Mountain Waves

Mountain Waves is defined as oscillations to the lee side (downwind) of a mountain caused by the
disturbance in the horizontal air flow caused by the high ground.

Description
The wavelength and amplitude of the oscillations depends on many factors including the height of
the high ground above the surrounding terrain, the wind speed, and the instability of the
atmosphere.

Formation of mountain waves can occur in the following conditions:

- Wind direction within 30 degrees of the perpendicular to the ridge of high ground and no change
in direction with height.

- Wind speeds at the crest of the ridge in excess of 15 kts, increasing with height.

- Stable air above the crest of the ridge with less stable air above and below that stable layer.

Vertical currents within the oscillations can reach 2,000 ft/min10.16 m/s. The combination of these
strong vertical currents and surface friction may cause rotors to form beneath the mountain waves
causing severe turbulence.

Effects
Mountain Waves are associated with severe turbulence, strong vertical currents, and icing.

Loss of Control & Level Bust

The vertical currents in the waves can make it difficult for an aircraft to maintain altitude leading
to level busts and can cause significant fluctuations in airspeed potentially leading, in extremes, to
loss of control.

Turbulence
Aircraft can suffer structural damage as a result of encountering severe clear air turbulence. In
extreme cases this can lead to the breakup of the aircraft. In even moderate turbulence, damage
can occur to fittings within the aircraft especially as a result of collision with unrestrained items of
cargo or passenger luggage. If caught unaware, passengers and crew walking around the aircraft
cabin can be injured.

Icing
Severe icing can be experienced in the wave clouds.

Defences

- Awareness.

- Forecasting.
Local knowledge of the conditions which tend to cause the formation of mountain waves enables
forecasting of potential wave propagation.

- Cloud Formation.
Lenticular Clouds (lens shaped clouds) can form in the crest of the mountain waves if the air is
moist. Roll Clouds can also occur in the rotors below the waves if the air is moist. These clouds are
a good indication of the presence of mountain waves but, if the air is dry, then there may not be
any cloud to see.
There are several terms for mountain wave:-

- Mountain wave
- Standing wave
- Lee wave
- Gravity wave
- Standing lenticular
- ACSL (altocumulus standing lenticulars)
- Or just plain "wave"

The wave that forms over the mountain is more properly called the "mountain wave." The waves
downwind from the mountain are the "standing wave" or "lee wave."

Veering and Backing Wind

A veering wind is a wind that turns clockwise with height. An example of a veering wind would be
a southeast wind at the surface and a west wind at 700 millibars. The wind turns in the same
direction as a clock from the surface to 700 millibars. A veering wind is associated with warm air
advection and dynamic lifting (primarily because a south wind in the PBL transports warmer air to
the north). The magnitude of warm air advection is a function of wind speed and the pre-existing
thermal gradient. Weak winds will result in weak advection. Winds often veer ahead of cold fronts
(in the warm sector of a mid-latitude cyclone).

A backing wind is a wind that turns counter-clockwise with height. An example of a backing wind
would be a north wind at the surface with a west wind at 700 millibars. A backing wind is
associated with cold air advection and dynamic sinking. Winds back behind cold fronts. A way to
remember the difference between the two is the memorize the set of letters CVW and CCBC,
where CVW stands for (Clockwise, Veering, Warm air advection) and CCBC stands for (Counter
Clockwise, Backing, Cold air advection)

You may wonder why a veering wind is associated with WAA and a backing wind is associated with
CAA. A veering wind turns clockwise with height. Since warmer air is in the southern latitudes, a
south wind will promote the bringing of warmer air into the forecast region. Winds having a
southerly component at the surface and a westerly component aloft is a veering wind. The middle
and upper level winds in the mid-latitudes will generally have a westerly component to them. The
upper level winds blow from a much more persistent direction than the surface winds. It is
primarily the surface wind direction that determines whether the wind is backing or veering with
height. A backing wind turns counter clockwise with height. A north wind at the surface and a
westerly wind aloft is an example of a wind that is backing. A north wind generally brings in cooler
air.

The VEERING associates with WAA and BACKING associates with CAA dictum is a synoptic scale
mid-latitude rule of thumb. There is no 100% guarantee that veering produces WAA and backing
produces CAA, especially when winds are light or the temperature gradient is barotropic. In the
warm sector of a mid-latitude cyclone the wind will almost always veer with height (generally a
WAA pattern will be present). In the cold sector of a mid-latitude cyclone the wind will almost
always back with height (generally a CAA pattern will be present). If you are in the tropics, in a
light wind environment (such as under a high), or in a barotropic environment the backing /
veering rule of thumb has very little relevance. The backing / veering rule of thumb works well in
the mid-latitudes near mid-latitude cyclones. Thermal advection is most significant in the mid-
latitudes and in the vicinity of low pressure or a tight pressure gradient.

