Introduction to the Theory of English Phonetics.

 Language use in oral verbal communication.

 Pronunciation as a way of materializing of oral form of language.
 Phonic structure of language and its components.
 Units of language vs. speech.
 Phonetics as a science and its branches.
 Phonetics and phonology.

Methods of phonetic analysis.

Lectures on Theoretical Phonetics

MODULE 1

Lecture 1. PHONIC SUBSTANCE OF LANGUAGE AND ITS DESCRIPTION

1. Phonetics as an independent branch of linguistics. Phonetics and phonology.

2. Language use in oral verbal communication.
3. Phonic structure of language and its components.
4. Units of language vs. speech.
5. The methods of linguistic analysis.
6. Phonostylistics

Literature:
1. Левицький А.Е., Гарощук Л.А. Поглиблений курс теоретичної фонетики англійської мови.- Вінниця:
Фоліант,2005.-71с.
2. Леонтьева С. Ф. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. для студентов вечер.и заоч. отд.
педвузов.2-е изд.,испр.и доп.-М.:Высш.школа,1988-271с.
3.В. Ю. Паращук Теоретична фонетика англійської мови: навчальний посібник для студентів факультетів
іноземних мов. - Вінниця. НОВА КНИГА, 2009. - 232 с.
4. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учебник для студ. иностр. яз./М. А. Соколова, К. П. Гiнтовт, И. С.
Тихонова, Р. М. Тихонова. - Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, 1996. - С. 247-256.

1. Phonetics as an independent branch of linguistics.

Sounds in a human’s life have been playing the most important role. Owing to them people can inform and
understand each other. Speech without words, consisting of speech-sounds, is impossible.
First attempts to study sounds were made in India more than 2000 years ago. The fact of the science of
phonetics’ existence could be observed in a series of Sanskrit texts, for instance in the Vedas. But as a science it
began to develop on Western Europe and in Russia only in the second part of the 19 th century.

Phonetics studies the sound system of the language (segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic
structure and intonation).
Nowadays, there are two principle ways of phonetics’ treatment – the narrow and broad
A KIND OF VIEW INTERPRETATION
Narrow Point of View Phonetics is the phonetic system of any language, which includes
a definite number of phonemes, a system of accents, the syllabic
structure, intonation and its components.
Broad Point of View Phonetics is a branch of linguistics dealing with a
process of sound formation, the interaction of speech sounds, the
formation of accents, the tones and their functions.
The practical significance of phonetics is connected with teaching foreign languages.
 Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to
meaning; it is applied in methods of speech correction, film doubling, transliteration, radio and
telephone.
The theoretical significance of phonetics deals with the further development of the problem of the
synchronic study and description of the phonetic system of a national language, the comparative analysis
and description of different languages and the study of the correspondences between them.
Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language.

Phonetics, according to the units it studies, could be subdivided into the following major
components: 1) segmental phonetics – deals with individual sounds (the so-called ‘segments’ of speech);
2) suprasegmental phonetics – studies syllables, words, phrases and texts. (see Sokolova Теоретическая
фонетика английского языка, 2006, c.17).
Phonetics is closely connected with such linguistic disciplines as grammar, lexicology,
stylistics.

Phonetics and Grammar

Phonetics helps for example to distinguish grammar forms:
singular vs. plural of nouns, e.g. a man– men; a book - books;
present (or infinitive) vs. past, e.g. to build – built.

Phonetics and Lexicology

Such phonetic phenomena as stress and different meanings of homographs help to distinguish words,
e.g. stress : a `record - to re`cord; a blackboard – a black board;
e.g. homographs: bow [bqV] лук, бант; [baV] - поклон.

Phonetics and Stylistics

Such stylistic means as repetition of phrases, words and sounds help the writers to create precise
physical images to impress the reader,
e.g. alliteration - гремучие раскаты грома; “Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers”
e.g. onomatopoeia - a combination of sounds which imitates sounds produced in nature (e.g. twitter,
mack, bang, crash etc.)
e.g. frequent use of logical stress or parallel constructions can be a peculiarity of an author's style.

Connection of Phonetics with other disciplines

Phonetics is closely connected with other linguistic studies (psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, applied
linguistics etc) as well as with non-linguistic disciplines (physiology and anatomy, physics
(acoustics), information theory, psychology, criminology etc.)

Another subdivision of phonetics:

GENERAL PHONETICS – studies the sound matter of all existing languages and deals mainly with
acoustics, articulation and physiology of speech and the general aspects of Phonology.
SPECIAL PHONETICS – deals with the sound matter of one particular language;
HISTORICAL PHONETICS – stands on the borderline between Phonetics and the History of Language.
COMPARATIVE PHONETICS – is oriented to comparison of the sound matter of two or more
languages at a certain period of their development (i.e. in a synchronical way).
DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS – uses synchronical way in analysing the sound matter.
PHONOLOGY – investigates the functional aspect of sound phenomena, establishes the system of
phonemes. PHONOSTYLISTICS – studies various pronunciation styles and analyses the ways different
human beings express themselves.

There are 3 branches of phonetics each corresponding to a different stage in the

communication process:
1) articulatory phonetics (артикуляторна фонетика) studies:
 the way in which the air is set in motion;
  the movements of speech organs,
 the coordination of these movements in the production of sounds.
2) acoustic phonetics (акустична фонетика) studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker’s
mouth and the listener’s ear.

3) auditory phonetics – perceptual (аудитивна фонетика). Its interest lies more in the sensation of hearing,
which is a brain activity, than in physicological working of the ear: quality, pitch, loudness, length – are relevant
here.

4) The fourth branch - 'functional phonetics' (функціональна фонетика) – deals with the range and function of
sounds in specific languages. It is typically referred to as phonology.

What is the main distinction between phonetics and phonology?

Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, Le. phonetics is the study of
all possible speech sounds.

Phoneticians are also interested in the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular
language. In other words, they study the abstract side of the sounds of language. The branch of phonetics
concerned with the study of the functional (linguistic) aspect of speech sounds is called phonology. By
contrast with phonetics, phonology studies only those contrasts in sound which make differences of
meaning within language.

PHONOLOGY – studies the linguistic function of consonants and vowels sounds, syllabic structure, word accent
and prosodic features (pitch, stress, tempo)- I. A. Baudouin –de- Courtenay.

Phonology also solves:

a) the problem of the identification of the phonemes of a language;

b) the problem of the identification of the phoneme in a particular word, utterance.

Phonology was originated in the 30s of the 20 th century by a group of linguists belonging to the Prague school of
linguistics - Vilem Matesius, Nickolai Trubetskoy, Roman Jakobson. The theoretical background of phonology is
the phoneme theory whose foundations were first laid down by I. O. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929)
in the last quarter of the 19 th century (between the years of 1868-1881). The most important work in
phonology is THE GROUNDWORK OF PHONOLOGY'[1939] by Nickolai Trubetskoy. He claimed that phonology
should be separated from phonetics as it studies the functional aspect of phonic components of language.
Phonetics is a biological science which investigates the sound-production aspect.

2. LANGUAGE USE IN ORAL VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication is the process of transmitting a verbal message from a sender to a receiver,
through a channel. In verbal communication the communicators use a verbal code - language and a system of
nonverbal codes (body language, touch and appearance, etc.). Language as a code consists of the following
resources: a vocabulary, a grammar and a phonology. It exists in its two material forms: oral and written. Oral
language form has its sound/phonic (звукову) material substance, and written language form-graphic (графічну).
 When language is used for verbal communication the communicators 1) apply language skills (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) 2) to put their knowledge of language resources (phonology, grammar, and
vocabulary) into action 3) to produce discourse (дискурс).

Discourse is a continuous stretch of language - oral or written- which has been produced as the result of
an act of communication;".. .

3. PHONIC STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE AND ITS COMPONENTS

The phonetic system of English is consisted of the following four components: speech
sounds (segmental component), the syllabic structure of words, word stress, and
intonation (prosody). These four components constitute what is called the
pronunciation of English.
In discussing the pronunciation of English we can focus on one or both of two aspects:
1. on the one hand, we may want to describe WHAT SPEAKERS DO WHEN 'THEY ARE
SPEAKING ENGLISH. This is the aspect of SPEECH (мовлення), an activity carried on by
communicators who use English in communicating.
2. on the other hand, we may address the question, WHAT ARE THE СHARACTERISTICS OF
ENGLISH WORDS AND SENTENCES (DISCOURSE) that are realized in speech?
This is the aspect of LANGUAGE (мова).

Now we will give a brief overview of each of the above given components.
3.1. The segmental component. An utterance can be thought as a segment which is singled out in the flow of
speech as separate discrete elements. Such segments are called sounds of a language or speech sounds.

Sounds function as phonemes, - linguistically distinctive, relevant units capable of differentiating the
meanings of morphemes, words, sentences. Phonemes are abstract representations of those speech sounds
which can differentiate the meaning - i.e. 'sounds in the mind '(the term suggested by Peter Roach). Each
language has its own set of phonemes -the ABC (alphabet) of speech sounds. Realizations of a definite phoneme
in definite positions in words are called allophones/variants, i.e. 'sounds in the mouth' i the term suggested by
Peter Roach).

The sounds of the language constitute its segmental/phonemic (сегментний/фонемний) component -

the first and basic component of the phonic substance of language.

So the segmental component of language phonic structure can be studied as:

a) a system of phonemes;
b) certain patterns of allophones and their distribution;
c) a set of methods of joining speech sounds/allophones together in words and at their junctions -
coarticulatory/adjustment phenomena.

