Euclidean Quantum Field Theory from Variational Dynamics

Brenden McDearmon
January 15, 2023

Abstract: A variational phase space is constructed for a system of fields on Euclidean

space with periodic boundary conditions. An extended action functional is defined such that
the Euler-Lagrange equations generate a symplectic flow on the variational phase space.
This symplectic flow is numerically integrated as it evolves with respect to the variational
parameter. Assuming ergodicity, the resulting flow samples the Euclidean path integral.

Introduction [19][20][21][22][23][24]. Extended phase space

Euclidean field theory is a useful
tool for non-perturbative calculations of
quantum systems [1][2]. The practice of
Euclidean field theory involves generating
a set of field configurations on Euclidean
space that sample the Euclidean path
integral [1][2]. The n-point correlation
functions of the Euclidean path integral (i.e.
Schwinger functions) can be used to construct
relativistic n-point correlation functions
(i.e. Wightman functions) on Minkowski
space [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. The
Wightman functions contain all of
the important information of the
relativistic quantum field theory, and
a relativistic quantum theory can be
defined by, and constructed from, an
appropriate Euclidean path integral
[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12].
Sets of Euclidean field configurations
can be generated on a discretized lattice
using a variety of algorithms [1][2].
Typically, Monte Carlo methods are used;
however, other methods based on Langevin
equations and classical dynamics are
known [1][2][13][14][15][16][17][18]. One
approach used in molecular dynamics
simulations that appears not to have been
applied yet to Euclidean field theory is a
technique based on an extended phase space
1
Since this article is directed to the computational study of discretized systems, the exact nature of Γ in the
continuum is not precisely defined. A point in the discretized Γ is given by {×i∈I πm (i), ×i∈I Ψ(m) (i), π (s) , s}
where i indexes the discretized fields and the index set I is finite.
techniques introduce additional variables
to the Hamiltonian to directly generate
dynamics that, assuming ergodicity, sample
different ensemble distributions such as the
canonical ensemble, the NpT ensemble, or
the µVT ensemble [19][20][21][22][23][24].
In this article, an extended phase space
technique is used to generate variational
dynamics for a system of Euclidean fields
to, assuming ergodicty, sample the Euclidean
path integral.
Variational Dynamics
Let Ψ(m) : x ∈ M 7→ R be real
components of a collection of matter and
gauge fields indexed by the positive and finite
integer m on d-dimensional Euclidean space
(Ψ)
M, and let πm : x ∈ M 7→ R be the
“variationally conjugate” fields. Together
with a global scalar s and its variational
(Ψ)
conjugate π (s) , γ = {πm , Ψ(m) , π (s) , s} ∈ Γ
is a point in the variational phase space Γ 1 .
Given an action functional, S : γ ∈ Γ 7→ R,
the variational dynamics is then defined by
the following set of equations such that the
phase space trajectory, γ(λ) ∈ Γ, evolves by
symplectomorphisms.
(Ψ)
dπm (λ + ) δS
(Ψ)
π̇m (λ) = |=0 = − (m) (λ) (1)
d δΨ
(Ψ)

1
 dΨ(m) (λ + ) δS
Ψ̇(m) (λ) = |=0 = (Ψ) (λ) (2) dimension. For example, a system
(0)
consisting
(1)
d δπm of a complex scalar field φ = Ψ + iΨ and
dπ (s) (λ + ) ∂S
a u(1) gauge field A = Ψ(2) has m|p = 2
π̇ (s) (λ) = |=0 = − (λ) (3) and m|l = 1. The number of degrees of
d ∂s
freedom for the discretized fields is given by
ds(λ + ) ∂S
ṡ(λ) = |=0 = (λ) (4) the sum nf = m|p · np + m|l · nl + ... up to
d ∂π (s)
the dimension of the lattice K where np and
While many action functionals may be nl are, respectively, the number of points and
defined, those studied herein are of the form the number of links in the lattice.
S = s (S x − S 0 ) where S x and S 0 are defined Specializing to discrete variational actions
as follows. P P 1  πm (Ψ)
(x)
2
of the form S v = x m 2 k x s
" (Ψ)
πm
#
(π (s) )2 where kx is a constant for each type of
Sx = Sv + + ~ nf ln(s) + S m [Ψ(m) ] (5)
s 2ms lattice element x, the discretized variational
equations for the action functional S =
S 0 = S x |λ=0 (6) s (S x − S 0 ) defined above are given by the
∂S m
h (Ψ)
πm
i R 1
(Ψ)
πm
(Ψ)
πm following where E (m) (x, λ) = ∂Ψ (m) (x, λ)
Here, S v = M 2
M̂ dvol is
s s s denotes the discretized Euler-Lagrange
a variational action where M̂ is an invertable functional.
operator, and S m [Ψ(m) ] is a matter and gauge
(Ψ)
action. Because only discretized systems π̇m (x, λ) = −s(λ)E (m) (x, λ) (7)
will be considered in this article, nf is the (Ψ)
finite number of degrees of freedom for the (m) πm (x, λ)
Ψ̇ (x, λ) = kx (8)
discretized fields as defined below. s(λ)
π̇ (s) (λ) = 2S v − ~nf − S x − S 0



Discretization and Integration |λ (9)
Consider a regular, finite periodic lattice π (s) (λ)
K. Elements of the lattice include points p, ṡ(λ) = s(λ) (10)
ms
links l connecting nearest neighbor points, Notice that the variational equations
plaquettes, and so on up to the dimension conserve the total action (i.e. dS(λ+) |=0 = 0
d
of the lattice. Collectively, these various for all λ).
lattice elements are denoted by x ∈ K. The Once a point in the variational phase
(Ψ)
fields Ψ(m) and πm are real valued n-forms space is specified at λ = 0 (i.e. given a
which are discretized by evaluation on n- γ(0) ∈ Γ), the variational equations can be
dimensional elements of the lattice, and the numerically integrated with respect to λ to
index m is allowed to vary with the type provide a trajectory in phase space γ(λ) ∈ Γ
of lattice element x ∈ K. For example, a using a generalized leap-frog algorithm [23].
system consisting of a complex scalar field Briefly, the numerical integration proceeds by
φ = Ψ(0) + iΨ(1) is discretized by evaluation iteration of the following assignments using a
at each point φ(p) and the index m at each step size ∆λ.
point p is 2 (i.e. m|p = 2). Similarly, a system
(Ψ) (Ψ)
consisting of a u(1) gauge field A = Ψ(0) can 1. πm (x, λ+0.5∆λ) = πm (x, λ)−0.5s(λ)E (m) (x, λ)∆λ
for each x and m.
be discretized by assigning a real number to
2. π (s) (λ + 0.5∆λ) = √ −2c
each link so that the index m at each link is 
1+ (1−c∆λ/ms )


1 (i.e. m|p = 2). The index m is allowed where

 (Ψ) c =  0.5∆λ(nf ~(1 + ln(s(λ))) −
v πm (λ+0.5∆λ)
+ S m Ψ(m) (λ) − S 0 ) − π (s) (λ)
 
to vary between lattice elements of differing S s(λ)

2
 ∆λπ (s) (λ+0.5∆λ)
3. s(λ + ∆λ) = s(λ)
1+ 2ms With this change of variables, integration
∆λπ (s) (λ+0.5∆λ)
1− 2ms over the Dirac delta function with respect
4. Ψ(m) (x,λ + ∆λ) = Ψ
(Ψ)
(m) (x, λ) + 0.5π
m (x, λ +
to s can be performed using the identity
δ[f (s−s0 )]
d
δ [f (s)] = , where s0 is the isolated

1 1
0.5∆λ) + ∆λ for each x and m. df
s(λ+∆λ) s(λ) ds ( ds |(s0 ) )
zero of S with respect to s.
5. π (s) (λ + ∆λ) = (s)

π (λ + 0.5∆λ) +
0.5∆λ 2S v − nf ~ − S x + S 0
(Ψ)
where S v and S x are evaluated with πm (x, λ + (Ψ) (π (s) )2
s0 = exp − S v [π̃m ] + + S m [Ψ(j) ] − S 0 /(~nf )


0.5∆λ), π (s) (λ + 0.5∆λ), s(λ + ∆λ), and Ψ(m) (x, λ + 2ms
∆λ). (14)

(Ψ) (Ψ) Evaluating the integral with respect to

6. πm (x, λ + ∆λ) = πm (x, λ + 0.5∆λ) − 0.5s(λ +
∆λ)E (m) (x, λ + ∆λ)∆λ for each x and m. s gives the following equation where C is a
constant.
The Euclidean Path Integral
Depending on the specifics of the action (π (s) )2
Z
(Ψ)
exp − S v [π̃m ] + + S m [Ψ(m) ] − S 0 /~


Z =C
2ms
functional, the variational dynamics may or h i
dπ (s) D π̃ (Ψ) D [Ψ]
may not exist for all λ ∈ [0, ∞). However,
(15)
assuming that the variational dynamics does (s)
Because
 the
 integrals with respect to dπ
exist for all λ ∈ [0, ∞), and further assuming and D π̃ (Ψ) are Gaussian, they can be
that the flow is ergodic, the variational evaluated. Performing the integration and
dynamics can be shown to sample the collecting constants provides the Euclidean
Euclidean path integral. path integral with constant Z 0 .
By the variational equations (7) to (10), Z h i
dS Z = Z0 exp −S m [Ψ(m) ]/~ D [Ψ] (16)
dλ
= 0 so that the extended action
function is conserved by the variational
Expectation Values
dynamics. Further, by definition S|λ=0 = 0.
The sequence of field configurations
Accordingly, the partition function for the
generated by the variational dynamics can
system is defined by equation (11).
be used to calculate expectation values of
observables 2 .
Z
Z = δ s S x − S 0 dΓ



(11)  For  example, for some observable
(m)
O Ψ taken to be a functional of the
The phase space measure dΓ is defined as matter and gauge fields, the expectation
follows. value with respect to the variational flow
is given by the following.
(s)
 (Ψ) 
dΓ = ds dπ D π D [Ψ] (12) D h iE 1 Λ h
Z i
O Ψ(m) = lim O Ψ(m) (λ) dλ (17)
λ Λ→∞ Λ 0
(m)
Q Q
Here, D[Ψ] = m x dΨ (x) and
 (Ψ)  Q Q (Ψ) The expectation value of the observable
D π = m x dπm (x). Define a change  (m) 
(Ψ)
O Ψ averaged over the variational phase
(Ψ) πm (x)
of variables π̃m (x) = s , and notice that space is given by the following.
(Ψ) (Ψ)
dπm (x) = sdπ̃m (x) for s held constant. D h iE R  (m) 
O Ψ exp − S m [Ψ(m) ] /~ D [Ψ]


(m)
O Ψ =
This change of variables thus results in a Γ
R 

exp − S m [Ψ(m) ] /~ D [Ψ]
change of measure. (18)

By the
 assumption

  of ergodicity,
dΓ̃ = snf ds dπ (s) D π̃ (Ψ) D [Ψ] . (13) O Ψ(m) λ = O Ψ(m) Γ .
 

2
Here,“observables” refer to Euclidean observables. Relativistic quantum observables may be constructed
based on the Osterwalder-Schrader procedure [1][2][3][5][6].

