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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have read
the Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should rely
only on Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the exam or
before any Mock Test
4. Conceptual Clarity is especially important for exam and reading only summary
sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions
➢ Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst
or reading a book to gain knowledge. For example, if Ram keeps on studying then the
reason might be because Ram is motivated to become a doctor
Motive: Motive (also known as need) is the inner state of a person that he is lacking
something which moves him to engage in goal-directed behavior. For example, if you
are thirsty (inner state), you will drink water (goal directed behavior)
Motivators: A motivator is anything which satisfy your need. For example, for a thirsty
person, the motivator would be availability of water
➢ Motivation Process
1. Need: Arousal of need is starting step of motivation process. Need is inner state of a
person that he is lacking something. For example, if a person is thirsty then he needs
water
2. Tension: Tension is a feeling of being worried which makes it difficult for a person to
relax.
3. Goal-Directed behavior: To overcome this tension, the person engages in goal-
directed behavior through which tension is overcome. For example, if a person is
thirsty then he may drink water
4. Need Satisfaction: Goal-directed behavior may lead to satisfaction (goal fulfillment).
For example, drinking of water by thirsty person would lead to need satisfaction.
Sometimes goal-directed behavior may not lead to need satisfaction
If a need is not satisfied even after goal-directed behavior, the person will try to modify
the behavior. He may produce following behaviors
1. Flight: One way is to leave the field. For example, employee quits the job that
becomes frustrating
2. Apathy: He will become indifferent towards the situation. For example, if a person
does not leave the frustrating job then he may not be serious anymore about the
job
3. Aggression: He may become aggressive due to frustration. An employee frustrated
with the job may become aggressive towards his superior, family etc.
4. Rationalization: Rationalization involves justifying the outcome of goal-directed
behavior. For example, a person frustrated with his job might find fault in himself
or his superior who has not given them their due.
➢ Types of Motivation
1. Positive vs. Negative: Positive such as want to become a monitor. Negative such
as want to pass to avoid being thrashed by parents
2. Basic vs. Learned: Basic as instinctive such as thirst, anger, pain etc. Learned
ones are not instinctive such as recognition and achievement
3. Extrinsic motivation and Intrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation occurs when
we are motivated to perform a behavior for external reward, but intrinsic
motivation comes from inside for personal satisfaction
➢ Motivational Theories
1. Content Theories (Traditional Theories): Content Theories look at specific needs
that motivate people. They are also called Need based theories or Humanistic
approach to motivation
2. Process Theories (Contemporary Theories): Process theories attempt to explain
how the process of motivation works in an individual.
2. Needs are to be fulfilled from bottom to top. Individuals must satisfy lower-level
needs before they can satisfy higher order needs. This concept of lower-level needs
being satisfied first before moving higher is called satisfaction progression.
3. A satisfied need does not motivate a person, only a next higher order needs
motivates him
4. Managers must ensure that basic needs of employees are satisfied first and only
then can be motivated to achieve higher.
2. Geert Hofstede criticized this theory because as per him in collectivist society social
belongingness holds more importance than personal achievement.
3. Other Criticisms are about position of sex being in psychological needs rather than in
social belongingness because of emotional connect that sex involves
4. Some people may be deprived of lower order needs but still try for self-actualization.
Mahatma Gandhi is an example of the same.
2. ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may be operative at the same
time though Maslow’s theory assumes in satisfaction progression that higher level
needs can fulfilled only after lower-level needs are fulfilled
3. According to Maslow an individual would stay at a certain need level until that need
was satisfied. ERG theory counters by noting that when a higher- order need level is
frustrated the individual’s desire to increase a lower- level need takes place. Inability
to satisfy a need for social interaction, for instance, might increase the desire for
more money or better working conditions. So, frustration can lead to a regression to
a lower need. This concept is called frustrated-regression
4. On a work level, Alderfer’s model implies that managers must recognize their
employees’ multiple simultaneous needs. Focusing exclusively on one need at a time
will not motivate your people.
5. The frustration-regression principle impacts workplace motivation. For example, if
growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to
relatedness needs, and socialize more with co-workers. If you can recognize these
conditions early, steps can be taken to satisfy the frustrated needs until the
employee is able to pursue growth again.
6. Even though you may provide financial incentives, if your person’s other needs are
not being met, according to Alderfer's ERG theory your workers will not be
motivated.
Additional Information
Henry Murray’s Manifest needs Theory:
Manifest needs theory assumes that human behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy
needs.
• Manifest needs theory laid the groundwork for later theories, most notably McClelland’s
learned needs theory.
• Murray identified needs as one of two types:
o Primary needs: Primary needs are basic needs that are based upon biological
demands, such as the need for oxygen, food, and water.
o Secondary needs: Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need
for nurturing, independence, and achievement. While these needs might not be
fundamental for basic survival, they are essential for psychological well-being.
1. He differentiates between Not dissatisfied and being satisfied. A person who is not
dissatisfied does not necessarily means that he is satisfied
2. It states there are two different facets of motivation, the first being ‘hygiene’ factors
or job context. The second factor is ‘satisfiers’ or job content, i.e. the intrinsic
qualities of the job. Satisfiers are also known as Motivators.
It must be noted that part of esteem need comes under maintenance factors and another
under motivational factors. The esteem needs are divided because esteem can be related
to status or recognition. Status tends to be a function of position one occupies, and status
may be gained through family ties or social pressures and so this may not reflect personal
achievement or earned recognition. Recognition on the other hand is gained through
Some big businesses like Google and Apple use theory Y to run their companies.
Employees in these companies are given full freedom to plan and execute their work.
Employees exercise self-control and they relish the responsibility given to them. All this
results in employees being creative and creating some unique and innovative products
Theory Y does not always work for most companies (e.g., Car factories) because they are
always creating the same product at the same standard which requires discipline and
control rather than creativity. In such a case theory X is more beneficial
Today Many companies in U.S. successfully use Theory Z type management principles. A
partial list of these corporations includes Kodak, Union Carbide, P&G, TBM etc.
In India, Maruti Udyog (having collaboration with Suzuki Motors of Japan), has tried to
implement Theory Z.
1. Individual
2. Organization
3. Job Characteristics
4. Exogenous variable
1. Individual: Every individual has different needs and interest. So, motivation is also
different for each individual
2. Organization: The climate of the organization has important part to play in workers
motivation. The culture of the organization depends on following 8 values known as
OCTAPACE values
I. Openness & Risk Taking
II. Confrontation
III. Trust
IV. Autonomy
V. Proactivity
VI. Authenticity
VII. Collaboration
VIII. Experimentation
➢ Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is pleasurable state or feeling in an individual with respect to his work.
There are 3 theories related to Job satisfaction
1. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene theory: As per this the presence of satisfiers such as
recognition, achievement will lead to more job satisfaction as compared to presence of
hygiene factors
2. Need-Fulfillment theory: As per this the person is satisfied if he gets what he wants. We
can connect this with Maslow theory of needs where the need of a person would
depend on where he is the pyramid
3. Social Reference group theory: As per this the job which meets the interest, desires,
and requirements of his reference group then he will like it otherwise not. So, job of a
clerk might give satisfaction to the person belonging to economic and weaker section of
the society whereas the same might not give same satisfaction to someone belonging to
higher sections of the society
1. Nature of Job: There are 2 variables related to Nature of Job that impact job satisfaction
2. Personal Variables: There are 3 personal variables that impact job satisfaction
a. Age: Generally, there is positive correlation between Age and Job Satisfaction. As
age increases people feel more satisfied except in the last some years before
retirement
b. Educational level: There is negative relationship between education and job
satisfaction
c. Sex: Though there is no consistent evidence, but it is seen many a times that women
are more satisfied than men because of their low aspirations as they give more
importance to family
1. Job satisfaction impacts productivity: The logic is happier person will more effort in
Job performance
2. Happier worker is not necessarily a productive worker: The logic is given by set of
reasons listed below
a. It is the Job performance which leads to Job Satisfaction and not that Job
satisfaction leads to Job performance.
b. The expectations of a person form the job may be low. So, by performing less
he is happy, but he is not productive.
Reliance Industries limited has achieved the fastest growth in Indian Industry. For motivating its
employees, it has based its motivation on the following premises:
2) Growth is care for good health (Both physical and psychological Health)
➢ Process Based Theories view motivation as a rational process. Individuals analyze their
environment, develop thoughts and feelings, and react in certain ways. Process theories
attempt to explain the thought process of individuals who demonstrate motivated
behavior. The various process-based motivation theories are:
It’s a cognitive based theory which states that the motivation to perform a task is
dependent on the assessment of the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected
performance, the belief that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome
and on the appeal of the outcome to the individual. According to this theory,
individuals ask themselves three questions
2. Instrumentality (Cognition based attitude): It is the faith that if you perform well,
then a valid outcome will be there. Instrumentality is affected by factors such as
believe in the people who decide who receives what outcome, the simplicity of the
process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of relationship between
performance and outcomes.
5. Sometimes this formula is also written as Force = Valence * Expectancy which states
that motivation is a product of anticipated worth of an outcome to a person and
perceived probability that person would be able to achieve the outcome
It shows that there is a relationship between difficult and specific goals and people's
performance of a task. Telling someone to "Try hard" or "Do your best" is less effective than
"Try to get more than 80% correct". Likewise, hard goals are more motivating than easy
goals, because it's much more of an accomplishment to achieve something that you must
work for. Five Principles of Goal Setting Theory according to Locke:
1. Clarity: Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and specific,
with a definite time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding about what
behaviors will be rewarded. You know what is expected, and you can use the specific
result as a source of motivation.
2. Challenge: People are often motivated by achievement, and they'll judge a goal based
on the significance of the anticipated accomplishment. When you know that what you
do will be well received, there's a natural motivation to do an excellent job.
3. Commitment: Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective.
Employees are more likely to "buy into" a goal if they feel they were part of creating
that goal.
4. Feedback: Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty,
and gain recognition. It's important to provide benchmark opportunities or targets, so
individuals can determine for themselves how they're doing.
5. Task Complexity: People who work in complicated and demanding roles probably have
a prominent level of motivation already. However, they can often push themselves too
hard if measures aren't built into the goal expectations to account for the complexity of
the task. It's therefore important to do the following:
✓ Give the person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance.
✓ MBO emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and
measurable.
✓ The organization’s overall objectives are translated into specific cascading
objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, and individual).
✓ MBO works from the bottom up as well as from the top down
✓ The result is a hierarchy that links objectives at one level to those at the next.
✓ For the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance
objectives.
➢ Adam’s Equity Theory
1. It is a cognitive based theory
2. As per theory, an individual’s motivation level is correlated to his perception of
equity, fairness and justice practiced by the management.
3. Higher is individual’s perception of fairness, greater is the motivation level and
vice versa
4. While evaluating fairness, employee compares it in 2 ways
a. By comparing the inputs that they contribute to the outputs that they receive
from their job. This concept is also known as Equity Norm
b. Employees determine what their equitable return should be after comparing
their inputs and outcomes with those of their co-workers. This concept is
referred to as "social comparison".
5. Inputs: Encompasses the quality and quantity of the employee’s contributions to
his or her work
1. Competence: The desire to control and master the environment and outcome.
2. Relatedness: The desire to interact with, be connected to, and experience caring for
other people.
3. Autonomy: It is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life and act in
harmony with one's integrated self.
✓ Social Support
✓ Positive encouragement
✓ Feedback on performance
➢ Clark Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory (by Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence)
1. Based on behavioristic approach and concept of Homeostasis
2. Homeostasis means the ability of a system or living organism to adjust its internal
environment to maintain a stable equilibrium, such as the ability of warm-blooded
animals to maintain a constant temperature.
3. Proposes that the purpose of biological drives is to correct disturbances
of homeostasis
1. Enactive Mastery: It means gaining relevant experience with the task or job. If
you’ve been able to do the job successfully in the past, you’re more confident you
can do it in the future
2. Vicarious Modeling: It means becoming more confident because you see someone
else doing the task. It is most effective when you see yourself as like the person
you are observing
3. Verbal Persuasion: We become more confident when someone convinces us we
have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers use this tactic.
4. Physiological factors: In stressful situations, people commonly exhibit signs of
distress: shakes, aches and pains, fatigue, fear, nausea, etc. Perceptions of these
responses in one can markedly alter their self-efficacy.
5. Arousal : Arousal leads to an energized state, so we get “psyched up,” feel up to
the task, and perform better. But if the task requires a steady, lower-key
perspective (say, carefully editing a manuscript), arousal may in fact hurt
performance even as it increases self-efficacy because we might hurry through the
task.
Motivating Potential Score : MPS is an index of the degree to which a job has an overall
high standing on the person's degree of motivation and, therefore, is likely to prompt
favorable personal and work outcomes.
1. MPS can be calculated as follows:
2. To be high on motivating potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three
factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness and high on both autonomy and
feedback.
3. If jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation,
performance, and satisfaction will improve, while absence and turnover (the rate
at which employees leave the job) will be reduced.
2. Porter and Lawler's theory is an improvement over Vroom's expectancy theory. It says
that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The main point in Porter
and Lawler's model is that effort or motivation does not lead directly to performance.
1. Effort: Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task.
How much effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two factors:
✓ Value of Reward: People try to figure out whether the rewards that is likely to be
received from doing a job will be attractive to them. This is referred to as valence
in Vroom’s theory.
✓ Perception of effort-reward probability: Before people put forth any effort, they
will also try to assess the probability of a certain level of effort leading to a desired
level of performance and the possibility of that performance leading to certain
kinds of rewards. Effort Reward probability is same as Expectancy and
Instrumentality in Vroom’s Expectancy theory of motivation
2. Performance: The expected level of performance will depend upon the amount of
effort, the abilities and traits of the individual and his role perceptions. Abilities
include knowledge, skills and intellectual capacity to perform the job. Traits which
are important for many jobs are endurance and goal directedness.
3. Satisfaction: Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends
upon the amount of rewards achieved. If the amount of actual rewards meets or
6. A person who gives attributions which are internal, stable, uncontrollable for his
failure will certainty find helpless and will certainly be depressed and demotivated.
He will feel he cannot achieve his goal
7. On the other hand, a person which gives attribution as External, Unstable and
Controllable for his failure will certainly be motivated for future (Most people
create this image). He will feel that since reasons for failure are external (so it is his
not fault), Unstable (they will not remain the same) and Controllable (he can control
them)
➢ Argyris’s Theory of Motivation
1. It is also called as Immaturity-Maturity Theory
2. Chris Argyris has postulated a descriptive and multidimensional developmental
process along which individuals in an organization naturally grow towards maturity.
3. He has examined various industrial organizations to determine the effect of
management practices on individual behavior and their personal growth in work
environment.
According to Argyris, whenever an employee with high maturity level is faced with
highly structured organization, he tends to take one of three attitudes:
➢ Morale
1. It is also known as esprit de corps
2. It is the capacity of a group's members to maintain belief in an institution or goal,
particularly in the face of opposition or hardship
3. Morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently and
consistently in pursuit of a common purpose
Application of Motivation
The motivation of an employee can be increased through various ways depending up on
what is the motivational pattern of employee. The ways are
The aim of a job/work design is to assign jobs in line with the skills of the employees to
improve job satisfaction
With respect to 4 features of Job design, people with higher skills are made to got through
Job Rotation and Job Enrichment whereas people with low skills are made to go through Job
Simplification and Job Enlargement
➢ Designing Reward System: The reward system should be designed considering the
needs of the person. Some might be motivated by financial incentives whereas others
would be motivated by non-financial incentives. Depending on motivation pattern of
different employees, a suitable reward system can be designed keeping in mind the
following:
1. What to pay: Establishing a pay structure
The process of initially setting pay levels entails balancing internal equity – the worth of
the job to the organization and External equity – the competitiveness of an
organization’s pay relative to pay in its industry.
a) Piece-rate pay Plan: A pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit
of production.
b) Merit based Pay plan: A pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings.
c) Bonus: A pay plan that reward employees for recent performance rather than
historical performance.
d) Profit Sharing Plan: A profit sharing plan distributes compensation based on some
established formula designed around a company’s profit ability.
e) Employee Stock Ownership Plan: A company-established benefits plan in which
employees acquire stock, often at below market prices, as part of their benefits.
➢ Quality of work life: Quality of work-life refers to creating a good environment for the
people working in an organization
1. Personality Traits: These are the types of characteristics that most people have had
for most of their lives. There are 5 major Traits. This is also known as OCEAN model
3. Linkage between Motivation and Personality: When the characteristics of their jobs
are aligned with their personality traits/attributes, they tend to be more productive
workers.
✓ For example, if a person has characteristics of Openness, Conscientiousness, Self-
esteem then it will be hard for an employer to motivate the person if he or she
works in a repetitive job with no advancement opportunity. Such an employee must
be given a highly challenging and complex task
✓ On the other hand, if an employee is lacking Self-Esteem, Conscientiousness and has
external locus of Control then such person would like to work on a job which is
repetitive and has fixed set of instructions.
➢ Communication Process: It refers to steps through which communication takes place between
the sender and the receiver.
1. Developing idea by the sender: Conceptualization of the idea to be sent (also called Planning
stage)
2. Encoding: Translation of the idea into a perceivable form understandable to the receiver
3. Developing the message: The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as
body gestures, silence, signs, sounds, etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of a
receiver
4. Selecting the medium: Medium is the way of transmitting the message to the receiver. Air,
sight, sound are 3 important communication channels
5. Transmission of message: Sending of the message from the chosen medium
6. Receiving the message by receiver: Reception of message by the receiver
7. Decoding: Message is decoded by the receiver to understand its meaning
8. Feedback: Receiver’s response to the sender. But it must be noted that feedback is optional,
sometimes there is no feedback in communication.