3.2. The syllabic structure.

A unit of spoken message larger than a single sound and smaller than a word is a syllable.
Articulatorily the syllable is the smallest further indivisible unit of speech production.
Auditorily the syllable is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the whole of the syllable
and only after that the sounds contained.
Thus, the syllabic structure of words has two inseparable aspects :
1) syllable formation (складоутворення);
2) syllable division/separation (складоподш).
Both aspects are sometimes covered by the term syllabification.
3.3. Word/lexical stress. The amount of effort or energy expended in producing a syllable is called STRESS.
Stress is a cover term for three main features: duration, or length; intensity, or loudness; and pitch, or
fundamental frequency.

3.4. Supra-segmental/prosodic features/intonation. Words in speech are not used in isolation but in phrases
and sentences where they are organized according to grammar rules, get different degrees of prominence, each
syllable of a word is pronounced with a different degree of pitch and loudness of the voice, and tempo/speed of
utterance. Variations in pitch, prominence/stress, and tempo are considered to be supra-segmental or prosodic.
They are traditionally termed intonation.

4. UNITS OF LANGUAGE VS. SPEECH

Speech is not the same as language. Speech is an activity which is carried on numerous events; language is
knowledge, a code which is known and shared by speakers who use their knowledge for transmitting and
interpreting verbal messages in these events.

Language and speech can be the two main objects of analysis in our attempt to understand the nature and
functioning of oral verbal communication. These global concepts structurally can be divided into smaller units.

A taxonomy of units of language vs. speech from largest to smallest can be presented
in the table that follows:
LANGUAGE SPEECH
Text Discourse
Sentence Utterance
Phrase/sense-group/syntagm Tone unit /intonation group
Word, morpheme Rhythmic group/phonetic word/foot
- Syllable
Phoneme Segment/allophone
Distinctive feature Articulatory feature

4. Units of language vs. speech. (copy for students)

Here we will outline in brief the taxonomy of language versus speech units. Ch. W. Kreidler gives the description of the
LANGUAGE UNITS as follows:
In their use of language speakers express themselves mainly in sentences which can be organized into texts.
Sentences consist of phrases, and phrases consist of words. Every word consists of at least one morpheme, a
minimal unit that contributes in some way to the meaning of the word.
A morpheme is expressed in some sequence of the phonemes of a language. A phoneme is an abstract unit ("a sound
in the mind'') which is realized in speech as different segments in different positions. In the six words geese, goose, glee, glue,
greet, grew, all six allophones of the phoneme /g/ have shared features of being back-lingual, stops, and voiced. In addition to
these shared features, there are other features that are tartly shared, present in some of the six, but not all: lip-rounding or
stretching, lateral : ongue curl, retracted tongue tip.
The features which are present in all the allophones are distinctive features; those which are present in one or
several but not all the allophones are redundant features.
Phonology may also be thought of as a collection of phonemes and a collection of rules for putting these units
together to express the meanings of morphemes, words, phrases, sentences and texts which are the units used in describing
language.
The units of SPEECH:
1. The concept of discourse is used to refer to any act of speech which occurs in a given place and during a given
period of time. Discourse in this meaning is 'spoken discourse''. [A written discourse may be the record of something that has
been spoken, or it may originate for the purpose of being performed aloud, like a speech in a play, or it may exist without ever
laving been spoken or intended to be spoken, like most articles and books. Written discourse does not belong to the domain of
phonetics].
2. A discourse consists of at least one utterance (висловлювання), which is defined as a stretch of speech produced
by a single speaker, with silence before and after on the г art of that speaker. Two utterances in a discourse may be (partly)
simultaneous, but only when two people speak at the same time.
3. An utterance consists of at least one tone unit (тональна група), a sequence of words spoken in a single breath, a
stretch of speech which has describable melody or intonation, one out of a fairly small inventory of intonation contours that
exist in the language. The terms contour, tone group, or phonological phrase can be also used in this meaning. The melody
results from the vibration of the speaker's vocal cords at different frequencies in the articulation of a tone unit; thus parts of it
are produced at different pitches.
4. Tone units are broken into smaller "chunks" - rhythmic groups (= feet, phonetic words) (ритсшчна група).
These are made up of a stressed syllable and all the following unstressed syllables up to (but not including) the following
stressed syllable.
5. A rhythmic group consists of at least one syllable and usually a number of syllables. The syllable is an element
which is hard to define. It is one or more speech sounds, fonning a single uninterrupted unit of utterance. Articulatorily it is
the smallest unit of speech production, and auditorily it is the smallest unit of speech perception.
6. A syllable consists of at least one segment and usually of more than one. These different segments are the
allophones ("sounds in the mouth''') of the phonemes ("sounds in the mind''). In the production of speech the speaker's vocal
organs are continually moving from one position to another. Nevertheless, listeners perceive a succession of different sounds,
a chain of speech made up of different segments linked to one another. The elements listed so far occur more or less
sequentially (послщовно): the utterances of a discourse occur one after another, tone units follow one another, syllables occur
in succession, and within syllables segments/allophones come one after another (though all kinds of overlapping and inter-
penetration between them are possible).
7. The last elements of speech to be mentioned occur simultaneously. In the articulation of a segment, the vocal
organs have some particular setting - the lips are rounded or stretched, the tongue is low in the mouth or not, it has a flat
surface or not, the vocal cords are vibrating or not, etc. Each such position or movement is an articulatory feature. These
features always occur in simultaneous bundles. Typically a segment can consist of from three to twelve articulatory features.
5. The methods of linguistic analysis.
Nowadays a big amount of phonetic research is experimental, aimed at the development and scientific testing of hypotheses. This
sub-field of phonetics which uses controlled experiments is known as experimental phonetics. Experimental research is carried out in all
areas of phonetics.
If controlled phonetic experiments employ the use of measuring devices and instrumental techniques, this sub-field of phonetics is
called instrumental phonetics. Its primary objective is the analysis of speech by means of instruments.
Many different instruments have been devised for the study of speech sounds. The technique for acoustic analysis is known as
spectrography, in which a computer produces "pictures" of speech sounds. Articulatory activity is analysed with the help of such
instrumental techniques as radiography (X-rays) - examining activity inside the vocal tract, laryngoscopy - inspecting the inside of the
larynx, palatography - recording patterns of contact between the tongue and the palate, glottography - studying the vibrations of the vocal
cords and many others.
The above mentioned instrumental techniques are used in experimental phonetics, but not all instrumental studies are
experimental: when a theory or hypothesis is being tested under controlled conditions the research is experimental, but if one simply makes
a collection of measurements using devices the research is instrumental.
For the first lecture

5. THEME No : PRINCIPAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION IN

PHONETICS

Phoneticians operate quite a lot of methods of phonological analysis. The type of

analysis determines the choice of a method.
Any phonological study comprises two stages: 1)
determination of the phonemic and non-phonemic differences of sounds; 2) finding out
the inventory of the phonemes.
There are the distributional and the semantic methods which serve phoneticians to
find contrastive sounds or to identify what sounds are merely allophones of one and the
same phoneme.
 Amongst the number of methods of investigation in phonetics there are three
principal ones that are considered to be universal: the Direct Observation
Method, the Linguistic Method and the Experimental Method.
The Direct Observation Method is the first stage of investigating any sound matter
of any language or dialect. It helps to distinguish the minutest changes in the way sounds
or organs of speech are functioning, heard or reproduced.
The above-mentioned method comprises three important modes of phonetic
analysis, i.e. by ear (“phonetic ear”), by muscular sensation and by sight. At the same time,
it requires certain skills to reproduce the sounds of speech of different languages and
excellent hearing abilities combined with trained organs of speech.
The Direct Observation Method is vitally important at the pronunciation polishing.
The Linguistic Method is realized when rules and laws are applied to that linguistic
material which was collected owing to the Direct Observation Method. It applies the
system of the earlier collected data through Direct Observation. Mainly the Linguistic
Method is aimed to determine what way a sound (stress, intonation, etc.) is used in a
language to convey a certain meaning.
The mentioned above method requires linguistic analysis in observing the actual
facts of language and interpreting their social significance.
The Experimental Method began to be applied in phonological studies at the end of
the 19th century and is used mainly to check the results of the previous
Methods of Investigation.
The Experimental Method is very important in identifying sounds of the languages
never studied before.
For more exact results the above-mentioned method makes use of electronic
equipment. There is a variety of required equipment used when applying the
Experimental Method:
 artificial palate – to ascertain the exact tongue-palate contacts in articulating
sounds;
 laryngoscope (invented in 1829) – to observe the vocal cords with the
help of a small circular mirror;
  intonograph – to measure automatically the fundamental tone of the vocal
cords, the sound pressure average, the duration or length of speech (pausation);
 kymograph – to check the work of the active organs of speech while recording
qualitative variations of sounds in the form of kymographic tracings;
 magnetic tape recorder – to record sounds or speech and to
reproduce them exactly;
 oscillograph – to observe the difference in tones and timbre; on
condition of the automatic record oscillograms can be observed upon the screen;
 spectrograph – to obtain spectrograms of speech sounds or speech continuum,
chiefly for the purpose of harmonic analysis.
Also the Experimental Method comprises the use of X-ray
photography, slow-motion pictures, speech synthesizers, etc.
for the second lecture (module 1)

6. Phonostylistics
1. Problems of phonostylistics.
2. Classification of phonetic styles.
Phonetics studies the way phonetic means are used in this or that particular situation which
exercises the conditioning influence of a set of factors, which are referred to as extralinguistic. The
aim of phonetics is to analyze all possible kinds of spoken utterances with the main purpose of
identifying the phonetic features, both segmental and suprasegmental, which are restricted to certain
kinds of contexts, to explain why such features have been used and to classify them into categories,
based upon a view of their function.