3
Examples points in the lattice, decreasing the step size
In each of the following examples, a ∆λ, increasing the total number of steps,
regular periodic lattice of N = 10 × 10 × and further optimizing the “equilibration”
10 × 10 points p having a lattice spacing of procedure.
1 was used. Complex scalar fields defined
as φ = Ψ(0) + iΨ(1) were assigned to the 1. Complex Scalar Field With Quadratic
points of the lattice and were initilized with Potential
Ψ(m) = 0 for Example 1 and Ψ(0) =
In this example, the complex free
1 and Ψ(1) = 0 for Examples 2 and
(Ψ) (Ψ) scalar field was simulated
R 1 using a lattice
4, respectively. The fields π0 and π0
discretization of S = M 2 ∂µ φ∂ φ̄+ 21 φφ̄ d4 x
m µ
variationally conjugate to Ψ(0) and Ψ(1) ,
given by the following.
respectively, were initialized with a random
(Ψ)
configuration with each πm (p) randomly
N −1 1 X3
selected from a uniform distribution ranging X X 1  (m) 2
Sm = Ψ (p + µk ) − Ψ(m) (p)
2
from -1.75 to 1.75. The U(1) gauge field was p=0 j=0 k=0
! (19)
treated at the Lie algebra level by assigning +
1 
Ψ(m) (p)
2 
2
a real number to each link l in the lattice.
For clarity, the Lie algebra element at a link Here, µk with k = 0, 1, 2, or 3 are the
will be denoted by A(l) = Ψ(m) (l), and the four unit lattice vectors. Overall, the system
variational conjugate field will be denoted by is described by the following extended action
π (A) (l) for some m depending on the example. functional with nf = 2N .
Each A(l) was initialized at 0 and each π (A) (l)
was initialized by randomly selecting from a " N −1  
1 X  (Ψ) 2  (Ψ) 2
uniform distribution ranging from -1.75 to S=s 2
2s p=0
π0 (p) + π1 (p)
1.75. For every example, s was initialized at
2 # (20)
π (s)
1, π (s) was initialized at 0, ~ was set equal to + + nf ~ ln(s) + S m − S 0
2ms
1, and ms was set equal to 0.5nf .
Once an initial configuration was The variational dynamics was then
established, each example was numerically numerically integrated with respect to λ,
integrated with respect to λ using the explicit and the resulting development of the system
leap-frog algorithm provided by Bond, was stable over the total number of steps
Leimkuhler, and Laird [23] and step size of observed.
∆λ = 0.01. Each system was “equilibrated” Figure 1 shows the development of the
by stepping the system forward for 250,000
h (Ψ) i
v πm
variational action S s
(A), the matter
steps. After this “equilibration,” the system  
was further numerically integrated with action S m Ψ(m) (B), the global real-valued
x 0
respect to λ for an additional 1,000,000 steps, scalar s (C), and the error term S S−S 0 · 100%.
during which data was collected. Field correlations between nearby points
<[hφ(0)φ̄(0+nµ0 )i ]
The results provided in the examples are were calculated as λ
where <
hφ(0)φ(0)iλ
not intended to be quantitatively accurate. denotes the real part and µ0 is the unit lattice
Rather, the results demonstrate the proof- vector in the 0 direction. As depicted in figure
of-concept use of variational dynamics for 2A, there is a small short range correlation
Euclidean quantum field theory calculations. which rapidly decays to near zero.
Improved quantitative results could be
provided by, e.g., increasing the number of

4
Figure 1: Numerical results for Example 1 with S v (A), S m (B), s (C), and the percent error
for the system (D) as a function of integration steps along λ.

2. Complex Scalar Field With Quartic 2B, the system with the quartic potential
Potential appears to have longer range correlations
than the system with the quadratic potential.
A complex scalar field was simulated It was not determined whether these observed
similarly as in Example 1 except a lattice differences are statistically significant.
discretization of a Rquartic matter action
1
given by S m = ∂ φ∂ µ φ̄ − 12 φφ̄ + 3. U(1) Gauge Field
M 2 µ
1

2
4
φφ̄ d4 x was used. The resulting system U(1) gauge fields were treated at the Lie
development was stable over the total number algebra level by assigning a real number A(l)
of steps observed as seen in Figure A1 of to each link l in the lattice.
the appendix. Comparing Figures 2A and

5
Figure 2: Field correlations between nearby points for a system having a complex scalar field
φ with a quadratic potential (A) and quartic potential (B).

The field strength term Fjk (p) assigned Here, nf = 4N and the matter action
to each plaquette based at point p was S m [A] and the gauge fixing term S gf [A] are
calculated as Fjk (p) = A(l{p,p+µj } ) + described above.
A(l{p+µj ,p+µj +νk } ) − A(l{p+µj +νk ,p+νk } −
A(l{p+νk ,p} ) where µj and νk are unit lattice
vectors in the j and k directions respectively.
The matter action was calculated as S m =
P N −1 P 3 P 3 1 2
p=0 k=j+1 j=0 2 (Fjk (p)) . Since the
matter action has a gauge degree of freedom
where S m [A + dα] = S m [A] for any real
valued scalar field α, a gauge fixing term
given by S gf was included. PN −1Here, the gauge
1 ∗ 2
fixing term S gf = p=0 2 (d A) (p) =
PN −1 P3 1
2
p=0 j=0 2 A(l {p,p+µj } ) − A(l {p,p−µ j } ) ,
where d∗ denotes the lattice exterior
derivative, was used. A similar non-compact
U(1) gauge theory formulation has been
Figure 3: Field strength correlations between
shown by Balaban, Imbrie, and Jaffe to be
nearby plaquettes for a system with a U(1)
equivalent to the more traditional compact
gauge field.
formulation where an element of the Lie
group is assigned to each link [25]. The variational dynamics of this system
This system was described by the was simulated, and the resulting system
extended action functional S = s (S x − S 0 ) development was stable over the total number
where of steps observed as seen in Figure A2 of
the appendix. Correlations between the field
Sx = strength at different plaquettes is depicted in
4N −1
1 X (A) 2 π (s)

