● 1.Define blood pressure.

Blood pressure: Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood in the arteries as it is pumped around the body
by the heart. Blood pressure does not stay the same all the time. It changes to meet your body’s needs. It is
affected by various factors including body position, breathing, emotional state, exercise and sleep.
 Measuring of blood pressure: Arterial pressure is most commonly measured via a sphygmomanometer,
which historically used the height of a column of mercury to reflect the circulating pressure. Blood
pressure values are generally reported in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
Measured by wrapping an inflatable pressure cuff around patient’s upper arm. This cuff is part of a
machine called a sphygmomanometer. It is best to measure blood pressure when you are relaxed and
sitting.
 Generally, the term ‘blood pressure’ refers to arterial blood pressure. Arterial blood pressure is expressed
in four different terms:

1. Systolic blood pressure: maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle to the heart
120 ± 20 mmHg (ADULTS)
2. Diastolic blood pressure: minimum pressure in the arteries during ventricle relaxation of the heart
74±16 mmHg (ADULTS)
3. Pulse pressure: Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure 30-40 mm Hg.
4. Mean arterial blood pressure: the average arterial pressure throughout one cardiac cycle.78-98 mm
Hg

● 2.Definition of hypertension and hypotension? Factors Affecting

blood pressure? Causes of hypertension and hypotension.
BLOOD SYSTOLIC DIASTOLIC
PRESSURE mm Hg mm Hg
CATEGORY
NORMAL Less than Less than
120 80
ELEVATED 120-129 Less than
80
HIGH BLOOD 130-139 80-89
PRESSURE
(Hypertension
stage -1)
HIGH BLOOD 140 or 90 or
PRESSURE Higher higher
(Hypertension
stage -2)
Hypertensive Higher Higher
crisis than 180 than 120
(Consult
doctor)
Hypertension Definition: It is clinical condition characterized by rise of blood pressure
above the normal range in respect of age and sex. It occurs when diastolic pressure is
greater than 90mmHg.
Classification of Hypertention:
Essential hypertention: Essential hypertension accounts for 95% of all cases of hypertension. Essential
hypertension is a heterogeneous disorder, with different patients having different causal factors that lead
to high BP. Essential hypertension needs to be separated into various syndromes because the causes of
high BP in most patients presently classified as having essential hypertension can be recognized.

Secondary hypertention:In 20% cases,the elevated blood pressure is a clinical sign of a specific
diseases and not a diseses entity in itself.That is called as secondary hpertention.

Hypertention causes:
1.Essential Hypertention:
I. Genetic and familial
II. Dietary factor:obesity,high salt intake,high alcohol.
III. Humoral factor:high renin,reduced NO, ANP
IV. Neurotransmitter: achtylcholine,noradrenalin,serotonin.
2.Secondary hypertention:
a. Renal diseases
b. Endocraine diseases
c. Cardiovascular causes
d. Drugs:Estrogen containing oral contrceptives,vasoprissine.

.
Symptoms of Hypertention and Remedies:
Hypotension Definition: Hypotension is defined as the blood pressure less than 120 mmHg of
systolic pressure and 70 mmHg diastolic pressure. It is the low blood pressure to allow sufficient blood flow
to meet the body’s metabolic demands.

Causes of hypotension:
1. Vasodilatory
● Anaphylaxis
● Neurogenic
2. Cardiogenic
● Acute myocardial infraction
● Arrhythmias
● Lower stroke volume
● Inadequate cardiac output
3. Hypovolemic
● Vomiting, diarrhea, diuresis, hyperglycemia
4. Metabolic
 ● Hypoadrenalism
● Hypo/hyperthyroidism

5. Toxicological
● Clonidine
● Digoxin
● Sedatives
● Beta blocker
● Calcium channel blocker.

Symptoms of Hypotension and Remedies:

● Factors affecting Blood pressure:

1. Cardiac output: ↑CO → ↑BP. ↓CO → BP.
2. Total peripheral resistance (TPR): ↑ TPR →↑ BP. So TPR depends on-
▪ Viscosity of blood
▪ Velocity of blood
▪ Elasticity of arterial wall
3. Pumping action of heart: ↑pumping action → ↑ CO → ↑ BP
4. Blood volume: ↑ blood volume → ↑ BP
5. Age: ↑ age → ↑ BP
● Infant: 62/30 mm Hg
● Children: 100/60
● Adult: 120/80
● Old: 145/90
6. Sex: BP is 5 mm Hg less in female up to menopause. After menopause BP in
female reaches male level.
7. Exercise: ↑ BP
 8. Sleep: systolic BP falls by 15-20 mm Hg in sleep.
9. Emotion: Emotion and Excitement ↑ BP.
10. Respiration: ↑ venous return to the left ventricle → ↓ CO → ↓ BP.

● 3.Different parts of ear.

The three parts of ear anatomy
There are three parts of the ear that work together to pass noise from external sources through your ear
to your brain for information processing. The three sections are known as; the inner ear, the middle ear,
the outer ear. The inner ear is made up of the cochlea, the auditory nerve and the brain. The middle ear
consists of the middle ear bones called the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes). The outer ear includes the
pinna, the ear canal and the eardrum.