Consists of eight components which are most like the general steps of communication except
Noise:
➢ Study of Communication
1. Refinement and Accuracy: Two-way communication through feedback helps sender to refine
his communication so that it becomes more precise and accurate
2. Confidence in Receiver: Receivers confidence in case of two-way communication as they are
permitted to ask questions and seek clarification from the senders
➢ Functions of Communication
➢ Communication Networks
When 2 people are involved in the Communication, we call it circuit Communication
1. Chain Network: Rigidly follows formal chain of command. Chain is best where accuracy is
required.
2. Wheel Network: Relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication.
Found in teams having a strong leader. It is the most centralized type of formal communication
network. Useful for task-oriented approach to leadership
3. Circle Network: The information is transmitted laterally among all group members. Each
person can communicate with two neighbors only. A disadvantage of Circular network is that
communication is terribly slow. This network is similar to chain network except that
information flows in a circular direction rather than vertical direction
4. All Channel Network: Permits group members to actively communicate with each other.
Characterizes self-managed teams, where no person takes a leadership. It is the most
decentralized type of formal communication
5. Inverted V Network: Subordinate communicates with his immediate superior as well as a
second superior.
6. Y Network: Two subordinates through the hierarchical chain communicate with a superior.
This is similar to chain network, the only difference being that here 2 subordinates will report
to a superior instead of one subordinate reporting to superior in chain network. This network
is less centralized than the star network but more flexible than chain network
Depending up on levels of sender and receive in the organization, the communication may be
grouped into 2 types
1. Inter-Scalar Communication: This happens between two parties who are at the different
level in the hierarchy. The communication between them would be upward or downward
2. Intra-Scalar Communication: This happens between two parties who are at the same level in
the hierarchy. . The communication between them would be lateral
➢ Downward Communication
1. Follows hierarchical structure of the organization where manager instructs subordinates
2. Helps in assigning goals, providing job instructions, briefing about policies and procedures,
feedback to subordinates
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
➢ Upward Communication
Disadvantage:
1. Psychological: Certain problems, primarily of psychological nature, may come up in
upward communication. For example, managers might not accept workers giving
suggestions
2. Hierarchical: Many managers do not accept suggestions by their juniors. They may not
be patient enough to listen to them or may even suppress the message sent to them
from below. In such a situation the employees may feel let down.
3. Unwillingness: Sometimes subordinates don’t send the information to their superior
willingly. So, the communication system may be disrupted.
4. Bypassing: In the process of upward communication, sometimes workers directly
approach the topmost authority with their suggestions or bypassing their immediate
boss. This is harmful to any organization.
5. Flattery: In order to convince the superior bosses, subordinates can take the help of
flattery and for this reason, subordinates may conceal the true and provide incomplete
information to top level.
6. Risk of distortion of messages:
7. Delay
Advantage:
• Development of plan: The information received from subordinate plays important role to
help development of planning of the organization.
• Providing suggestions and opinions: By upward communication system, subordinate takes
necessary suggestions and opinions from superiors about the work-related issues of the
organization.
• Good labor-management relationship: Upward communication I participative in nature.
Here, information is invited from lower-level executives and employees and on the basis of
this information top executive makes a decision. So, good relation between subordinates
and bosses should create for the betterment of the organization.
• Providing feedback:
• Decision making: Top level executives or superiors needed much information before taking
a decision on a particular issue. Subordinates supply this information through the help of
upward communication.
➢ Lateral Communication
1. Communication occurs between members of the same workgroup, members at the same level
in separate workgroups, or any other horizontally equivalent workers
2. Ex. Managers of two different departments interacting with each other
3. It saves time and facilitates coordination
Advantages:
• Coordination: Horizontal communication facilities coordination of various
departmental activities
• Reducing Misunderstanding helps to reduce possible misunderstanding and conflict
though meeting, discussion, face to face conversation etc.
• Strengthening group efforts
• Performing interdepartmental communication
• Distortion-free communication
• Bringing dynamism in workplace: It creates an environment of cooperation, teamwork,
and team spirit. This brings dynamism in performing organizational activities.
Disadvantages
• Rivalling attitude: Horizontal communication occurs between the people at the same
rank and position. If there exists any hostility or rivalry between them, they will not
exchange information spontaneously. Moreover, they will conceal their information
intentionally to deprive someone from the real news.
• Interdepartmental conflict: The success of horizontal communication depends on good
relationship between sender and receiver. If there is any conflict, distrust or suspicion
between them, horizontal communication will be ineffective.
• Discouraging attitude of top management: In some cases, top managers discourage
horizontal communication thinking that workers may become friendly with one another
and may create threat for the management.
• Ignoring vertical communication:
➢ Diagonal/Crosswise Communication
1. Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups
2. It generally does not appear on organizational chart.
3. Ex. To design a training module a training manager interacts with Operations personnel to
enquire about the way they perform their task.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Superior might feel infringement of hierarchy, may lead to internal anarchy or animosity and
Superior might show resistance to comply with the suggestions on which he is not consulted
(Ego issues)
➢ Grapevine Communication
1. It is an informal or unofficial channel of communication
2. It has no direction and can take place between people of any level
3. Deals with casual conversation between workers including personal and business matters
4. Leads to generation of rumor
5. Serves to fill gaps in formal communication
6. Satisfies social needs of workers
7. It is classified into four types:
✓ Single Strand: Involves the passing of information through a line of persons to the ultimate
recipient
Grapevine happens mostly in Oral form but sometimes it may happen in written form also.
Informal communication can happen on mobile, emails in a closed group which is called
electronic grapevine
9. Advantages:
✓ Information is passed speedily
✓ Feedback is quick
✓ Acts as parallel function where formal communication fails
✓ Acts as a support system for employees or acts as a means for psychological satisfaction
✓ Increases group cohesiveness among employees
10. Disadvantages:
✓ Less Credible Information
✓ Selective information passed
✓ Creates trouble and hostile environment
✓ Leakage of sensitive information
✓ Reduces employee productivity
➢ Modes of Communication
1. Advantages
✓ Constitutes elevated level of understanding and transparency
✓ Flexibility in decisions made
2. Disadvantages
✓ Not reliable in business work
✓ Less authentic
✓ Long speeches are time consuming
✓ Lead to misunderstanding sometimes
✓ Attention is required
✓ Not much legally valid
✓ No records are maintained
➢ Written Communication: Messages shared between sender and receiver in written form.
Internal form of written communication can be letter, memo, notices, reports, etc. and
external form of written communication can be advertisements, telegram, fax, posts, etc.
1. Advantages:
✓ Helps in laying principles of organization
✓ Record Maintenance
✓ Accountability of roles and responsibilities
✓ Precise and explicit
✓ Helps in legal defense
✓ Formal in nature
✓ Record are maintained properly for reference in future
2. Disadvantages:
✓ Costly and uses lots of resources
✓ Not effective in long distance communication as feedback is not spontaneous
✓ Time-consuming
✓ Requires skills and competencies for efficient communication
✓ Lack of secrecy
✓ Overemphasis on Formalization
o Semantic Barriers
1. Symbols with Different Meanings (Bypassing): Communicators (sender and the receiver)
do not attach the same symbolic meanings to their words. For example- Rest room is used
for toilets, but somebody might perceive it as a place to rest.
2. Technical Jargons: Technical jargon is a word which is used commonly in a particular field
but not in other fields. For example, KT is jargon used in BPO and IT industry which
basically means Knowledge Transfer which other person might not be able to understand
3. Faulty Translations: Sometimes a message for wide circulation is translated from one
language to another. Fault in Translation will make the communication ineffective
4. Use of Gestures having different meanings: Gestures are interpreted differently by
different people. For example, flashing a victory sign with 2 fingers might be interpreted
as number 2
5. Unclarified Assumptions: Sometimes unclarified assumptions lead to communication gap.
6. Ambiguity of words/phrases- Words sounding the same but having different meaning can
convey a different meaning altogether. For example, the words hear and here sound the
same, but they have different meanings?
o Psychological Barriers
o Organizational Barriers
Organizational Barriers arise because of the working culture of the organization. These are
o Personal Barriers
o Other Barriers
1. Physical Barriers: refers to the nature of the environment, ex. Long distance, different
building, sites, non-up gradation of communication technologies
2. Attitudinal: results through problems with staff, poor management, personal attitude of
employee, insufficient training
3. Fear of being criticized
o Role of IT in communication
1. Advantages:
✓ Money and time can be saved as it is cheap as well as fast to move information around
✓ Video conferencing saves time on flights/accommodation
✓ It removes isolation and provides support systems to people who need it
✓ It is available 24x7
✓ It helps reduce red tapism/delays and corruption in the work processes
2. Disadvantages:
✓ Loss of face-to-face communication often results in loss of personal touch
✓ There is always an element of uncertainty regarding the authenticity of information
✓ Virus, fraud, identity theft are other concerns
1) Expressive Speakers
2) Empathetic Listeners
3) Persuasive Leaders
4) Sensitive to feelings
5) Informative Managers
➢ Persuasive Communication
Factors determining whether people will use an automatic or controlled process for
reacting to a persuasive message are as following. When we use controlled processing, we
will be harder to persuade as compared to Automatic processing because in controlled
processing we are applying our mind in analysing all the aspects
2) Prior Knowledge: People who are very well informed about a subject area are also
more likely to use controlled processing strategies. In other words, a better-informed
audience is likely to be much harder to persuade.
3) Personality: People who are probably high in need for cognition, a personality trait of
individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts. Those who are
lower in need for cognition are more likely to use automatic processing strategies,
relying on intuition and emotion to guide their evaluation of persuasive messages.
“The less is uncertainty, the greater is the satisfaction.” Distortions, ambiguities, and
incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce
satisfaction.
1. Aristotle’s Model
2. Shannon Weaver Model ((Feedback was not part of this model earlier, so it came to be known
as Linear)
➢ Aristotle’s Model:
1. Berlo’s model has 4 components: They are, Source, Message, Channel and Receiver
2. All components are affected by many factors
3. Source consists of communication skills, attitude, knowledge, culture of the sender and the
social system from where he is delivering the message
4. Message consists of contents, elements (gestures, postures, body movements), treatment
(tone, empathy), structure and code of the message to be delivered
5. Channel consists of way of delivering the message which could be either by hearing, seeing,
touching, smelling and tasting
6. Receiver consists of the same elements as of the Source
1. Communication happens both ways and here feedback is present. Once feedback is achieved
then the next message can be sent by the sender
2. It says that communication is a two-way process where both sender and receiver take turns to
send and receive a message.
Field of experience
Field of Experience are the things that influences the understanding and interpretation of
message like culture, social background, beliefs, experiences, values, and rules. People with
various knowledge, experience and cultural practices interpret message in a different way than
other.
For example, a person who always eats with spoon is informed that that he has to eat with
hands in that place; the person will get offended because he will think it is impolite to eat that
way. Socio-cultural gap will change the way a person interprets the message.
➢ Interactive Model is about interaction where receiver receives the message and then sends
the feedback. Sender waits for the feedback from the receiver whereas Transactional Model
is more of a continuous communication between sender and the receiver
➢ Transactional Model is more applicable in social context in our day to day life whereas
Interactive Model is applicable to interaction with machines or soft wares
➢ Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide, and influence the behavior
and work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership
is the ability of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and zeal. It is
the human factor which binds a group together and motivates them towards goals.
➢ Leadership Tasks:
Leadership Management
Derives power from personal characteristics Derives power from authority delegated
Leadership focuses on transformation aspect Management
- focuses on transactional part -
Creating vision and purpose of the organizationDeals with establishing structures and systems
in getting intended results to get those results. Management is about
efficiency, cost-benefit analysis, logistics,
methods, procedures, and policies
Focuses on top line (organizational growth) Focusses on bottom line (profitability)
Leadership is about Motivating, Mentoring, andManagement is about monitoring results
Inspiring against plans and solving problems i.e.
Controlling and Problem Solving
Leader Coaches and advises Manager drives and orders
➢ Formal and Informal Leader: Leadership is exercised in group situation. Since groups may be
either formal or informal. There may be formal leader or informal leader.
Formal leader: Formal leader is the one who is officially appointed to manage a group. He has
authority to exercise the control over the group
Informal Leader: An informal leader has no formal organizational authority to influence others
but possesses special kills and talent to influence and lead other members of organization. He
drives power to influence from his skills such as strong self-motivation, positive attitude,
motivating others. He can satisfy those needs of people which organization is not able t o
5. This type of leadership focuses on Maslow’s lower level of needs(Physiological, Safety and
Social) to increase the productivity and execution of objectives
8. These are mostly passive managers who do not believe in innovative or creative work but
rather following established routines and procedures
9. Effective in crisis and emergency situations as well as for projects that need to be carried out
in a specific way.
➢ Transformational Leadership
2. Leader works with subordinates to make the needed change and creates a vision to guide the
change through inspiration
3. Believes in innovating and creative work and does not believe in following standard operating
procedures
5. Believes in inspiring the workforce by setting an example, serves to enhance the motivation
and morale of the workforce
6. Helps to connect self-identity and project’s identity in turn achieving the collective identity of
the organization
7. Transformational Leadership Style was given by James Burns and then extended by Bernard
M. Bass.
10. According to Bass, there are four characteristics in the Transformational Leader
✓ Idealized Influence (II) - the leader serves as an ideal role model for followers; the leader
"walks the talk," and is admired for this.
✓ Inspirational Motivation (IM) - Transformational leaders have the ability to inspire and
motivate followers. Combined these first two I's are what constitute the transformational
leader's charisma.
✓ Individualized Consideration (IC) - Transformational leaders demonstrate genuine concern for
the needs and feelings of followers. This personal attention to each follower is a key element
in bringing out their very best efforts.
✓ Intellectual Stimulation (IS) - the leader challenges followers to be innovative and creative. A
common misunderstanding is that transformational leaders are "soft," but the truth is that
they constantly challenge followers to higher levels of performance.
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• “In-focus,” which means the organization serves a product-oriented goal such as increasing
profits market share
✓ Bureaucratic leadership is impersonal. It is about performance, not the worker
✓ Employment is based on the most technically proficient
➢ Paternalistic Leadership
1. A type of fatherly managerial style typically employed by dominant males where they exert
organizational power and treat employees and partners as part of members of the large
extended family.
2. Used to control and protect subordinate staff that are expected to be loyal & obedient
➢ Narcissistic Leadership
1. These types of leaders are found to have high in self-love
2. They are only interested in their own interests and prioritize their agendas at the expense of
group
3. This is characterized to be mostly unhealthy and destructive kind of leadership found mainly in
individuals with high arrogance, self-absorption, ego, and love for power
➢ Collaborative Leadership
1. This is a type of leadership style that is focused across functional and organizational
boundaries
2. Mostly seen in groups where people are working from different departments, organizations ,
team who have shared goals and values and believing in sharing success
3. General examples where this leadership is applied can be public private partnerships, global
supply chains, on-line collaborations, etc.
➢ Shared Leadership
1. This type of leadership distributes leadership responsibility
2. Commonly thought of as the "serial emergence" of multiple leaders over the life of a team
3. Measurement of Shared Leadership:
✓ Ratings of team’s collective leadership behavior: Measures team member’s perceptions of
leader behavior exhibited by respective team leaders and team members which is done by
distributing leader behavior questionnaires
✓ Social network analysis: Analysis of the relationships that occurs when one team member
perceives another as exerting leadership influence on the team
✓ BARS(Behaviorally anchored rating scales): Used to assess and rate performances
4. Factors affecting Shared leadership:
✓ Internal Environment: This is focused on three dimensions, namely Shared purpose, Voice,
and Social support
✓ External Environment: This is affected through external coaching provide to the team. This
can be done in two ways: Supportive Coaching(through active encouragement and positive
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reinforcement of team members by external team managers) and Functional
Coaching(external coaches intervenes only when team lacks shared purpose)
➢ Authentic Leadership Authentic leaders know who they are and what they believe in, and they
act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly.
Characteristics of Authentic Leaders:
• Authentic leaders are self-aware and genuine.
• Authentic leaders are mission driven and focused on results.
• Authentic leaders lead with their heart.
• Authentic leaders focus on the long-term
• They share information and encourage open communication.
• Their followers consider them ethical people and trust them as a result.
➢ Leadership Theories:
We will cover Trait, Functional Approach theory and Behavioral Style Theories in this
document.
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3. What does trait theory say -> Leaders are born, or leaders are made? There is some confusion
whether as per trait theory leaders are born with these traits or these traits can be learned
over time. Different authors have expressed different opinion about this. The opinion
expressed by most authors is that as per trait theory traits can be inborn or they can be
learned over a period of time. Some others are of the opinion that leaders must be born with
these traits and these traits cannot be learned over a period of time. Actually, former view is
more correct but latter view is also not completely wrong. In exam, remember both these
views and answer based on this
4. The major trait theory is given by Gordon Allport
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➢ Behavioral Theories
1.Believes that leaders are made and not born(Opposite of Trait Approach Theory)
2.Asserts that people can be taught to become a good leader
3.Divides leaders into 2 categories:
✓ Task Oriented: Mainly concerned with accomplishment of the task as per the standard
operating procedures
✓ People Oriented or Group Maintenance Oriented: Mainly concerned with inner needs of the
people getting satisfied whilst achieving results
One of the drawbacks of behavior theory is that it believes one leader would be effective in all
the situations but there is no appropriate behavior which can be effective in all the situations
a. Employee orientation stresses the relationship and emphasizes that every individual is
important, one must accept their individuality and personal needs
b. Production or Task orientation emphasizes production and technical aspects of the job
and employees are taken as tools for accomplishing the jobs
At the same time when studies were going on Michigan University, a separate study was
going on at Ohio state university. These studies have identified two dimensions: Initiating
structure and Consideration
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1. Initiating structure (Task Orientation) refers to leader’s behavior in delineating the
relationship between him and members of work group to establish well defined
patterns of organization., channels of communication, method, and procedures. The
leader who his high on initiating structures specifies the task to be performed by each
member of his group, sets down deadlines, gives directions and put pressure on them
for its fulfillment
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In essence, Managerial grid is very much similar to Ohio state leadership model. However,
there is one basic difference between the two. In managerial grid the ‘concern for’
dimension on X-axis is more about the attitude of managers whereas in Ohio state
leadership model its more about how leader actions are perceived by others. In other
words, managerial grid is attitudinal model whereas Ohio state leadership model is
behavioral model. Both these frameworks can be combined as below
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2. Opportunistic Style leaders adopt any style that has highest likelihood of achieving their
objectives. It does not have any fixed position on the grid.
3. Paternalistic Style leaders guide and define objectives for their employees and discourage any
initiative contrary to their views
Reddin also says that apart from task and relationship being two dimensions of leadership,
the third dimension is effectiveness as shown below
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Reddin believed that the way leader behaves in a certain situation may not be appropriate
in some other situations and hence leader can become effective only if he changes his style
as per the demand of the situation. One style may be effective in one situation and
ineffective in other situation. Thus, the difference between effective and ineffective styles is
often not the behavior itself but the appropriateness of the behavior to the environment in
which it is used. 3-Dimensional grid integrates the concepts of leadership style with
situational demands of a specific environment
Since each style can be less appropriate or more appropriate for the situation, Reddin also
gave less effective and more effective equivalent of each of these 4 styles that we discussed
above
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➢ Lewin’s Leadership Theory is one of the Behavioral Approach theories consisting of
Authoritative, Democratic and Laissez Faire Styles of Leadership as discussed above.
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✓ Delegates: In this leader delegates activities to the team members and trusts that they will
do their job
✓ Abdicates: In this leader relinquishes any kind of involvement in the task to be done and
trusts that the members of the team will do it. This is present at the extreme end of the
spectrum with maximal freedom given to the subordinates
The left side shows styles where control is maintained by the superior and the right side
shows release of control and more freedom to employees. The question arises at which
point in the continuum should a manager as a superior adopt the leadership style. There is
no answer to this question. The answer depends on 3 factors
1. Forces in the superior: His value system, confidence in his subordinates, feeling of
security
2. Force in subordinates: their need for independence, readiness to assume
responsibility, understanding of organizational goals, ability to participate in decision
making
3. Forces in the situation: type of organization, group effectiveness and nature of
problems
The more superior is confident about subordinates, the more subordinates are mature and
responsible and the more is the team spirit in the group, the higher will be the freedom
given to the employees.
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➢ Comparison of Likert’s and Levin’s theories
1. Likert’s divides Authoritative Style of Levin’s into Exploitative and Benevolent Authoritative
Styles
2. Democratic Style of Levin is similar to Consultative and Democratic(Participative) approach of
Likert
➢ Huneryager and Heckman Four Styles of Management
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➢ Emerging Issues in Leadership
Along with the recent developments in theory, some exciting issues have emerged of which
leaders must be aware. These include:
2) Trust
Effective leaders understand both who to trust and how to trust. At one extreme, leaders
often trust a close circle of advisors and gradually cutting themselves off from dissenting
opinions. At opposite extreme, lone-wolf leaders may trust nobody, leading to preventable
mistakes. Wise leaders carefully evaluate both the competence ad the position of those
they trust, seeking out a variety of opinions and input.
4) Abusive Supervision
Abusive supervision refers to sustained displays of nonphysical forms of hostility
perpetrated by supervisors against their direct reports. Examples of behavior that fall within
the abusive supervision content domain include public derogation, undermining, and
explosive outbursts.
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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have
read the Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should
rely only on Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the
exam or before any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary
sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions
➢ Leadership Theories
Trait Approach theory, Functional Approach theory and Behavioral Approach Theory have
already been discussed earlier in the course. Here, remaining theories have been
summarized.
➢ Situational/Contingency Theories : Asserts that there is no single effective style of
leadership suitable for every situation. It suggests that leadership effectiveness
depends on leader’s behaviors and situation in which leadership is exercised up on.
Let us discuss these two factors
c. Group Factors: Various group factors like task design, group composition,
group norms, group cohesiveness and peer group relationship affect leadership
effectiveness and performance. If these factors are favorable, the leader will be
effective
4. Measurement for judging leadership style of an individual according to the theory: Least-
Preferred Co-worker Scale (LPC)
5. LPC asks an individual to rate the 16 characteristics on a series of bipolar scales of 1 -8, of a
least preferred co-worker they have come across.
6. Low LPC score → Task Oriented Style and High LPC score → Relationship Oriented Style
7. Situation variable types:
✓ Leader’s Position Power: Based on managerial powers, an individual is classified into a
strong or weak leader
✓ Task Structure: Based on proper instructions and defined layout of the task, it is
categorized into structured and unstructured task
✓ Leader Member Relation: Based on relationship or rapport shard by the leader with
his subordinates, it is classified into good or poor
8. With the use of situation variables, Fiedler designed a matrix to recommend the suitable
leadership style for a particular situation.
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➢ Cognitive Resource Theory (by Fred Fiedler and Joe Garcia)
1. Asserts that Intelligence and Experience play a significant role in a person’s reaction to a
stressful situation
2. For Low-stress situation → Intelligence is important and High-stress situation →
Experience is important
3. Takes stress as the situational factor and suggests whether intelligence or experience is
more suitable to the task depending on the stress factor
4. For Directive oriented approach, intelligence is required
5. Intelligence or experience is irrelevant for simple tasks
3. Claims that leaders do not treat each subordinate the same which leads to the formation
of In-group and Out-group members
4. Relationship between managers and members of the group is developed through 3
stages:
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✓ Role-taking: This happens initially when members join newly, and managers take time
to assess their qualities
✓ Role-making: At this stage managers categorizes his team members into In-group or
Out-group depending on the trust, loyalty and commitment shown by them
✓ Routinization: Routines between team members and mangers are established
➢ Transformational Theories: This has been already discussed in the previous document
of Leadership part 1. Basic essence of this leadership is forming a new vision to
accomplish the task by motivating and selling the vision formed by the leader
Transformational
Traits Approach
Approach
Theory
Theory
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➢ Inspirational Approach to Leadership : There are 3 approaches to Inspirational Leadership:
Charismatic Leadership, Visionary Leadership and Transformational Leadership. These
three are closely related but there is some basic difference among these
We have already discussed about Transformational Leadership. We shall study about the
remaining two: Visionary and Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership:
1. These types of leaders have particularly good personality and fan following. Narendra
Modi is an example
2. They are dominant, self-confident individuals who hold strong conviction for their beliefs
3. They lead by example and that’s why people like them. This concept of leading by
example where one uses its loyalty, affection, admiration etc. is called usage of
referent power to gain followers
4. The subordinates want to be like leaders in every aspect
5. Key characteristics of Charismatic Leaders are
a. Vision and Articulation: He has a vision for longer term that proposes a better future.
He is able to clarify the importance of vision so that it becomes acceptable to others
b. Personal Risk: He is willing to take high risk, incurs high costs and engages in self-
sacrifice to achieve the vision
c. Sensitivity to Followers needs: He is perceptive of abilities and needs of the
subordinates
d. Unconventional Behavior: He might behave against the established practices and
norms
Robert house was the one who basically emphasized that charismatic leaders have inborn
qualities which makes them great leaders. This view is now being challenged as charismatic
leaders can also be developed. As per Richardson and Thayor view that a person can become
charismatic leader by following these 3 steps
1. First, he needs to develop an aura by maintaining an optimistic view, using passion as
a catalyst for generating enthusiasm and communicating with whole body (non-
verbal) and not just words
2. Second, he draws others in by creating a bond that inspires the to follow
3. Third, he brings out the potential in followers by tapping into their emotions
a) Socialized charismatic Leaders: Socialized charismatic Leaders use power to benefit others.
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b) Personalized charismatic: Personalized charismatic leaders use power to serve primarily
their own interests.
c) Office-holder charismatic: The office-holder charismatic leaders attain their charisma
chiefly from the position they hold rather than of their personal characteristics.
d) Personal (not personalized) charismatic's: Personal (not personalized) charismatic leaders
gain very high esteem through the faith; others have in them.
e) Divine charismatic: A divine charismatic was someone endowed with a gift of divine grace.
For example, Godmen.
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Visionary Leadership
Visionary leadership is about credible and inspiring vision for the future of the organization
which is shared commonly by all the organizational members and hence becoming a shared
vision.
Visionary and Charismatic leadership might be sounding like they are same. But there is
important difference between the two
1. The charismatic leaders tend to rely more on in-born qualities whereas visionary
leaders tend to rely on acquired qualities to influence others
2. The source of loyalty for charismatic leaders is loyalty (referent power) of his followers
towards him while source of influence of the visionary leader is follower’s
commitment to shared vision
Both these systems interact closely and shape employee behavior. Due to changes in the
environment organization changes its technical system which impacts the social system i.e.
when organization changes its rules and policies then the way leaders and followers interact
also get changed
As per this theory, 4 types of leadership pattern emerge in the organization in stages
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2. Emergent: Influence in Emergent leadership is based on skills and knowledge of an
individual and his acceptance in the group
3. Shared: Influence of shared leadership is based on individual accountability and self-
control
4. Integrative: Influence of Integrative leadership is based on interdependence of group
members and control is through self-regulation
➢ Great Man theory of Leadership:
This is one of the first theory of Leadership. As per this theory ‘leaders are born, not made’.
This theory emphasizes that a person is born with or without necessary traits of leadership.
For example, it was believed that Napoleon was a born leader due to his natural ability to rise
out of any situation. This theory actually emphasizes ‘charismatic’ leadership. As per this
theory, great leaders have inborn characteristics such as commanding personality, charm,
courage, intelligence etc. These qualities cannot be learned but are ingrained
As per this theory
1. Good leaders have in born qualities which are bestowed upon them by God
2. Ordinary people cannot become good leaders
3. Leadership qualities cannot be acquired through formal education
4. The situational factors have little influence on leaders’ qualities. A good leader will be
a good leader in all the situations
Criticism of Great Man Theory
1. Leadership qualities are not just in-born, they can be acquired also. Hitler who was
just a house painter in youth became a dynamic leader later. This shows that
leadership qualities are not just inherited.
2. Another criticism is that this theory ignores the situational variables. A leader with
certain leadership qualities may be effective in one situation and non-effective in
another situation.
3. “A Natural Born Leader “: Does this mean that introverts, persons of average social
intelligence, or those of us who are not particularly empathic will not make good
leaders? Certainly not. A great leader in recent history - the Mayor of New York – has
Leadership thrust on him in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks for which he
was subsequently honored. Remember, most of leadership is made, not born. So, if
you aspire to positions of leadership, then the best course is to embark on a
leadership self-development plan.
4. Doing the Right Thing: To be successful, all leaders – whatever their leadership style,
type and so on - must choose the right action at the right time and “keep a steady eye
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on the ball”. They must be courageous, self-aware – and ensure the consistent support
of their team of followers. This is a skill which needs to be practiced.
5. Never Stop Learning: The well-known business coach, Hugo Heij says, “True leaders
ensure they continue to develop their leadership skills throughout their careers,
through learning and development materials and activities.” Fortunately, there is
tremendous interest in leadership and in leader development. Self-motivated Leaders
may consider embarking on their own leadership development programme.
➢ Zenger’s Folkman’s 10 Fatal Leadership Flaws: These defines 10 set of flaws that are
employed by the leaders which result in ineffective leadership
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2. Internal factors attribution is called Dispositional attribution and external
factors attribution is called Situational attribution
3. To conclude whether attribution factor is internal or external, Kelly designed a
model based on 3 factors namely, consistent, distinctive and consensus
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A nurturant leader "cares for his subordinates, shows affection, takes a personal interest in
their well-being, and above all is committed to their growth”. In order to be effective,
however, he makes his nurturance contingent on the subordinate's task accomplishment.
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➢ Contemporary Leadership Roles
A) Providing Team Leadership
• Leadership is increasingly taking place within a team context. The role of team leader is
different from the traditional leadership role performed by first-line supervisors.
• The challenge for most managers is to learn how to become an effective team leader.
• They have to learn skills such as the patience to share information, to trust others, to give
up authority, and understanding when to intervene.
• The team leader’s job is to focus on two priorities: managing the team’s external
boundary and facilitating the team process.
B) Mentoring
A mentor is a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less experienced employee (A
protégés’). The mentoring role includes coaching, counseling, and sponsorship.
C) Self-leadership
Proponents of self-leadership say that there are a set of processes through which individuals
control their own behavior.
How do leaders create self-leaders?
• The following ideas have been suggested:
• Model self-leadership.
• Encourage employees to create self-set goals.
• Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and increase desirable behaviors.
• Create positive thought patterns.
• Create a climate of self-leadership.
• Encourage self-criticism.
D) On-Line Leadership
Leadership research has been directed almost exclusively to face-to-face and verbal
situations. The reality is that today’s managers and their employees are increasingly being
linked by networks rather than geographical proximity.
Obvious examples include managers who regularly use e-mail to communicate with their
staff, managers overseeing virtual projects or teams, and managers whose telecommuting
employees are linked to the office by a computer and modem.
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• Effective Managers should hire candidates whom they believe are ethical and
trustworthy.
• For maximum leadership effectiveness, ensure that manager’s preferences on the
initiating structure and consideration dimensions are a match for their work dynamics and
culture.
• Organization should appreciate the unique attributes, predispositions, and talents of each
leader. No two leaders are the same and there is value in diversity.
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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have
read the Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should
rely only on Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the
exam or before any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary
sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions
2. Functions of Management
Thus, according to Henry Fayol, management consist of 5 functions namely planning,
organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.
• Identification of activities.
• Classification of grouping of activities.
• Assignment of duties.
• Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
• Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
3. Concepts of Management
Management has been defined in different ways and different views. Let us discuss some of
them
5. Objectives of Management
The objectives of Management can be categorized into 3 categories
Administration Management
It is concerned with formulation of policies, It means getting work done through others
plans and objectives
It relates to decision making. It is a It relates to executions of decisions. It is a doing
determinative or thinking function function
It has extremely broad scope. Administrators It is mainly narrow as they are just concerned
are mainly concerned with planning and control about implementation and execution
It is not directly concerned with directing human It is actively concerned with leading, motivating
resources or just directing middle level of operational workforce at lower level for
managers execution of plans
Concerned with what is to be done and when is Concerned with who shall implement decisions
to be done made by administration
It is a top-level function It is a middle and low-level function
Administration has direct interaction with the Management is mainly concerned with internal
external environment and their decisions are forces i.e. objectives, policies of the
influenced by the external environmental forces organization
This term is usually used in government offices Mainly used in business organizations
3. Administration and Management are same: According to this view, both management
and administration are same. The difference lies in usage of terms in different countries
and different type of organizations. For example, the term administration is used in
government organizations whereas management is used in business organizations.
7. Levels of Management
Effectiveness on other hand refers to the extent to which an organization achieves its
objectives. This effectiveness is externally focused because the achievement of organizational
objectives depends on environment in which the organization operates
Soft Elements: The four "soft" elements – Skills, Staff, Style, and Shared Values, on the other
hand, can be harder to describe, less tangible, and more influenced by your company culture.
But they are just as important as the hard elements if the organization is going to be
successful.
9. Nature of Management
There are conflicting views about whether management is a science or an art. Let us evaluate
these statements through the below discussion
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Management as Science
Science is a body of systemized knowledge generated through logic and experiments. Science
has following features
1. Systematic body of knowledge: Science is systemized body of knowledge. Principles of
science are based on cause-effect relationship. In management there is lack of such cause-
effect relationship. If an employee is not feeling motivated, we cannot explain a single
sure shot reason for the same. So, Management is not true science
2. Universal principles: Scientific principles represent basic facts about a particular field
enquiry. These principles may always be applied in all situations. A management principle
which works well in one country may not work in other country because of the situational
and cultural differences between two countries. This management is not true science
3. Scientific enquiry and experiments: Scientific principles are tested rigorously before
being approved. This is not the case in management principles. In management the
principles are not tested like science. Thus, management is not true science.
In line with above discussion management is not a perfect science. It is called pseudo-
science or inexact science. It is also called soft science
Management as Art
Art implies the application of knowledge and skills to bring about the desired results.
Management is Art because it fulfills the following criteria
1. Practical knowledge: Every art signifies practical knowledge. An artist not only learns the
theory but also its application in practice. Similarly, a person cannot become a successful
manager simply by reading the theory, he must also learn to apply his knowledge in
solving managerial problems in practical life. Thus, management is an art
2. Personal skill or Personalized Application of Knowledge: The success of different artists
differs even when all of them possess the same technical knowledge or qualifications. This
is due to the level of their personal skills. Similarly, the success of a manager depends on
his personality in addition to his technical knowledge. Thus, management is an art
3. Improvement through Continuous Practice: In art, improvement is made through
continuous practice. In this way person engaged in art move towards perfection. This is
also done in management. Thus, management is an art.
4. Creativity: Art is basically creative, and an artist aims at producing something that had not
existed before. A manager effectively combines and coordinates the factors of production
to create goods and services.
Management as Profession
There is controversy whether management is a profession or not. Let us discuss the following
points related to profession and evaluate whether management is a profession or not.
1. Specialized body of knowledge: All professions have well-defined knowledge that can be
acquired by the person who wishes to enter a profession. In management, we have a
systematic body of knowledge that can be used for development for managers.