Geostrophic Force (Coriolis Effect) and Geostrophic Wind

Under normal circumstances (i.e. if the Earth were not spinning) air would just move from high to
low pressure, across the isobars (due to the Pressure Gradient Force, or PGF). The PGF acts at
right angles to the isobars, from high to low pressure. Its size depends on the spacing of the
isobars and air density.

However, this is only true around the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, air actually moves
clockwise round a high pressure area and anticlockwise round a low, because the Earth is spinning,
and deflects normal air movement (over the ground), until eventually the wind blows along the
isobars (instead of across) at around 2,000 feet. Thus, an imaginary force appears to act at right
angles to the rotating Earth, causing a moving body to follow a curved path opposite to the
direction of the Earth’s rotation.

Not only that, the Earth moves faster at the equator than it does at the Poles (based on a cosine
relationship), so, if you fire an artillery shell from the North Pole to the Equator, progressively
more of the Earth's surface would pass under its track, giving the illusion of the object curving to
the right (or West of A) as it lags behind - the Earth is moving slower towards the North. If you
threw whatever it was the other way, it would “move” to the East of B, because you are adding the
Earth’s movement at both latitudes. That is, B will be moving slower relative to A. In other words,
a bullet might fly in a straight line, but its target will move to the right.

This apparent movement (East or West) is like extra centrifugal force, which is called in some
places the Coriolis Effect, but actually is Geostrophic Force when it refers to air movement,
although no “force” is involved, hence the use of the word “effect”. That is, the wind at 2,000 feet
is assigned a geostrophic property, which is only true when the isobars are straight and parallel.
They are actually mostly curved, so the geostrophic wind becomes the gradient wind. The extra
energy to keep the air curving comes from the cyclostrophic force, which is similar to centripetal
force, as it operates inward, at 90° to the instantaneous motion, to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere, until it balances the PGF and the wind
follows the isobars. Around a low, it is the difference between PGF and GF - around a high,
between GF and PGF.

The GF increases with the speed of the air, and it is dependent on the sine of the latitude, being
maximum at the Poles (sin 90° = 1) and zero at the Equator.

So, the geostrophic wind is the imaginary wind that would result if the Coriolis and Pressure
Gradient forces are balanced. When the air starts to move faster, the geostrophic force is
increased and deflection starts again. Coriolis force is directly proportional to wind speed, in that it
is zero when the wind is still and at its maximum when the wind is at maximum speed. It is also
zero at the Equator and at its maximum at the Poles (meaning that the above relationships break
down near the Equator, and isobars cannot be used to represent weather patterns. Streamlines
are used instead).

As always, there is a mathematical solution:

GF = 2wrVsinq

where w = the Earth’s rotational velocity, r is density, V is the wind speed and q is the latitude.
You can see that, as latitude increases, so will the geostrophic force, or that the wind speed will
decrease. To get windspeed, at 2,000 feet, the wind is parallel to the isobars (when they are
straight and parallel), meaning that the PGF must be balanced by another force, which we shall
call GF. Now all you need to do is swap GF for PGF and play with the formula:

V = PGF
2wrsinq

It also shows that the windspeed increases with height as density reduces, but it all breaks down
within about 15° of the Equator, or you would have an infinite windspeed. Given the same
pressure gradient at 40°N, 50°N and 60°N, the geostrophic wind speed will be greatest at 40°N.

As you descend, friction with trees, rocks, etc. will slow the wind down by just over 50%, which
lessens the geostrophic effect and gives you an effective change of wind direction to the left, so
there are two forces acting on air moving from high to low pressure - Coriolis effect which deflects
it to the right and frictional effect which brings it back to the left slightly. Over the sea, the
geostrophic effect will be less, giving about 10° difference in direction, as opposed to the 30° you
can expect over land (the speed reduces to about 70% over water, and 50% over land). If the
winds are high, you could get into a stall on landing as you encounter windshear, described later.

The Coriolis effect depends directly on latitude and wind speed. It is greater for stronger winds,
ranging from zero at the Equator to a maximum at the Poles.