Style-forming and style-modifying factors:

Style forming factor is the aim or purpose of the utterance. The aim is the strategy of the speaker.

1) the form of communication (monologue or dialogue);

2) the speaker’s attitude to the situation (emotions, thoughts, etc);
3) the degree of formality ( formal – informal);
4) the degree of spontaneity or of preparedness, the speaker’s educational background
played a great role.
Styles of speech according to the purpose of communication.

1) informational
2) academic (scientific)
3) publicistic (oratorical)
4) declamatory (artistic)
5) colloquial (familiar)
1) Using the informational style the speaker ought to be careful not to distract the listener by what he is
saying (TV-announcers). Written representation of oral and prepared speech.
2) Scientific style is used in lectures or science subjects or when reading out loud a piece of scientific
prose. The purpose is to attract the listener’s attention to what is the most important in the lecture.
3) Publicistic style is used by politicians, the purpose is to except the influence of the listener to
convince him of something, and make him accept the speaker’s point of view.
4) It is used in reading poetry, prose aloud, in stage speech to appeal to the feelings of the listener.
5) Conversational formulae familiar of everyday communication are used in speech of friends within
similar groups. It can have a wide range of intonation patterns.
English speech sounds
Lecture 2
1. Four aspect of speech sounds. The functional aspects of speech sounds.
2. The phoneme theory. Main phonological schools. Three aspects and three functions of the phoneme
3. Types of allophones and main features of the phoneme.

1. Four aspect of speech sounds.

It will be possible to distinguish the following four aspects of speech sounds:
I) articulatory 2) acoustic 3) auditory 4) functional (linguistic, social).
The movements and positions necessary for the production of a speech sound constitute its articulation.
The acoustic aspect: every speech sound is a complex of acoustic effects and has its physical properties
which consist of: I) frequency, 2) spectrum, J) intensity, 4) duration.

The auditory/sound-perception aspect involves the mechanism of hearing.

 The functional/linguistic/social aspect is called so because of the role the sounds of language play in its
functioning as means of human communication.

2. The functional aspect of speech sounds.

The complete set of phonemes is called the phonemic system of a language.

Sounds can function as units of language only if they differ from one another. The sounds in their contrastive
sense are called phonemes. Sounds which cannot contrast with each other, they usually occur in different
positions in the word, are variants of a phoneme or allophones.

The number of phonemes in each language is much smaller than the number of sounds actually produced.

The phoneme theory. Main phonological schools. Three aspects and three functions
of the phoneme.

Ivan Qlexandrovych Baudouin de Courteney (1845-1929) - the Russian scientist of polish origin
defined the phoneme as a psychical image of a sound. His theory was developed by L. V. Shcherba – the head of
the Leningrad linguistic school.

Main trends in phoneme theory are: 1) mentalistic or psychological view, 2) functional view, 3) abstract
view, 4) physical view, 5) populational view, 6) dialectical view. The final aim of phonological analysis of
language is the identification of the phonemes and finding out the patterns of their relationships as the sound
system of that language.

The materialistic conception of the phoneme was originated by academ. Lev Volodymyrovych Scherba (1880-
1944). He defined the phoneme as a real, independent, distinctive unit which manifested itself in the form
of its actual realizations - allophones. The principal points of Scherba’s theory are:

1. The theory of phonemic variants representing phonemes in speech;

2. The theory of phoneme independence.

Prof. Daniel Jones (1881-1967), the founder of London phonetic school defined the phoneme as a family of
sounds, i.e. a sum of its actual realizations.

N. S. Trubetskoi (1890-1938) and Roman Jakobson (1896-1982) viewed phoneme as the bundle of
distinctive features.

The phoneme theory was analysed and gained popularity in linguistic world only after 1928, when the 1st
International Linguistic Congress took place. Hague and especially after the appearance of Nickolai Trubetskoi's
monograph “Foundations of Phonology” (1939) (Основи фонологии).

Let us consider the phoneme from the point of view of its aspects. (Vassilyev)
Prof. V. A. Vassyliev developed Lev Scherba's theory and presented the phoneme as a dialectical unity of three
aspects [1970]:
a) material, real, and objective;
b) abstractional and generalized;
c) functional.
Firstly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of
speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be
called constitutive function.
Secondly, the phoneme is abstracted or generalized ( performs the recognitive function). It is an
abstraction because we make it abstract from concrete realizations for classificatory purposes.
The abstractional and material aspects of the phoneme have given rise to the appearance of
transcription.
Transcription (or notation) represents sounding speech and means a set of symbols or a system of signs, in which
sounds are symbolized. The aim of transcription is to indicate the phoneme and its allophones. It is based on the
“agreed values”, given by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) – 1904 year. in the 16 th century was the
1-st attempt to write sounds in transcription.
The types of transcription:

1) phonemic transcription (or phonological)

2) narrow or allophonic transcription.

A phonemic transcription is bases on the principle: one symbol per one phoneme.

A phonetic transcription is based on the principle one symbol per one allophone and it provides a special signs for
each variant of each phoneme.

Thirdly the phoneme is a functional unit. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic
environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like. Sometimes the
opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases: He was heard badly - He was hurt
badly. Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distinctive function.

It’s subdivided into the:

1) the morpheme-distinctive function (dreamer-dreamy);

2) the word-distinctive (pen-ten, ben-men);

3) the sentence distinctive (It was cold. It was gold. It was told.)

4. Types of allophones and the main features of the phoneme.

First allophones are divided into principal/typical and subsidiary/ secondary/subordinate.)

The principal allophones of a phoneme are free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds.
 Let us consider the English phoneme [d]. It is occlusive, forelingual, apical, alveolar, lenis consonant.
This is how it sounds in isolation or in such words as door, darn, down, etc, when it retains its typical articulatory
characteristics. In this case the consonant [d] is called principal allophone. The allophones which do not undergo
any distinguishable changes in speech are called principal.

The subsidiary allophones of a phoneme are subdivided into 2 groups: combinatory and positional.

Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations are called
subsidiary, e.g.:
a. deal, did - it is slightly palatalized before front vowels
b. bad pain, bedtime - it is pronounced without any plosion
с. sudden, admit - it is pronounced with nasal plosion before [n], [m]
d. dry - it becomes post-alveolar followed by [r].
Native speakers do not observe the difference between the allophones of the same phoneme. At the same
time they realize that allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of distinctive features that makes this phoneme
functionally different from all other phonemes of the language. This functionally relevant bundle is called the
invariant of the phoneme. All the allophones of the phoneme [d] instance, are occlusive, forelingual, lenis. If
occlusive articulation is changed for constrictive one [d] will be replaced by [z]: e. g. breed - breeze, deal — zeal,
the articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant.

Combinatory allophones are those which appear as a result of the influence of the neighbouring speech
sounds (assimilation, adaptation, accommodation), e.g. dental variants of the alveolar phonemes /t, d, s, z, 1, n/ are
due to the influence of the following interdental sounds / /, /6/; the mid-open /e/ becomes more open when
followed by the dark /1/: tell - hell - sell vs. bet - let - set

Positional allophones occur in certain positions only. They appear traditionally, according to the
orthoepic norms of the language rather than because of the influence of the neighboring sounds:e.g. see /si:/ - seed
ls\:ul-seat /si:t/

Principal and subsidiary allophones are of great theoretical and practical importance. The principal
variant of each phoneme is included in the classification of the phonemes of a language and described to language
learners. and in textbooks intended for them. The wrong choice of the subsidiary allophones causes a language
learner's foreign accent.

Arbitrary allophones appear as a result of idiolect or dialect.

We know that anyone who studies a foreign language makes mistakes in the articulation of sounds. L.V.
Shcherba classifies the pronunciation errors as phonological and phonetic. If an allophone is replaced by an
allophone of a different phoneme the mistake is called phonological. If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by
another allophone of the same phoneme the mistake is called phonetic.