1. The Outer Ear

The outer ear is the first port of call, starting with the pinna which harnesses the sound waves and
directs them into the ear canal. The ear canal is a narrow passageway leading to the eardrum. Sound
travels in waves through a narrow passageway called the ear canal to the eardrum.
The outer ear (pinna) ‘catches’ sound waves and directs them through the ear canal to the protected
middle ear. These incoming sound waves cause eardrum to vibrate. This is where the process of
understanding these sound waves begins.
2. The Middle Ear
The ossicles are a tiny chain of three bones; the malleus, incus and stapes, which move in
the middle ear in a vibrating fashion as they react to the movement of the eardrum. Through these
vibrations, the ossicles, a tiny chain of bones (malleus, incus, stapes) move in the middle ear.
The middle ear is connected to the back of the nose and throat by the Eustachian tube. This means
that when your loved one yawns or swallows, the Eustachian tube can open to equalize the pressure
on both sides of the eardrum and prevent the membrane from being damaged.  
When you get some cold and flu symptoms, the Eustachian tube can become blocked with mucus,
causing a build-up of pressure and temporary hearing  or impairment as a resultant tube can
become blocked with mucus which can cause a build-up of pressure and temporary hearing
impairment or loss as a result.
3. The Inner Ear
The inner ear is the final part of the ear, allowing us to translate sound waves into recognizable
information. The cochlea is a spiral-shaped membrane which is lined with over 15,000 tiny hairs and
has fluid moving within it. When a tiny bone taps on the membrane of the cochlea, the fluid inside
moves, stimulating the tiny hairs and triggering electrical nerve impulses.
These impulses are then transported via the auditory nerve to the brain for deciphering. From here,
it's up to their brain to interpret those impulses as recognizable sounds.
● 4.Define Diabetes? Types of diabetes.
Diabetes: A metabolic disorder characterized by excessive urine excretion and
persistent thirst; often caused by a dysfunction in hormonal regulation.

Types of diabetes:
1. Diabetes mellitus
● TYPE-1 DM

● TYPE-2 DM
1. Diabetes insipidus
2. Gestational diabetes
1.Diabetes mellitus

In diabetes mellitus, the condition is characterized by an irregular blood sugar

concentration. Insulin is supposed to incite the cells to take up glucose from the
bloodstream. Liver cells, for instance, are stimulated by the insulin to
absorb glucose molecules and convert the excess into glycogen. Without the regulatory
function of insulin, the result is an excess of sugar in the bloodstream and urine.

Diabetes caused by insulin problems may be classified as

 Type 1 (juvenile-onset) or type 2 (adult-onset).

In type 1, the underlying cause is typically genetic. It is usually diagnosed in children and
young adults. Nevertheless, it can appear at any age. In type 1 diabetes, the body fails to
produce enough insulin because the immune system tends to attack and destroy
pancreatic cells that produce and release insulin.

In type 2, the condition is often associated with a poor diet (e.g., high carbohydrate
intake) and an unhealthy lifestyle. This form of diabetes commonly develops later in life,
often in middle age. However, it can still develop at any age. In type 2 diabetes, the
condition is caused by the combination of insufficient insulin production and the
resistance to insulin. The body does not produce enough insulin molecules and when
present the body fails to use them well. The cells eventually develop resistance to
insulin action and as such the insulin molecules cannot render their effect on the target
cells.

Difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes:

2.Diabetes insipidus: This form of diabetes is less common than diabetes mellitus. They are not
related to each other. Diabetes insipidus is not caused by dysfunctional insulin regulation instead
another hormone is involved — the vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone, ADH). This
hormone is responsible for regulating water retention in the kidneys. Diabetes insipidus is
characterized by excessive production of dilute urine. This is caused by the kidney tubules not
reabsorbing water. Possible underlying causes are as follows:
• Renal tubules have defective receptors for ADH, as what occurs in nephrogenic diabetes
insipidus where gene mutations, chronic kidney disease, and certain medications cause the kidneys
to not respond to ADH as they normally should.
• Defective aquaporin water channel in the collecting duct

• Pituitary gland does not release an adequate amount of ADH, as in the case of central diabetes
insipidus where the pituitary gland is damaged, e.g., from surgery, infection, tumor, or physical injury.

3.Gestational diabetes: This form of diabetes develops in women during their pregnancy and often
goes away after childbirth. Woman body produce different hormones during pregnancy. Sometimes
these hormones affect the pancreas. The pancreas produces less effective insulin. Thus, the woman
has higher blood sugar. However, the predisposition to developing type 2 diabetes later in life is
increased.

● 5.Defination of Isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. Market

preparation and their application.
Isotonic solution: “Iso” means equal. So…
Isotonic means that it has the same solute concentration on the inside of the cell as the outside of
the cell. Inside the Cell:20% solute, 80% water Outside the Cell:20% solute, 80% water

Isotonic, as a result, there is no net movement of water molecules. The concentration on both sides
of the membrane remains the same. Inside the Cell:20% solute, 80% water Outside the Cell:20%
solute, 80% water

Hypertonic Solution Latin: “Hyper” means over or above. So…

Hypertonic means there is a higher solute concentration on the outside of the cell, than on the inside
of the cell. Inside the Cell:20% solute, 80% water Outside the Cell:40% solute, 60% water

 Hypertonic Solution Water particles are going to move OUT of the cell to even out the concentration.
This causes the cell to shrivel.

Hypotonic Solution Latin: “Hypo” means low or below. So…

Hypotonic means that it has the lower solute concentration on the outside of the cell, than on the
inside of the cell. Inside the Cell:20% solute, 80% water Outside the Cell:10% solute, 90% water

Hypotonic Solution Water molecules are going to move into the cell, to even out the concentrations.
The causes the cell to get larger.

Market preparation example:

Application of these solutions: