Language

“Language,” as defined by Jack C. Richards and Richard Schmidt, is the system of human communication
that composed of the structured arrangement of sounds or their written representation into larger
units, such as morphemes, words, and sentences. In common usage it can also refer to nonhuman
systems of communication such as “the language” of bees or the “language” of dolphins.

Saussure contended that language must be considered as a social phenomenon, a structured system
that can be viewed synchronically (as it exists at any particular time) and diachronically (as it changes in
the course of time).

Saussure says that language is really a borderland between thought and sound, where thought and
sound combine to provide communication. Spoken language includes the communication of concepts by
means of sound-images from the speaker to the listener.

Saussure contends that language must be considered as a social phenomenon, a structured system
that can be viewed synchronically (as it exists at any particular time) and diachronically (as it changes
in the course of time). He says that the relationship between thought and sound is a borderland
where sound-images combine with concepts to provide communication. Spoken language includes the
communication of concepts by means of sound-images from the speaker to the listener.

Ferdinand de Saussure contends that language is a social phenomenon. Saussure says that the
relationship between thought and sound is a borderland where sound-images combine with concepts to
provide communication. Spoken language includes the communication of concepts by means of sound-
images from the speaker to the listener.

Phonology

Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages. Put more formally,
phonology is the study of the categorical organisation of speech sounds in languages; how speech
sounds are organised in the mind and used to convey meaning.

The study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages is called phonology. Phonology
takes into account the categorical organisation of speech sounds in languages, how speech sounds are
organised in the mind and used to convey meaning.

Phonology, also known as phonemics, is the study of the particular sound units (phonemes) in
languages. It can be compared to phonetics, which is the study of human speech in general, and includes
the articulation and perception of sounds.

Example

Phonology aims to describe the sounds (phonemes) that are distinctive in a language. This can be done
by identifying minimal pairs such as 'tin' and 'bin'.

Phonology & Phonetics Difference

Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds, and phonology concerns the
study of more complex and abstract sound patterns and structures (syllables, intonation, etc.)

Phonology and phonetics both involve sound in natural language, but differ in that phonetics deals with
sounds from a language-independent point of view, while phonology studies the ways in which they are
distributed and deployed within particular languages.

Phonetics Phonology

It is not concerned with the semantic functions of sounds It is concerned with the semantic
functions of sounds

It sets the base for phonological analysis It sets the base for further syntactical, morphological
analysis, and more

It deals with the physical aspect It deals with the mental or abstract aspect

It is concerned with the identification It is concerned with the interpretation

It is concerned with individuality It is concerned with the interrelationship

Similarities between Phonetics and Phonology

Both phonetics and phonology deal with the sounds of speech.

Both are mostly concerned with the spoken word.

Both study the patterns of sounds in a language.

Phonology is the study of the distribution and deployment of sounds within a language. Phonetics, on
the other hand, is a branch of linguistics that deals with the systematic aspects of sound in natural
language. Phonetics also refers to methods used to analyze speech sounds and their meanings.

Phonology is concerned with the physical aspects of language and how sound is processed. It deals
with the identification of sounds, their similarities and differences, and it is concerned with
individuality.

How phonology differ from morphology?

The field of phonology, which deals with the physical aspect and is concerned with the identification
of sounds, is distinct from morphology, which is concerned with the semantic functions of words.

Phonology has two dimensions: a paradigmatic dimension and a syntagmatic dimension.

Importance of Phonetics and Phonology in English Language Teaching

Correct Recognition
They enable learners to recognize and pronounce new words correctly.

Improves Word Reading Ability

They also improve the word reading ability of learners.

grammar, rules of a language governing the sounds, words, sentences, and other elements, as well as
their combination and interpretation. The word grammar also denotes the study of these abstract
features or a book presenting these rules. In a restricted sense, the term refers only to the study of
sentence and word structure (syntax and morphology), excluding vocabulary and pronunciation.

Phonology is the main branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the sound system of languages. It
focuses on the organization of sounds by studying speech patterns. Phonology is the mental
representation of sound sounds as part of a symbolic cognitive system. Phonology is concerned with the
range and function of sounds in a specific language unlike phonetic that deals with sounds in general.
Phonology deals with the competence of a speaker that how much a speaker knows about knowledge of
the sound system of a language.

Phonology encompasses different aspects like phonetic relationship that relates and contrasts words
and other linguistic units, organization of sounds by studying speech patterns and distribution and
patterning related to speech sounds. Phonology also answers the questions like – why there is a
difference in the plurals of hat and bag; the plural of hat (hats) ends with the /s/ sound, whereas the
plural of bag (bags) ends with the /z/ sound.

Branches of Phonology

Phonological studies are divided into two main branches:

1. Segmental phonology

2. Supra-segmental phonology

Segmental Phonology

Segmental phonology deals with sound segments of language as vowels and consonants and how they
make up a syllable. Segmental phonology is not interested in the production or the perception of speech
sounds, but it deals with the function of speech sounds and possible combinations of speech sounds
within the sound system.

A segment in phonology is any discrete unit that can be identified separately and independently, either
auditorily or physically. Segments in phonology refer to phones and phonemes. It studies that how
phonemes are made with vowel and consonants and how they perform function in a language.

Basically segmental phonology encompasses vowels and consonants to explore phonological studies. It
deals with the functions of vowels in different words and how letters are formed in a pattern to make a
specific sound. The words made and maid are too close in pronunciation however they have different
letters. So, segmental phonology is based on the segmentation of language into individual speech
sounds

Segmental phonology is the study of sound segments, or phones, within speech sounds. This branch of
phonology is not concerned with any particular aspect of speech production or perception but rather
with how these aspects interact in different languages. A segment in phonology is a discrete unit that
can be identified separately and independently—either audibly or physically—and then used to
analyze other units (phones) within a language system. Segments are made up of vowels and
consonants; this branch of phonology studies how these elements combine together to create specific
sounds.

Segmental phonology is the study of speech sounds and how they are used in language. It examines
different positions within languages, such as vowels and consonants, in order to better understand
how language works. Segmental phonology focuses on how the human ear distinguishes sounds and
how the brain processes them.

Supra-segmental Phonology

Supra means ‘above’ or ‘beyond’ and segments are sounds (phonemes). Supra-segmental phonology is
also known as prosody. It is concerned with those features of pronunciation that cannot be segmented
because they extend over more than one segment, or phonemes. Supra-segmental phonology deals
with attributes (like tone, rhythm, stress, etc.) of pronunciation which cannot be segmented.
Suprasegmental phonology refers to vocal effects such as stress, tone, intonation, etc. Main
suprasegmental features include stress, pitch, tone, intonation or juncture.

Suprasegmental features are meaningful when they are applied above segmental level. Its features are
superimposed on the syllables. Stress or accent is the relative emphasis given to a certain syllable in a
word, or to a certain word in a phrase or to a certain sentence in a speech. Variations in stress in English
are used to distinguish between a noun and a verb e.g. word insult can be used as a verb and noun and
its distinction is subject of supra segmental phonology. Supra-segmental features have been explored
extensively in the recent era and many theories have been constituted related to the application

Suprasegmental phonology is a subfield of phonetics that investigates features that are not
segmentable but extend over more than one segment, or phoneme. It deals with such issues as stress,
pitch, tone and intonation. It differs from suprasegmental phonology in terms of how it studies these
attributes (stress versus pitch).

Suprasegmental features convey meaning when they are applied above the segment level. They are
superimposed on syllables. Stress or accent is the relative emphasis given to a certain syllable in a
word, or to a certain word in a phrase or to a certain sentence in a speech. In English, variations in
stress distinguish between nouns and verbs e.g. insult can be used as both a verb and noun; its
distinction is subject of supra-segmental phonology. Supra-segmental phonology has been explored
extensively in recent years and many theories have been constituted related to its application and
description.

Morphology

In linguistics, morphology is the study of how words are put together. For example, the word cats is put
together from two parts: cat, which refers to a particular type of furry four-legged animal ( 🐈), and -s,
which indicates that there’s more than one such animal ( 🐈 🐈‍⬛ 🐈).

morphology

By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica • Edit History

morphology, in linguistics, study of the internal construction of words. Languages vary widely in the
degree to which words can be analyzed into word elements, or morphemes (q.v.). In English there are
numerous examples, such as “replacement,” which is composed of re-, “place,” and -ment, and
“walked,” from the elements “walk” and -ed. Many American Indian languages have a highly complex
morphology; other languages, such as Vietnamese or Chinese, have very little or none. Morphology
includes the grammatical processes of inflection (q.v.) and derivation. Inflection marks categories such
as person, tense, and case; e.g., “sings” contains a final -s, marker of the 3rd person singular, and the
German Mannes consists of the stem Mann and the genitive singular inflection -es. Derivation is the
formation of new words from existing words; e.g., “singer” from “sing” and “acceptable” from “accept.”
Derived words can also be inflected: “singers” from “singer.”

Grammar

Grammar, rules of a language governing the sounds, words, sentences, and other elements, as well as
their combination and interpretation. The word grammar also denotes the study of these abstract
features or a book presenting these rules. In a restricted sense, the term refers only to the study of
sentence and word structure (syntax and morphology), excluding vocabulary and pronunciation.

Grammar is the study of language by defining, describing, and applying rules governing the sounds,
words, sentences, and other elements of a language; it also refers to a book presenting these rules. In
a restricted sense, the term refers only to sentence and word structure (syntax and morphology),
excluding vocabulary and pronunciation.