THEME No : PRINCIPAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION IN

PHONETICS
 Phoneticians operate quite a lot of methods of phonological analysis. The type of
analysis determines the choice of a method.
Any phonological study comprises two stages: 1)
determination of the phonemic and non-phonemic differences of sounds; 2) finding out
the inventory of the phonemes.
There are the distributional and the semantic methods which serve phoneticians to
find contrastive sounds or to identify what sounds are merely allophones of one and the
same phoneme.
Amongst the number of methods of investigation in phonetics there are three
principal ones that are considered to be universal: the Direct Observation
Method, the Linguistic Method and the Experimental Method.
The Direct Observation Method is the first stage of investigating any sound matter
of any language or dialect. It helps to distinguish the minutest changes in the way sounds
or organs of speech are functioning, heard or reproduced.
The above-mentioned method comprises three important modes of phonetic
analysis, i.e. by ear (“phonetic ear”), by muscular sensation and by sight. At the same time,
it requires certain skills to reproduce the sounds of speech of different languages and
excellent hearing abilities combined with trained organs of speech.
The Direct Observation Method is vitally important at the pronunciation polishing.
The Linguistic Method is realized when rules and laws are applied to that linguistic
material which was collected owing to the Direct Observation Method. It applies the
system of the earlier collected data through Direct Observation. Mainly the Linguistic
Method is aimed to determine what way a sound (stress, intonation, etc.) is used in a
language to convey a certain meaning.
The mentioned above method requires linguistic analysis in observing the actual
facts of language and interpreting their social significance.
The Experimental Method began to be applied in phonological studies at the end of
the 19th century and is used mainly to check the results of the previous
Methods of Investigation.
The Experimental Method is very important in identifying sounds of the languages
never studied before.
 For more exact results the above-mentioned method makes use of electronic
equipment. There is a variety of required equipment used when applying the
Experimental Method:
 artificial palate – to ascertain the exact tongue-palate contacts in articulating
sounds;
 laryngoscope (invented in 1829) – to observe the vocal cords with the
help of a small circular mirror;

     5. Explain the essence of:

  i.      articulatory differences between V and С

The articulatory differences between them depend on the three articulatory criteria, they are:
- the presence or absence of an articulatory obstruction to the air stream in the larynx or in the
supra-glottal cavities;
- the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension.
- The force of exhalation.
Vowels have no place of obstruction, the whole of speech apparatus takes place in their
formation, while the articulation of consonants can be localized;
The particular quality of Vs depends on the volume and shape of the mouth resonator.
The particular quality of Cs depends on the kind of noise that results when the tongue or the lips
obstruct the air passage.

     ii.      acoustic differences between V and С

From the acoustic point of view, vowels are called the sounds of voice* they have a high acoustic
energy, consonants are the sounds of noise which have low acoustic energy.

    iii.      functional differences between V and C.

Functional differences between Vs and Cs are defined by their role in syllable formation:
Vs are syllable forming elements. 

 6.     What criteria are used for the classification of the English vowels?

1.   Stability of articulation ( monophthongs vs. diphthongs)

2.   Length of articulation(Long vs. short)
3. Degree of muscular tension(Tense vs. Lax)
4. Position of the tongue (horisontal vs. vertical movement)
5. Position of the lips (rounded vs. unrounded)
7. What do you know about the problems of diphthongs and vowel length in English?
 
The English diphthongs are, like the affricates, the object of a sharp phonological controversy,
whose essence is the same as in the case of affricates are the English diphthongs biphonemic
sound complexes or composite monophonemic entities?
 
Diphthongs are defined differently by different authors.
One definition is based on the ability of a vowel to form a syllable. Since in a diphthong only one
element serves as a syllabic nucleus, a diphthong is a single sound.
Another definition of a diphthong as a single sound is based on the instability of the second
element.
The 3d group of scientists defines a diphthong from the accentual point of view: since only one
element is accented and the other is unaccented, a diphthong is a single sound.
D. Jones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of which the organs
of speech start from one position and then glide to another position.
N.S. Trubetzkoy states that a diphthong should be:
(a) unisyllabic, that is the parts of a diphthong cannot belong to two syllables;
(b) monophonemic with gliding articulation;
(c) its length should not exceed the length of a single phoneme.
Vowel length.
 Qualitative difference is the main relevant feature that serves to differentiate long and short
vowel phonemes because quantitative characteristics of long vowels depend on the position they
occupy in a word:
(a) they are the longest in the terminal position: bee, bar, her;
(b) they are shorter before voiced consonants: bead, hard, cord;
(c) they are the shortest before voiceless consonants: beet, cart.

8.  What articulatory features of consonants are considered essential from the
classificatory point of view?

To describe a consonant, we have to consider 4 elements:

1) The active speech organ and the place of obstruction;
2) The types of obstruction and the manner of producing noise;
3) Presence or absence of voice (Voicing);
4) Position of the soft palate.
 
17. Speak in brief on the development of the phoneme theory by different scholars
linguistic schools.
The  Moscow  school represented by ReformatskiyA.A., Kuznetsov R.S., Avanessov
R.I., Panov M.V. and others investigated the phoneme by a multilateral phonological
analysis.
The Leningrad school (Scerba, Dikushina, Vassylyev and others) analysed and
investigated sounds as real speech units.
The  American  school (Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield) analyzed the 
phoneme syncronically without taking into consideration its historic development.
The  London  school headed by Prof.  Daniel Jones represented the physical 
conception of the phoneme.
The Copenhagen Phonological school headed by L. Hjelmslev tried to represent  all
linguistic phenomena as a series of relations and mathematical ratios.   
The  Prague  school (Trubetskoy, Mathesuis, Jakobson, Trnka, Vachek, etc) 
developed the ideas of the outstanding Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who is 
considered to be the founder of modern linguistics.
 
18. What are the main trends in phoneme theory?
The main points of their theory  are:(The  Prague  school)
1.   the separation of phonology from phonetic
2.   the theory of phonological opposition
3.   the theory of the archi-phoneme
 
19. Speak on the phoneme as a bundle of features.
Phonemes are individual sounds described as a bundle of phonetic features that
differ from each other in at least one feature. For example, we know that /p/ and /b/
are both bilabial plosives and yet they are not identical.
In fact, a phoneme can be described as a bundle of features, since all phonemes bear at least two
or more. Articulatory features are defined in terms of the place and type of constriction of air as
it travels through thevocal tract.
 
The place of articulation of a phoneme refers to the area in the vocal tract where an
active articulator comes into contact with a passive articulator and includes the terms:

 
 
 
20. How can phonemes be discovered? What is a minimal pair? Give examples.
Phonemes can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. A minimal pair is a pair of
words with ONE phonemic difference only.

Examples:

 
 
 

21. What do the phonemes of a language form? Explain what kinds of oppositions there.
The phonemes of a language form a system of an individual speech sound.
There are three kinds of oppositions. If members of the opposition differ in one feature the opposition is
said to be single, e.g. pen – ben. Common features: occlusive – occlusive, labial – labial. Differentiating
feature: fortis – lenis.
If two distinctive features are marked, the opposition is said to be double, e.g. pen – den. Common
features: occlusive – occlusive. Differentiating features: labial – lingual, fortis voiceless – lenis voiced.
If three distinctive features are marked the opposition is said to be triple, e.g. pen – then. Differentiating
features: occlusive – constrictive, labial – dental, fortis voiceless – lenis voiced.
The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of
morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like.
Sometimes the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases:
He was heard badly - He was hurt badly.
22. What kind of a dialectical unity does a phoneme present, according to Professor Vassilyev?
The segmental phoneme is the smallest language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the
members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing
one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another
grammatical form of the same word.
23. Why is the phoneme material, real and objective?
The phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech
sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may
be called constitutive function.
24. How can allophones of the same phoneme be classified? Give examples.
Allophones are classified into: 
typical or principal and subsidiary.The typical variant of the phoneme is free from the influence of the
neighbouring sounds and it is the most representative of all allophones.
For example, the English consonant [k] as pronounced in the word "kite" [kait] has all the characteristic
features included in the phonetic definition and description of the phoneme [k], namely: it is backlingual,
plosive, aspirated and voiceless. Therefore it is the principal variant of the English [k] phoneme. In the
word "fact" [fækt] the sound [k] lacks two of the characteristic features of the principal variant of the
English [k] phoneme. It is not plosive and aspirated. Therefore it is a non-plosive, non-aspirated
subsidiary variant of the English [k] phoneme.
Allophones can be positional and combinatory. Positional allophones are used in certain positions
traditionally. For example, the English [1] phoneme is always "clear" in the initial position and "dark" in
the terminal position(feel-lost). Combinatory allophones are those which appear as a result of the
influence of the neighbouring speech sounds (assimilation, adaptation, accommodation), e.g. dental
variants of the alveolar phonemes /t, d, s, z, 1, n/ are due to the influence of the following interdental
sounds [θ], [ð]; the mid-open [e] becomes more open when followed by the dark [ł]: tell - hell - sell vs.
bet - let - set

 
25.   Why is the phoneme an abstraction?
The phoneme is abstract or generalized and that is reflected in its definition as a
language unit. It is an abstraction because we make it abstract from concrete
realizations for classificatory purposes.
26.   What is transcription? What kinds of transcription are there?
Transcription - phonetic alphabet. Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech
sounds. The symbolization of sounds naturally differs according to whether the aim is to
indicate the phoneme, i.e. a functional unit as a whole, or to reflect the modifications of its
allophones as well.
The first type of notation, the broad or phonemic transcription, provides special symbols for
all the phonemes of a language. The second type, the narrow or allophonic transcription,
suggests special symbols including some information about articulatory activity of particular
allophonic features.
27.   Speak on the functions of the phonemes.
 The function of phonemes is to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words. The native
speaker does not notice the difference between the allophones of the same phoneme because
this difference does not distinguish meanings.
Functions: 
distinctive function, material, real and objective, principal and subsidiary functions.
Phoneme functions:
1. Constitutive function, or tectonic. In this function, phonemes act as a building material
from which the sound shell of linguistic units endowed with meaning (morphemes, words
and their forms, other higher language units) is created.
2. Distinguishing or Distinctive. It consists, in turn, in ensuring the distinction of individual
morphemes. Phonemes can act as a word-distinctive function, for example. bark - hole, or in
form-distinctive, for example. hand - hand.
3. perceptual function(recognition, i.e., the function of perception); the function of bringing
the sounds of speech to perception: it makes it possible to perceive and identify the sounds of
speech and their combinations with the organ of hearing, contributing to the identification of
the same words and morphemes
4. Delimiting function(restrictive, that is, capable of separating the beginnings and ends of
morphemes and words). the function of marking the boundary between two consecutive units
(morphemes, words). Sound elements serve as boundary signals, for example, signaling the
presence of a word boundary. Unlike the distinctive one, it does not manifest itself regularly,
however, the presence of it is evidenced by the various restrictions existing in each language
on the compatibility of certain sound elements in the speech chain.
28.   What are adjustment phenomena? Give examples.
A set of methods of joining speech sounds/allophones together in words and at their
junctions – coarticulatory/adjustment phenomena.
The ability to produce English with an English-like pattern of stress and rhythm involves
stress-timing (= the placement of stress only on selected syllables), which in turn requires
speakers to take shortcuts in how they pronounce words. Natural sounding pronunciation in
conversational English is achieved through blends, overlapping, reduction and omissions of
sounds to accommodate its stresstimed rhythmic pattern, i.e. to squeeze syllables between
stressed elements and facilitate their articulation so that the regular timing can be maintained.
Such processes are called coarticulatory/adjustment phenomena and they comprise:
1. change of consonant or vowel quality,
2. loss of consonant or vowels, and even
3. loss of entire syllables :
I must go [məssgəu] = vowel change and consonant loss
memory ['memri]= vowel and syllable loss
did you [diʤə] = consonant blending and vowel change
actually ['æk ʃ li] = consonant blending, vowel and syllable loss
 