Management is taught across universities as a discipline
2. Restricted entry (Formal Education): Only those people are eligible to enter a profession
those who have eligible degrees. For example, a doctor must have degree as prescribed
by Medical Council of India. In managements, MBAs are preferred but MBA degree is not
necessary to enter this profession. This there are no standard qualification for managers
3. Professional Body: For regulation of any profession, the existence of professional
representative body is must. For example, ICAI lays down rules and regulations with
respect to chartered accountants. In area of management also, there are professional
bodies such as All India Management association (AIMA), but these are not having
authority to frame rules and regulations or professional qualifications to take up
managerial posts
4. Service motive: A profession is a source of livelihood, but professionals are primarily
motivated by the desire to serve the community. Service motive is also emphasized in
management. A manager of a factory is responsible not only to its owners, but he is also
expected to produce quality goods at a reasonable cost and to contribute to the well-
being of the community
5. Code of conduct: Every profession must have a code of conduct for its members.
Members of one profession must abide by a code of conduct which contains rules and
regulations providing the norms of honesty, integrity and professional. Though All India
Management Association has framed code of conduct for managers, but it has no right to
act against any manager who does not follow this code
To perform management functions and assume multiple roles, managers must be skilled.
Robert Katz identified three managerial skills essential to successful management: technical,
human, and conceptual
12.Scope of Management
The operational areas of business management may be classified into the following branches
– Production Management, Financial Management, Marketing Management and Human
Resource Management.
1. Production Management:
Production means creation of utilities. This creation of utilities takes place when raw
materials are converted into finished products. Plant location and layout, production
policy, type of production, plant facilities, material handling, production planning and
control, repair and maintenance, research and development, simplification and
standardization, quality control and value analysis, etc., are the main problems involved in
production management
2. Marketing Management:
Some of the area under marketing management are
I. Product decisions: what to produce and how the product should look like?
II. Pricing Decisions: What should be the price of the product in the market
III. Promotion decisions: Brand name, Advertising etc.
IV. Place or Physical Distribution decisions: What all channels such a kirana stores, malls
etc. where the product should be available
V. Others such as after sales service, market research, etc. are the problems of marketing
management.
3. Financial Management:
Financial management is concerned with the managerial activities pertaining to the
procurement and utilization of funds or finance for business purposes. The main functions
of financial management include:
1. Estimation of capital requirements.
2. Ensuring a fair return to investors.
3. Determining the suitable sources of funds.
4. Laying down the optimum and suitable capital
5. Preparation, analysis, and interpretation of financial statements.
4. Personnel Management:
Personnel Management is that phase of management which deals with the effective control
and use of manpower. Managerial functions of personnel management include:
a. Personnel planning.
b. Organizing by setting up the structure of relationship among jobs, personnel, and physical
factors to contribute towards organization goals.
c. Procurement of right kind and number of persons.
d. Training and development of employees.
e. Determination of adequate and equitable compensation of employees.
f. Integration of the interests of the personnel with that of the enterprise; and
g. Providing good working conditions and welfare services to the employees.
1. Joseph son institute Ethical decision-making model: This model is widely used in
taking ethical decisions. It consists of 3 Steps:
I. All decisions must consider and reflect a concern for the interest and wellbeing of
all stakeholders.
II. Ethical values and principles always take precedence over non ethical ones.
2. The Plus Decision –Making Model: To make it easy to understand and apply these
ethics filters, let us adapt to mnemonic word "PLUS"
3. Taylor Four Way test: Herbert J. Taylor was a business executive, civic leader and
sponsor of Christian organizations who belonged to the United States of America. His
Ethical Model was based on these 4 questions
I. Is it the truth?
II. Is it fair to all concerned?
III. Will it build goodwill and better friendships?
IV. Will it be beneficial to all concerned?
In 1940s, when Taylor was an international director of Rotary, he offered the Four
Way Test to the organization, and it was adopted by Rotary for its internal and
promotional use.
14.Schools of Management
Different Schools of Management Thought are as follows
Different schools of management have evolved over a period. Harold Koontz, called this
development as the management theory Jungle because of so many management thoughts .
Below is the list of Management Thoughts which we shall discuss one by one
1. Science, Not Rule of Thumb: Replace working by "rule of thumb," or simple habit and
common sense, and instead use the scientific method to study work and determine the
most efficient way to perform specific tasks.
2. Harmony, Not Discord (Max Output): The principles involves maintaining harmony
between management and workers in place of conflict.
4. Development of each person (Scientific selection and Training of workers): There should
be scientific selection of workers and work should be assigned to them should suit their
physical, mental, and intellectual capabilities. Workers should be trained as per the needs
of work and they will perform that work only. This is basically called Division of labor and
Specialization
3. Work Study: Work study refers to systematic and critical evaluation of a work with the aim
of identifying how the work can be performed in the most desirable way by standardizing
and simplifying it. In a work study, 4 types of studies are undertaken
I. Method study: It refers to identify the most suitable way to do a particular activity
II. Motion study: It refers to conduct the study of motions being performed by
workers and machines while doing the job. The moving camera is used to conduct
this study. The main objective of this study is to eliminate the unnecessary
motions.
III. Time study or measurement: It refers to determine the standard time required to
complete a particular activity. The standard time is determined based on average
time taken by the several experiences of the same work
IV. Fatigue study: It refers to determine the duration and frequency of rest intervals
to complete a particular job. The rest refreshes the workers. They work again with
their full capacity
4. Differential Piece Wage Plan: It is a system of wage payment in which a worker who
achieves or exceeds production target get wage at a higher price while a worker who does
not achieve the target will get wage at lower price.
5. Mental Revolution: The basic idea behind concept of mental revolution is that there
should be change in mindset of managers, owners and workers resulting in understanding
needs of each other. According to Taylor, instead of fighting over division of profits, both
the parties should make efforts for increasing the profits.
Proper selection and training of workers The principle of Functional foremanship violated
and equal division of work between principle of unity of command as one person must take
managers and workers order from various people
Incentive for higher production to workers Scientific management made the work monotonous
and workers tried to overspeed due to differential
wage rate system
• The Gantt chart: Still accepted as an important management tool today, it provides a
graphic schedule for the planning and controlling of work and recording progress
towards stages of a project.
15.2.5 Productivity
It can be defined as ratio of output to input. High productivity means efficient use of
resources.
Productivity is often misconstrued with production, but there exists a difference, in the sense
that production indicates the volume of output, whereas productivity is the output generated
from the resources employed by the company.
1. Division of work: Division of work involves dividing work into relevant number of tasks
and assigning task or unit to single person
1. Management Oriented- This theory does not give any attention to the issues of workers.
Ignoring the human behaviour will have adverse effects over the performance of
company.
2. Concepts Borrowed from Military Science- This strategy of management has borrowed
concepts from military science such as commanding.
3. Ignores Environmental Changes- Another major limitation of administrative management
strategy is that it does not consider the environment changes which have major impact
over the organization.
4. Mechanical Approach- This theory of management is mechanistic in nature. It cannot be
applied with key aspects of management. Administrative management theory has a
Taylor Fayol
He worked from bottom to top. His study was He worked from top to bottom His study was
related to Shop floor level related to Higher management level laying stress
on unity of command, unity of direction etc.
Narrow perspective. Advocated Efficiency Wider perspective. Advocated Efficiency through
through simplification and standardization observing certain management principles
Production and Engineering Managerial functions
Scientific observation and measurement Personal experiences translated into universal
truth
Basis for accomplishment on the production line Systematic theory of management
He gave stress on increasing productivity than on He showed regard for human element by
human resources advocating principles such as initiative, stability
of service and esprit de corps
• Official Records. A bureaucracy needs to maintain complete files regarding all its
activities. All the decisions and activities are recorded and preserved for future
reference
The following factors are reasons for higher efficiency in bureaucratic organizations
1. Extensive rules and regulations give clarity regarding what is expected of employees
2. Decision making is rational and not by personal factors or personal bias
3. There is proper maintenance of official records, so employees refrain from doing anything
wrong
(I) work environment: In general, when employee needs are satisfied, the work environment
is termed positive and when employee needs are not satisfied, the work environment is
termed negative.
(II) workgroup: The Hawthorne studies showed that the informal groups exert tremendous
influence over the Behaviour patterns of workers.
(III) individual: The human being is an important segment of the organization. Behaviour of
an individual is affected by his feeling’s sentiments and attitudes.
(Iv) leader: The leader must ensure full and effective utilization of all organizational resources
to achieve organizational goals.
1. Social Factors in Output (Social System): Organization is a social system where informal
relations exist. Therefore, while motivating workers, social factors shall be considered.
2. Social Environment: The social environment on the job affects the workers and is also
affected by them. Management is not the only variable.
3. Group Influence: Workers create informal social groups, and they behave more by the
norms of informal group to which they are adhered to.
4. Informal Organization: Informal organization does also exist within the framework of
formal organization and it affects and is affected by the formal organization.
5. Leadership: There is an emergence of informal leader and sometimes he becomes
important in directing the behavior of the group. He helps the group function as a social
group and achieve its objectives.
6. Supervision: Supervisors must be friendly to the workers, genuinely concerned about
their needs and such an attitude from supervisor impacts the productivity favorably.
The human relations approach has been criticized on the following grounds:
1. Lack of Scientific Validity: The human relation drew conclusions from Hawthorne studies.
These conclusions are based on clinical insight rather than on scientific evidence.
2. Over-Emphasis on Group: The human relations approach over-emphasizes the group and
group decision-making. But, in practice, groups may create problems for the management
and collective decision-making may not be possible.
4. Limited Focus on Work: It puts all the emphasis on interpersonal relations and on the
informal group. It tends to overemphasize the psychological aspects at the cost of the
structural and technical aspects.
6. Negative View of Conflict between Organizational and Individual Goals: It views conflict
between the goals of the organization and those of individuals as destructive. The positive
aspects of conflicts such as overcoming weaknesses and generation of innovative ideas are
ignored.
2. Equifinality: Equifinality means system can reach a final state from different initial
conditions. It implies not all organizations may not choose the same course of actions to
attain success.
2. It analyses the system at different levels and inter-relates and integrates it into a unified
set of direction. Starting from individual goals, it focuses on overall organisational goals,
synthesizes the two and converges them into global economy.
4. It considers the impact of environment on the organisation and vice versa. Interaction of
external environment with the internal environment is the most significant contribution of
systems theory.
5. System approach synthesizes the classical and behavioural theories into a broader
framework to solve managerial problems.
4. Limited Application: It fails to provide concepts that apply to all types of organizations.
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have
read the Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should
rely only on Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the
exam or before any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary
sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions
In this part we will only discuss on Planning. Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling will be
discussed in later chapters
2. Planning
Planning involves deciding in advance what needs to be done and how to do it
The concept of planning is different from plan. Planning is process of consisting of various
steps whereas plan is a commitment to a particular course of action believed necessary to
achieve the specific results. For example, the five-year plans made by government are plans
but the process used to make those plans is called planning
6. Planning is flexible: Planning is done for future and since future is not predictable, planning
must be able to cope with changes in customer preference, competition, and govt. policies etc.
1. Upper management generally develops the strategic plans whereas lower level
managers develop the tactical plans.
2. Strategic planning considers external environment whereas operational planning mainly
focuses on internal environment of the organization
3. Strategic planning is done before tactical planning and tactical planning is based on
strategic planning
4. Facts on which to base strategic plans are usually more difficult to gather than are facts
on which to base tactical plans.
5. Strategic plans are generally less detailed than tactical plans.
6. Strategic plans cover a relatively long period of time whereas tactical plans cover a
relatively short period of time.
External premises centre round the markets and derived from the external environment
surrounding the business. The factors considered in external premise offers threats and
Opportunities Analysing the threats and weakness is also called environmental analysis
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Usually the environmental and organizational environmental is combined to have SWOT.
SWOT is acronym for strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat)
Standing Plans: These plans are prepared for repeat use. For example, plan to extinguish fire
Single Use Plans: These plans are prepared to achieve specific objectives. For example, plan to
finance the deficit in 2010-2011 is a plan valid for only one year, it cannot be used again and again
2.1.1 Mission
Mission is the statement which reflects purpose, philosophy, and vision of the organization. For
example, Mission could be to be leading motorcycle manufacturer in the world
2.1.2 Objectives
The end results which organizations seeks to achieve are known as goals or objectives.
Though the term goals and objectives are used interchangeably but they do differ
Multiplicity of Objectives
Peter Drucker believed that an organization must have multiple objectives. He suggested that
objectives must be set in following 8 key areas
2.1.3 Strategy
Strategy is course of action which an organization tries to relate itself with its environment
to develop competitive advantage which helps in achieving its objectives. For example: to
launch a motorcycle for a rural area which is sturdy and comfortable
2.1.4 Policies
The term “Policy” is defined by koontz and O ‘Donnel as “policies are general statements or
understandings which guide mangers thinking in decision making”. Policies define how an
organization should deal with its stakeholders such as employees, suppliers, customers etc.
Policies may be divided into different types of policies from different approaches.
A. Based on Source:
1. Formulated or Originated Policy: By originated policy they refer to policy which originates
from the top management itself.
2. Appealed Policy: When the current policy is not able to handle any situation, then an
appeal by any subordinate to the manager results appeal being forwarded to higher
authorities
4. Externally Imposed Policy: Policies may be imposed externally that is from outside the
organisation on such as by Government control or regulation, trade associations and trade
union etc.
1. General Policies: General Policies are those which are followed in all the departments and
unit of the organization. For example, policy of sick leave will be uniform across all the
departments
2. Specific Policies: Specific Policies are those which are followed by departments of
organization differently. For example, HR department may have different incentive policy and
Marketing department may have different incentive policy
2.1.5 Procedure
A procedure is chronological sequence in which an activity should be performed to achieve the
objective of the activity.
Difference between Policy and Procedure
Basis of Difference Policy Procedure
Nature It is a general statement It is a specific statement
Role It provides guideline for thinking Itforprovides chronological steps for
a specific direction completing a task
Flexibility It is flexible to some extent It is not flexible
Relevance Its s relevant for higher Management
It is relevant for lower management
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2.1.6 Method
Methods are standardized way or manner of performing a routine activity. For example, there are
different methods of valuation of closing stock in an organization, but organization may choose
one method which is adopted throughout the organization
2.1.7 Rule
Rule is a specific statement that prescribes what is to be done or not done in the organization.
Policy may leave some areas for discretion, but rules are to be strictly followed. Rules does not
allow any deviation from the stated course of action
3 Strategy in Organization
We discussed about strategy in brief in the previous section. Now we shall discuss in detail
about strategy here
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3.2.1 Corporate Strategy:
The first level of strategy in the business world is corporate strategy, which sits at the ‘top of
the heap’.
Sometimes below the Functional Strategy, we have operational strategy as each function can
be divided into sub-functions. For example, the marketing department can be divided into
sales, distribution, promotion, pricing etc. So, the Sub-Functional strategy would be made at
Operational Level Strategy
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1. Stability Strategy: Under this strategy, the business will concentrate on utilizing its present
resources to develop its competitive strength within a restricted product -market
configuration
2. Growth Strategy: Growth strategy means company is wants to grow instead of just being
stable. Growth strategy can be of 2 types – Intensive and Diversification
a. Intensive Growth: It is a strategy of aggregation or expansion under which growth is
achieved by expanding the scale of operations. Intensive growth can further be of 3
types
i. Market Penetration: Aim is to increase sale of present products in present
markets though more aggressive promotion and distribution
ii. Market Development: Aim is to increase the sales by selling present products
into new markets. For example, venturing into foreign markets
iii. Product Development: Aim is to grow by developing new variety in current
products or improving current products for the present market.
b. Diversification Strategy: Aim is to increase sales by developing new products for the
new markets.
3. Retrenchment Strategy: A strategy used by corporations to reduce the diversity or the
overall size of the operations of the company. Retrenchment strategy can be of 3 types
a. Turnaround Strategy: It refers to the management measures which turn a sick
company back to a healthy one
b. Divestment Strategy: In Divestment strategy company may decide to close/sell the
business unit or division if it seems it cannot be turned around.
c. Liquidation Strategy: The strategy is used as a last resort where the whole company
is sold to avoid bankruptcy. The main difference between Divestment and Liquidation
is that the Divestment is selling off a division or a unit whereas Liquidation is a
winding-up of the whole company
4. Combination Strategy: A company into many products may use different strategies for
different products
Based on these two factors there are 4 types of global business strategies as shown below
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Let us discuss them one by one
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3.5 Portfolio Analysis – BCG Matrix
BCG matrix tries to analyze the business units in a company
The rate of market growth rate is plotted against the relative market share of the business
unit. The business units are classified into 4 types
1. Dogs: Low market share in slow growing market. It is kind of stagnant business
2. Cash Cows: High Marker share in slow growing market. This is seen as profitable business
giving quick cash revenues without much investment
3. Stars: High Market share in high growing market. Company needs to invest here to keep
the market share in rapidly growing market. These can be future stars for the company
4. Question Marks: Low market share in high growth market. It is a question mark for the
company because company needs to invest to keep with the market growth, but its low
market share may be against investing more
4 Management by Objectives
We have earlier studied about objectives under the hierarchy of plans. In line with that we
are going to study about Management by Objectives
Management by objectives (MBO), also known as management by results (MBR), was first
popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management
The essence of MBO is participative goal setting. The principle behind Management by
Objectives (MBO) is to make sure that everybody within the organization has a clear
understanding of the aims, or objectives, of that organization, as well as awareness of their
own roles and responsibilities in achieving those aims. The goals are agreed by employees
and are not merely imposed on them
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4.1 Process of MBO
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Drawbacks of MBO
1. At times it can be time consuming
2. In some cases, companies introduce MBO, but individual managers are unwilling to
delegate fully to their subordinates
3. Sometime objectives are set from short-term perspective and emphasis on short term
objectives may lead to opposite results as envisioned by long term planning
4. Inflexibility: MBO represents danger of inflexibility in organization when objectives
need to be changed. In dynamic environment, a particular objective may not be valid
for ever.
Decision making is a process of selection of an alternative which may or may not be new
while problem solving is the invention of an alternative that is different from the earlier
decision that has created the problem.
3. Policy and Operating Decisions: Policy decisions are taken by top management. They
affect the entire enterprise. But operating decisions are taken by lower management to
put the policy into action.