In any case, wind in a low would be lower than the equivalent geostrophic wind, and higher round
a high. In the case of a low in the Northern Hemisphere, the centrifugal force goes in the same
direction as the Coriolis force. Since the forces must remain in balance, the Coriolis force weakens
to compensate and reduce the overall wind speed (the PGF doesn’t change), so the wind will back,
tend to go inwards and contribute towards the lifting effect, since it is forced up, to cause adiabatic
cooling, and precipitation.

Inside a high, air movement (winds), will tend to increase with the help of centrifugal force, other
things being equal, contributing towards the subsidence and adiabatic warming from compression.
However, this is offset by the pressure gradient in a low being much steeper, creating stronger
winds anyway. This is known as the isallobaric effect, since lines joining places with an equal rate
of change of pressure are isallobars. Centrifugal force helps a low by preventing it being filled, and
causes a high to decay by removing mass from it.

According to Professor Buys Ballot's Law (a Dutch meteorologist), if you stand with your back to
the wind in the Northern hemisphere, the low pressure will be on your left (on the right in the
Southern hemisphere). The implication of this is that, if you fly towards lower pressure, you will
drift to starboard as the wind is coming from the left (a common exam question). It's the opposite
way round in an anticyclone. Buys Ballot’s Law, by the way, had already been deduced by US
meteorologists William Ferrel and James Coffin, but they didn’t get to be famous. Note that it does
not always apply to winds that are deflected by local terrain, or local winds such as sea breezes or
those that flow down mountains.

Gradient Wind

With a geostrophic wind blowing along straight, parallel isobars, the pressure gradient force is
exactly balanced by coriolis force. When the isobars are curved around a centre of high or low
pressure centrifugal force (acting out from the centre of curvature) is introduced and the gradient
wind is the geostrophic wind modified by centrifugal force. With a centre of high pressure the
centrifugal force is acting in the same direction as pressure gradient force; effectively increasing
the pressure gradient force and causing the gradient wind to be "hi round a hi" (stronger than the
geostrophic wind). With a centre of low pressure the centrifugal force is opposing the pressure
gradient force; effectively reducing the pressure gradient force and causing the gradient wind to
be "lo round a lo" (weaker than the geostrophic wind).

Difference between Gradient and Actual Wind

It pays to remember that if the earth didn't rotate, the wind would blow straight from an area of
high pressure, into an area of low pressure, however because of the earth's rotation, the coriolis
force acts on this airflow as it attempts to move from high to low pressure.

In a high pressure system, we have sinking air, which as it hits the surface has nowhere to go but
away from the centre of the system. The coriolis force then acts on this air to produce a deflection
to the left (in the southern hemisphere).

The opposite occurs in a low pressure system. Air is rising therefore air is being sucked into the
system at the surface. However once again due to coriolis force it takes a deflection to the left as it
attempts to move over the surface of the earth. This is why we get clockwise or cyclonic flow
(cyclonic simply meaning "as the earth rotates") around a low pressure system, and anti-clockwise
or anti-cyclonic flow around a high pressure system (once again in the southern hemisphere).

The other thing to be aware of is that the coriolis force is the strongest when the wind speed is
highest, and zero when there is no wind.

Gradient wind is accepted by the met man to be above 3000 feet. From this height up the wind
flow follows parallel to the isobars as you said. Below 3000 feet the wind speed is slowed down
due to friction created by the surface of the earth, and we call this the surface wind. Now When we
slow the wind speed down we reduce the coriolis force, and this no longer counters the pressure
gradient force, so now the surface wind deflects across the isobars in favour of the pressure
gradient force. The amount by which this deflects depends upon the nature of the surface. It is the
surface wind (below 3000 feet) which is deflected to the right of the gradient wind (above 3000
feet) no matter whether in a high or low pressure system.

This degree of deflection is accepted to 30 degree's over land (due to more friction over land
therefore reducing the coriolis force) and 10 degrees over the sea due to less friction over ocean.
The point to remember is that the surface wind is always deflected to the right of the gradient
wind, or if you remember your backing and veering, the surface wind has veered with respect to
the gradient wind.

Thermal Wind Component

The thermal wind component is caused by a pressure gradient trying to move air from high
temperature/high pressure towards low temperature/low pressure and any given altitude. This
movement from high to low is affected by coriolis (geostrophic) force turning the flow of air to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The resultant flow of
air parallel to isotherms (lines joining points of equal temperature) is referred to as the thermal
wind component.

The 'free-flow' (approximately 2,000ft) wind blows parallel to isobars (lines of equal sea-level
pressure) with low pressure on the left in the northern hemisphere.