29.  What syllables are typically articulated precisely and what are weakened, shorter, or
     

dropped in connected speech?

Syllables or words which are articulated precisely are those high in information content, while
those which are weakened, shortened, or dropped are predictable and can be guessed from the
context.

30.        Assimilation and its types.

Assimilation. During assimilation a given C (the assimilating C) takes on the characteristics of a

neighboring C (the conditioning C). This is often misunderstood as ‘lazy' or 'sloppy' speech, since the
organs of speech involved appear to be taking the path of least resistance. However, assimilation is a
universal feature of spoken language. In English it occurs frequently, both within words and between
words. Several types of assimilation can be recognized.
1. According to the degree the assimilating C takes on the characteristics of the neighbouring C,
assimilation may be 1) partial or 2) total. In the phrase ten bikes, the normal form in colloquial speech
would be [tem baiks], not [ten baiks] which would sound somewhat 'careful'. In this case, the
assimilation has been partial: the [n] has fallen under the influence of the following [b] and has adopted
its bilabiality, becoming [m]. It has not, however adopted its plosiveness. The phrase [teb baiks] would
be likely if one had a severe cold! The assimilation is total in ten mice [tem mais], where the [n] is now
identical with [m].
2. A further classification is in terms of the direction in which the assimilation works. There are three
possibilities: 2.1. Regressive (or anticipatory) assimilation: the sound changes due to the influence of the
following sound, e.g. ten bikes. This is particularly common in English in alveolar consonants in word-
final position. Another example of regressive assimilation is reflected in the English spelling system –
namely in the four variants of the negative suffix in- which occurs in all the cases except when the
subsequent sound is a bilabial or a liquid [l] or [r]:
2.2. Progressive (perseverative) assimilation: the C changes because of the influence of the preceding C,
e.g. lunch score articulated with [s] becoming [ʃ] under the influence of [ʧ]. But these assimilations are
less common in English. They occur in some contractions, e.g. it's, that's. 2.3. Coalescent (reciprocal)
assimilation (асиміляція зрощення) is a type of reciprocal assimilation: the first C and the second C in a
cluster fuse and mutually condition the creation of a third C with features from both original Cs. This
assimilation occurs most frequently when final alveolar Cs [t], [d] are followed by initial palatal [j]. Then
they become affricates [ʧ], [ʤ], and this assimilation is called affricatization. Final alveolar Cs [s], [z]
before [j] can become palatalized fricatives or sibilants [ʃ] and [Ʒ] respectively (the assimilation is then
called assibilation), e.g.: t + j= [ʧ] Is that your dog?, virtue, statue d + j = [ʤ] Would you mind moving?
education, during s + j = [ʃ] issue, He is coming this year. z + j = [Ʒ] Does your mother know?
 

31.        Accommodation in modern English.

Accommodation (or adaptation) – is the adaptive modification in the articulation of a consonant under
the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa.
1. ROUNDED (pool, moon, rude, soon, who, cool)
-labialisation of Cs under the influence of the neighboring back vowels.
 
2. UNROUNDED (tea – beat; meet – team; feat – leaf, keep – leak; sit – miss)
- spread lip position of Cs followed or preceded by front Vs.

32.        Elision and its types.

 
ELISION (ELLIPSIS, OMISSION, DELETION) is the process of deleting or not nearly
articulating of sounds in certain contexts. It is not random, but follows certain rules, which differ
from one language to another. In some cases, the spelling system of English is sensitive to this
phenomenon, representing deletion in the contracted forms of auxiliary verbs plus NOT (e.g. isn
't, mustn 't). In other cases, however, omission occurs without any acknowledgement in the
spelling system. Even many native speakers may be unaware of where deletion occurs. The
process is pervasive
In everyday speech we can’t but face some other cases of elision existence, such as:
Loss of [h] in personal and possessive pronouns and the forms of the auxiliary verb have.
[L] lends to be lost when preceded by [O]: always, already, all right.
In clusters of consonants: next day, just one, mashed potatoes.
1. Reduction, its types and examples.
Reduction is when a sound is dropped or changed in a word, and this happens quite
frequently in unaccented syllables. The word today is the word 'for'. The word 'for' reduces to
fer, fer. Very quick: F, and then the schwa/R sound.
Linguistic reductions are lost sounds in words, which happens in spoken English. For
instance, "going to" changes to "gonna". The most common reductions are contractions. Most
contractions are reductions of 'not'. For instance, "cannot" becomes "can't".

1.

Quantitative reduction, i.e. shortening of a vowel sound in the unstressed position,

affects mainly long vowels, e.g. he [hi: - hij – hɪ] When does he come? [ →wen dəz hɪ \
kʌm].

2.
3.

Qualitative   reduction, i.e. obscuration of vowels towards [ə, ɪ, ʊ], affects both long
and short vowels, e.g. can [kæn – kən]. You can easily do it  [ju kən →i:zɪlɪ \du: ɪt].
Vowels in unstressed form-words in most cases undergo both quantitative and
qualitative reduction, e.g. to [tu: - tu - tʊ].

4.
5.

The third type is the elision of vowels in the unstressed position, e.g. I'm up already
[aɪm ʌр \ ɔ:lredɪ].

6.

2. Other transitions (smoothing,  intransive R, linking R, ressylabification).

Smoothing is a monophthongization of a closing diphthong (most commonly /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ,
əʊ, aʊ/) before a vowel that can occur in Received Pronunciation and other accents of
English. (Some have called this "levelling", but this is rarely used because it may be confused
with dialect levelling.)
For example, chaos, pronounced [ˈkeɪɒs] without smoothing, becomes [ˈkeːɒs] with smoothing.
Smoothing can occur across word boundaries in the same conditions (closing diphthong + vowel), as in [weː aʊt]
way out, [ðeː iːt] they eat.
The phenomenon of intrusive R is an overgeneralizing reinterpretation of linking R into an r-insertion rule that
affects any word that ends in the non-high vowels /ə/, /ɪə/, /ɑː/, or /ɔː/ when such a word is closely followed by
another word beginning in a vowel sound, an /r/ is inserted between them, even when no final /r/ was historically
present For example, the phrase bacteria in it would be pronounced /bækˈtɪəriərˌɪnɪt/.
The intrusive R pronunciation happens between two words, where the first word ends in
a vowel sound and the second word begins in a vowel sound. Usually, there is what’s
called a schwa sound that ends the first word (think of when you say “uh-oh!”). The r
comes between the two words because, in some cases, it’s easier for people to say it
that way. 

Linking R . In many non-rhotic accents, words historically ending in /r/ (as evidenced by an ⟨r ⟩ in
the spelling) may be pronounced with /r/ when they are closely followed by another morpheme beginning
with a vowel sound. So tuner amp may be pronounced [ˈtjuːnər æmp]. This is the case in such accents
even though tuner would not otherwise be pronounced with an /r/. Here, "closely" means the following
word must be in the same prosodic unit (that is, not separated by a pausa). This phenomenon is known as
linking R. Not all non-rhotic varieties feature linking R. A notable non-rhotic accent that does not have
linking R is Southern American English.
Resyllabification is a phonological process in which consonants are attached to syllables other
than those from which they originally came. 

 Resyllabification can account for the retention of clusters before vowels by the fact that the
final /t/ or /d/ can readily act as the initial onset for a following vowel, since a single consonant
onset is the most favored of syllable types.
 