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4. Individual and Group Decision Making: In an organization decision can be made
individually or in a group. Group decision making can lead to quality decision but is time
consuming. Let us discuss the Pros and Cons of group decision making in detail
People participate in decision making and hence Domination: Certain people due to their position
they get satisfaction from it or age may dominate in group decision making
and thereby defeating the purpose
People learn from others in group decision Lack of Responsibility in group decision making
making leading to Personnel development
Risk taking of individual is less but in group we Groupthink is a type of thinking when reaching
tend to take more risk agreement is more important rather than
arriving at sound decision. People conform to the
pressure of the group. Groupthink can happen in
group decision making
The above decision-making process is based on Simon’s decision-making process who has
proposed phases of decision making: Intelligence (Problem Identification), Design (Alternative
generation) and Choice (Choosing an alternative). As per him the decision-making process is a
rational decision-making process
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5.3 Models in Decision Making – Economic Man Model and Administrative Man
Model
There are two models of decision making which differ according to the emphasis they put on
rationality. These two models are
(1) uncertainty,
(2) certainty
(3) risk.
5.4.1 Certainty
Under conditions of certainty, the manager has enough information to know the outcome of
the decision before it is made.
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5.4.2 Risk
Risks exist when the individual has some information regarding the outcome of the decision
but does not know everything when making decisions under conditions of risk, the manager
may find it helpful to use probabilities. To the degree that the probability assignment is
accurate; he or she can make a good decision.
Let us consider the case of a company that has four contract proposals it is interested in
bidding on. If the firm obtains any one of these contracts, it will make a profit on the
undertaking. However, because only a limited number of personnel can devote their time to
putting bids together, the firm has decided to bid on one proposal only—one that offers the
best combination of profit and probability that the bid will be successful. This combinat ion is
known as the expected value.
The profit associated with each of these four contract proposals, as presented in below table,
varies from $100,000 to $400,000. The probability of getting the contract is also given . On
which of the proposals should the firm bid?
As the table shows, the answer is number three. It offers the greatest expected value.
Contract Profit ($) The probability of Getting the Expected Value ($)
Proposal Contract
(Profit * Probability)
1 100,000 .2 20000
2 200,000 .3 60000
3 300,000 .4 120,000
4 400,000 .1 40000
5.4.3 Uncertainty
Uncertainty exists when the probabilities of the various results are not known. The manager
feels unable to assign estimates to any of the alternatives.
Under such a condition, several different decision criteria have been proposed as possible
bases for decision making.
1. Maxima Criterion (Optimistic Criterion): In this the best payoff of each alternative is
selected and then maximum among those best payoffs will be selected
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2. Maximin Criterion (Pessimistic Criterion): We select the worst payoff of each alternative
and then select the maximum one among those worst payoffs
3. Minimax Regret Criterion. In this we first select the best of each alternative and then
select the minimum among those.
4. Insufficient Reason Criterion. The average of all the possible conditions under each
alternative is taken and the one with best payoff is selected
The best average return is given by third option of doing nothing, so it would be selected.
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Earlier we have discussed about functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL
i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling. In this part we will discuss on Organizing.
1. Organizing
It is a function in which the synchronization and combination of human, physical and financial
resources take place. It basically deals with following activities
Principles of Organization
1. Orientation towards Goals and Objectives: There should be unity among all the objectives at
organizational, Departmental, and Individual level
2. Specialization: Every department should be given a specific work to be performed.
3. Co-ordination: All the activities of all the individuals and departments should be interlinked
with each other.
4. Delegation of authority and creation of Responsibility: The superior should pass on the
authority to their subordinates. There should be fixation of responsibility after the authority is
delegated
5. Balance: There should be balance between authority and responsibility, centralization and
decentralization, human and material resources etc.
6. Unity of command: This principle suggests that subordinate should get orders only from one
boss at a time.
7. Span of Control: Span of control indicates the number of subordinates under a manager.
Number of subordinates under one superior should be appropriate so that he can manage
them effectively
8. Scalar Chain: Scalar chain is a chain of command or authority which flows from top to bottom.
With a chain of authority available, wastages of resources are minimized, overlapping of work is
avoided
9. Flexibility: The organizing process should be flexible so that any change can be incorporated.
1. The first step in organizing is to identify and enumerate the activities required to achieve the
objectives of the enterprise
2. The various activities are then classified into appropriate departments and divisions based on
functions, products, territories, customers etc.
3. The individual groups of activities are then allotted to different individuals based on their ability
and aptitude. The responsibility of every individual should be defined clearly to avoid duplication of
work and overlapping of effort.
4. Every individual is given the authority necessary to perform the assigned task effectively. Authority
delegated to a person should be commensurate with his responsibility.
5. The activities and efforts of different individuals are then synchronized. Such co-ordination is
necessary to ensure effective performance of specialized functions.
There are 3 types of charts on an organization (i) Vertical or top-down chart (ii) horizontal or left
to right chart and (iii) Circular chart
1. Top-Down Chart: In the top-down chart, highest position is shown at the top level followed by
other positions in the hierarchy
2. Left to Right Chart: In the left to right chart, the highest position is shown at the extreme left
followed by other positions in the hierarchy from left to right as shown in figure below. It not
used very much
2 Organization Structures
Organizations structure is a pattern of relationship between people and work within which
organizational activities are performed to achieve the objectives. An organization structure is a
framework through which management works to accomplish its objectives. It is primarily concerned
with the allocation of duties and responsibilities, and delegation of authority
vi. It is stable in nature. It comes to an end only after closure of the organization.
Line managers have total authority over those who report directly to them, but staff workers have
primarily advisory authority. Their function is to create, develop, collect, and analyze shop information,
which flows to line workers in the form of advice.
1. There are two aspects of administration in this organization i.e. planning and execution.
2. The staff provides guidance and advice to line executives. Such guidance is offered whenever it
is demanded by line. So, we have specialization of staff here which can give expert advice
5. Staff steals the show, and any good performance is dedicated to them. Line may feel dissatisfied
3. A superior specialist has a right to give orders relating to these specific functions.
In matrix organizational structure, the project manager is appointed for each project to coordinate the
activities of that project. Personnel are drawn from their respective functional departments.
2. Offers more specialization as project managers and functional managers specialize in their areas.
3. Subordinates receive orders from two bosses, so unity of command principle is not followed
1. Problem Solving Team: A problem solving team, also known as corrective action team, is
constituted to solve specific problems which an organizational may be facing.
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2. Cross-Functional Team: Cross Functional Team draws its members from different functional
areas, particularly from those which have high interdependence. The basic objective of cross-
functional team is to make decisions and solve problems in those areas which cannot be done
by a particular functional department
3. Self-Managing Team: Self- managing team, also known as empowered or self-directed team
sets Goals and inspects its own work, prescribes work schedules, and review its performance
4. Virtual Team: Virtual team uses information technology to tie together people in different
parts of the world. Members interact among themselves using online communication devices.
3.7 Committee
A committee is a group of people who work collectively, discuss, decide, and recommend
solutions to the problems (of a concern) which possibly cannot be solved by an individual.
Types of Committee:
Limitations of a Committee:
1. Task has broader powers to take decisions and actions. They can investigate, plan, research
and do lot of analysis
2. Task force may have a longer tenure as compared to ad-hoc committee
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3.9 Free- Form Organization
Free form organization is also called naturalistic, organic, or ad-hoc organization. It assumes that
organization is open system, and the basic task of the manager is to facilitate change in the
organization.
1. There is a small central group at the top which is relatively stable. It consists mainly planners
and centre of control and evaluation
2. Operating divisions are regarded temporary or permanent, depending on the potential to
generate profit. A
3. Therefore, there is no traditional superior-subordinate relationship and hence it puts
emphasis on democratic values of the society such as equality
4. Free Form organisations are generally suitable for those industries which are working in
highly dynamic environment
1. Virtual Organization
2. Boundary less Organization
A virtual organisation has the following characteristics: Flat and Dynamic organisation, Informal
communication, Multi-disciplinary (virtual) teams with varied strengths, Vague organisational
boundaries, Goal orientation, Sharing of information
The biggest problem with virtual organization is creation of trust. Often clash of interest come to
forefront much sooner than expected
1. It seeks to eliminate vertical and horizontal boundaries and the boundaries between the
organization and its customers and suppliers.
2. It de-emphasizes the chain of control, span of control and departments within the
company. There is no hierarchy. The span of control is unlimited as one can talk to anyone
3. It is driven by self-managed teams
4. Everyone participates in decision making
5. 360-degree performance appraisal system is used
6. Job rotation is given emphasis to develop multi-skills among employees
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Boundaryless organization is a structure that organization may adopt whereas virtual
organization is alliance between two or more organizations to achieve certain specified
objectives
3.10.1 Environment
The organizational structure depends on the environment of the organization. Burs and Stalker have
suggested mechanistic system for stable environment and organic system for dynamic environment
3.10.2 Strategy
The organization structure needs to be in line with strategy of the organization. The
organizational actions proceed in a sequence: new strategy formulation, emergence of new
problems, a shift to more appropriate structure
3.10.3 Technology
Technology used also impacts the organizational structure. An organization may use following
technologies
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1. Unit Production: Unit production means production of individual items as per
customization by customer
2. Mass Production: Large batch and mass production of goods such soaps
3. Process Production: Production of materials that are sold by weight or volume, for
example chemicals
It is generally believed that span of control for higher management is lower in unit and process
production as compared to mass production.
3.10.4 Size
The impact of size on structure is as follows
1. Small organization can work with simple organizational structure whereas large organizations
require complex structure
2. In large organizations we need various supporting functions (staff functions) such as HR, Legal
etc. whereas there is no need of such staff functions in smaller organizations
3. In large organization there is high degree of formalization while making decisions, delegation
of authority etc. whereas there is low degree of formalization in smaller organizations
3.10.5 People
The type of people and perception of people also affects the organizational structure. In
organization there are two kinds of people
2. Participants: Participants means people other than top level management. People can be
grouped based on their needs. Skilled and Professional workers need more autonomy and
participation in decision making. So, for them organic system is more suitable. Unskilled
workers feel uncomfortable when things are not clear, so they will be happy in mechanistic
system
4 Departmentalization
Departmentalization (or departmentalization) refers to the process of grouping activities into
departments. Division of lab our creates specialists who need coordination. This coordination is
facilitated by grouping specialists together in departments.
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• Functional departmentalization - Grouping activities by functions performed. Activities can
be grouped into departments for example human resources, IT, accounting, manufacturing,
logistics, and engineering. The functions can be divided into basic and secondary functions
i. Basic Function: These functions are known as organic functions and these are essential for
the organization. For example, in a manufacturing organization, basic functions would be
production and marketing
ii. Secondary Functions: These are the ones which are derived from the basic functions. For
example, marketing department may further contain sections for sale, market research
iii. Staff Functions: Departments are created for performing those functions which provide
support to basic functions. These are known as staff functions. Such functions are related
to finance, human resource, information technology and legal matters etc.
• Product departmentalization - Grouping activities by product line. Tasks can also be grouped
according to a specific product or service, thus placing all activities related to the product or
the service under one manager.
• Divisional departmentalization - When the firm develops independent lines of business that
operate as separate companies, all contributing to the corporation profitability, the design is call
divisional departmentalization or (M-FORM).
5 Span of Control
Span of control is also called as span of management or span of supervision i.e. number of
subordinates reporting to the senior. This concept was introduced by Sir Ian Hamilton.
A small, or narrow, span of control results in each manager supervising a small number of employees,
while a wide span of management occurs when more subordinates report directly to a given manager.
1. Wider the span of management, higher is the number of subordinates reporting to a manager and
hence more complex is his job
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2. Span of control also determines the organization structure in terms of it being tall or flat . Wider
the span of control, less the number of managers and hence flatter the organizational structure
whereas narrow span of control means more managers in a company and hence taller the
organizational structure
1. Nature of work: If the work to be performed is of routine nature, then span of control can be large.
2. Experience of subordinates: If subordinates are enough capable and experienced then span can be
large whereas if there are less experienced subordinates then span should be less
3. Capability and experience of superior: More the experience of manager, larger the span can be
4. Extent of delegation of authority or degree of decentralization of authority: If manager delegates
more and clear authority then span of control may be large
5. Use of standing plans: the organization has developed proper standing plans, then subordinates can
follow the same then span of control can be kept large
6. Geographical Dispersion: If the branches of a business are widely dispersed, then the manager will
find it difficult to supervise each of them, as such the span of control will be smaller.
7. Similarity of tasks: If the tasks that the subordinates performing are similar, then the span of
control can be wider
8. Volume of other tasks: If the boss has other responsibilities, such as membership of committees,
involvement in other projects, liaising with stakeholders, the number of direct reports will need to
be smaller
6 Power
Power refers to capacity that A (agent) must influence the behavior of B (target) so that B does
something he or she would not otherwise do. The response to the power of one person by
another (target) can be in the following way
1. Resistance: It involves target thwarting attempt of others to work against his wishes
2. Obedience: Obedience refers to a person’ s (target) acceptance of influence of power
holder unwillingly because target has high dependency on agent
3. Compliance: Compliance refers to a person’ s acceptance of influence of power holder
because he is expected to be rewarded for responding to it
4. Conformity: Conformity refers to a person’ s acceptance of influence of power holder
because of his desire to be in mainstream of social behavior.
5. Commitment: Commitment refers to a person’ s acceptance of influence of power holder
because of his dedication to a cause or activity
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6.1 Basis of Power
Raven has identified power bases of two broad categories: Positional and personal.
Positional Power: Positional Power also known as formal power emerges from the position of the
individual.
Personal Power: Personal power is informal and resides with a person, regardless of his position
in the organization.
i. Expert Power: Expert power is that capacity to influence others which is based on one’s
experience, special skill, or knowledge
ii. Referent Power: Referent power is based on identification which involves learning by an
individual through copying the behavior of the other person which he takes as an ideal.
iii. Charismatic Power: It emerges from individual’s charisma, a quality that is unique.
Because of this charisma, the individual can articulate attractive vision.
7 Delegation of Authority
Before we discuss about delegation of authority in detail, lets discuss about 3 elements of
delegation of authority – Authority, Responsibility and Accountability
7.1 Authority
Authority is the legitimate right of a position holder to giver orders to others and get these obeyed.
There are three theories on Authority
1. Formal Theory of Authority: As pet this theory the source of authority to a position holder is
delegation of authority from the next higher level in the organization.
2. Competence Theory of Authority: As per this theory individual derives authority because of
personal competence.
3. Acceptance theory of Authority: According to this theory the subordinate will obey the orders if
it meets certain requirements: he understands the order properly, order is not inconsistent with
the organizational purpose, order is compatible with his personal interest as a whole . Bernard
also defined term Zone of Indifference or Area of Acceptance. It indicates the specific limits that
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are set by individuals themselves with in which they will respond willingly to the exercise of
authority over them
When we talk of organizational context, authority is taken as prescribed by the formal theory of
authority
A manager alone cannot perform the entire task assigned to him. To meet the targets, he should
delegate the authority. Delegation of authority means division of authority and powers downwards to
the subordinates. Authority always flows from top to bottom.
Power Authority
Power is much broader as compared to Authority is limited by organizational position
authority because power can be based on
organizational position or personal position
7.2 Responsibility
Responsibility is duty of the person to complete the task assigned to him. Responsibility without
adequate authority leads to discontent and dissatisfaction among the people. Responsibility flows
from bottom to top.
Parity of Authority and Responsibility: Principle of parity of authority and responsibility suggest that
authority of a person should match his responsibility. According to this principle, the manager should
keep a balance between authority and responsibility. Both should go hand in hand.
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7.3 Accountability
Accountability is the obligation to carry out responsibility and exercise authority in terms of
performance standards. Accountability cannot be delegated. For example, if ’A’ is given a task with
sufficient authority, and ’A’ delegates this task to B and asks him to ensure that task is done well,
responsibility rests with ’B’, but accountability still rests with ’A’. Accountability also flows upwards like
responsibility, but it cannot be delegated.
1. Assignment of Duties - The delegator first tries to define duties to the subordinate.
2. Granting of authority - Subdivision of authority takes place when a superior divide and shares
his authority with the subordinate.
3. Creating Responsibility and Accountability - The delegation process does not end once powers
are granted to the subordinates. The subordinate becomes responsible and subordinate
becomes accountable for the completion of the task.
Therefore, it is said that authority is delegated, responsibility is created, and accountability is imposed
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8 Centralization and Decentralization
Centralization is the process where the activity of an organization, particularly those regarding
planning and decision making gets concentration in few hands. A centralized organization
systematically works to concentrate authority at the upper levels.
Decentralization is a systematic delegation of authority at all levels of management and in all the
organization.
Implications of Decentralization
Advantages Disadvantages
There is less burden on the Chief Executive as in In a decentralization structure, co-ordination to
the case of centralization some extent is difficult to maintain as there are lot
many department divisions and authority is
delegated
Subordinates when take decisions feel motivated and
If not implemented properly then it will lead to
Subordinates develop new skills chaos
Decentralization is not the same as delegation. In fact, decentralization is all extension of delegation.
Scope Scope of delegation is limited as superior Scope is wide as the decision making is shared
delegates the powers to the by the subordinates also
subordinates on individual bases.
Responsibility Responsibility remains of the managers and Responsibility is also delegated to subordinates.
cannot be delegated
Freedom of Freedom is not given to the subordinates Freedom to work can be maintained by
Work as they must work as per the instructions of their
subordinates as they are f ree to take decision
superiors and to implement it.
Grant of Authority The authority is granted by one individual to It is a systematic act which takes place at all
another. levels and at all f unctions in a concern.
Degree Degree of delegation varies f rom concern to Decentralization is total by nature.
concern and department to department. It spreads throughout the organization i.e. at
all levels and all f unctions
Withdrawal Delegated authority can be taken back. It is considered as a general policy of top
management and is applicable to all departments.