The main characteristics of traditional grammar relate to usage, diction, style and punctuation.

Structural grammar is quite different form the Traditional Grammar. Instead if focusing on the individual
word and its notional meaning or its part-of-speech function in the sentence, Structural grammar
focuses on cluster of structures — sounds, forms, word groups, phrases — working from smaller to
larger units.
The main characteristics of traditional grammar relate to usage, diction and style. Structural grammar
is quite different from traditional grammar; instead of focusing on individual words and their part-of-
speech functions in the sentence, it focuses on clusters of structures—sounds, forms, word groups and
phrases—working from smaller to larger units.

There are three aspects of grammar that must concern us and that include the structure or form,
semantics or meaning, and the pragmatic conditions governing use.

Grammar Rules

1.WORD ORDER

As an analytic language, English uses word order to determine the relationship between different words.
In a basic declarative statement, the subject should always come first, the verb-second, and the objects
and adverbial phrases (if any) third.

2. PUNCTUATION

In written English, punctuation is used to signify pauses, intonation, and stress words. These punctuation
marks are commas, periods, question marks, exclamation points, semicolons, colons, dashes, hyphens,
brackets, braces, parentheses, apostrophes, ellipsis, and quotation marks.

3.TENSE AND ASPECT

Tenses signify whether a statement refers to the present, the past, or the future by applying parameters
to verbs. Likewise, aspect shows whether a statement refers to one single instant action, a regular or
repeated action, or an ongoing or progressive action or state.

4.DETERMINERS

Since nouns can rarely stand on their own without prior context, determiners such as "which", "how
many", "what", "my", and so on are needed to give them meaning. Using determiners correctly is
essential in order to form meaningful questions or statements.

5.CONNECTORS

As their name suggests, connectors "connect" phrases, words, or clauses to one another. They can
express subordination (if, who, that, when, because, although), coordination (but, and, yet, nor), or
correlation (either, or, both, and) between the units they link.

12 Basic Grammar Rules

Rule 1: Every sentence should start with a Capital letter in the first word.

In the English Language, when you are starting a sentence, then make sure that you capitalize the first
letter of the first word. Also, remember that you need to capitalize even when you start a new
paragraph.
Rule 2: Every sentence should either end with a full stop (or) a question mark (or) an exclamation mark.

If you want to end a sentence, then make sure that you need to use a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or
an exclamation mark (!) based on the type of the sentence.

The above, any of the three mentioned should be used depending on the situation of the sentence.

Rule 3: Every sentence should have SVO (Subject – Verb – Object).

The basic rule of grammar in the English Language is that you must include Subject and Verb. The object
is optional depending on the usage.

This order is only applicable for positive sentences, not for sentences with negatives or question marks
(?) or exclamation marks (!) because they may have different orders.

The Subject usually plays a major role in the entire sentence. It helps you to give an idea of who is
performing an action, who is talking to whom, etc.

The verb is usually the action which is performed by the Subject, and the object is usually on which the
action is performed.

Sometimes, a few sentences don’t mention the subject. Actually, it has a subject, and it is understood
even if it is not shown. For example, consider the word “Stop!” – which means that you must stop (here
“you” is hidden).

Rule 4: The Subject and Verb forms are interrelated in the sentence.

If you are using a singular Subject, then you need to use a singular Verb for the whole sentence and if
you want to use a Plural subject, then you must use a plural verb.

If you are using he/she/it as a Subject, then use its corresponding verb and when using we/they/I/you,
then use its verb.

Rule 5: Use Either – or (or) Neither – nor depending on the Sentence while using singular nouns.

In English sentences, Either – or and Neither – nor is used when two singular nouns are connected.
These two are different in usage. Also, remember that the singular verb is used for singular nouns.

Either – or:

Either – or is used when any one of the two cases is true. This means that either this must be true or
that.

Rule 6: Proper Nouns should be capitalized anywhere in the sentences (including at the beginning) when
used.

It is important to capitalize on the words which are Proper Nouns. This can be at the beginning, middle
and end of the sentences (in short, anywhere in the sentence).
Rule 7: Common Nouns should be capitalized only at the beginning of the sentences.

When common nouns are used, then you need to capitalize them only at the beginning of the
sentences.

Rule 9: Use Indefinite Articles for Countable Nouns and Definite with specific Countable & all
Uncountable Nouns.

The Indefinite Articles (a/an) are used mostly for Countable nouns. Definite Articles (the) are used for a
few Countable nouns and mostly for Uncountable nouns.

Rule 10: Use the article “a” for Consonant sounds and “an” for vowel sounds.

Use the article “a” for the words which sound Consonant at the very beginning. For example, consider
the below table.