3. What methods of the phonemic analysis do you know?
Phoneticians operate quite a lot of methods of phonological analysis. The type of analysis
determines the choice of a method. 
Any phonological study comprises two stages:                                           1) determination of the
phonemic and non-phonemic differences of sounds; 2) finding out the inventory of the
phonemes.        
There are the distributional and the semantic methods which serve phoneticians to find
contrastive sounds or to identify what sounds are merely allophones of one and the same
phoneme.
Amongst the number of methods of investigation in phonetics there are three principal ones that
are considered to be universal:                 the Direct Observation Method, the Linguistic Method
and                           the Experimental Method.  
The Direct Observation Method is the first stage of investigating any sound matter of any
language or dialect. It helps to distinguish   the minutest changes in the way sounds or organs of
speech are functioning, heard or reproduced.
The above-mentioned method comprises three important modes of phonetic analysis, i.e. by ear
(“phonetic ear”), by muscular sensation and by sight. At the same time, it requires certain skills
to reproduce    the sounds of speech of different languages and excellent hearing abilities
combined with trained organs of speech. 
The Direct Observation Method is vitally important at   the pronunciation polishing.
The Linguistic Method is realized when rules and laws are applied to that linguistic material
which was collected owing to the Direct Observation Method. It applies the system of the earlier
collected data through Direct Observation. Mainly the Linguistic Method is aimed to determine
what way a sound (stress, intonation, etc.) is used in   a language to convey a certain meaning.  
The mentioned above method requires linguistic analysis in observing the actual facts of
language and interpreting their social significance.
The Experimental Method began to be applied in phonological studies at the end of the 19 th
century and is used mainly to check                          the results of the previous Methods of
Investigation.
The Experimental Method is very important in identifying sounds of the languages never studied
before.  
For more exact results the above-mentioned method makes use  of electronic equipment. There is
a variety of required equipment used when applying the Experimental Method:
· artificial palate – to ascertain the exact tongue-palate contacts in articulating sounds;
· laryngoscope (invented in 1829) – to observe the vocal cords with                 the help of a small
circular mirror;
· intonograph – to measure automatically the fundamental tone of                the vocal cords, the
sound pressure average, the duration or length of speech (pausation);
· kymograph – to check the work of the active organs of speech while recording qualitative
variations of sounds in the form of kymographic tracings;
· magnetic tape recorder – to record sounds or speech and                        to reproduce them
exactly;
· oscillograph – to observe the difference in tones and timbre;                    on condition of  the
automatic record oscillograms can be observed upon the screen;
· spectrograph – to obtain spectrograms of speech sounds or speech continuum, chiefly for   the
purpose of harmonic analysis.
Also the Experimental Method comprises the use of                           X-ray photography, slow-
motion pictures, speech synthesizers, etc.
 
13.What is on the average the number of phonemes
in different languages?
Across all languages, the average number of consonant phonemes per language is about 22,
while the average number of vowel phonemes is about 8.
 
14. Explain the interrelationship between a phoneme and an allophone?
Phoneme:
Replacing a sound by another phoneme does change the meaning of a word
Phonemes are opposed to each other as sense-differentiating units in the language
Allophone:
As a rule allophones cannot distinguish words
Variants of one phoneme are not opposed each other as sense differentiating units in the    
language
A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments. Allophones are
sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds. Allophones are usually relatively similar
sounds which are in mutually exclusive or complementary distribution
 
15, What types of allophones do you know?
The principal allophones of a phoneme are free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds.
The allophones which do not undergo any distinguishable changes in speech are called principal.
Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations
are called subsidiary.
Combinatory allophones are those which appear as a result of the influence of the neighbouring
speech sounds (assimilation, adaptation, accommodation).
Positional allophones occur in certain positions only. They appear traditionally, according to the
orthoepic norms of the language rather than because of the influence of the neighboring sounds.
 Arbitrary allophones appear as a result of dialect. 
16. Discuss the problem of the definition of the phoneme

The definitions of the phoneme vary greatly.

V.A.Vassilyev: The phoneme is a smallest unit capable of distinguishing one word from another
word, one grammatical form of word from another.
B. Bloch: phoneme is a class of phonemically similar sounds contrasting and mutually
exclusive with all similar classes in the language.
R. Jacobson: phoneme is a minimal sound by which meaning may be discriminated.
L.V. Shcherba: the phoneme may be viewed as a functional, material and abstract unit.

 
It is any of the abstract units of the phonetic system of a language that correspond to a set of
similar speech sounds which are perceived to be a single distinctive sound in the language
It`s  an abstract concept existing in the mind only independent of any physical properties. This
abstraction has been unconsciously made by and unconsciously exist in the mind of each member
of a language community. 
9.Give a generalized set of classificatory principles for the articulatory description of English
consonants. 
According to the manner of articulation consonants may be occlusive, constrictive and
occlusive-constrictive (affricates). 
When an occlusive consonant is produced, the air stream meets a complete obstruction in the
mouth cavity. Occlusive noise consonants are also called plosives as they are produced with a
kind of slight explosion when the obstruction is released. 
Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete
obstruction. Constrictive noise consonants are also called fricatives as the air escapes from the
mouth with some friction. 
Affricates are noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released
and becomes incomplete. 
 
10.What is the problem with affricates in English? 
There are some problems of phonological character in the English consonantal system: it is the
problem of affricates - their phonological status and their number. The question is what kind of
facts a phonological theory has to explain. 
1) Are the English [t∫, ʤ]sounds monophonemic entities or biphonemic combinations? 
2) If they are monophonemic, how many phonemes of the same kind exist in English, or, in other
words, can such clusters as [tr, dr] and [tθ, dð] be considered affricates? 
To define it is not an easy matter. One thing is clear: these sounds are complexes because
articulatory we can distinguish two elements. Considering phonemic duality of affricates, it is
necessary to analyze the relation of affricates to other consonant phonemes to be able to define
their status in the system. 
The problem of affricates is a point of considerable controversy among phoneticians. According
to Russian specialists in English phonetics, there are two affricates in English: [t∫, ʤ]. D. Jones
points out there are six of them: [t∫, ʤ], [ts, dz], and [tr, dr]. A.C. Gimson increases their number
adding two more affricates: [tθ, tð]. Russian phoneticians look at English affricates through the
eyes of a phoneme theory, according to which a phoneme has three aspects: articulatory, acoustic
and functional, the latter being the most significant one. As to British phoneticians, their primary
concern is the articulatory-acoustic unity of these complexes. 
Another problem is the problem of affricates. The first question here is: 
1) Are the English [C],[G] sounds monophonemic or biphonemic combinations? 
If they are monophonemic, how many phonemes of the same kind, exist in the system of English
consonants? Can such clusters as [tr] –[ dr], [ts] - [dz], [tT] - 
[dT] be considerate affricates? 
The problem of affricates is point of considerable controversy among phoneticians. Russian
specialists in English phonetics single out two affricates: [C], [G], and the rest of the sound
clusters refer to sound complexes. D. Jones points out 6 affricates: 
[C] -[G], [ts] -[dz], [tr]-[dr]. 
A.C. Jimson increases their number, adding 2 more affricates: [tT] – [dD]. 
 
11.What kind of sounds are called sonorants? What is the problem with them? 
sonorant, in phonetics, any of the nasal, liquid, and glide consonants that are marked by a
continuing resonant sound. Sonorants have more acoustic energy than other consonants. In
English the sonorants are y, w, l, r, m, n, and ng. 
The point is that sonorants are sounds that differ greatly from all other consonants of the
language. This is due to the fact that in their production the air passage between the two organs
of speech is much wider than in the production of noise consonants. As a result, the auditory
effect is tone, not noise. This peculiarity makes sonorant sound more like vowels than
consonants. On this ground some British phoneticians refer some of there consonants to the class
of semivowels, r, j, w, for example; sometimes they are treated as vowel glides. 
12.What is the phonemic system of a language? 
The phonemic system of a language is a set of linguistic units which forms the basis for
higher levels of language structure. Knowledge of the system develops in the child during the
language-learning period and is normally accompanied by development of the capacity for
differentiating articulations. 
 

 According to the principle of ………………………………………….. the English vowels are

subdivided into monophtongs and diphthongs. Stability of articulation

What are the most common types of assimilation in English ? What are the most common types of
assimilation in English ?

Choose three main principal methods of investigation in Phonetics: he method of phonological analysis,
the distributional method. the direct observation method

Choose two types of subsidiary allophones combinatory,positional

What are the types of elision in English? Contemporary , historical

The adaptive modification in the articulation of a consonant under the influence of an adjacent vowel or
vice versa is called ….. accommodation

The oldest, simplest and most readily available method of Phonetic analysis is the method of …………
direct observation

The process under which a diphthong optionally loses its second element before another vowel, or it is
monophthongized, is called .....
smoothing

According to the position of the lips English vowels are classified into:
rounded unrounded

What sounds have the highest degree of sonority? . vowels

is the change of sounds' quantity, quality or even the omission when unstressed in connected speech.
Resyllabification

Functional differences between Vs and Cs are defined by their role in

syllable formation

Who was the first linguist who described and classified vowels for all the languages?
Daniel Jones
According to the types of obstruction and the manner of producing noise all the consonants are
subdivided into: constrictive oclussive

\The abstractional and material aspects of the phoneme have given rise to the appearance of  transcription

The sound adjustments related to sound deletion are: elisions smoothing

According to the stability of articulation vowels could be monophthongs diphthongs

According to the direction the assimilation could be progressive regressive

According to the place of obstruction consonants could be: glottal labial

Modifications of Vowels in connected speech are: smoothing, reduction

The adaptive modification in the articulation of a consonant under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice
versa is called ….. accommodation

Choose the principles of classification of the English consonant phonemes

a. according to the manner of articulation

b. according to the place of articulation (or active organ of speech)

c. according to the work of the vocal cords

The main problems of English affricates deal with their

a. phonological status

b. number

Sounds which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions are
called .………… diphthongs

The …………………………… allophones of the phoneme are free from the influence of the neighboring sounds.

principal

Which are the units of Language?

a. syllable

b. distinctive feature
c. allophone

d. word

The degree of assimilation is said to be ……………………………….. when the assimilated consonant changes into a
different sound, but doesn't coincide with the assimilating consonant. partial