The thermal wind component blows parallel to isotherms (lines of equal temperature) with low
temperature on the left in the northern hemisphere.

The upper wind is the vector sum of the free-flow wind and the thermal wind component and
blows parallel to isohypses (contours or lines joining equal height above msl for a given pressure)
with low contour height on the left in the northern hemisphere.

Jet Stream and Polar Front

Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow air currents found in the atmospheres of some planets,
including Earth. The main jet streams are located near the tropopause. The major jet streams on
Earth are westerly winds (flowing west to east). Their paths typically have a meandering shape;
jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in
various directions including the opposite direction of most of the jet. The strongest jet streams are
the polar jets, at around 7–12 km (23,000–39,000 ft) above sea level, and the higher and
somewhat weaker subtropical jets at around 10–16 km (33,000–52,000 ft). The northern
hemisphere and the southern hemisphere each have both a polar jet and a subtropical jet. The
northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America,
Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly
circles Antarctica all year round.

Jet streams are caused by a combination of a planet's rotation on its axis and atmospheric heating
(by solar radiation and, on some planets other than Earth, internal heat). The Coriolis effect
describes how a planet's surface and atmosphere rotate fastest at the planet's equator while
virtually not rotating at all at the poles. Jet streams form near boundaries of adjacent air masses
with significant differences in temperature, such as the polar region and the warmer air towards
the equator.

Flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against the flow of a jet
stream. Clear-air turbulence, a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety, often is found in a jet
stream's vicinity.

Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa pressure level, or 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) to
12 kilometres (7.5 mi) above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher,
between 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) above sea level. In each hemisphere,
both upper-level jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause, which is at a higher altitude near
the equator than it is over the poles, with large changes in its height occurring near the location of
the jet stream. The northern hemisphere polar jet stream is most commonly found between
latitudes 30°N and 60°N, while the northern subtropical jet stream located close to latitude 30°N.
The upper level jet stream is said to "follow the sun" as it moves northward during the warm
season, or late spring and summer, and southward during the cold season, or autumn and winter.

The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred miles and its vertical thickness often less than
three miles.

The wind speeds vary according to the temperature gradient, exceeding 92 kilometres per hour
(50 kts), although speeds of over 398 kilometres per hour (215 kts) have been measured.
Meteorologists now understand that the path of jet streams steers cyclonic storm systems at lower
levels in the atmosphere, and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of
weather forecasting. For example, in 2007, Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of the
polar jet staying south for the summer.

The polar and subtropical jets merge at some locations and times, while at other times they are
well separated.

Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear air turbulence (CAT), caused by
vertical and horizontal windshear connected to the jet streams.

The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet, next to and just underneath the axis of the
jet.

There are two factors which create CAT - a rapid change of wind speed and a rapid change of wind
direction. A curved jet steam provides both factors. Furthermore, an associated 'deep trough'
implies that there is a strong pressure gradient which also increases wind speed.

Remember, high air mass temp - high pressure aloft, low air mass temp - low pressure aloft.

So the sharp differences in the temps of the whole air masses between sub-tropical and polar
generate big pressure differences up near the tropopause. This means there is a big horizontal
pressure difference across the front and therefore a big jet.

Actually in the jet, across the jet core, there is very little horizontal temp difference. There is,
however, a big horizontal pressure difference.
The polar front jet core is in the warm air but above the cold air tropopause at a point where the
temperature in the warm air troposphere is the same as the cold air stratosphere. If the cold
tropopause is -40°C then above that point in the cold sector the temperature is constant. In the
warm air at the same level as the cold tropopause the temperature will be warmer, say -34°C, but
will decrease with altitude. At the point where the temperature in the warm air is the same as the
-40°C in the cold air stratosphere you will find the strongest wind speed.

Föhn Wind

Föhn Wind is a warm dry wind that blows down the lee side of a mountain.

When a large air mass is forced up and over a mountain range (Orographic Lift), clouds and
precipitation form as the air rises and cools adiabatically. When the air mass reaches the top of the
mountain it has lost a significant amount of its water content and so has a much lower dew point.
As the air then begins to descend down the lee slope of the mountain, and the air pressure
increases, it warms adiabatically. The resultant wind is dry and warm giving clear conditions at
airfields on the lee side of the mountain range. As well as creating a warmer climate, these dry
winds can be a cause of wild fires during the summer months which may affect flying operations.

