Mechanics of Solids

Chapter 11
Stability of Equilibrium: Columns
• The selection of structural and machine elements is based on three
characteristics: strength, stiffness, and stability.

Examples of Instability
• If the wall thickness of tubular cross-section is thin, the plate-like
elements of such members can buckle locally, Fig. 1(a).
• At a sufficiently large axial load, the side walls tend to subdivide into a
sequence of alternating inward and outward buckles.
• As a consequence, the plates carry a smaller axial stress in the regions
of large amount of buckling displacement away from corners, Fig. 1(b).
• For such cases, it is customary to approximate the complex stress
distribution by a constant allowable stress acting over an effective
width 𝑤 next to the corners or stiffeners.

Fig. 1: Schematic of buckled thin-walled square tube

• Consider Fig. 2, where the emphasis is placed on the kind of buckling
that is possible in prismatic members.

Fig. 2: Column buckling modes: (a) pure flexural,

(b) and (c) torsional-flexural, and (d) pure torsional
• A plank of limited flexural but adequate torsional stiffness subjected
to an axial compressive force is shown to buckle in a bending mode,
Fig. 2(a).
• If the same plank is subjected to end moments, Fig. 2(b), in addition
to a flexural buckling mode, the cross sections also have a tendency to
twist.
• This is a torsion-bending mode of buckling, and the same kind of
buckling may occur for the eccentric force 𝑃, as shown in Fig. 2(c).
• A pure torsional buckling mode is illustrated in Fig. 2(d). This occurs
when the torsional stiffness of a member is small.
• A number of the open thin-walled sections in Fig. 3 are next examined
for their susceptibility to torsional buckling.
 Fig. 3: Column sections exhibiting different buckling modes.

• Two section having biaxial symmetry, where centroids 𝐶 and shear

center 𝑆 coincide, are shown in Fig. 3(a).
• Compression members having such cross sections buckle either in
pure flexure, Fig. 2(a), or twist around 𝑆, Fig. 2(d).
• Flexural buckling would occur for the sections in Fig. 3(b) if the
smallest flexural stiffness around the major principal axis is less than
the torsional stiffness.
• Otherwise, simultaneous flexural and torsional buckling would
develop, with the member twisting around 𝑆.
• For the sections in Fig. 3(c), buckling always occur in the latter mode.
• It is assumed that the wall thicknesses of members are sufficiently
large to exclude the possibility of torsional or torsional-flexural
buckling.
• Consider Fig. 4, where two bars with pinned joints at the ends form a
very small angle with the horizontal. It is possible that applied force
𝑃 can reach a magnitude such that the deformed compressed bars
become horizontal.
• Then, on a slightly further increase in 𝑃, the bars snap-through a
new equilibrium position.
 Fig. 4: Snap-through of compression bars Fig. 5: Spiral spatial twist-buckling of a slender shaft

• In Fig. 5, a slender circular bar is subjected to torque 𝑇. When

applied torque 𝑇 reaches a critical value, the bar snaps into a helical
spatial curve.
 Criteria for Stability of Equilibrium
• Consider a rigid vertical bar with a torsional spring of stiffness 𝑘 at the
base, as shown in Fig. 6(a).

Fig. 6: Buckling behavior of a rigid bar

• The behavior of such a bar subjected to vertical force 𝑃 and
horizontal force 𝐹 is shown in Fig. 6(b) for a large and a small 𝐹.
• The system must be displaced a small (infinitesimal) amount
consistent with the boundary conditions. Then, if the restoring forces
are greater than the forces tending to upset the system, the system is
stable, and vice versa.
• The rigid bar shown in Fig. 6(a) can only rotate. For an assumed small
rotation angle θ, the restoring moment is 𝑘θ, with 𝐹 = 0, the
upsetting moment is 𝑃𝐿 sin θ ≈ 𝑃𝐿θ.
Stable System: 𝑘θ > 𝑃𝐿θ
Unstable system: 𝑘θ < 𝑃𝐿θ
Neutral system: 𝑘θ = 𝑃𝐿θ
• Critical or buckling load,
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑘 𝐿
• In the presence of horizontal force 𝐹, the 𝑃 − θ curves are as shown by
the dashed lines in Fig. 6(b) becoming asymptotic to the horizontal line
at 𝑃𝑐𝑟 .