There are definite types of accommodation in English

b. unrounded

d. rounded

The process when two syllables, usually both weak, optionally become one is called …………

a. reduction

b. elision

c. smoothing

d. accommodation

What are the problems with affricates?

a. their quality

b. their length

c. their quantity

From the point of view of its stability assimilation could be

b. contextual

c. historical

Which allophones appears as a result of the influence of the neighbouring speech sounds?

a. combinatory

What minimal distinctive feature (or features) makes these oppositions phonologically relevant?
tip - sip

cat - bat

ride - road

lime - rhyme

Текст відповіді

occlusive-constrictive

Which Phonological School analyzed the phoneme synchronically without taking into consideration its historical
development?

a. American

Modifications of Vowels in connected speech are

a. smoothing

c. accommodation

e. reduction

Which allophones appear as a result of dialect?

c. arbitrary

What are two types of sounds which cannot be split during syllabification?

a. affricates

b. diphthongs

Choose the representatives of Prague phonological school?

a. F. De Saussure

b. Nikolai Trubetskoy

c. Daniel Jones
d. R. Jakobson

Who declared that Phonemes form oppositions by means of distinctive features?

b. Nikolai Trubetzkoi

The process under which a diphthong optionally loses its second element before another vowel, or it is
monophthongized, is called ……………………

b. smoothing

Adjustment phenomena: identify the phonetic process in each word or word combination.

Текст відповіді

1. assimilation

2. linking r

3. C-V, V-C (glottal stop)

4. assimilation

5. accomodation
6. accomodation

7. assimitation

8. linking r

9.

10. assimilation

11. assimilation

12. smoothing

13. assimilation

14.

Call the modifications of consonants in connected speech

b. assimilation

c. elision

According to the principle of ………………………………………….. the English vowels are subdivided into monophtongs
and diphthongs. Stability of articulation

What are the most common types of assimilation in English ? What are the most common types of assimilation in
English ?

Choose three main principal methods of investigation in Phonetics: he method of phonological analysis,

the distributional method. the direct observation method

Choose two types of subsidiary allophones combinatory,positional

What are the types of elision in English? Contemporary , historical

The adaptive modification in the articulation of a consonant under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice
versa is called ….. accommodation

The oldest, simplest and most readily available method of Phonetic analysis is the method of …………

direct observation

The process under which a diphthong optionally loses its second element before another vowel, or it is
monophthongized, is called .....

smoothing

According to the position of the lips English vowels are classified into:

rounded unrounded

What sounds have the highest degree of sonority? . vowels

is the change of sounds' quantity, quality or even the omission when unstressed in connected speech.
Resyllabification

Functional differences between Vs and Cs are defined by their role in

syllable formation

Who was the first linguist who described and classified vowels for all the languages?

Daniel Jones

According to the types of obstruction and the manner of producing noise all the consonants are subdivided into:
constrictive oclussive

\The abstractional and material aspects of the phoneme have given rise to the appearance of transcription

The sound adjustments related to sound deletion are: elisions smoothing

According to the stability of articulation vowels could be monophthongs diphthongs

According to the direction the assimilation could be progressive regressive

According to the place of obstruction consonants could be: glottal labial

Modifications of Vowels in connected speech are: smoothing, reduction

The process when two syllables, usually both weak, optionally become one is called …………

c.
smoothing

Which allophones appears as a result of the influence of the neighbouring speech sounds?

b.
combinatory

What are the problems with affricates?

b.
their quantity

c.
their quality
Choose the principles of classification of the English consonant phonemes

a.
according to the place of articulation (or active organ of speech)

c.
according to the work of the vocal cords

d.
according to the manner of articulation

Modifications of Vowels in connected speech are

a.
reduction

b.
elision

e.
smoothing

There are definite types of accommodation in English

b.
unrounded

c.
rounded

Call the modifications of consonants in connected speech

a.
accommodation
b.
resyllabification

c.
elision

d.
assimilation

Which allophones appear as a result of dialect?

a.
combinatory

b.
arbitrary

c.
subsidiary

The …………………………… allophones of the phoneme are free from the influence of the neighboring sounds.

a.
subsidiary

b.
principal

From the point of view of its stability assimilation could be

b.
contextual

c.
historical

Sounds which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions are
called .…………

a.
diphthongs

The adaptive modification in the articulation of a consonant under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice
versa is called …..

a.
assimilation

b.
accommodation
The degree of assimilation is said to be ……………………………….. when the assimilated consonant changes
into a different sound, but doesn't coincide with the assimilating consonant.

a.
intermediate

b.
partia

Which are the units of Language?

a.
distinctive feature

b.
syllable

c.
word

What minimal distinctive feature (or features) makes these oppositions phonologically relevant?
tip - sip
cat - bat
ride - road
lime - rhyme

Which Phonological School analyzed the phoneme synchronically without taking into consideration its
historical development?

a.
Geneva

b.
Leningrad

c.
Moscow

d.
American

What are two types of sounds which cannot be split during syllabification?

a.
sonorants

b.
diphthongs

c.
allophones

d.
affricates

The main problems of English affricates deal with their

a.
phonological status

b.
number
The process under which a diphthong optionally loses its second element before another vowel, or it is
monophthongized, is called ……………………

a.
assimilation

b.
resyllabification

c.
smoothing

Who declared that Phonemes form oppositions by means of distinctive features?

a.
Baudouin de Courtenay

b.
V. A. Vassilyev

c.
Lev Scherba

d.
Nikolai Trubetzkoi
19

Sentence/utterance level stress as a component of intonation, its types, functions. Pausation and tempo in
the structure of English intonation. Their functions.

Voice timbre
Temporal components of intonation
-Tempo
-Pauses

Among the pitch parameters we shall concentrate on:

-direction of pitch:
-pitch level
-pitch range (the interval between the highest and the lowest pitched syllable is called the range of a
sense group)
Variations in pitch range are usually:
-normal
-wide
-narrow
Pitch levels may be:
-high
-medium
-low
The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone-group is called a nuclear tone. 
!!!!! (together with tail it is called terminal tone)
A nucleus is a strongly stressed syllable, which is usually the last stressed syllable in the intonation
pattern. Exactly on this syllable the pitch falls or rises.
There are some types of nuclear tones in English:
low-fall \no
high-fall \no
low-rise /no
high-rise /no
fall-rise           vno
Sentence stress or accent is the greater prominence of one or more words among other words in the same
sentence. 
The main function of it is to single out the communicative centre of the sentence which introduces new
information.
The most prominent part of a sentence is the last stressed word which takes the nuclear tone.
Sentence stress-
syntagmatic
syntactic
logical

Kinds of the sentence stress

Syntagmatic stress is placed on the semantic centre of the sense-group which is the nucleus. 
Syntactic stress singles out the other semantically important words of the sentence. 
When the semantic centre is shifted from the last notional word of the sentence to sоmе other words we
get logical stress. 
(it gives new information, contrast)
3. Speech rhythm

Speech rhythm may be defined as a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Rhythm is closely connected with stress. Sense-groups in English are divided into rhythmical groups. 
Each rhythmical group consists of a stressed syllable alone, or combined with one or more unstressed
syllables attached to it. 
All languages can be divided into two groups according to rhythm:
1. syllable-timed (French, Spanish)
2. stressed-timed (English, German, Russian)
In syllable-timed languages, the speaker gives equal time to every syllable, stressed or unstressed. 
In stress-timed languages, the time for every syllable is different. Stressed syllables are pronounced
longer.
Speech rhythm influences greatly vowel reduction and elision. Such forms as prepositions, conjunctions,
auxiliary verbs, some modal verbs, personal and progressive proverbs are usually unstressed and
pronounced with reduction or elision.
The last component of intonation is voice-timber, or voice quality. It is a common knowledge that
sentences may be pronounced with different voice colouring expressing all shades of emotions, such as
joy, happiness, sadness, irony, indifference, indignation, hostility, and many others. Voice-tamber is
connected with the pitch of the voice and the tempo of speech.
We do not know anything about the physical nature of this phenomenon, because the voice-timber
component has not been investigated at all.
Speech timbre is a special colouring of the voice. It is used to express various emotions and moods, such
as joy, anger, sadness, indignation, pleasure, displeasure, sorrow, etc.

Tempo is the rate, or duration of speech. It may be slow, formal or quick. Through tempo we appreciate
the relative importance of sentences and their sense-groups. The more important parts of a sentence are
pronounced at a slow tempo, the less important ones are said quickly.
Pauses are closely connected with other components of intonation. Between intonation-group there mаy
be pauses of different lengths. At the end of a sentence the pause is long. It is indicated by a double
vertical bar. A pause between clauses is short, it is indicated with a large vertical bar. 
There is a non-obligatory pause between parts of the sentence. It is a very short one and is indicated with
a wavy vertical line.
Pauses are closely related with tempo: the number and length of pauses affect the general tempo of
speech.
Kinds of pauses
Syntactic pauses – they separate phrases and intonation groups
Emphatic pauses – they are used to emphasize an important part of speech
Hesitation pauses – they are used to get some time to think what to say next
4. Units of prosodic subsystems (prosodemes). Intoneme (intonation group) as the basic unit of
intonation.

What is the systemic connection between prosody and intonation?

Prosody embraces three prosodic components: pitch, loudness, tempo. 

Units of the prosodic subsystems (prosodemes), like phonemes, are functionally relevant types of the
language prosodic components (intonation structure).              