Pamperos

A strong cold wind (a marked advance of cold air) from the west or southwest that sweeps over
the pampas (in South America).
Harmattan

The Harmattan is a dry and dusty West African trade wind. It blows south from the Sahara into the
Gulf of Guinea between the end of November and the middle of March (winter). The temperatures
can be as low as 3 degrees Celsius. On its passage over the desert it picks up fine dust particles.
In some countries in West Africa, the heavy amount of dust in the air can severely limit visibility
and block the sun for several days, comparable to a heavy fog. The effect caused by the dust and
sand stirred by these winds is known as the Harmattan haze, and costs airlines millions of dollars
in cancelled and diverted flights each year. The interaction of the Harmattan with monsoon winds
can cause tornadoes. Humidity drops to as low as 15 percent and can result in spontaneous
nosebleeds for some. Nigerien folk wisdom claims that men and animals become increasingly
irritable when this wind has been blowing persistently. However, the cool wind brings relief from
the oppressive heat, which is why the Harmattan has earned the nickname "The Doctor".

Bora Wind

Bora is a northern to north-eastern katabatic wind in the Adriatic, Croatia, Montenegro, Italy,
Greece, Slovenia, and Turkey.

Bora flows off the Alps in the North Adriatic. At low levels the wind speed might reach up to 70
knots.
Exam Question Tips:

It is a cold and very strong wind that blows mainly in winter from a table and downwards to the
Adriatic.

Strong relatively cold katabatic wind (with possibility of violent gusts), blowing down the northern
Adriatic coast, mainly during the winter and spring.

Mistral Wind

The mistral is usually accompanied by clear and fresh weather, and it plays an important role in
creating the climate of Provence. It can reach speeds of more than ninety Kilometers an hour,
particularly in the Rhone Valley. Its average speed during the day can reach about fifty Kilometers
an hour, calming noticeably at night. The mistral is a regional wind, which usually blows during the
winter and spring, though it occurs in all seasons. It sometimes lasts only one or two days,
frequently lasts several days, and sometimes lasts more than a week.
Exam Question Tips:

Mistral is the name of the northerly, cold and strong wind that sometimes blows over a certain part
of Europe

Easterly Wave

Easterly waves are disturbances in the area close to the ITCZ which take the form of a line of
thunderstorms orientated N/S moving from East to West. The West African Tornado is an example
of an Easterly Wave but they do occur in other areas and they are the origin of tropical revolving
storms.

The ITCZ is a line of low surface pressure following the so-called 'heat Equator The isobars run
parallel to the ITCZ with pressure values increasing away from the ITCZ Occasionally a ripple will
appear in the isobars which is just like a trough of low pressure at higher latitudes. This
disturbance moves from East to West and is known as an Easterly Wave in contrast to the Polar
Front Westerly Waves. Easterly Waves form close to the ITCZ between latitudes 5 deg and 20 deg
N/S.
The weather associated with Easterly Waves is quite severe A line of cumulonimbus and
thunderstorms aligned North/South will form along the trailing Easterly edge of an Easterly Wave.
This line of active CB aligned North/South and moving from East to West is known as a tropical
tornado. Approximately one in ten Easterly waves will develop into a tropical revolving storm. The
West African Tornado is the source of hurricanes in the Caribbean.

Westerly Wave

A westerly wave is a term used to describe the movement of a polar front depression and its
associated cold and warm fronts from west to east.

These systems move in the direction of the first two isobars in the warm sector which tend to be
straight and parallel. Once the fronts begin to occlude the direction of movement is increasingly
towards the pole.

Wake Turbulence

- Wing tip rotors move outwards at about 5kt.

- Turbulence behind aircraft is dangerous in light crosswinds, i.e. crosswind pulling one rotor onto
the centreline.

- Current ICAO regulations require 2 minutes or 4nm clearance for a heavy aircraft behind a heavy
aircraft on approach or departure.

Windshear at Inversions

Inversion produces a very sharp boundary between the airflow above and below it.

- A free-stream wind of over 40 knots means turbulence in the boundary layer and over land.
There will be at least a 20kt speed and 40 deg heading difference between the surface wind and
the free-stream wind.

- A temperature inversion of 10 deg C or more in the first 1000 ft agl will completely isolate the
slow surface wind from the fast free-stream wind above the inversion giving marked windshear in
the climb or descent and clear air turbulence near the top of the inversion.

- Turbulence inversion will also produce a sharp windshear. Turbulence cloud below the inversion if
present is probably SC with moderate to severe turbulence.