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9 Empowerment
Empowerment is management practice of sharing power, information and rewards with
employee and making them competent so that they can take initiative to make decisions to solve
problems and improve their work performance
10 Authority Relationship
Some managers perform those functions which contribute directly to the achievement of
organizational objectives. For example, Manufacturing and marketing functions. Such functions
are called line functions. On the other hand, some managers are involved in functions which
provide support to line functions, for example, HR and Legal affairs. These functions are called
staff Functions
Line and staff authority are two kinds of authority. Line authority is the type of authority that
reflects superior-subordinate relationships characterized by the power of decision making. Staff
authority refers to the right to advice on improving the effectiveness for line managers in
performing their duties.
1. Advisory Staff Authority: An advisory staff manager makes suggestions to the line managers.
Line manager may put it into action or not. So, advisory staff authority is not obligatory on line
manager
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2. Concurring Staff Authority: When concurring staff authority is granted, no action can be taken
until the staff person agrees to it.
3. Control Staff Authority: Certain managers with staff authority have authority to control
certain operations in line departments. For example, auditing, quality inspection departments
have staff authority, and they can control certain operations in line departments
4. Functional Staff Authority: Functional Staff authority is max authority a staff personnel can
get over line personnel. Sometimes functional staff authority is also known as Functional
authority to view it separately from Staff authority. It is the legitimate right given to staff
personnel to give instructions to the line personnel in any department with respect to certain
specific processes, procedures etc. related to their function.
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11 Organizational Conflict
Conflict is breakdown in in standard mechanism of decision-making.
Human relations view of conflict also believed that conflict is harmful. But it believed conflicts
are bound to happen. Conflicts must be resolved amicably
Interactionist View of Conflict is based on the belief that conflict is only a positive force in the
group as it helps in better decision making, creativity and innovation
2. Intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual. The experience takes place in the person’s
mind involving the individual’s thoughts, values, principles, and emotions. Intrapersonal
conflict arises due to Role Conflict or Goal Conflict
I. Role Conflict: Role conflict occurs when a person in a role is not able to respond
the expectations of other persons. One of common reason for role conflict is role
overload. In role overload, the managers may delegate too much work but the
time to that is less
II. Goal Conflict: Incompatible goals also lead to intrapersonal conflict. Incompatible
goals are of following types
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3. Intergroup conflict takes place when a misunderstanding arises among different teams or
departments within an organization. Reasons for intergroup conflict are Varied sets of goals
and interests of these different group, Competition and Resource sharing between teams
4. Intragroup conflict is a type of conflict that happens among individuals within a team.
Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann developed five conflict resolution strategies that people use
to handle conflict
1. Avoiding or Repression of Conflicts: Avoiding is when people just ignore or withdraw from
the conflict. When conflict is avoided, nothing is resolved.
2. Competing (Confrontation): Competing is used by people who go into a conflict planning to
win. They are assertive and not cooperative. Competing might work in sports or war
3. Accommodating: Accommodating is a strategy where one party gives in to the wishes or
demands of another. They are being cooperative but not assertive.
4. Collaborating (Smoothing or Defusion of Conflict): Collaborating is the method used when
people are both assertive and cooperative. A group may learn to allow each participant to
contribute with the possibility of co-creating a shared solution that everyone can support.
5. Compromising or Containment of Conflict: The concept is that everyone gives up a little bit of
what they want, and no one gets everything they want. Compromise is reached through
bargaining or through mediation and arbitration.
6. Conflict Stimulation: The strategy of conflict stimulation is based on interactional view of
conflict that conflict is not bad for the organization. In this conflict is encouraged
12 Coordination
Coordination is the process by which manager synchronizes the activities of different
departments or sections.
2. External Coordination: As the name suggests, external coordination is all about establishing a
relationship between the employees of the organization and people outside it
like market agencies, public, competitors, customers, government agencies etc.
2. Continuity Principle: The process of coordination should begin at the time the organization
starts. This shall also continue until an organization exists.
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3. Direct contact Principle: This principle is based on the theme that coordination is better
achieved through mutual understanding and not by force, order, or coercion. It states that
managers should directly contact their subordinates.
5. Reciprocal relation Principle: The actions and decisions of one department or the person will
affect other departments and people in the organization. So, before taking any decision every
manager must find out the effect of that decision on the other departments.
6. Clarity of objective Principle: Coordination in an organization is possible only when there are
clear objectives set in the organization.
7. Principle of Timing: It states that various organizational units and members shall synchronize
the timing of their work performance.
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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you
have read the Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you
should rely only on Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before
the exam or before any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only
summary sheets shall not be sufficient to answer all the questions
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1 Management Processes
We have already discussed there are 5 functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL
i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling. Planning and Organizing have been
discussed in detail. In this chapter, we shall discuss about Directing, Staffing and Controlling
2 Staffing
Staffing is that part of the process of management which is concerned with acquiring, developing,
employing, appraising, remunerating and retaining people so that right type of people are available
at the right positions and at the right time in the organization
Importance of Staffing
1. Staffing helps in discovering and obtaining competent and personnel for various jobs.
2. It helps to improve the quantity and quality of the output by putting the right person on the
right job.
3. It helps to improve job satisfaction of employees.
4. It facilitates higher productive performance by developing competency through training and
development programs.
5. It facilitates growth and diversification of business.
1. Staffing is an important managerial function- The operations of other four functions depend
upon the manpower which is available through staffing function.
2. Staffing is a pervasive activity- As staffing function is carried out by all mangers
3. Staffing is a continuous activity- Staffing function continues throughout the life of an
organization
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1. Manpower requirements- It involves forecasting and determining the future manpower
needs of the concern.
2. Recruitment- Once the requirements are notified, the concern invites and solicits
applications according to the invitations made to the desirable candidates.
3. Selection- This is the screening step of staffing in which the solicited applications are
screened out and suitable candidates are appointed as per the requirements.
4. Orientation and Placement- The appointed candidates are made familiar to the work units
and work environment through the orientation programs. Placement takes place by putting
right man on the right job
5. Training and Development- Workers are developed by providing them extra benefits of in-
depth knowledge of their functional areas. D
6. Remuneration- It is a kind of compensation provided monetarily to the employees for their
work performances. This is given according to the nature of job- skilled or unskilled, physical,
or mental, etc.
7. Performance Evaluation- Evaluating the performance of employee and working on weak
areas
8. Promotion and transfer-
We will discuss about Manpower Requirements, Recruitment and Selection in detail in the upcoming
part of this document. The rest of the steps – Orientation and Placement, Training and Development,
Remuneration, Performance Evaluation, Promotion and Transfer will be discussed in chapters on
HRD.
1. Strategic workforce planning: It usually covers a three to five-year forecast period, aligned
to business needs and outcomes.
2. Operational workforce planning usually covers the next 12–18 months and should align
with the timeframe of the business planning cycle.
Steps in Manpower Planning
1. Analyzing the current manpower inventory-Before a manager makes forecast of future, the
current manpower status must be analyzed.
2. Making future manpower forecasts- Forecasts needs to be done with respect future
requirement of manpower for new projects, in new skills etc.
3. Developing employment programs- Once the current inventory is compared with future
forecasts, the employment programs can be framed and developed accordingly, which will
include recruitment, selection procedures and placement plans.
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4. Design training programs- Training programs depend upon the extent of improvement in
technology and advancement to take place.
2.4 Recruitment
Recruitment (hiring) is a core function of human resource management. Recruitment is just about
attracting talent i.e. identification of sources from where the personnel can be employed and
motivating them to offer themselves for employment
Sources of Recruitment
1. Internal sources –Under this policy, if there is any vacancy then the persons already working
in the organization are appointed to fill it by doing their transfers or promotions
.
2. External sources or recruitment from outside – Most of the concerns must look for the
external sources for recruitment the required number of employees with the requisite
qualifications.
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factory manager, or labor superintendent or some other official may select the
necessary workers.
IV. Recruitment through advertisement –The vacancies are advertised in the popular
daily newspapers and applications are invited from the persons having required
qualifications.
V. Recruitment through the recommendation of the existing employees
VI. Campus Recruitment from colleges or universities or educational institutions
VII. Recruitment through employment exchange
VIII. Social Recruiting: Social recruiting is the use of social media for recruiting including
sites like Facebook and Twitter
IX. Job Fairs: In a job fair, various academic institutions located in large city jointly
organize recruitment program. In this program, candidates of different institutes,
even from non-organizing institutes, come by paying the prescribed fee. Organizations
visit the fair by invitation.
X. Casual Callers: Casual callers or unsolicited candidates are those applicants who offer
themselves for employment in an organization to fill vacancies which will arise in
future. The organization may consider them for employment in case of vacancy
2.5 Selection
The Selection is a process of picking the right candidate with prerequisite qualifications and
capabilities to fill the jobs in the organization. Steps in selection process are given below
1. Preliminary Interviews- It is used to eliminate those candidates who do not meet the minimum
eligibility criteria laid down by the organization.
2. Receiving Applications: Once the individual qualifies the preliminary interview, he is required
to fill in the application form in the prescribed format. This information helps the interviewer
to get the fair idea about the candidate and formulate questions to get more information about
him
3. Screening Applications: Once the applications are received, these are screened by the
screening committee, who then prepare a list of those applicants whom they find suitable for
the Job.
4. Employment Tests: To check the mental ability and skill set of an individual, several tests are
conducted. Such as intelligence tests, aptitude tests, interest tests, psychological tests,
personality tests, etc.
I. Intelligence Tests: These are tests to measure one ‘s intellect or qualities of
understanding. The intelligence is measured as Intelligent Quotient which is calculated as
follows
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II. Aptitude Tests: Aptitude refers to one ‘s natural propensity or talent or ability to acquire
a particular skill. It could relate to mechanical dexterity, clerical, linguistic, musical,
academic etc. However, aptitude tests do not measure motivation
III. Interest test: It is used to discover the area of interest for a person. It is assumed that
person interested in a particular type of Job can do much better than the person who is
not interested.
IV. Achievement Tests (Performance Test or Trade Test): These are proficiency tests to
measure one ‘s skill, accomplishment or acquired knowledge. For example, typing test
may be conducted to check the speed, efficiency, and accuracy of the typist.
V. Personality Test: Personality test is administered to predict performance success for jobs
that require dealing with people, or jobs that are essentially supervisory or management
in character.
VI. PIP Tests: PIP tests are those which seek to measure one ‘s personality, interest and
preferences.
VII. Projective Tests: These tests expect the candidates to interpret problems or situations.
Responses to stimuli will be based on the individual ‘s values, beliefs and motives.
Thematic Apperception Test and Rorschach Ink Blot Test are examples of projective
tests.
In Thematic Apperception Test a photograph is shown to, the candidate who is then
asked to interpret it. The test administrator will draw inferences about the candidate ‘s
values, beliefs and motives from an analysis of such interpretation
The Rorschach test is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are
recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation
3. Employment Interview. Here, the interviewer asks questions from the applicant to discover
more about him and to give him the accurate picture of the kind of a job he is required to
perform.
4. Checking References: The firms usually ask for the references from the candidate to cross
check the authenticity of the information provided by him.
5. Medical Examination: Here the physical and mental fitness of the candidate are checked to
ensure that he can perform the job.
6. Final Selection: Based on above steps the candidate is selected for the job.
7. Approval by Authority: The approval is sought from such authority for the appointment of
candidate
8. Employment Contract: Finally, the contract of offer letter is signed
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2.5.1 Precautions in Using Selection Tests
Certain precautions need to be taken while administering these tests
1. Test Must be valid: Test validity is the extent to which a test accurately measures what
it is supposed to measure.
2. Test must be reliable: The reliability of test is the consistency with which it yields the
same across throughout the series of measurements.
3. Directing
Directing and leading comprise the managerial functions of guiding, overseeing, motivating, and
leading people. Directing is also known as activating sometimes. This function is the executing
function of management. Directing mainly deals with following Elements
1. Effective Communication
2. Supervision
3. Motivation
4. Leadership of Employee
For Communication, Motivation and Leadership please refer the respective units from the syllabus.
In these units these aspects are described in detail. Overview of Supervision is given later in this
document.
Importance of Directing
1. Principle of unity of command: Command must be come from only one executive or one
superior.
2. Principle of direct supervision: -Direct supervision and advice by the executive will boost the
Morale of the workers. This makes the atmosphere trustworthy in the organization.
3. Principle of communication: - A good system of communication between executives & sub-
ordinates ensures the success.
4. Principle of leadership: Good leadership will lead to cooperation, Co-ordination & confidence in
the working force
5. Principle of Follow Through: Mere giving orders is not sufficient, but management should find
out what difficulties’ subordinates are facing and should help the,
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6. Principle of Comprehension: This principle states that subordinate should know what they must
do, how to do and when to do in a comprehensive manner.
7. Principle of use of Informal Organization: Management should try to understand, spot, and
make use of such informal organizations for making directing more effective
8. Principle of Appropriateness of directing technique: One can use various techniques while
directing such as authoritarian, consultative, and free reign. Manager should use directing
technique as per the demand of the situation.
3.3 Supervision
Supervision means supervising the work of subordinates whether they are doing right things and
in a correct way. Sometimes, directing is confused with supervising. But there is difference
between the two. Supervision has limited scope of overseeing and guiding the workers whereas
Directing has a wider scope which includes motivating and leading employees and engaging in
effective communication with them
A supervisor performs many functions
1. As a Planner - A supervisor must plan the daily work schedules in the factory. At the same
time, he must divide the work to various workers according to their abilities.
2. As a Manager - It is righty said that a supervisor is a part of the management team of an
enterprise. He is, in fact, an operative manager.
3. As a Guide and Leader - A factory supervisor leads the workers by guiding them the way of
performing their daily tasks. In fact, he plays a role of an inspired by telling them.
4. As a Mediator - A Supervisor is called a linking pin between management and workers. He is
the spokesperson of management as well as worker.
5. As an Inspector - An important role of supervisor is to enforce discipline in the factory.
6. As a Counselor - A supervisor plays the role of a counselor to the worker’s problem.
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is more responsive to group pressure rather than control by organization. He will obey superior
orders if they are in conformity with social needs.
4 Controlling
Controlling is the process of evaluating actual performance and, if necessary, taking
corrective actions so that the performance is in accordance with planned performance.
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Planning as the Basis for Controlling: Planning is the basis for controlling. Planning decides
what is to be achieved; controlling measures whether this has been achieved or not.
1. Set Standards: These standards are based on the plans established to initiate the work
2. Measure Performance: Record must be kept of work as it progresses so that performance
can be compared to the applicable standard.
3. Compare Performance: The results accomplished must be evaluated in terms of the
standards by which work is being judged. Interpretation involves not only comparison of
actual against standard but also identification of discrepancies and analysis of why these
variances have occurred. When actual performance is compared with standard performance
and deviation is analyzed then concept of critical point control shall be applied. Application
of critical point control implies that control shall be exercised on critical points only. Critical
points are those points in an organizations performance results which affect a major part of
the organization.
4. Take Corrective Action: When variations from plan occur, it is necessary to bring the work
going on back to the desired course.
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4.5 Types of Control
In human control systems, the relationship between objectives and associated characteristics
is often vague; the measurement of the characteristic may be extremely subjective; the
expected standard is difficult to define; and the amount of new inputs required is impossible
to quantify
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The above figure shows Cybernetic robotic hand used for automated manufacturing. So, in way
closed loop control or machine controls are kind of cybernetic controls
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The basic use of decision support systems is in the areas of planning, analyzing alternatives,
and search for solutions.
4. Executive Information Systems: Executive information systems (EIS) are information
systems at the strategic management level of an organization designed to address
unstructured decision making. They provide information to top-level managers in
interactive format through their access to critical success factors of an organization. The
use of EIS is primarily in the areas of strategic planning and strategic control.
5. Expert Systems: Expert systems are knowledge intensive computer programs that use
artificial intelligence.
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4.10 Control Techniques at Operational Level
Operations of an organization are concerned with converting inputs (materials, energy, etc.)
into outputs (goods and services) as efficiently as possible to optimize profit of an organization.
Responsibility for exercising control on operations lies with operations management.
Types of Budgets
1. Master and Functional Budgets: A master budget is prepared for the entire organization
incorporating the budget of different functions whereas functional budget is prepared for a
single functional unit like production marketing etc.
2. Capital and Revenue Budget: Capital and revenue budget correspond to capital and revenue
expenditure, respectively. Capital expenditure is regarding creation of assets such as buying
a land, constructing factory, buying a machine etc. Revenue expenditure on the other hand
is about carrying out day to day expenditures such as paying salaries, paying rent,
maintenance of machines etc
3. Long term and Short-Term Budgets: The budget which is prepared for a year or so is called
a short-term budget. The budget which is prepared for a longer period than a year is called
a long-term budget.
4. Fixed and Flexible Budgets: Hey journey organizations prepare budgets which pertain to
only certain projected fix volume of operations for a year or so, such budgets are known as
fixed or static budgets. A budget which is designed to change in accordance with the
activities of the organization is known as flexible budget. It considers several levels of
activity.
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4.10.2 Control through Costing
Control through costing involves the control over costs in the light of certain pre-determined
costs usually known as standard costs. Standard costs are pre-determined operation costs
computed to reflect quantities, prices, and level of operations. Thus, standard costing is a
method of cost accounting in which standard costs are used in recording certain transactions
and the actual costs are compared with the standard costs to find out the amount and reasons
of variations from the standard.
• This is a simple break-even chart showing a single product for the organization.
• The chart shows the level of cost and revenue for each level of sales and indicates that
at 2,500 units, the organization would break even implying that there is neither profit
nor loss.