Types of the prosodic units (Prosodemes)

Accenteme (type of sentence stress)

2.    Toneme (functionally relevant tone)
3.    Melodeme (functionally relevant intonation contour)
4.    Chroneme (relevant smallest unit of time)
5.    Intoneme (sentence prosodeme). 
Functions of intonation

Tempo - is the rate of speech with which syllables are pronounced. It can be - slow, normal, fast. It is not
constant, it changes and shows the relative semantic importance of a sense-group and the speaker's
emotions.
Function

-semantical distinctive function

-stylistically distinctive function

Pauses - are the moments of silence in the flow of speech.

Function

Pauses are normally made to take breath at points where they are necessary or allowable from the point
of view of the meaning of the sentence.

Pauses may be short (between sense-groups), long (to delimit one sentence from another), very long (to
separate the paragraphs).

Functions:

-syntactically distinctive function (divide the sentence on the sense-groups)

-stylistically distinctive function:

1) syntactical

2) infatic (in public speech)

3) hesitation (unprepared speech):

a) empty (silence)

b) filled (with some sounds…mmm..ooommg)

-semantically distinctive function

-attitudinally

20

Rhytm as a linguistic notion. English speech rhythm. Types of rhytmic units. Intonation group as
meaningful unit of speech communication. Constituent parts of an intonation group (Pre-Head,
Head,Terminal tone) and their semantic loading.

Rhythm –is the regularity of stressed syllables in time. It, also, organizes words in the rhythmic groups.

Function:

-constitutative function
 -attitudinally function

-stylistic distinctive function

When English is spoken, the speaker alternates between stressed and unstressed syllables in regular

intervals, with the stresses falling within content words. This is called the Rhythm Rule. The stressed
syllables of the sentence create beats.

English has a regular rhythm, with the sound of the language organised around the stressed syllables.

English is also a stress-timed language, which means that there is equal time spent on each stress within a
sentence – and an equal time spent on gaps between syllables.

In this way, the unstressed syllables are constricted in length so that they fit into the timing and rhythm of
the sentence.

The two most common rhythm noticed in the languages spoken around the world are :

 Syllable – timed Rhythm and

 Stress - timed Rhythm

The intonation pattern consists of one or more syllables of various pitch levels and bearing a larger or smaller degree of prominence. Those
intonation patterns that contain a number of syllables consist of the following parts: the pre-head, the head, the nucleus and the tail. The pre-
head includes unstressed and half-stressed syllables preceding the head. Thehead consists of the syllables beginning with the first stressed
syllable up to the last stressed syllable. The last stressed syllable is called the nucleus. The unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow
the nucleus are called the tail. Thus in the example They don't 'make so much fuss about it. ('Then' is the pre-head, 'don't make so much' is the
head, 'fuss' is the nucleus, 'about it', is the tai)l.

The changes of pitch that take place in the nucleus are called nuclear tones. The nuclear syllable is generally the most prominent one in the
intonation pattern. The nucleus and the tail form the terminal tone. It is the most significant part of the intonation group.

21

Phonostylictics as a branch of phonetics; its interaction, with other linguistic disciplines.

Phonostylistic - is a branch of linguistics, which analyses phonetic phenomena from a stylistic point of
view. (a bridge between stylistics and phonetics)

Phonostylistic is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and processes from the stylistic point of view. It cropped up as a result of a
certain amount of functional overlap between phonetics and stylistics.

Intonation plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts. Stylistically explicable deviations from intonational norms reveal
conventional patterns differing from language to language.

Phonostylistics deals with peculiarities of the sound arrangement of speech for creating a stylistic effect (onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhyme,
rhythm), i.e. it studies the way the sound system of the language becomes an expressive language means.

One of the objectives of phonostylistics is the study of intonational functional styles. There are 5 style categories:

1. informational (formal) style;

2. scientific (academic) style;

3. declamatory style;

4. publicistic style;
5. familiar (conversational) style

Phonostylistics is interconnected with many linguistic and non-linguistic disciplines such as

paralinguistics, psychology and psycholinguistics, sociology and sociolinguistics, dialectology,
aesthetics, information theory, etc. A wide range of issues are integral to phonostylistics: the phonetic
norm and deviations from norms, phonetic synonyms, euphony, sound symbolism, stylistic devices
coded or carried by phonetic expressive means, phonetic functional styles.

Task 1. Provide these words with necessary stress marks.

1. ‘Mailbox 14. ‘Writing ,desk 27. ‘Out,door

2. ‘Paper ,knife 15. ,Broken-’hearted 28. ‘Bus ,stop
3. Stone ‘building 16. ,Half-’dead 29. ,Thanks’giving
4. ,Easy-’going 17. ,Man-’made 30. ‘Answering ma,chine
5. ,Evening ‘star 18. ‘Careless 31. ‘Office ‘party
6. Move ‘over 19. Un’well 32. ‘Driving ,test
7. ,Long’standing 20. ‘Credit ,card 33. A,roma’therapy
8. ‘Heart di,sease 21. ‘Checkout 34. ‘Light-,brown
9. ,Stone-’blind 22. ,Self’-conscious 35. ‘Carrot ,cake
10. Ab’surd 23. ,Hold ‘up 36. ,Rice ‘pudding
11. ,Eigh’teen 24. ,Old-’fashioned 37. ‘Comeback
12. ‘Outlook 25. ‘Bookstore 38. ‘Bright-,red
13. Break ‘down 26. ‘Nail ,polish

Task 2. Transcribe the words and translate them into Russian (Ukrainian) according to the part of speech.

‘refill - додатковий R΄efuse - відмовляти ΄rebel - повстанець

контейнер Dis’charge - розряджати, ‘transfer - переведення, рух
‘addict -наркоман,залежна вивантажити з одного місця в інший,
людина Imp΄act - впливати переказ
Con’vict - засуджувати D΄iscount - не рахувати
Incl΄ine - нахил, кут щось важливим уваги

Task 3. Put down the stress marks in the underlined words below and translate them.

1. It’s what they ‘forecast. прогнозувати

2. He is a ‘suspect. підозрюваний
3. It’s a paragraph they decided to ‘prefix. приставляти спереду
4. He ‘accents the word.виділяти
5. They con’tract serious diseases. It’s a ‘contract. - укладати договір, договір
6. They con’flict with this theory. суперечити
7. Every child re’bels against authority at some age.повставати
8. Our author finds himself on the con’fines of a mystery. рубіж
9. He’s only 24 years old and a drug ‘addict. наркоман,залежна людина
10. This town bears most strongly the ‘impress of the middle age. враження

Assimilation of /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /θ/

/t/ → /p/
 
/t/ (followed by /p/, /b/ or /m/) becomes /p/
 That person.      ǀ ðæp ˈpɜːsən ǀ
 It boils.      ǀ ɪp ˈbɔɪlz ǀ
 That money.      ǀ ðæp ˈmʌni ǀ
 But, yeah, at that point I thought, “My God, I could be much more charming than Hugh!” (Rupert
Everett, BBC4).
 There were sources that believed that they had a hand in Philip’s assassination (Paul Cartledge,
BBC4).
 So, clearly, in a way, not much of a regular rythm there (Michael Rosen, OpenLearn)
 
/t/ → /k/
/t/ (followed by /k/ or /g/) becomes /k/
 Is that clear?      ǀ ðæk ˈklɪə ǀ
 Put down that gun.      ǀ ðæk ˈgʌn ǀ
 He greets ticket collectors and stationmasters and they return his salute (Julian Barnes, KUSP).
 As ideas emerge, get going, start writing and a form will start becoming aparent to you (Michael
Rosen, OpenLearn)

/d/ → /b/
 
/d/ (followed by /p/, /b/ or /m/) becomes /b/
 It could be better.      ǀ kʊb bi ˈbetə ǀ
 You could publish it.      ǀ kʊb ˈpʌblɪʃ ɪt ǀ
 She could modify it.      ǀ kʊb ˈmɒdɪfaɪ ɪt ǀ
 But, yeah, at that point I thought, “My God, I could be much more charming than Hugh!” (Rupert
Everett, BBC4).
 
/d/ → /g/
 
/d/ (followed by /k/ or /g/) becomes /g/
 You should come.       ǀ ʃʊg ˈkʌm ǀ
 He should go.       ǀ ʃʊg ˈgəʊ ǀ
 He had very low self-esteem, so he didn’t feel he could go and actually approach this person about
what they’d said about him (Theresa Gannon, BBC4).

/n/ → /m/
 
/n/ (followed by /p/, /b/ or /m/) becomes /m/
 Ten percent.      ǀ tem pəˈsent ǀ
 Ten boys.        ǀ tem ˈbɔɪz ǀ
 Better than me.        ǀ ˈbetə ðəm ˈmi ǀ
 Though I have, certainly on one book, gone back to writing the first draft entirely by hand (Julian
Barnes, OpenLean).

/n/ → /ŋ/
 
/n/ (followed by /k/ or /g/) becomes /ŋ/
 One king.       ǀ wʌŋ ˈkɪŋ ǀ
 Then go for it!      ǀ ˈðeŋ ˈgəʊ fər ɪt ǀ
.

/ s / changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound

nice yacht
bus shelter

dress shop

nice shoes

/ z / changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound

where's yours?

Rose show

these sheep

/θ/ changes to / s / before / s /

bath salts earth science

bath seat fifth set

birth certificate fourth season

both sexes fourth summer

 

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