1.1. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics.

Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology, grammar and

stylistics. It studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Phonetics is connected
with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology and so on.
Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in
relation to meaning.
Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language. It regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without any special attention
paid to the historical development of the English language, but in terms of English
language teaching.
Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in
relation to meaning. Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of
phonetic units in the language. It regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without
any special attention paid to the historical development of the English language, but in
terms of English language teaching.
 1.2. The links of phonetics with grammar.
Trough the system of rules of reading phonetics is connected with grammar and helps to
pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past
participles of English regular verbs: e.g. /d/ is pronounced after voiced consonants: beg
– begged;
/t/ is pronounced after voiceless consonants: look – looked; /ɪd/ is pronounced after /t/
and /d/: want p – wanted, intend – intended. Some adjectives have a form with /ɪd/: e.g.
crooked [ˈkrʊkɪd], naked [ˈneɪkɪd], ragged [ˈrægɪd].
Another manifestation of connection of phonetics with grammar is sound interchange. It
is one of the most important phonetic phenomena. This connection can be observed in
the category of number:
1) the interchange of /f-v/, /s-z/, /Ɵ-ð/ helps to differentiate singular and plural forms of
nouns: calf – calves, leaf – leaves, house – houses; 2) vowel interchange helps to
distinguish singular and plural of such words as: man – men, foot – feet, mouse – mice,
crisis – crises; 3) vowel interchange is connected with the tense forms of irregular verbs:
write – wrote – written; 4)vowel interchange can also help to distinguish between: a)
nouns and verbs e.g. bath – bathe [bɑ:Ɵ] – [beɪð]; b) adjectives and nouns e.g. hot –
heat [hɒt] – [hi:t]; c) verbs and adjectives e.g. moderate – moderate [ˈmɒdǝreɪt] –
[ˈmɒdǝrɪt]; d) nouns and nouns e.g. shade – shadow [ʃeɪd] – [ˈʃædǝʊ]; e) nouns and
adjectives e.g. type – typical [taɪp] – [ˈtɪpɪkl].
Consonants can interchange in different parts of speech, for example in nouns and
verbs: e.g. mouth – to mouse [Ɵ] – [ð], relief – to relieve [f] – [v].
Phonetics is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. Sometimes
it is intonation alone can serve to single out the logical predicate of the sentence:
e.g. ˈHe came home. (Not Mary or John). He ˈcame home. (So you can see him
now). He came ˈhome. (But you said he was going to the party).
Pausation may also perform a differentiatory function. If we compare two similar
sentences with different places of the pause, we will see that their meaning is different:
e.g. There was no love lost between them. (They loved each other).
There was no love ∣ lost between them. (They did not love each other).
 1.3. The links of phonetics with lexicology.
Phonetics is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the presence of stress
in the right place that we can distinguish certain nouns from verbs:
e.g. abstract (реферат) – to abstract (добувати, здобувати),
object (предмет) – to object (заперечувати, не схвалювати),
Homographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation because they are
identical in spelling:
e.g. bow [baʊ] лук– bow [bǝʊ] уклін,
tear [teǝ] розрив– tear [tɪǝ] сльоза,
wind [wɪnd] вітер– wind [waɪnd] виток.
Due to the position of word stress we can distinguish between homonymous words
and word groups:
e.g. ˈblackboard (дрізд) – ˈblack ˌbird (чорний птах),
ˈblue-nose (сорт картоплі) – ˈblue ˌnose (синій ніс).

ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНО

Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology, grammar and

stylistics. It studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Phonetics is connected
with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology and so on.
Practical phonetics studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in
relation to meaning.
Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the
language. It regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without any special attention
paid to the historical development of the English language, but in terms of English
language teaching.
 1.4. The links of phonetics with stylistics.
Phonetics is also connected with stylistics. First of all, trough intonation and its
components: speech melody, utterance stress, rhythm, pausation, voice tamber. They
serve to express emotions, to distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the
author and the speaker. Very often the writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas
through special words and remarks:
e.g. There was a short pause. He said bitterly. His tone was hostile.
Phonetics is also connected with stylistics trough repetition of words, phrases and
sounds. Repetition of identical or similar sounds is called alliteration. It helps to impart
a melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emotions. Thus, the repetition of
the sound /m/ in the lines of the ballad helps to produce the effect of merriment.
Onomatopoeia is one more stylistic device which can serve as an example of the
connection between phonetics and stylistics. It is a combination of sounds that imitate
sounds produced in nature:
e.g. chatter, clatter, babble; crash, bang; clink, ting, chink.
The study of phonetic phenomena from the stylistic point of view is termed
phonostylistics. It is connected with a number of linguistic and non-linguistic
disciplines, such as paralinguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics,
dialectology, information theory etc.
1.5. The branches of phonetics
There are three branches of phonetics each corresponding to a different stage in the
communication process. Each of these branches uses quite special sets of methods.
The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is et in motion, the
movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the
production of single sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker’s
mouth and the listener’s ear. Until recently articulatory phonetics has been the
dominating branch, and most descriptive work has been done in articulatory terms for
the purpose of teaching and because of special interest for research work and applied
linguistics.
The branch of phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory
phonetics. Its interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than
in the physiological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the
brain. The means by which sounds are discriminated – quality, sensations of pitch,
loudness, length, are relevant here. This branch of phonetics is of great interest to
anyone who teaches or studies pronunciation.
 2.1.Physical properties of a speech sound (untensity).
Speech sounds can be analysed from the viewpoint of three aspects: (1) acoustic,
(2) physiological and articulatory, (3) functional.
Speech sounds have a number of physical properties, the first of them is frequency,
that is the number of vibrations per second. When the vibrations produced by the vocal
cords are regular they produce the acoustic impression of voice or musical tone. When
they are irregular noise is produced. When there is a combination of tone and noise,
either noise or tone prevails. When tone prevails over noise sonorants are produced.
When noise prevails over tone voiced consonants are produced.
The second physical property of sound is intensity. Changes in intensity are
perceived as variation in the loudness of a sound. Intensity is measured in decibels
(dbs). Any sound has duration, it is its length or quantity or time during which the same
vibratory motion, the same pattern of vibration are maintained. The duration of speech
sounds is usually measured in milliseconds (msecs).
The analysis of a sound frequency and intensity at a definite period of time can be
presented graphically with the help of a sound spectrograph. Spectrographic analysis
gives basis for acoustic definitions and classification of speech sounds.
Although acoustic descriptions, definitions and classifications of speech sounds are
considered to be more precise than articulatory ones, they are practically inapplicable in
language teaching, because the acoustic features of speech sounds cannot be seen
directly or felt by the language learner. Acoustic descriptions, however, can be applied
in the fields of technical acoustics. They are also of great theoretical value.
 2.2.Mechanisms that take part in the production of speech sounds.
Speech is impossible without the following four mechanisms: 1) the power
mechanism, 2) the vibrator mechanism, 3) the vibrator mechanism, 4) the obstructor
mechanism.
The power mechanism consists of the diaphragm, the lungs, the bronchi, the windpipe
(or trachea), the glottis, the larynx, the mouth cavity, and the nasal cavity.
The vibrator mechanism consists of the vocal cords, they may be opened or closed
(completely or incompletely).
Acoustic investigations show that besides the vocal cords there are two sources that
participate in the production of speech sounds. First one, the turbulent noise(result of
some constriction in the flow of air). Second, the impulse wave is formed when the
complete obstruction to the flow of air in the mouth cavity is suddenly broken. These
sources of speech sounds may work separately or simultaneously. The vocal cords
produce vibration in the articulation of voice sounds, the turbulent noise helps to
produce voiceless constrictive consonants such as [f], [h],[v] the impulse source helps to
produce voiceless plosive consonants such as [p],[t],[k].
The two sources – vocal and turbulent participate in the production of voiced
constrictive consonants such as [v],[z],[d̠ʒ]. The vocal and impulse sources participate
in the production of voices plosive consonants such as[b],[d],[g].
The resonator mechanism consists of the pharynx, the larynx, the mouth cavity, and the
nasal cavity.
The obstructor mechanism consists of the tongue, the lips the soft palate with the uvula,
the hard palate.
 2.3. Articulatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorants.
Articulatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorants depend on the
three articulatory criteria. They are: 1) the presence or absence of an articulatory
obstruction to the air stream,2) the concentrated or diffused character of muscular
tension,3) the force of exhalation.
On the basis of these criteria consonants may be defined as sounds, in the
production of which (a) there is an articulatory obstruction to the air stream (complete,
incomplete, intermittent); (b) muscular tension is concentrated in the place of
obstruction; (c) the exhaling: force is rather strong.
Vowels may be defined as sounds in the production of which (a) there is no
articulatory obstruction to the air stream; (b) muscular tension is diffused more or less
evenly throughout the supra-glottal part of the speech apparatus; (c) the exhaling force
is rather weak.
Sonorants are sounds intermediate between noise consonants and vowels because
they have features common to both. There is an obstruction, but not narrow enough to
produce noise. Muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction but the
exhaling force is weak. English sonorants are: /m, n, g, 1, w, r, j/.
 3.1. Phonology as the branch of linguistics.
Phonetics studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units. Phonology investigates
sounds as units which serve communicative purposes. Phonetics and phonology are
closely connected. The unit of phonetics is a speech sound; the unit of phonology is a
phoneme. Phonemes can be discovered by the method of minimal pairs. This method
consists in finding pairs of words which differ in one phoneme. For example, if we
replace /b/ by /t/ in the word ban we produce a new word tan. Tan-ban is a pair of words
distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two words of this kind are termed
“minimal pair”. It is possible to take this process further. We can also produce can – ran
– man – fan – than – it is a “minimal set”.
The phonemes of a language form the system of oppositions, in which any one
phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one position in at least one
lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal pair. (If there is more than one
distinctive feature in a pair it is called sub-minimal).
 3.2. The theory of phonemes.
The founder of the phoneme theory was I.A. Baudouin de Courteney, the Russian
scientist of Polish origin. His theory of phoneme was developed and perfected by L.
Scherba – the head of the Leningrad linguistic school, who stated that in actual speech
we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of. In every language these
sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types, which are capable of
distinguishing the meaning and form of words, i.e. they serve the purpose of social
intercommunication.
The actually pronounced speech sounds are variants, or allophones of phonemes.
Allophones are realized in concrete words. They have phonetic similarity, i.e. their
acoustic and articulatory features have much in common. At the same time they differ in
some degree and are incapable of differentiating words. For example, in speech we
pronounce not the sound type /t/, which is aspirated, alveolar, forelingual, apical,
occlusive, plosive, voiceless-fortis – according to the classificatory definition, but one
of its variants,
e.g. labialized in the word twice,
dental in the word eighth,
post-alveolar in the word try,
exploded nasally in the word written,
exploded laterally in the word little,
pronounced without aspiration in the word stay.
The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each language is much smaller than
the number of sounds actually pronounced.
Comparative table of phonemes in different languages
Language Consonants Vowels Total
Ukrainian 32 6 38
English 24 20 44
German 22 18 40
 3.3. Phonemes and phonemic variants.
Phonemic variants, or allophones, are very important for language teaching because
they are pronounced in actual speech and though their mispronunciation does not
always influence the meaning of words; their misuse makes a person’s speech sound as
foreign.
That variant of the phoneme which is described as the most representative and free
from the influence of the neighbouring phonemes is considered to be typical, or
principal. The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. Subsidiary
allophones are used in certain positions traditionally. For example, the English /l/ is
realized in actual speech as a positional allophone:
e.g. it is clear in the initial position, and dark in the terminal position,
compare: light, let – hill, mill.
Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the
influence of one phoneme upon another.
To distinguish the sound types from their allophones in writing, two types of
brackets are used: slant-like for the phonemes proper, and square for their allophones.

ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНО

A phoneme is the unit of phonology. The phonemes of a language form the system of
oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at
least one position in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal pair. (If
there is more than one distinctive feature in a pair it is called sub-minimal).
 3.4. Patterns of phoneme distribution.
Each phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution. The simplest of
them is free variation, i.e. the variation of one and the same phoneme pronounced
differently:
e.g. would you [ˈwƱdju:] – [ˈwƱʤu:],
mutual [ˈmju:tjƱƏl] – [ˈmju:ʧƱƏl],
could you [ˈkƱdju:] – [ˈkƱʤu:].
Complementary distribution is another pattern of phoneme environment, when one
and the same phoneme occurs in a definite set of contexts in which no other phoneme
ever occurs. The allophones of one and the same phoneme never occur in the same
context, variants of one phoneme are mutually exclusive. (When allophones of one
phoneme do occur in the same context without distinctive force, they are in free
variation).
e.g. complementary distribution of /u:/: pool, youth, who, tube, rouge, duke. Each
word is given as an example of different /u:/environment, it cannot be observed in other
words.
Contrastive distribution is one more pattern of phoneme environment,
e.g. contrastive distribution of /u:/: book – beak, book – back, book – bark.

ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНО

A phoneme is the unit of phonology. The phonemes of a language form the system of
oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at
least one position in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal pair. (If
there is more than one distinctive feature in a pair it is called sub-minimal).
 3.5. Types of phonemic opposition.
ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНО

A phoneme is the unit of phonology. The phonemes of a language form the system of
oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in at
least one position in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or sub-minimal pair.
(If there is more than one distinctive feature in a pair it is called sub-minimal).

Minimal distinctive features are discovered through oppositions. This method helps
to prove whether the phonemic difference is relevant or not, whether the opposition is
single, double or multiple:
e.g. /t/ and /d/ are different:/ t/ voiceless fortis, /d/ - voiced lenis.
Their other characteristic features are irrelevant, thus /t/ and /d/ have only one
distinctively relevant feature, thus the opposition is single.
I can prove that this opposition is really phonemic by the minimal pairs:
e.g. ten – den, time – dime, try – dry.
If there are two distinctively relevant features, the opposition is double,
e.g. /p/ and /d/ differ along the following lines:
/p/ - voiceless fortis labial, bilabial, /d/ - voiced lenis, lingual, forelingual.
This opposition is really phonemic. It can be proved by the minimal pairs:
e.g. pie – die, pail – dale, pry – dry.
The opposition /b/ - /h/ is multiple because these phonemes differ along the
following lines:
/b/ - voiced lenis labial, bilabial, occlusive
/h/- voiceless fortis, pharyngeal, constrictive
The phonemic nature of this opposition can be proved by minimal pairs:
e.g. be – he, bit – hit, bait – hate.
The method of minimal pairs helps to establish the inventory of phonemes; it is one
of the two main problems of phonological analysis.
There is one more big problem in phonology – theory of distinctive features. It was
originated by N. Trubetskoy and developed by such foreign scientists as R. Jackobson,
C. Fant, N. Chomsky, G. Monroe and others. Distinctive features are the main, basic
elements of variability in different languages. The communication of meaning and
utterance is effected due to these features.
 3.6. The nature of the phoneme. Its definition and functions.
There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its definition.
I.A. Baudouin de Courteney defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound.
He originated the “mentalist” view of the phoneme.
The abstractional conception of the phoneme was originated by Ferdinand de
Saussure, the famous Swiss linguist and the Danish linguist L. Hjelmslev. It was
advocated by their pupils in the Copenhagen circle. The “abstract” view regards the
phoneme independent of the phonetic properties.
N.S. Trubetskoy, L. Bloomfield, R. Jakobson viewed the phoneme as the minimal
sound units by which meanings may be differentiated. They stated that the features of
the phoneme involved in the differentiation of words are called distinctive. They can be
found in contrastive sets.
The physical view on the phoneme was originated by D. Jones. He defined the
phoneme as a “family” of sounds. The members of the family show phonetic similarity.
No member of the family can occur in the same phonetic context as any other member.
L.V. Scherba was the first to define the phoneme as a real, independent distinctive
unit which manifests itself in the form of allophones.
Prof. Vassilyev developed L. Scherba’s theory and presented a detailed definition
of the phoneme. He stated that a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects: 1)
material, real and objective; 2) abstractional and generalized; 3) functional.
It serves to perform the following functions: a) constitutive; b) distinctive; c)
recognitive.
V. Vassilyev states that phoneme is material, real and objective because it really
exists in the material form of speech sounds, allophones. It is an objective reality,
existing independently from our will or intention. It is an abstraction because we make
it abstract from concrete realizations for classificatory purposes. It functions to make
one word or its grammatical form distinct from the other. It constitutes words and helps
to recognize them.
 4.1. Factors that condition the modifications of sounds. (reduction
+accommodation)
In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory
work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are
modified. These modifications can be conditioned:
a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes
back-advanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the
words tune, nude. In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is ad-
vanced under (be influence of the fully front /i/, which follows it; b) by the contextual
variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar
phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the
influence of /ð/ which follows it; c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial.
E. g. hot muffins may turn into
As a result of the intercourse between consonants, consonants and within each class
there appear such processes of connected speech as assimilation, accommodation
(adaptation), vowel reduction and elision.
ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНО

Assimilation is the chief factor under the influence of which the principal variants
of phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones.
As far as the direction of assimilation (and accommodation) is concerned it can be:
1) progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the
second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks, pegs, the sounds /k/ and /g/make the plural
inflection /s/ similar to the voiceless /k/ in /desks/ and to the voiced /g/ in /pegz/;
2) regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes
the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination ‘at the’ the alveolar /t/ becomes
dental, assimilated to the interdental / ð / which follows it;
3) double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is
rounded under the 'influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under the influence of the
voiceless /t/.
When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa
this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation.
Reduction is actually qualitative or quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed
positions (man – postman, board – blackboard).
Elision or complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants is often observed in
English.
Elision is likely to be minimal in show careful speech and maximal in rapid relaxed
colloquial forms of speech. Thus, when one of the neighboring sounds are not realized
in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision.
4.2. Assimilation. Its definition and types.
Assimilation is the chief factor under the influence of which the principal variants
of phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones.
Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is
called living.
Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is
called historical.
As far as the direction of assimilation (and accommodation) is concerned it can be:
1) progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the
second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks, pegs, the sounds /k/ and /g/make the plural
inflection /s/ similar to the voiceless /k/ in /desks/ and to the voiced /g/ in /pegz/;
2) regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes
the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination ‘at the’ the alveolar /t/ becomes
dental, assimilated to the interdental / ð / which follows it;
3) double, or reciprocal, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other,
e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the 'influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under the
influence of the voiceless /t/.
Each sound pronounced in isolation has three stages in its articulation.
1.During the first stage the organs of speech move to the position which is
necessary to pronounce the sound. It is called differently by different authors: initial
stage, on-glide, excursion.
2.During the second stage the organs of speech are kept for some time in the posi-
tion necessary to pronounce the sound. This stage is called: medial stage, stop-stage,
retention stage, the hold.
3.During the third stage the organs of speech move away to the neutral position.
This stage is called final stage, off-glide, recursion, release.
 4.3.Ways of joining the sounds.
There are two ways of joining the sounds:
(1) merging of stages — when the final stage of the first sound merges with the
initial stage of the second sound, loose type of articulatory transition.
(2) interpenetration of stages — when the final stage of the first sound penetrates
not only the beginning but also the middle of the second sound —close type of
articulatory transition.
For example, in the word law the two sounds III and /o:/ are joined by way of
merging their stages.
Interpenetration of stages takes place when sounds of a similar, or identical nature
are joined together:
For example: in the words act, bottle, vehicle the clusters /kt/, /tl/, /id/ are
pronounced with the "loss of plosion".
/tl/, /kl/ are pronounced with the lateral plosion.
When the two neighbouring sounds are affected by assimilation, it may influence:
1) the work of the vocal cords;
2) the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.
 4.4. The work of the vocal cords affected by assimilation.
Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two
adjacent consonants becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced
consonant, or voiceless — under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant.
For example, in the word gooseberry Is/ became voiced under the influence of the next
voiced /b/ — regressive assimilation. 
In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r, j, w/ are partly devoiced before a
vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly,
twice, cry. In this case partial progressive assimilation affects the work of the vocal
cords both in English and in Russian. In Russian voiceless-voiced distinction can be
completely lost, compare: суп, субпродукты where /б/ undergoes complete regressive
assimilation to /n/ which follows it. Russian learners should be careful about the cases
where regressive assimilation may fully affect the work of the vocal cords due to the
Russian habit of regressive voicing.
Two obligatory assimilations of this type in English are used to and have to (must),
e.g. I used to wear a suit /ai ju:st tə 'weə ə sju:t/
but I used two pens / ai ju:zt two penz/
 I have to be early /ai 'haef tə bi 3:li/ but
I have two pens / ai haev 'tu: penz /.
 4.5. The place of articulation and the manner of noise production affected by
assimilation.
Assimilation affecting the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.
Consonants are modified according to the place of articulation. Assimilation take place
when a sound changes its character in order to become more like a neighboring sound.
It can be illustrated as follows:
1). In the word clusters at the coccid that the dental /t/ and /d/ become interdental
under the influence of the next interdental / ð /. It’s regressive assimilation.
2). In the word free, true, dream the alveolar /t/ and /d/ become post-alveolar under
the influence of the next post-alveolar /r/. it’s partial regressive assimilation.
3). In the word clusters’ horse-shoe, does she, this shop the alveolar /s/, /z/ become
post-alveolar under the influence of the next post-alveolar / ʃ / . it’s complete regressive
assimilation.
4). In the words and combination’s’ graduate, congratulate did you, could you the
alveolar /t/ and /d/ become affricated under the influence of the affricative combinations
/t+j/. Its incomplete redressive assimilation.
By analogy with alveolar consonants it’s possible to speak about nasal ASM which
operates not only within the morpheme as in thank but also within:
-syllable boundaries: symphony;
- morpheme boundaries: in prefixes –in, -un (incomplete, ungrateful, impractical);
-and word boundaries: in case, in fact.
The manner of articulation is also changed as a result of articulation in the
following cases:
1. Loss of plosion. In the sequence of two plosive consonants the former loses its
plosion: glad to see you, great trouble. These are cases of partial regressive
assimilation.
2. Nasal plosion. In the sequence of a plosive followed by a nasal sonorant the manner
of articulation of the plosive sound and the work of the soft palate are involved, which
results in the nasal character of plosion release: sudden, at night.
These are cases of partial regressive assimilation.
3. Lateral plosion. In the sequence of a plosive followed by the lateral sonorant /l/ the
noise production of the plosive stop is changed into that of the lateral stop: settle,
candle, at last. These are cases of partial regressive assimilation.
 4.8. Elision. Its types.
Elision or complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants is often observed in
English.
Elision is likely to be minimal in show careful speech and maximal in rapid relaxed
colloquial forms of speech. Thus, when one of the neighboring sounds are not realized
in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision.
Elision can be historical can be historical and contemporary English spelling is full
of ‘silent’ letters which bear witness to historical elision, e.g. chalk, walk, knee, knight,
castle, write, wrong, wrist.
The most common cases of contemporary elision are the following:
a). /ft, st, ʃt, θt, vd, zd, ðd/ sequences: waste [weis], paper [peipə], crushed
strawberries [krʌ ʃ strɔ:briz].
b). /pt,kt,bd,tʃt,dʒd/ sequences: cracked pots [‘kræk pɒts]
c). /md,nd, ŋd/ sequences: slammed the door ['slæm ðədɔ:].
In this case elision most frequently remove the marker of past tense in verbs. The
meaning is usually clear from the context.
There are some words and verbal forms in which elision frequently exists in
everyday speech.
There are:
1) months and clothes with elided dental fricatives, [ˈmʌnƟs] → [ˈmʌns],
[ˈkləʊðz] → [ˈkləʊz]
2) fifth and sixth elide the consonants which precede /Ɵ/, [ˈfIfƟ] → [ˈfIf],
[ˈsIksƟ] → [ˈsIkƟ]
3) of elided /v/ before /ð/

e.g. seven of those apples [ˈsevən ə ðəʊz ˌæplz], six of the best [ˈsıks ə ðə ˌbest]