Fig. 7: (a) Stable, (b) unstable, and (c) neutral equilibrium

• A system is in a state of neutral equilibrium when it has at least two

neighboring equilibrium positions an infinitesimal distance apart.
• The horizontal line for 𝐹 = 0 shown in Fig. 6(b) is purely schematic for
defining 𝑃𝑐𝑟 .
• Consider the rigid vertical bar shown in Fig. 6(a) and set 𝐹 = 0. The
equation of equilibrium,
𝑃𝐿 𝛿θ − 𝑘 𝛿θ = 0 or 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑘 𝛿θ = 0
• Two distinct solutions of above equation: (i) when 𝛿θ = 0, and (ii)
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑘 𝐿.
• Since at 𝑃𝑐𝑟 , there are these two branches of the solution, such a
point is called the bifurcation (branch) point.
• By using the exact (nonlinear) differential equations for curvature, for
elastic columns, one can find equilibrium positions above 𝑃𝑐𝑟 , Fig. 8
 Fig. 8: Behavior of an ideal elastic column

• Increasing 𝑃𝑐𝑟 by a mere 1.5% causing a maximum sideways deflection

of 22% of the column length.
• Another illustration of the meaning of 𝑃𝑐𝑟 in relation to the behavior
of elastic and elastic-plastic columns based on nonlinear analyses is
shown in Fig. 9.
 Fig. 9: Behavior of straight and initially curved columns where 𝑣0 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∆0

• Columns that are initially bowed into sinusoidal shapes with a

maximum center deflection of ∆0 are considered.
• Regardless of the magnitude of ∆0 , critical load 𝑃𝑐𝑟 serves as an
asymptote for columns with a small amount of curvature, Fig. 9(b).
• A perfectly elastic initially straight long column with pinned ends,
upon buckling into approximately a complete circle, attains the
intolerable deflection of 0.4 of the column length.
• In elastic-plastic columns, Fig. 9(c), only a perfectly straight column
can reach 𝑃𝑐𝑟 and thereafter drop precipitously in its carrying
capacity.
 Part A- Buckling Theory for Columns
• The moment of inertia is a maximum around one centroidal axis and
of the cross-sectional area a minimum around the other, Fig. 10.

Fig. 10: Flexural column buckling occurs in plane of major axis

• Consider the ideal perfectly straight column with pinned supports at

both ends, Fig. 11(a).
 Fig. 11: Column pinned at both ends

𝑑2 𝑣 𝑀 𝑃
= = − 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
• Letting 𝜆2 = 𝑃 𝐸𝐼
• This is an equation of the same form as the one for simple harmonic
motion, and its solution is
𝑣 = 𝐴 sin λ𝑥 + 𝐵 cos λ𝑥
• Boundary conditions,
𝑣 0 = 0 and 𝑣 𝐿 = 0
Hence, 𝐵 = 0 and 𝑣 𝐿 = 0 = 𝐴 sin λ𝐿
𝜆𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 or 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛2 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
• These 𝑃𝑛 ’s are the eigenvalues for this problem.
• Since in stability problems only the least value of 𝑃𝑛 is of importance,
𝑛 = 1.
• The critical or Euler load 𝑃𝑐𝑟 for an initially perfectly straight elastic
column with pinned ends becomes
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
• At the critical load, since 𝐵 = 0, the equation of the buckled elastic
curve is
𝑣 = 𝐴 sin λ𝑥
• This is the characteristic, or Eigen function of this problem.
• Since λ = 𝑛π 𝐿, 𝑛 can assume any integer value.
• For the fundamental case 𝑛 = 1, the elastic curve is a half-wave sine
curve. This shape and the modes corresponding to 𝑛 = 2 and 3 are
shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12: First three buckling modes for
a column pinned at both ends
Fig. 13: Column fixed at one end and
pinned at the other
Euler Load for Columns with Different End
Restraints
• Consider a column with one end fixed and the other pinned, Fig. 13.
• Differential equation for the elastic curve at the critical load:
𝑑2 𝑣 𝑀 −𝑃𝑣+𝑀0 1−𝑥 𝐿
= =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

letting λ2 = 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 as before,
𝑑2 𝑣 λ2 𝑀0 𝑥
+ λ2 𝑣 = 1−
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑃 𝐿

• The particular solution, due to the nonzero right side, is given by

dividing the term on that side by λ2 .
• The complete solution,
𝑣 = 𝐴 sin λ𝑥 + 𝐵 cos λ𝑥 + 𝑀0 𝑃 1 − 𝑥 𝐿
• Kinematic boundary conditions,
𝑣 0 =0 𝑣 𝐿 = 0 and 𝑣′ 0 = 0
• Using above boundary conditions, transcendental equation
λ𝐿 = tan λ𝐿
λ𝐿 = 4.493
• From which the corresponding least Eigen value or a critical load for a
column fixed at one end and pinned at the other is
20.19𝐸𝐼 2.05π2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = =
𝐿2 𝐿2
Fig. 14: Effective lengths of columns with different restraints
• It can be shown that in the case of a column fixed at both ends, Fig.
14(d), the critical load is
4𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
• The critical load for a free-standing column, Fig. 14(b), with a load at
the top is
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
4𝐿2

