.6 ± 2.9 MW/well; the distribution is shown in Fig. 22.
Fig. 19. Plant categories: percentage of number of units.
In order to evaluate the importance of reservoir temperature, all the geothermal fields considered
have been assigned to one of two temperature categories: “HOTTER” (temperature equal or higher
than 250 ◦ C) or “COOLER” (temperatures lower than 250 ◦ C).
The mean and standard deviation for the corresponding production indices, well density and
well productivity are given in Table 18. The data seem to indicate that reservoir temperatures do
not affect well density, but this should be considered only as a statistical value of the average well
spacing. On the other hand, the temperature of the resource has a slight influence on well pro-
ductivity and, as a consequence, also on power density. However, this variation is not statistically
significant, because of the relative high standard deviations.
Fig. 20. Power density distribution of developed geothermal fields. The vertical axis shows the number of geothermal
fields in each category, as a percentage of all the analyzed reservoirs.
Fig. 21. Well density distribution of developed geothermal fields. The vertical axis shows the number of geothermal fields
in each category, as a percentage of all the analyzed reservoirs.
Fig. 22. Distribution of well productivity in developed geothermal fields. The vertical axis shows the number of geothermal
fields in each category, as a percentage of all the analyzed reservoirs.
Table 18
Effect of reservoir temperature on production indexes
Index HOTTER COOLER
Power density (MWe /km2 ) 7.8 ± 6.4 6.5 ± 5.2

Well density (Wells/km2 ) 1.9 ± 1.4 1.9 ± 1.6
Well productivity (MWe /well) 4.7 ± 3.3 4.2 ± 2.2
HOTTER: >250 ◦ C; COOLER <250 ◦ C. Note: Values in the second and third columns are mean and standard deviations.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his gratitude to the IGA Board of Directors and to the IGA
affiliated organizations for their contribution of data for this paper. Sincere thanks are also due to
Iris Perticone for her help in collating the geothermal field data. The authors of the country update
reports presented at the World Geothermal Congress 2005 in Antalya, Turkey are also warmly
acknowledged for their help in clarifying many points. Last but not least, Marnell Dickson, Roland
Horne, Gerry Huttrer, Marcelo Lippmann, John Lund, and Valgardur Stefansson are thanked most
warmly for their contribution to improving the final manuscript.
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World Geothermal Power Generation in The Period 2001-2005

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Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690

World geothermal power generation

Keywords: World update; Geothermal electricity generation

E-mail address: ruggero.bertani@enel.it.

0375-6505/$30.00 © 2005 CNR. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Total 8933 8035 56,786 490

Australia 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 Unchanged

old plant, with 10 new units totaling 254 MWe .

China Yangbajain 4 Liquid 200 140–160 12 6 15

R. Bertani / Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690

Japan Otake 8–10 Liquid 1000–2500 240–300 20 13 122

R. Bertani / Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690

R. Bertani / Geothermics 34 (2005) 651–690

Fig. 1. Installed capacity and electricity generation 1995–2005.

Fig. 2. Geothermoelectric installed capacity worldwide in early 2005.

1975 1300 n/a

n/a: Data not available.

2. Geothermal power generation: activities during 2001–2005

Costa Rica Miravalles V 18

El Salvador Berlı́n III 40

Fig. 3. Predicted increase in installed capacity worldwide to 2010.

3. Geothermal power generation: country reports

3.4. Costa Rica

Fig. 6. Location of the geothermal fields in Iceland (from Ragnarsson, 2005).

Gunung Salak Java 330 6 n/a

Larderello 543 21 3606

Oita 153 7 1108

Cerro Prieto 720 13 5112

3.16. New Zealand

Wairakei-Poihipi 220 11 1505

3.18. Papua New Guinea

Tongonan Leyte 723 21 4746

The Geysers 1421 23 7784

Dixie Valley 63 1 489

6. Power plant classiﬁcations

Dry steam 2545 28 58 12

Fig. 18. Plant categories: percentage of installed capacity.

7. Geothermal ﬁeld production indices and other statistics

The data presented in Table 3 should be considered as preliminary and as an indication of

Fig. 19. Plant categories: percentage of number of units.

Power density (MWe /km2 ) 7.8 ± 6.4 6.5 ± 5.2

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