4) tt is reduced to t in the following verbal forms e.g. I want to drive [aı ˈwɒntə
draıv], We’ve got to be careful [wï:v ˈgɒtə bı ˌkeəfʊl]

5)going to has the form [ˈgɒnə] in all cases except very careful speech

e.g. We’re going to move house [ˈwıə ˈgɒnə ˈmu:v ðə ˌhaʊs]

 5.1. Nature of stress. Its definition. 5.2. Types of stress.
Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. It can be
perceived as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress. Stress in
connected speech is termed sentence stress. Stress is defined differently by different
authors.
Bogoroditsky defined stress as an increase of energy, accompanied by an increase
of expiratory and articulatory activity.
D. Jones states that stress in the degree of force, which is accompanied by a strong
force of exhalation and gives an impression of loudness. H. Sweet established the
connection of stress with the force of breath. The English linguists D. Crystal, A.
Gimson agree that in English word stress or accent is a complex phenomenon, marked
by variations in force, pitch, quantity, and quality. Stress is the singling out of one or
more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance,
pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound, which is
usually a vane.
2. Types of stress.
In different languages one of the factors constituting word stress is usually more
significant than the others.
According to the most important feature different types of word stress are
distinguished in different languages.
If special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through
the intensity of articulation, such type of stress is called dyname (force).
If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through its change of
pitch or musical tone, such accent is called musical (tonic).
If special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly through the change
of in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables, such type of
stress is called quantitative.
Quantitative type of is achieved though the changes in the quality of a vowel under
stress.
 5.3. Fixed and free stress.
Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. It can be
perceived as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress. Stress in
connected speech is termed sentence stress.
All English vowels may occur in accented syllable; the only exception is /ə/, which
is never stressed. Stress can be characterized as fixed and free.
In languages with fixed type the place of stress is always the same, e.g. in Czech
and Slavak the stress regularly falls on the first syllable. In French, Welsh, Polish is on
the penultimate syllable. In English, Ukrainian and Russian word stress in free, I.e. it
may fall on any syllable in a word:
On the first (mother); on the second (occasion); on the third (detonation) etc.
Word stress in English and to a much greater extent in Ukrainian; is dynamic or
shifting.
e.d. syllable – syl’lable, trans’port – transpor’tation – trans’porting. It helps to
differentiate different parts of speech.
e.g. ‘insult – to in’sult, ‘import – to im’port, ‘conduct – to con’dect.
In English ‘billow’ is морський вал, ‘be’low’ is донизу. Similar cases can be
observed in Ukrainian and Russian: му’ка – мука’, за’мок – замо’к, образи’ – обра’зи
о’брази
In Russian: у’зко, ки’сло, ма’ло are adjectives, but узко, кисло, мало are adverbs.
 5.4. Degrees of word stress.
Any word spoken in isolation has at least one prominent syllable. It can be
perceived as stressed. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress. Stress in
connected speech is termed sentence stress.
There is some controversy about the degrees of the word stress terminology and
about placing the stress marks.
Most British phoneticians term the strangest stress primary, the sound strongest
secondary, and all the other degrees of the stress-weak.
The stress marks placed before the stressed syllables indicate simultaneously their
place and the point of syllable division, e.g. ‘examination.
The number of words with two primary stressed in considerably larger in English
than in Ukrainian due to the prefixes un-, in-, dis-, ex-, under- and some others forming
prominent syllables, which is not observed in Ukrainian.
5.5. Factors that determine the place and different degree of word stress.
English words consisting of two, three or more syllables have an obligatory secondary
stress: abo'lition, ,possi'bility, ,nece'ssarily. This phenomenon is almost alien to
Ukrainian, though a weaker stress can be traced in distinctly or carefully pronounced
polysyllabic words,
e.g. за,гальноос'вітній, ко,ристо'любний, при,ватно'власницький.
It should be noted that due to the different origin of several layers in the Modern
English word-stock the accentual structure of English words is instable.
In Germanic languages the word stress originally fell on the initial or the second
syllable, on the root syllable in the English words with prefixes.
This tendency was called recessive.
Most English words of Anglo-Saxon origin as well as the French borrowings are
subjected to the recessive tendency.
Unrestricted recessive tendency is observed in:
- the native English words having no prefix, (англ слова без префикса)
e.g. daughter ['dɔːtə], mother [ˈmʌðə], brother [ˈbrʌðə];
- in assimilated French borrowings, (в ассимилированных франц заимствованых)
e.g. reason ['ri zn], colour ['kʌlə], restaurant ['restrɔːn].
Restricted recessive tendency marks English words with prefixes,
e.g. become [bɪˈkʌm], begin [bɪˈɡɪn], apart [əˈpɑːt], foresee [fɔːˈsiː].
A great number of words of Anglo-Saxon origin are monosyllabic or dissyllabic, both
notional words and form words.
They tend to alternate in the flow of speech, e.g. I 'don't be'lieve he's 'right.
The rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables predetermined the
rhythmical tendency in the present day English, which caused the appearance of the
secondary stress in the multisyllabic French borrowings, e.g. revolution, organization,
assimilation, pronunciation.
The third tendency was traced in the instability of the accentual structure of English
word stress.
This tendency is termed retentive; it consists in the retention of the primary accent on
the original or parent word,
e.g. 'person - 'personal. More commonly it is retained on the parent word as a
secondary accent,
e.g. 'similar - ,simi'larity.
 5.6. Rules of word stress.
The numerous variations of English word stress can be regulated in the system of the following rules
of word stress in English:
1. In words of two or more syllables the primary stress mostly falls on the first syllable,
e.g. 'sensible, 'possibly.
2. In prefixal words the primary stress basically falls on the syllable that follows the prefix,
e.g. im'possible, re'call.
3. In prefixal words prefixes which have their own meaning are stressed, e.g. 'ex-,minister,
'vice-,president.
4. In prefixal verbs which are distinguished from identically spelt nouns and adjectives, the place of
stress is on the second syllable.
Nouns and adjectives have their stress on the initial syllable, e.g. to com'pound(verb) and 'compound
(adjective), to in'crease (verb) and 'increase (noun).
5. In words of four or more syllables the place of stress is on the antepenultimate syllable (third from
the end), e.g. e'mergency, ca'lamity, his'torical.
In compound words the first element is stressed when:
1. Compounds are written as one word, e.g. 'appletree, 'bedroom, 'caretaker, 'watchdog.
2. Nouns are compounded of a verb or an adverb, e.g. a 'pick-up, a 'make-up.
3. Nouns in the possessive case are followed by another noun, e.g. a 'doll's house.
In compound words the second element is stressed when:
1. Names of roads, parks and squares are implied, e.g. Ca'thedral 'Road, Park 'Place
2. Parts of the house and other buildings are implied, e.g. front 'door, kitchen 'window.
3. Adjectives with past participles characterize persons, e.g. thick-'skinned, cold-'blooded.
4. Compound nouns ending in -er or -ing are followed by an adverb, e.g. passer 'by.
Two equal stresses are observed in:
1. Composite verbs, e.g. to 'give ˌup, to 'come ˌin, to 'take ˌto.
2. Numerals from 13 to 19, e.g. 'sixˌteen, 'fifˌteen.
It should be mentioned that the rhythmic tendency in modern English is very strong.
Due to its influence there are such accentual variants as: 'hospitable and hos'pitable.
In sentences words with two equal stresses can be pronounced with one single stress under the
influence of rhythm, e.g. 'thirteen, but: The 'girl is thirˌteen. She is 'thirteen years ˌold.
Under the influence of rhythm a shifting of word stress can be observed in words with secondary
stress, e.g. qualifi'cation - 'just qualifi'cation.
The rhythmic stress affects the stress pattern of a great number of words in the English language.
This results in the secondary accent: e.g. refu'gee, employ'ee, engi'neer, occu'pation.
Under the influence of rhythm compounds of three elements may have a single stress on the second
element, e.g. hot 'water bottle, waste 'paper basket.
In everyday speech the following variants of stress patterns can also be observed: 1) Stylistically
conditioned accentual variants, e.g. territory [ˈtɛrɪˌt ɔːri] (official style), [ˈtɛrɪtri] (rapid colloquial
speech); 2) individual, free accentual variants, e.g. hospitable [ˈhɒspɪtəbl] and [hɒsˈpɪtəbl].
Both variants of pronunciation are correct. But free accentual variants should not be confused with
orthoepically incorrect accentuation.
 6.1. The notion of a syllable.
Though the basic phonological units are phonemes, human intercommunication is
actualized in syllables. The study of the syllable has for a long time occupied an
important place in linguistics as a field of theoretical investigation. But though
phonetics has progressed far enough the problem of the syllable is still an open
question.
The syllable as a unit is difficult to define. That is why there exist a great number of
different interpretations and views on the syllable. According to J.Kenyon, the syllable
is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which
may be a word, or a commonly recognized subdivision of a word. The syllable can be: a
single word as in chair [ʧeə], a part of a word as in English [ˈıŋ-glıʃ], a part of a
grammatical form of a word as in later [ˈleı-tə].
The syllable like the phoneme can be studied on four levels: acoustic, articulatory,
auditory and functional. It means that the syllable can be approached from different
points of view. The complexity of the phenomenon gave rise to many theories.
 6.2. The structure of an English syllable.
Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel –
consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic (слоговой; силлабически) while consonants are
not, except for /l/, /m/, /n/ which become syllabic if they occur in an unstressed final
position preceded by a noise consonant,
e.g. little [ˈlıtl], blossom [ˈblɒsəm], garden [ˈgɑ:dn].
The structure of the syllable is known to vary because of the number and the
arrangement of consonants. In English there are distinguished four types of syllables:

1 Open [nəʊ] no CV
2 Closed [ɒd] odd VC
3 Covered [nəʊt] note CV(C)
4 Uncovered [əʊ], oh, oak V(C)
[əʊk]

As to the number of syllables in the English word it can vary from one to eight: e.g.
1 – come [kʌm], 2 – city [ˈsɪtɪ], 3 – family [ˈfæmɪlɪ], 4 – simplicity [sɪmˈplɪsɪtɪ], 5 –
unnaturally [ʌnˈnəʧərəlɪ], 6 – incompatibility [ˈɪnkɒmˌpætɪˈbɪlɪtɪ], 7 – unintelligibility
ˈ[ˈʌnɪnˌtelɪʤɪˈbɪlɪtɪ] etc.
The syllable like the phoneme can be studied on four levels: acoustic, articulatory,
auditory and functional. It means that the syllable can be approached from different
points of view. The complexity of the phenomenon gave rise to many theories.
 6.3. Theories of syllable formation.
The most ancient theory states that there are as many syllables in a word as there
are vowels. This theory is primitive and insufficient since it does not take into
consideration consonants which can also form syllables in some languages, neither does
it explain boundary of syllables.
The expiratory [ɪk'spɪrət(ə)rɪ] theory states that there are as many syllables in a
word as there are expiration pulses. The borderline between the syllables is, according
to this theory, the moment of the weakest expiration. This theory is inconsistent
[ˌɪnkən'sɪst(ə)nt] because it is quite possible to pronounce several syllables in one
articulatory effort or expiration, e.g. [ˈsi:ıŋ].
The sonority (звонкость, звучность) theory states that there are as many syllables
in a word as there are peaks of prominence or sonority. Speech sounds pronounced with
uniform (одинаковый force), length and pitch differ in inherent [ɪn'her(ə)nt]
(присущий) prominence or sonority. Being pronounced on the same level, sounds have
different acoustic intensity or sonority. Within the framework of this theory the scale of
sonority of sounds was established (O.Jespersen), i.e. the scale of their inherent
prominence. According to this scale the most sonorous are back vowels (low, mid,
high), then go semi-vowels and sonorants, then – voiced and voiceless consonants.
SCALE OF SONORITY
1) Low vowels /a:, Ɔ:, ɒ, æ/ 4) Semi-vowels /w, j/
2) Mid vowels /e, ɜ:, ə, ^/ 5) Sonorants /l, r, m, n, ŋ/
3) High vowels /i:, I, u:, ʊ/
6) Voiced constrictive consonants /v, z, ʒ, ð/
7) Voiced plosive consonants /b, d, g/
8) Voiced constrictive consonants and affricates /ʃ, ʧ, ʤ, f. s, h, Ɵ /
9) Voiceless plosive consonants /p, t, k/
According to this theory sounds are grouped around the most sonorous ones,
which form the peaks of sonority in a syllable. Two points of lower sonority
constitutes the beginning and the end of one syllable.
The sonority theory helps to establish the number of syllables in a word but
fails to explain the mechanism of syllable division because it does not state to
which syllable the weak sound at the boundary of the two syllables belongs.
There is one more theory named “arc [ɑːk] (дуга) of loudness” based on L.
Scherba’s statement that the centre of a syllable is the syllable forming phoneme.
Sounds which precede or follow it constitute (составлять) a chain, or an arc,
which is weak in the beginning and in the end and strong in the middle.
None of the theories mentioned above is reliable in the definition of the
syllable boundary. The linguistic importance of syllable division in different
languages is in finding typology of syllables and syllabic structure of meaningful
units of a language, i.e. morphemes and words. It is the syllable division that
determines (определять) the syllabic structure of the language.
6.4. The rules of syllable division.
The syllabic structure of a language is patterned (образован); it means that
the sounds of language can be grouped into syllables according to certain rules.
Electro acoustic analysis makes it possible to formulate the following rules of
syllable division in English:
In affixal words the syllabic boundary coincides [ˌkəuɪn'saɪd] (совпадать)
with the morphological boundary, e.g. dis – place , be – come, un – able, count –
less.
In words with CVCV structure two ways of the syllabic boundary are
possible, either after the long accented (ударный) vowel, e.g. farmer [ˈfɑ:-mə], or
within the intervocalic (интервокальный) consonant, e.g. city [ˈsɪtɪ], pity [ˈpɪtɪ].
In words of CSCV structure the syllabic boundary is within the intervocalic
sonorant, e.g. inner [ˈɪnə], cinema [ˈsɪnɪmə], enemy [ˈenɪmɪ].
English diphthongs are unisyllabic (одно-) because they consist of one vowel
phoneme, English triphthongs are dissyllabic because they consist of two vowel
phonemes, e.g. science [ˈsaɪ-əns], flower [ˈflaʊ-ə].
 6.5. Functional characteristics of the syllable.
The syllable as a phonological unit performs three functions: constitutive
[kən'stɪtjutɪv] (основополагающий), distinctive, identificatory
(опознавательный). They are closely connected.
Constitutive function lies in the ability to be a part of a word or a word itself.
Syllables constitute (составлять) words, phrases and sentences through the
combination of their prosodic (интонационный) features: loudness – stress, pitch
– tone, duration – length and tempo. Syllables may be stressed, unstressed; high,
mid, low, rising, falling; long and short. All these prosodic features form the
stress-pattern of words and the rhythmic and intonation structures of an utterance.
Distinctive function (differentiatory) demonstrates the ability of the syllable to
differentiate words and word-forms. To prove that a set of minimal pairs should be
found so that qualitative and/or quantitative peculiarities of certain allophones
could indicate the beginning or the end of the syllable.
e.g. an aim – a name; I scream – ice-cream;
в ранці – вранці; цеглина – це глина.
It can be seen from the examples that syllable division changes the allophonic
context of the word because the realization of the phoneme in different positions
in a syllable (initial, medial, final) results in different allophones.
The distinctive function of the syllabic boundary makes it possible to
introduce the term “juncture” стык (морфем, фонем, синтаксических структур)
(the place where two sounds are joined together). Close juncture or conjuncture
(соединение) occurs between sounds within one syllable:
e.g. a name (the close juncture is between /n/ and /eɪ/);
I scream (the close juncture is between /s/ and /k/).
Open juncture or disjuncture occurs between two syllables. If we mark open
juncture with + then in our examples it will occur between a + name, I + scream. It
is easy to turn open juncture into close one:
e.g. a name for it → an aim for it
a black tie → a blacked eye.
Identificatory function is conditioned by the pronunciation of the speaker. The
listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the
correct syllabic boundary – syllabodisjuncture:
e.g. pea stalks (стебель) → peace talks; my train → might rain.
 The existence of such pairs demands special attention to teaching not only the
correct pronunciation of sounds but also the observation of the correct place for
syllabodisjuncture.
7.1. The notion of intonation.
Intonation is a complex unity of prosodic features of speech: 1) melody, pitch
of the voice; 2)sentence stress; 3)temporal characteristics (duration, tempo,
pausation); 4) rhythm; 5) tamber (voice quality).
Intonation is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines
communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation
groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes.
The two main functions of intonation are communicative and expressive.
 7.2. The main approaches to the problem of intonation.
Intonation is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines
communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation
groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes.
There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain.
One is known as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical.
The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H.Sweet, D.Jones,
C.Palmer, L.Armstrong, J.O’Connor, A.Gimson and others. It is traditional and
widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic
meaning can be attached is a tone group (sense group). Their theory is based on
the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional “blocks”. They pay
much attention to these blocks but not to the way they are connected. In fact, in
the framework of this approach the aim of communication determines the
intonation structure, not vice versa.
The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by
M.Halliday. In his opinion the main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a
complex unity of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are
connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end
of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tones, which
can be primary or secondary, convey the attitude of the speaker.
 7.3. Melody.
Speech melody or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sentence
stress. Successive contours of intonation singled out of the speech flow may be
defined differently: sense groups, breath groups, tone groups, intonation groups,
tone (tonetic) units, pitch and stress patterns.
The tone unit is one of the most important units of
intonation theory. It contains one nucleus or peak of prominence. The interval
between the highest and the lowest pitched syllable is called the range of a sense
group. The range usually depends on the pitch level: the higher the pitch, the
wider the range. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone
group is called a nuclear tone. It may occur not only in the nucleus but extend to
the tail – terminal tone. The inventory
of tonal types given by different scholars is different. H Sweet distinguishes 8
tones: level, high rising, low rising, high falling, low falling, compound rising,
compound falling, rising-falling-rising. C. Palmer states that there are 4 basic
tones: falling, high rising, falling-rising, low rising. M. Halliday recognizes 7
major types.
Prof. Vassilyev discriminates 10 tone units. He states that tones
can be moving and level. Moving tones can be: simple, complex and compound.
They are: Low Fall, High Wide Fall, High Narrow Fall; Low Rise, High Narrow
Rise, High Wide Rise; Rise-Fall; Rise-Fall-Rise. Level tones can be pitched at
High, Mid and Low level. Methods of indicating intonation are different. The
system of tonetic symbols is the most economical and vivid, that is why it is the
most popular in our textbooks.
The most important part of the intonation group is the nucleus, which carries
nuclear stress (nuclear tone).
According to the changes in the voice pitch preheads can be: rising, mid and
low. Scales can be: descending, ascending and level.
According to the direction of pitch movement within and between syllables,
descending and ascending scales can be: stepping, sliding and scandent.
If one of the words in the descending scale is made specially prominent, this
type of scale is called broken descending scale.
The falling tones convey completion and finality, they are categoric in
character. The rising tones are incomplete and non-categoric. Of all the level tones
Mid Level tone is used most frequently. The level tones may express hesitation
and uncertainty.
 7.4. Sentence stress.
Sentence stress or accent is a greater prominence of words which are made
more prominent in an intonation group.
The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case
of stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness. In the case of accent it is
pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance correlate with the pitch range system.
Nuclear stress is the strongest – it carries the most important information. Non-
nuclear stress is subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head
of the intonation group. Partial stress occurs also in the prehead and tail.
In tone groups stress may undergo alternations under the influence of
rhythm. But there are some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or
unstressed in an utterance.
Words that are usually stressed:
Nouns; adjectives; numerals; interjections; demonstrative pronouns; emphatic
pronouns; possessive pronouns (absolute form); interrogative pronouns; indefinite
pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as
subject); indefinite negative pronouns: no, none, no one, nobody, nothing;
indefinite pronouns: some, any (expressing quality); indefinite pronouns: all,
each, every, other, either, both; indefinite quantitative pronouns: much, many, a
little, a few; notional verbs; auxiliary verbs (negative contracted forms); two-word
prepositions; two-word conjunctions; particles: only, also, too, even, just.
Words that are usually unstressed:
Personal pronouns; reflexive pronouns; reciprocal pronouns; relative
pronouns; possessive pronouns (conjoint form); indefinite pronouns: some, any
(when expressing quantity); indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, something,
anybody, anyone, anything (used as object); auxiliary verbs (affirmative form);
one-word prepositions; one-word conjunctions; articles; particles: there, to; modal
verbs (but contracted forms and general questions are exceptions).
The meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether
they are stressed or unstressed:
e.g. You ˈmay go. (possibility)
You may ˈgo. (permission)
 Stress in an utterance provides the basis for identification and understanding
of the content. It helps to perform constitutive, distinctive and identificatory
functions of intonation.