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4.10.4 Responsibility Accounting
The use of responsibility accounting (a control technique) focuses attention on management by
objectives rather than management by domination. Each person is responsible for his area of
operation, and for effective control, he must know what his costs should be and what his costs
have been. A responsibility center is an organizational unit such as division, department, or
section, headed by a responsible person whose responsibility is fixed in respect of results of
that organizational unit. There are three types of responsibility centers: cost centers, profit
centers, and investment centers.
1. In the cost centers, the control-system measures only the costs incurred by
responsibility centers; no attempt is made to measure the value of their outputs.
2. In profit centers, the targets are fixed in terms of profit which is measured by the
amount of input and output.
3. In the investment centers, managers are held responsible for the effective use of assets
as well as for revenue and cost.
In the conventional accounting, the product costing accumulates the cost to ascertain cost of
production, the responsibility accounting emphasizes cost control based on "who is
responsible for costs."
The first phase of quality control is carried out by statistical quality control while the second
phase is done through inspection control.
A. Statistical Quality Control: Statistical quality control (SQC), also known as statistical process
control (SPC), is a method of measuring and continuously improving work process before
the final inspection of the product. Therefore, it is preventive as well as remedial. In using
SQC, two considerations are important: setting tolerance limit of acceptable quality and
measuring the product quality.
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1. Tolerance Limit: Tolerance limit is the variation in quality from the standard
specifications which can be acceptable. For example, a machine is manufacturing
ball bearings of 3.00 centimeters. There is a possibility that some of the bearings are
oversized and some are undersized. The management must decide the extent to
which these oversized or undersized bearings would be accepted. The management
may accept bearings between 3.10 or 2.90 centimeters.
2. Measurement of Quality: Measurement of quality is undertaken during the
operation itself so that if the machine starts producing items beyond the tolerance
limit is stopped immediately to avoid further losses. Thus, in the above case, if
bearing size goes beyond 3.05 or comes below 2.95 centimeters, the machine is
stopped to find out the fault in machine operations.
B. Inspection Control: n the inspection control, quality control in charge seeks to determine
the acceptability of parts or products. This may be done either for the raw materials which
are used in production process or which are in the form of finished products resulting from
the completion of production process. Inspection is made by comparing the quality of the
product to the standard, commonly known as specification, by means of a visual or testing
examination.
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In 1970s, Japanese introduced the concept of just-in-time (JIT) inventory system, known as
Kanban in Japanese language. The basic theme of this system is to have no inventory. Raw
materials are bought more frequently and in small quantity to be used just-in-time, and finished
products are produced and delivered just-in-time to be sold.
Generally, for inventory control, two techniques are applied: ABC analysis and economic order
quantity (EOQ). Both these techniques have different perspectives for inventory control.
a) ABC Analysis:
• ABC analysis is a widely used technique for classifying different items.
• This technique uses the values of different types of inventory for their classification.
• Group A consists of those items which have high value though their number may be
low.
• Group C items have extremely low value, but their number may be more.
• Group B items fall in between with average value and number.
Based on the study of inventory management systems in several companies, Arthur Synder
(Inventory Management Expert) has arrived on the conclusion that the composition of ABC
items in total inventory is roughly as shown in below Table:
• According to ABC analysis, maximum attention should be paid to group A items as these
are critical in terms of value followed by B and C groups.
• Thus, ABC analysis provides clue where attention should be focused in inventory
control.
1. Order Cost: Order cost includes various items on which an organization must incur cost or
procuring raw materials. These include various types of administrative costs such as
• stock taking, order writing, agents' visit, business journeys, reminders, etc.
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• consignment processing such as received notes, checking, recording, etc.
• invoice processing such as checking, approval, book entries, etc.
• and payment procedure such as cheque/draft preparation, mailing, etc.
Each time a purchase order is given, these costs are involved. Thus, this suggests that it is
preferable to purchase in bulk. However, inventory carrying cost must be calculated because if
you buy in bulk then you would have to store them which would mean storage cost for you
2. Inventory Carrying Cost: Inventory carrying cost involves interest on the money locked in
inventory, cost of storage, cost of insurance for stock, and cost of material loss due to spoilage,
quality deterioration, obsolescence, etc. All these costs must be calculated in terms of per unit
of materials.
After identifying ordering cost and inventory carrying cost, economic order quantity is
calculated by using the following formula:
√2𝑆𝑂
EOQ =
𝐶
The above formula can be explained by an example. Suppose that an organization has arrived
at the following figures:
Total quantity required per annum = 5,000 units
Ordering cost per order= Rs 100
Carrying cost per unit= Rs 1
√2∗5000∗100
EOQ for the organization will be as follows: =1,000 units
1
• For example, sometimes, thermal power plants owned by Government must be shut
because of lack of timely supply of coal which becomes very costly affair.
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4.10.9 TIME-EVENT NETWORK ANALYSIS
Time-event network analysis helps to know how the parts of a programme fit together during
the passage of time and occurrence of events.
There are three major techniques for this analysis: Gantt chart, milestone budgeting, and
PERT/CPM though PERT/CPM is the most popular. Let us discuss them one-by-one.
1. Gantt Chart:
Gantt chart has been developed by Henry Gantt in early twentieth century in the form of
bar chart bearing his name. Gantt recognized that total programme goals should be
regarded as a series of interrelated derivative plans that people could comprehend and
follow.
• Based on this recognition, he has identified the relationship among different
activities required to complete a programme.
• Based on this premise, Gantt chart was developed which has been presented in
below Figure:
• Gantt chart shows that two or more activities which have sequential relationship must
be completed in that order.
• However, the chart does not depict the relationship between one group of activities
with another group of activities.
• For example, it shows relationship among two activities in task A but does not show
relationship between task A and task B, or other tasks.
To overcome this problem, milestone budgeting and PERT/CPM network have been
developed.
2. Milestone Budgeting:
Milestone budgeting, also known as milepost budgeting, breaks a project into controllable
pieces and then follows them carefully. For applying milestone budgeting, a project is
broken into sub-projects a that can be completed individually in a time sequence to
complete the project within the stipulated time. The milestone budgeting is an
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improvement over Gantt chart in the sense that it establishes relationships between two
or more segments of a project. However, such a relationship is not completely depicted in
milestone budgeting.
4.10.10 PERT/CPM
PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review Technique) was developed by the special project
office of the US Navy in 1958. Almost at the same time, engineers at DuPont Company, USA,
also developed CPM (Critical Path Method)
Process of PERT/CPM:
A programme consists of a several activities and sub-activities. To complete the programme,
these activities and sub-activities should be completed in a proper sequence and in allotted
time. Since some of the activities can be taken simultaneously, a network is developed to show
the sequence, time taken, and time of start of activities. The whole process involved in the
preparation of PERT/CPM is as follows:
3. Time Estimates of Activities. Performance of an activity takes time. To ensure that the
project is completed timely, there should be correct estimate of time taken by each activity.
However, the activities are performed in future and it may not be possible to forecast the
future happening correctly, consequently the correct time estimate of activities. To overcome
this problem, three-time estimates are taken:
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I. In the above figure, it is shown that to go from point 1 to 2, it takes 6 weeks
II. Then from point to we can parallelly start towards point 3 and 4 because these tasks are
not dependent
III. The critical path is the one which takes longest time shown in red above as time for the
path in red is 6+4+2+3+2+4 = 21 weeks
5. Critical Path. Based on analysis, critical activities are determined. These are represented by
a critical path which shows that if activities on this path are not completed in time, the entire
project will be delayed by the time the completion of an activity is delayed.
5 Role of Manager
Henry Mintzberg describes a set of ten roles that a manager fill. These roles fall into three
categories as shown below. Management roles depend upon formal authority and status of
organizational positions
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Interpersonal Roles
Interpersonal roles of managers are concerned with his interaction with others, both within the
organization and outsiders. There are three types of interpersonal roles: figurehead, leader, and
liaison
1. Figurehead Role: It is role of manager which includes those activities which are of
ceremonious and symbolic nature. For example, greeting the visitors, attending social
functions involving employees, making speeches etc.
2. Leader Role: Leader role of manager involves leading his subordinates and motivating them
for willing and enthusiastic contribution.
3. Liaison role: It is a role of manager which serves as a connecting link between organization
outsiders and the organization itself or between his unit and other units of the organization.
Information Roles
Information roles of a manager include communication - giving and receiving information both
within and outside the organization. There are 3 types of information roles
1. Monitor Role: Monitor role of a manager is to constantly collect information about those
factors which affect his activities maybe within the organization and outside it. In addition to
this monitoring must be done throught meetings
2. Disseminator Role: Disseminator role of a manager involves sharing of information with the
subordinates who may otherwise not be able in a position to collect it
3. Spokers Person Role: In the role of spokesperson a manager represents his organization
while interacting with outsiders such as customers suppliers government and other agencies
of the society.
Decision Roles
Decisional roles of manager involve making decisions so as to choose the best alternative which can
help in achieving the organizational objectives. There are 4 decision roles:
1. Entrepreneur: In performing on this role, a manager assumes certain risk which is involved in
terms of outcomes of the action because these are affected by various external factors. He
initiates changes, authorizes actions, sets goals and formulate policies
2. Disturbance handler: As a disturbance handler a manager is required to contain those forces
and events which tend to disturb the organizational equilibrium and normal functioning. He
also handles conflicts and complaints with in the organization
3. Resource Allocator: As a resource allocator, a manager allocates organizational resources of
various types to different organizational units . He approves budgets, schedules and sets
priorties
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4. Negotiator: As a negotiator , a manager negotiates and works out agreements with various
interest groups in the organization such as shareholders employees and outsiders
6 Nudge Theory
Nudge theory is a flexible and modern concept for:
Nudge theory was named and popularized by the 2008 book, 'Nudge: Improving Decisions
About Health, Wealth, and Happiness', written by American academics Richard H Thaler and
Cass R Sunstein
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The use of Nudge theory is based on indirect encouragement and enablement. It avoids direct
instruction or enforcement. Here are some simple examples to illustrate the difference
between traditional enforced change and 'Nudge' techniques:
As per Nudge theory, central to behaviour is decision-making from the choices available.
Nudge theory is mainly concerned with the design of choices, which influences the decisions
we make. Nudge theory operates by designing choices for people which encourage positive
helpful decisions; for the people choosing, and ideally for the wider interests of society and
environment, etc.
Thaler and Sunstein illustrated the contrast between (irrational 'dumb', common) human
behavior, and (rational 'smart', far less common) logical behavior, by presenting two
(notionally) different types of people, which they called 'human' and 'econ'. Humans are (what
we might consider) 'real' people, who make 'real' human decisions (or fail to decide) as they
are irrational. Econs are an imaginary type of people - imagined to exist (instead of real people)
by economists, politicians, academics, etc. Econs (are imagined) always to think logically and
rationally
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A crucial aspect of Nudge theory is recognizing that 'econs' do not really exist in terms of broad
societal behavior, whereas 'humans' definitely do.
Thaler and Sunstein suggest that people use reflective decision-making very rarely, even for
especially important situations, such as in electoral voting, investing, major purchases, life
decisions, etc. The tendency of human decision-making being generally illogical, irrational,
weak, harmful, and often self-destructive is termed as heuristics. The word heuristics basically
means self-discovery, although in the context of Nudge theory, heuristics (which acts as a
plural or singular term) more broadly refers to the various internal references and
responses which people use in assessing things, developing views, and making decisions. By its
internal nature, heuristic thinking tends to be personal, emotional, subjective, and instinctive.
6.5 Heuristics
Following are some of the heuristics that can impact people’s decision and choices. If handles
in proper way, people can be encouraged to make good choices for themselves and society
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incorrect belief among most people that homicides are more common than suicides,
when the opposite is true, by a considerable margin.
3. Optimism: People tend to under-estimate expenses/costs, timescales, complexity, and
difficulty of unfamiliar challenges. People tend to over-estimate rewards and the ease
of unfamiliar tasks. This tendency leads to complacency, inertia, extravagance, wastage,
delays, failures to make budgets and control spending, setting unreasonable goals and
expectations.
4. Status Quo Bias: People generally fear change, especially of uncertain nature. Inertia
(where people find it easier to do nothing rather than make a change) is a powerful
effect and has been used by leaders and communicators for generations.
5. Temptation: People tend to want short-term more than long-term reward, whether the
values are real or perceived. We see the 'temptation' heuristic being exploited to
extreme degrees in the operation of most gambling products/services.
There are many other heuristics apart from the ones listed above. But we need not go
through each and every point
6.6.1 Government
Through Nudge, government can manage various problems. For example, in India the problem
of population increase can be handled through nudge in following ways
1. By giving incentives to family having two children such as subsidies in the school fee etc.
2. By running campaigns in which social media stars can be subtly shown having smaller
families and instead of having large number of children
6.6.2 Parenting
It can help parents modify the behavior of children through encouragement rather than
enforcement. For example, instead of enforcing the child to clean his/her room, the parents
can play games with the child to clean room. By doing this child will develop a behavior to keep
his room clean
6.6.3 Business
Leading companies are forerunners in applying nudge theory in corporate setting. These
companies are using nudges in various forms to increase productivity and happiness of
employees.
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6.6.4 Healthcare
Lately, the nudge theory has also been used in different ways to make health care professionals
make more deliberate decisions in numerous areas. For example, nudging has been used as a
way to improve hand hygiene among health care workers to decrease the number of
healthcare associated infections.
6.6.5 Fundraising
The nudge theory can also be applied to fundraising. Nudge theory can help to increase donor
contributions, increase continuous donations from the same individual and help to entice new
donors to give. There are some simple strategies used when applying nudge theory to this area
6.6.6 Investments/Savings
For example, tax breaks under Section 80C are a nudge to encourage people to invest in
financial instruments such as the Public Provident Fund and equity-linked savings schemes, in
place of gold or property.
Mutual fund SIPs, by making regular investing the default option, are also a nudge to investors
to avoid panicking during market falls.
Here is a simple table showing varying characterizations of, and differences between,
traditional 'directed' change and Nudge-oriented interventions, in terms of keywords and
tactical notions.
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6.6.8 Leadership and Motivation
Nudge theory is truly relevant to leadership, motivation, and communication. A good leader is
one who facilitates the processes rather than enforcing them. Leader needs to increase
voluntary compliance and therefore nudge theory is very much relevant in context of
leadership.
In terms of motivation also, the rewards (nudges) should be in line with needs of the employee.
The needs are not constant and hence the nudges also need to be kept on changing
Other Areas
Apart from the above-mentioned area, Nudge theory can also be used in
1. Supervision and Team building
2. Self-development
3. Working with minorities, disabilities, and people with difficulties
4. Sports and Fitness Coaching
5. Counseling and Meditating
6. Marketing and Advertising
Closing Comments on Relevance of Nudge Theory
By offering insights into how humans think and act, the Nudge Theory can be used to drive
favorable behavior and avoid unfavorable ones, without resorting to drastic interventions such
as penal action or outright bans.
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6.7 Criticism of Nudge Theory
1. Short term Behavioral Change: We need to move away from short-term, politically
motivated initiatives such as the 'nudging people' idea, which are not based on any good
evidence and do not help people make long-term behavior change
2. Psychological Manipulation: Nudging is also seen as euphemism for psychological
manipulation which is not ethical. Nudges diminish autonomy, threaten dignity, violate
liberties, or reduce welfare
3. Small nudges are not enough: There is school of thought that small nudges are not enough.
For example, some argue that higher fuel taxes yield a better result than small nudges
towards better environmental decisions
4. Problem with experiments: A further criticism is that interventions suggested by the results
from controlled lab experiments may not necessarily work as effectively in the real world.
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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have read the
Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should rely only on
Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the exam or before
any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary sheets shall not
be sufficient to answer all the questions
1 Concept of HRD
HRD is basically concerned with the development of human resources in the organization for
improving the existing capabilities and acquiring new capabilities for achievement of the
corporate and individual goals. HRD should help employees increasing their knowledge, skills,
and capabilities and create positive attitude towards work
Larson and Tubro was the first company in India to set up practices of HRD and T.V. Rao is
considered father of HRD in India
1. Commodity Approach: Workers were treated as commodities and their wages were
dependent on demand and supply
2. Factor of Production Approach: Labor was treated as factor of production just like
materials and machinery. There was no emphasis on the welfare and development of
workers
3. Goodwill Approach: At this stage, some welfare measures like safety aids, lunchroom, rest
room were provided
4. Paternalistic Approach: Management adopted fatherly and protective attitude towards
employees.
5. Humanitarian Approach: This approach put emphasis on improving the productivity and
satisfying physical and social needs of the employees. Employees were treated as human
beings and not just another factor of production
6. Human Resource Approach: At this stage, the feeling was developed that human resources
are most important part of the organization. To achieve better productivity, effort should
be made to satisfy the needs of the employees
7. Emerging Concept: Employees are accepted as partners in the progress of a company. They
should have a feeling that the organization is their own.
HRD and HRM are closely related. HRD is also basically one of the functions of HRM. In the
above figure all the functions (including functions of HRD) are part of HRM but specifically 4
functions listed below are part of HRD - Training and Development, Organization
Development, Career Development and Job Design
HRM is broad term which covers all aspects of the managing human resources such as human
resources acquisition, training and development of human resources, Performance appraisal
and compensation etc., whereas HRD is only concerned with development of human resources.
HRD must put emphasis on generative learning rather than adaptive learning. Adaptive
Learning is single loop learning in which errors are corrected against set norms whereas
Generative learning is double loop learning that allows and encourages people to constantly
question existing norms and belief
1. Existential Process: It operates at individual level. In this process the beliefs and values of
individuals are modified in line with organizational changes
2. Coping Process: It operates at role level of individual. In this process clarity in role is given
and competencies for that role are acquired so that stress can be reduced
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3. Emphatic Process: It operates at the interactive role of 2 more individuals. Under this
process communication and cooperation is aspect worked up on so that people become
emphatic towards others
4. Building Process: It is at group level. In this process group formation and how they operate
is worked up on as teamwork is important for success of any organization
5. Collaborative Process: It is at intergroup level so that different teams can work together,
and conflict can be avoided
6. Growth Process: It occurs at system level different departments work towards common
objective to achieve organizational goals
2 HRM Processes
We earlier discussed that there is difference between HRD and HRM. To specifically put HRD is
part of HRM. We shall discuss mainly 3 functions on HRM and one of them is HRD
1. In first step the Organizational objectives, Plans and policies are taken as input to HR
planning process.