• In fundamental case, the effective column lengths can be used instead

of the actual column length. This length is the distance between the
inflection points on the elastic curves.
• The effective column length 𝐿𝑒 for the fundamental case is 𝐿, for the
cases discussed it is 0.7𝐿, 0.5𝐿, and 2𝐿, respectively.
• For a general case, 𝐿𝑒 = 𝐾𝐿, where 𝐾 is the effective length factor,
which depends on the end restraints.
• The axial force associated simultaneously with the bent and the
straight shape of the column is the critical buckling load. This occurs at
the bifurcation (branching) point of the solution.
• Elastic buckling load formulas do not depend on the strength of a
material, they determine the carrying capacity of columns.
 Limitations of the Euler Formulas
• The reasoning is applicable while the material behavior remains
linearly elastic.
• By definition, 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑟 2 , where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area, and 𝑟 is its
radius of gyration.
π2 𝐸𝐼 π2 𝐸𝐴𝑟 2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2 =
𝐿 𝐿2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 π2 𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = =
𝐴 𝐿 𝑟 2

• The critical stress 𝜎𝑐𝑟 is an average stress over the cross-sectional

area 𝐴 of a column at the critical load 𝑃𝑐𝑟 .
• The ratio 𝐿 𝑟 of the column length to the least radius of gyration is
called the column slenderness ratio.
• A graphical interpretation of last equation is shown in Fig. 15. for each
material, 𝐸 is constant, and the resulting curve is hyperbola.
• The hyperbolas shown in Fig. 15 are drawn dashed beyond the
individual material’s proportional limit, and these portions of the
curves cannot be used.
• The column is said to be long if the elastic Euler formula applies.
• The beginning of the long-column range is shown for three materials
in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15: Variation of critical column stress with slenderness ratio for three different materials
 Generalized Euler Buckling-Load Formulas
• A typical compression stress-strain diagram for a specimen that is
prevented from buckling is shown in Fig. 16(a). In the stress range
from 𝑂 to 𝐴, the material behaves elastically.

Fig. 16: (a) Compression stress-strain diagram, and (b) critical stress in column versus slenderness ratio
• This portion of the curve is shown as 𝑆𝑇 in Fig. 16(b).
• This curve does not represent the behavior of one column, but rather
the behavior of an infinite number of ideal columns of different
lengths.
• A column with an 𝐿 𝑟 ratio corresponding to point 𝑆 in Fig. 16(b) is
the shortest column of a given material and size that will buckle
elastically.
• If the stress level in the column has passed point 𝐴 and has reached
some point 𝐵 perhaps.
• At this point, the material stiffness is given instantaneously by the
tangent to the stress-strain curve, i.e., by the tangent modulus 𝐸𝑡 , Fig.
16(a).
• The column remains stable if its new flexural rigidity 𝐸𝑡 𝐼 at 𝐵 is
sufficiently large, and it can carry a higher load.
• A column of ever “less stiff material” is acting under an increasing load.
• To make the elastic buckling formulas applicable in the inelastic range,
the generalized Euler buckling-load formula, or the tangent modulus
formula,
π2 𝐸𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿 𝑟 2

• A plot representing this behavior for low and intermediate ratios of

𝐿 𝑟 is shown in Fig. 16(b) by the curve from 𝑅 to 𝑆.
• Columns having small 𝐿 𝑟 ratios exhibiting no buckling phenomena are
called short columns. They can carry very large loads.
• Plots of critical stress 𝜎𝑐𝑟 versus the slenderness ratio 𝐿 𝑟 for fixed-
ended columns and pin-ended ones are shown in Fig. 17.
• The carrying capacity for these two cases is in a ratio of 4 to 1 only for
columns having the slenderness ratio 𝐿 𝑟 1 or greater.

Fig. 17: Comparison of the behavior of columns with different end conditions
 Eccentric Loads and the Secant Formula
• To analyze the behavior of an eccentrically loaded column, consider
the column shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18: Eccentrically loaded column

• If the origin of the coordinate axes is taken at the upper force 𝑃, the
bending moment at any section is −𝑃𝑣, and the differential equation
for the elastic curve is,
𝑑2 𝑣 𝑀 𝑃
= = − 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

by letting, λ = 𝑃 𝐸𝐼, the general solution,

𝑣 = 𝐴 sin λ𝑥 + 𝐵 cos λ𝑥
• Boundary conditions,
𝑣 0 =𝑒 and 𝑣′ 𝐿 2 = 0
• The equation for the elastic curve is,
sinλ𝐿 2
𝑣=𝑒 sin λ𝑥 + cos λ𝑥
cosλ𝐿 2
• Because of symmetry, the elastic curve has a vertical tangent at the
midheight of the column.
• The maximum deflection occurs at 𝐿 2,
λ𝐿
𝑣 𝐿 2 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 sec
2
• The largest bending moment = 𝑃𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
• The maximum compressive stress,
𝑃 𝑀𝑐 𝑃 𝑃𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐 𝑃 𝑒𝑐 λ𝐿
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = + = 1 + 2 sec
𝐴 𝐼 𝐴 𝐴𝑟 2 𝐴 𝑟 2