7.5. Rhythm and tempo.

Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is so
typical of an English phrase that the incorrect rhythm betrays the non-English
origin of the speaker even in cases of correct pronunciation.
The phenomenon of rhythm is closely connected with the phonetic nature of
stress. The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance are stress groups or
rhythmic groups. Unstressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the preceding
stressed syllables (enclitics) or to the following stressed syllables (proclitics).
Each sense group of the sentence is pronounced at approximately the same
period of time. Unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly: the greater the
number of unstressed syllables, the quicker they are pronounced. Proclitics are
pronounced faster than enclitics. Rhythm is connected with sentence stress. Under
the influence of rhythm words, which are normally pronounced with the two
equally strong stresses, may lose one of them.
 7.6. Pausation and tamber.
Pausation is closely connected with the other components of intonation. The
number and length of pauses affect the general tempo of speech. A slower tempo
makes the utterance more prominent and more important. It is an additional means
of expressing the speaker’s emotions.
Pauses are usually divided into filled and unfilled, corresponding to voiced
and silent pauses. Another subdivision of pauses is into breathing and hesitation.
Pauses play not only segmentative and delimitative functions. They show relations
between utterances and intonation groups, performing constitutive function. They
play the semantic and syntactic role.
e.g. There was no love lost between them. (They loved each other)
There was no love lost ∣ between them. (They didn’t love each other)
The tamber of the voice quality is a special colouring of the speaker’s voice. It
is used to express various emotions and moods such as joy, anger, sadness,
indignation, etc.
 7.7. Stylistic use of intonation.
The choice of an intonational style is determined primarily by the purpose of
communication and by a number of other extra linguistic and social factors.
Linguists single out several intonational styles but term them differently. For
example, S.Leontyeva identifies five functional styles: Belles-letters Style,
Publicistic Style, Newspaper Style, Scientific Prose Style, and the Style of Official
Documents. But the recent achievements in experimental phonetics made it
possible to single out the following intonational styles: Informational, Academic
(Scientific), Publicistic (Oratorial), Declamatory (Artistic), Conversational
(Familiar).
It is widely accepted that the purpose of communication determines the types
of intonation conveyed in oral texts. There may be patterns used for: a) intellectual
purposes, b) emotional and attitudinal purposes, c) volitional and desiderative
purposes, by which the substantive goals of speakers are carried out.
It should be noted that any intonational style is an extremely complex
phenomenon. Even a single speech act involves an extraordinary range of factors
and could be considered from any different and sometimes even conflicting points
of view.