2 Figure 3. Interestingly, plaquettes sharing a
π (l) + + nf ~ ln(s) + S m [A] + S gf [A]. common link had a slight positive correlation
2s2 l=0 2ms
(21) in field strength whereas plaquettes sharing

6
only a single common point had a slight
negative correlation.

4. Complex Scalar Field With Quartic

Potential Coupled To U(1) Gauge Field

A system having a complex scalar field

with a quartic potential coupled to a U(1)
gauge field was simulated. This system was
described by the extended action functional Figure 4: Field correlations between nearby
S = s (S x − S 0 ) where points for a system having a U(1) gauge field
coupled to a complex scalar field φ with a
quartic potential.
Sx =
" (Ψ) #
2
πm π (A) π (s)
Sv , + + ~ nf ln(s) + S m [φ, A] + S gf [A].
s s 2ms
(22)

Here, the variational action S v was

calculated as follows.

Sv =
 
N −1   4N −1 
1  X  (Ψ) 2  (Ψ) 2 X
(A)
2
π0 (p) + π1 (p) + π (l) 
2s2 p=0 l=0
(23)

The matter Raction S m was the lattice
2

discretization of M 12 |DA φ|2 − 12 φφ̄+ 14 φφ̄ +
1 jk
2
F Fjk d4 x where DA is the gauge covariant
derivative. The gauge fixing R term S gf was
the lattice discretization of M 12 (d∗ A)2 d4 x
described in Example 3. The nf term is equal
to 6N.
The variational dynamics of this system
was simulated as described above. The
resulting system development was stable
over the total number of steps observed
as seen in Figure A3 of the appendix.
Comparing Figures 2B and 4, the local field
correlations appear to decrease more rapidly
with distance in the system with the gauge
field (Figure 4) than in the system without
the gauge field (Figure 2B).
Figure 5: Field strength correlations between
nearby plaquettes for a system having a U(1)
gauge field coupled to a complex scalar field
with a quartic potential.
Similarly, local correlations in field
strength Fjk appear to be suppressed in the
system with the gauge field couple to the
complex scalar field (Figure 5) as compared
to the system with the gauge field alone
(Figure 3).
Discussion
These results demonstrate the proof-
of-concept use of variational dynamics
for generating field configurations which,
assuming ergodicity, sample the Euclidean

7
path integral. As such, this provides a new Author Contact Information
method for performing Euclidean quantum Brenden.McDearmon@gmail.com
field theory calculations. Verification of
References
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9
Appendix to Euclidean Quantum Field Theory from Variational
Dynamics
Brenden McDearmon
January 15, 2023

Figure A1: Numerical results with S v (A), S m (B), s (C), and the percent error for the
system (D) as a function of integration steps along λ for Example 2 having a complex scalar
field φ with a quartic potential

A1
Figure A2: Numerical results with S v (A), S m (B), S gf (C), s (D), and the percent error for
the system (E) as a function of integration
P −1 1 steps along λ for Example 3 having a U(1) gauge
field with gauge fixing term S gf = N p=0 2 (d∗
A)2
(p).

A2
Figure A3: Numerical results with S v (A), S m (B), S gf (C), s (D), and the percent error for
the system (E) as a function of integration
PN −1 steps along λ for Example 4 having a U(1) gauge
field with gauge fixing term S = p=0 2 (d A)2 (p) coupled to a complex scalar field φ
gf 1 ∗

with a quartic potential.

A3