λ= 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑃 𝐸𝐴𝑟 2
𝑃 𝑒𝑐 𝐿 𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1+ 2 sec
𝐴 𝑟 𝑟 4𝐸𝐴
• This equation is known as the secant formula for columns, it is
applied to columns of any length, provided the maximum stress does
not exceed the elastic limit.
• The relation between 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑃 is not linear, therefore the solutions
for maximum stresses in columns by different axial forces cannot be
superposed.
• For an allowable force 𝑃𝑎 on a column, where 𝑛 is the factor of safety,
𝑛𝑃𝑎 must be substituted for 𝑃,
𝑛𝑃𝑎 𝑒𝑐 𝐿 𝑛𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦𝑝 = 1+ 2 sec
𝐴 𝑟 𝑟 4𝐸𝐴

• Applications of these equations requires a trial-and-error procedure.

Alternatively, they can be studied graphically, Fig. 19.
Fig. 19: Results of analyses for different columns by the secant formula
• The large effect of the load eccentricity is on short columns and the
negligible one on very slender columns.
• The secant formula for short columns can be obtained when 𝐿 𝑟
approaches to zero. The value of the secant approaches unity.
𝑃 𝑀𝑐 𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑐
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = +
𝐴 𝐼 𝐴 𝐴𝑟 2
 Beam Columns
• This is a special case of a member acted upon simultaneously by an
axial force and transverse forces or moments causing bending, known
as beam-columns.
• Consider the rigid bar shown in Fig. 20(a).
• This bar of length 𝐿 is initially held in a vertical position by a spring at
𝐴 having a torsional spring constant 𝑘.
• When vertical force 𝑃 and horizontal force 𝐹 are applied to the top of
the bar, it rotates and the equilibrium equation for deformed state,
𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ 𝑃𝐿 sin θ + 𝐹𝐿 cos θ − 𝑘θ = 0
𝑘θ−𝐹𝐿 cos θ
𝑃=
𝐿 sin θ
 Fig. 20: Rigid bar with one degree of freedom

• The qualitative feature of this result are shown in Fig. 20(b).

• As θ → π, provided the spring continues to function, a very large
force 𝑃 can be supported by the system.
• For a force 𝑃 applied in an upward direction, plotted downward in
the figure, angle θ decreases as 𝑃 increases.
• For small and moderately large deformations, sin θ ≈ θ, and cos θ ≈
1.
𝑘θ−𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
𝑃= or θ=
𝐿θ 𝑘−𝑃𝐿

• As θ increases, the discrepancy between this linearized solution and

the exact one becomes very large and loses its physical meaning.
Alternative Differential Equations for Beam-
Columns
• Consider the beam-column element shown in Fig. 21.

Fig. 21: Beam-column element

• Small-deflection approximations:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = tan θ ≈ sin θ ≈ θ
cos θ ≈ 1 and 𝑑𝑠 ≈ 𝑑𝑥
• Two equilibrium equation,
𝐹𝑦 = 0 ↑ 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉 − 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 = 0
𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ 𝑀 − 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀 = 0
• Above equation yields,
𝑑𝑉
=𝑞
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑣
𝑉= + 𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• Using the usual beam curvature-moment relation 𝑑2 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑀 𝐸𝐼,
two alternative governing differential equations for beam columns:
𝑑2 𝑀 2𝑀 = 𝑞
+ λ
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑4 𝑉 2 𝑑2 𝑉 𝑞
+λ =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼

• In above equations, 𝐸𝐼 is assumed to be constant, and λ2 = 𝑃 𝐸𝐼.

𝑑3 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑉= 𝐸𝐼 3 + 𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• The homogeneous solution of 4th order equation and some of its

derivatives are
 𝑣 = 𝐶1 sin λ𝑥 + 𝐶2 cos λ𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑥 + 𝐶4
𝑣 ′ = 𝐶1 λ cos λ𝑥 − 𝐶2 λ sin λ𝑥 + 𝐶3
𝑣 ′′ = −𝐶1 λ2 sin λ𝑥 − 𝐶2 λ2 cos λ𝑥
𝑣 ′′ = −𝐶1 λ3 cos λ𝑥 + 𝐶2 λ3 sin λ𝑥

• These equations are useful for expressing the boundary conditions in

evaluating constants 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 , and 𝐶4 .
• Solutions of homogeneous equations for particular boundary
conditions lead to critical buckling loads for elastic prismatic columns.