2. In next step the forecast of demand of human resources is made and forecast of supply
is made. The gap between future needs and supply is identified. This gap may be in
terms of shortage or excess of human resources.
3. The actions are identified for bridging the gap. If there is excess, then firing or
employees or voluntary retirement etc. may be initiated whereas if there is shortage
then hiring of employees may be initiated
1. Human Resource Flow Model: Human Resource Flow model helps us know the supply due
to inflows in different position through transfer and promotions and outflows through
Retirements, Resignations, Demotions, Promotions etc. A famous model used for this
technique is called Markovian Model or Markov Chain analysis
2. Human Resource Inventory/Human Resource Audit: Human Resource Inventory, lists down
the basic information on all the employees, like their education, experience, skills, age,
gender, salary related data, job preference and special achievements. It is a vital tool used
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in HR planning and policy making. It is made at two levels managerial and non-managerial
level. At non-managerial level is called skills inventory. Human resource inventory is
prepared through Human resource Audit in which all the required information is collected
3. Replacement charts: Replacement chart indicated when the position will become vacant
and who is likely to fill that position.
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3.2.4 Actions to Bridge the Gap
If there is shortage, then recruitment and selection can be done which we shall discuss later in
this document. If there is excess, then following steps can be taken
4.1 Introduction
In this section we shall discuss Job Design and Analysis which help us know about the Jobs. Let
us discuss few terms which we need to understand
1. Task: Distinct activity with a beginning and end. For example, sorting waste into solid
and liquid waste
2. Duties: Set of tasks such as collecting waste, sorting waste, and disposing the same
3. Job: Collection of aggregation of tasks, duties or responsibilities which is assigned to the
individual; Each job has a title such as salesman, foreman etc.
4. Responsibility: Obligation to carry out assigned job to the best of the ability
5. Position: Collection of tasks, duties, and responsibilities for the job. It is different from
Job as Sales is a Job but there can be 10 positions for salesman
6. Occupation: An occupation refers to a group of jobs that are similar to kind of work or
that possess common characteristics. For example, a nurse, a doctor, a chemist may be
associated with medical profession
Job Analysis is a procedure, by which information is obtained about a job, i.e., it gives us
information about the skills, knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities required from the
worker for a successful performance of the Job. Job Analysis comes under qualitative
aspect
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Nature of the Job (Also known as Job Description)
1. Job Identification: Its title, including its code number. For Example -JOB2341:
Special Data Analyst. Here JOB2341 is the code number and Data Analyst is the title
2. Significant Characteristics of a Job: Its physical settings, hazards, and discomforts
3. Actual Work to be performed: What needs to be done in the job? Like job requires
person to analyze the financial data and find the gaps
4. Relationship with other Jobs, Materials, and equipment to be used, Job Location
etc.
1. Skills Required for the Job: Like Analytical skills, proficiency in MS excel etc.
2. Personal attributes required to do the job e.g. education, physical strength etc.
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1. Organizational Job Analysis: It is critical to know what the performance level organization is
looking forward from the job holder and the contribution of the job in the goal attainment
of organization.
2. Selecting Representative Jobs: It is important to understand that analysis of jobs of
organization is bit time consuming and costly affair. Thus, only some sample jobs are
selected to carry out the detailed job analysis
3. Data Collection: The job analysis tools such as observation, interviews, and questionnaire
are used for the collection of data.
4. Preparing Job Description: Based on the collected data the HR team prepares job
description by defining the tasks, duties and responsibilities which are discharged for the
effective performance.
5. Preparing Job Specification: The job specification is prepared which consist of the personal
traits, skills, qualities, and qualification which are required to perform the job properly
1. Job-Oriented: Analysis based on jobs describing tasks required for successful performance
2. Worker-Oriented: Analysis based on worker behavior as in what the worker does is called
worker -oriented analysis
3. Combined: Combination of job-oriented and worker oriented is called combined analysis
Category Meaning
Information Where do Managers get information to do their Jobs
Input
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Mental Process What planning, organizing and decision making is done
Work Output What physical activities, tools and machines are used?
Relationships What contact with people is maintained with and outside organization
Job Contract What is physical and social context in which job is performed
Other Job What are other Job activities, conditions or characteristics not covered by
Characteristics other categories
8. Management Position Questionnaire: There are 208 items divided into 13 categories as
listed below in the questionnaire. It is very time-consuming process
Job Analysis is a primary tool to collect job-related data. The process results in collecting and
recording two data sets including job description and job specification
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4.2.5 Functional Job Analysis
Functional job analysis (FJA) is a method of job analysis that was developed by the Employment
and Training Administration of the United States Department of Labor. It assumes that each job
involves three broad worker functions: 1) data 2) people 3) things.
The level of difficulty in dealing with data, people and things is documented and arranged on a
scale as shown below. 0 level represents maximum difficulty and 7 the least difficulty. The job
having items higher on the scale will require more competency and vice-versa.
1. Role analysis focusses on results to be achieved and not what the tasks are to be done
2. Job analysis is based on assumption that jobs are static and job description remains the
same whereas role analysis is based on assumption jobs are dynamic and the role profile
needs to handle the changes in a dynamic way
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4.2.7 Competency Based Job Analysis
Competency-based job analysis means describing the job in terms of the measurable,
observable, behavioral competencies (Knowledge, skills and/or behaviors) that an employee
doing that job must exhibit to do the job well. Competency based job analysis believes that
Job is not just about duties and responsibilities as in case of traditional job analysis rather it is
defined in terms of competencies require
Job Design follows Job analysis. While Job analysis gives the description of the job, Job duties at
high level etc., the job design lays out the process of deciding on the contents of a job in terms
of its duties and responsibilities in depth, on the methods to be used in carrying out the job, in
terms of techniques, systems and procedures. It helps in
1. What tasks are required to be done or what tasks are part of the job?
2. How are the tasks performed?
3. What number of tasks are required to be done?
4. What is the sequence of performing these tasks?
The aim of a job design is to improve job satisfaction, to improve through-put, to improve
quality and to reduce employee problems (e.g., grievances, absenteeism).
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4.3.1 Job Simplification
Job simplification is a design method whereby jobs are divided into smaller components and
subsequently assigned to workers as whole jobs. Many fast food restaurants such
as McDonald's, Burger King and KFC use simplification because employees can learn tasks
rapidly.
On the negative side, job simplification results in workers experiencing boredom, frustration,
alienation, lack of motivation and low job satisfaction. This, in turn, leads to lower productivity
and increased cost.
Research studies on job enrichment found out decreased levels of absenteeism among the
employees, reduced employee turnover and a manifold increase in job satisfaction
Job Enlargement helps in increasing flexibility and reducing monotony of the job
1. Job enrichment means a vertical expansion in duties and responsibilities and span of control
whereas in job enlargement the expansion is horizontal in nature.
2. Need for skills: Job enrichment does not need acquisition of higher skills where is job
enrichment needs acquisition of higher skills
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3. Nature: The difference between job enrichment and job enlargement is essentially of
quantity and quality. Whereas job enlargement means increasing the scope of job
quantitatively by adding up more tasks, job enrichment means improvement in the quality
of job such that employees are more satisfied and fulfilled.
Socio Technical
Systems Socio-technical systems aims on jointly optimizing the operation of
Approach the social and technical system; the good or service would then be
efficiently produced, and psychological needs of the workers
fulfilled. Embedded in Socio-technical Systems are motivational
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assumptions, such as intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
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2. De-jobbed Environment: Dejobbing is the broadening of the responsibilities of the
company’s jobs and encouraging employees not to limit themselves to what is on their job
descriptions.
The first 2 factors are part Job evaluation and third one is part of Performance appraisal
Job evaluation is basically comparison of job with other jobs in the same organization or same
job in other organization. It helps in the rating of jobs in an organization. This is the process of
establishing the value or worth of jobs in a job hierarchy.
Job evaluation needs to be differentiated from job analysis. Job analysis is a systematic way of
gathering information about a job. Every job evaluation method requires at least some basic job
analysis to provide information about the jobs concerned. Thus, job evaluation begins with job
analysis and ends at that point where the worth of a job is ascertained.
Primary reason for Job evaluation is for developing equitable salary structure in which salary is
paid for a job as much as it deserves.
• Gaining acceptance: Before undertaking job evaluation, top management must explain the
aims and uses of the programme to managers, emphasizing the benefits.
• Creating job evaluation committee: Often a job evaluation committee consisting of
experienced employees, union representatives and HR experts is created to set the ball
rolling.
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• Finding the jobs to be evaluated: Certain key jobs in each department may be identified.
While picking up the jobs, care must be taken to ensure that they represent the type of
work performed.
• Job Analysis: Data is collected regarding the Job and using this data Job Description and
Job Specification is prepared.
• Selecting the method of evaluation: Selecting a method involves consideration of company
culture, and the capacity of the compensation and benefits function or job evaluation
committee. We shall discuss the methods later
• Job Rating: Using the elected method of job evaluation a relative score is assigned to the
Job
• Money Allocation: Assigning a money rate of pay to each job according to its worth
• Job Classification: Grading Jobs according to scale of pay
1. Ranking Method: Perhaps the simplest method of job evaluation is the ranking method
and is more suitable to organization with smaller size. According to this method, jobs are
arranged from highest to lowest, in order of their value or merit to the organization. Jobs
can also be arranged according to the relative difficulty in performing them. The jobs are
examined rather than based on important factors in the job; the job at the top of the list
has the highest value and obviously the job at the bottom of the list will have the lowest
value. This kind of ranking is highly subjective in nature and may offend many employees.
There are 3 techniques used in Ranking method which are given below
a. Utilizing Job Descriptions: In this Job descriptions of various jobs are studied and
used for comparison. Jobs are ranked as per the study of Job Description
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In this method jobs to be compared are compared in pairs. Each job is compared
with other job once and superior job is assigned a point. In the end the job with
maximum points is ranked highest and vice-versa also. In above example. E is
highest rated job whereas C is lowest rated Job
Here ranks obtained from job descriptions or paired comparison are spaced along a
number line. For example, job X is the highest rank job and job Y is picked up to find out
its closeness to job X. Based on closeness, it is placed on the number line. The distance
between the jobs or their position on number line can be used to determine the pay
structure of a Job
3. Points Rating or Point Method: Under this method, jobs are broken down based on various
identifiable factors such as skill, effort, training, knowledge, hazards, responsibility, etc.
Weights are given to factors depending on their importance to perform the job.
Thereafter, points are allocated to each of these factors for a particular job. Points so
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allocated to numerous factors of a job are then summed. Then, the jobs with similar total of
points are placed in similar pay grades
The major difference between point method and (Ranking or Grading Method) is that Point
method measures jobs with the help of factors used in that job whereas Raking or Grading
method just measures the job as a whole
4. Factor Comparison Method: Thomas E. Hitten was the first to originate factor comparison
method of job evaluation. This method is a combination of both ranking and point
methods in the sense that in this also jobs are broken down based on various identifiable
factors such as skill, effort, training, knowledge, hazards, responsibility, etc. and Weights
are given to factors depending on their importance to perform the job. But instead of
assigning grades to the Job the jobs are ranked as per the points achieved by them.
5.1 Introduction
Next process is to recruit such people from outside if those cannot be arranged internally.
This process is called recruitment and selection.
6.1 Introduction
Under Acquisition of Human resources, we have discussed about Human Resource Planning,
Job Design and Analysis and Recruitment and Selection.
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6.1.1 Induction
Induction is also known as Orientation or indoctrination. It is the process of introducing a new
employee to the organization and the organization to the employee by providing relevant
information. Generally, Induction programme includes information about the organization such
as objectives, mission, vision, employee benefits provided by the organization, human
resources policies and rules, introduction to the team etc.
1. Pre-arrival: This stage recognizes that each new employee arrives with a perception of
organizational from what he has heard from outside. A Pre-arrival stage cannot be ignored
because it shapes the perception of employee for the organization such that many times it
reflects the sincerity of employee on work
2. Encounter: Encounter Stage is the part of the stages of socialization where a person joins or
enters an organization. Individuals discover how well their expectations match realities
within the organization. If the realties are in line with the expectations, then he may start
giving high productivity whereas if realities are totally opposite of expectations then he may
resign
3. Metamorphosis: Metamorphosis Stage is the last stage in which a new employee changes
himself/herself to adjust to the job, new groups, or organization. After this stage, the
employee will be more productive and committed to the organization
6.1.4 Placement
After induction is over, the new employees are placed at the jobs. So, placement is essentially a
purpose of matching jobs and individuals. Placement can be in 2 forms
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2. Later Placement due to internal mobility such as promotion, demotion, and transfer
7.1 Transfer
A transfer may be defined as change in job within the organization where the new job is
substantially equal to old in terms of pay, status, and responsibilities. Transfers are usually done
to move employees to position with higher priority in terms of organizational goals
Promotion takes place when an employee moves to a position higher than the one for merely
occupied. Transfer is the movement of an employee from one job to another without involving
any change in his status, duties and responsibilities and compensation.
7.2.3 Demotion
Demotion is just an opposite of promotion. It is a downward movement of an employee in the
organization with lower status and salary. It is a punishment for incompetence or mistakes by
employee.
7.3 Separation
Separation means employee leaving the Organization due to one of the following reasons
2. Layoff: It is temporary removal of employees from the payroll of the company to reduce the
financial burden on the organization. Employer and employee relationship do not come to
an end, but this is merely suspended during period of layoff.
4. Retirement: When an employee has worked till stipulated age as per the policy of the
company, the person must retire. Retirement can be of following types
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5. VRS: VRS is also known as voluntary Retirement Scheme. It basically kind of golden
Handshake between employee and organization and try to create a win-win situation.
Organization gets to reduce cost or higher more skilled people and employee gets some
lumpsum money and full retirement benefits. It differs from premature retirement as
premature retirement is due to problems faced by employee whereas VRS is due to
changing environment in business where organization needs to revamp
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Important Points
We have discussed about Acquisition of Human Resources earlier in the course. In this unit we shall
discuss about Training and Development and Career Planning and Development
1. Need for additional hands to cope with an increased production of goods and services
2. Employment of inexperienced and unskilled workforce for whom training is mandatory
3. Old employees need refresher training to enable them to keep abreast of the changing methods,
techniques, and use of sophisticated tools and equipment
4. Need for enabling employees to do the work in a more effective way
5. To increase the morale and satisfaction
Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and
development
1. Training: As per Edwin Flippo, Training is act of increasing knowledge and skills of an employee
and changing the attitude for performing a particular job
2. Education: Education is meant for development of individual from social, mental, and physical
perspective. It is used in more generic sense and is meant for school and college learning
3. Development: Development is not associated to a particular job, but it is meant for overall
development of the individual which might help in realizing future potentials of the candidate
1. Discover: In this step it is found out what is the cost of training program and how that training
program will help to achieve the objective of the organization
2. Strategies: In this step the risks are evaluated, alternatives are discussed, key problem area are
foreseen, and other likely challenges are discussed
3. Prioritize: It involves prioritizing the training programs which will give greatest value for money. It is
decided which programs should be funded and how success of training program be measured
4. Optimize: Once the training program starts, they are monitored, and results are observed to further
improve the process in the next cycle
I. Organizational Analysis: The organizational analysis is aimed at short listing the focus areas for
training within the organization and the factors that may affect the same.
II. Job Analysis or Task Analysis: Job Analysis helps find out various operations and conditions under
which job is performed. It gives Job description and Job specification. The organization can know
what kind of jobs are performed and what type of people are required.
III. Individual Analysis: As evident from the name itself, the individual analysis is concerned with who
in the organization needs the training and in which area. Here performance is taken out from the
I. Know the Employees: Know your employees well before you begin designing training programs
for them. Sit with them and try to find out where all they need assistance
II. Interactive Content: The content needs to be informative but interesting. Include diagrams,
graphs, flow charts, pictures to make your training program interesting
III. Selecting the Technique: There are various techniques which can be used for training. These are
divided into Informational and Experiential techniques. Informational techniques are one-way
communication and are more of theoretical. Examples are lectures, Audio/Video etc. Experiential
techniques are based on learning by doing and it is two-way communications. Examples are Role
Play, Games and Case Study etc. Appropriate technique should be selected based on type of
training and the target audience. The techniques are training are discussed later in the document
Job instruction training is included both in on the job and off the job training method depending up on
whether it is used during actual work or during dedicated training period
a. Job-Instruction Training: Job Instruction Training (JIT), also known as ‘Training through step by step’
involves listing of all necessary steps involved in the job performance with a sequential arrangement
of steps.
b. Programmed Instruction: In this there is no instructor and instead there is an instruction booklet or
a teaching machine. The instruction is computer oriented in this case.
c. Lectures and Conferences: Lecture and conference are knowledge-based methods. In these more of
theoretical knowledge is imparted. Lecture method is one-way communication whereas Conference
is more of 2-way communication.
d. Vestibule Training: It is also known as Training-Center training. In vestibule training, the workers are
trained in a prototype environment but not at the actual workplace. It is useful when large
number of people need to be trained for similar kind of work.
e. Simulation is any artificial environment exactly like the actual situation. In simulation a real-life
situation is replicated, and participants are required to react in that situation. There are four basic
simulation techniques used for imparting training: management games, case study, role playing, and
in-basket training
I. Management Games: Professionally designed games help to ingrain thinking habits, analytical,
logical, and reasoning capabilities, importance of teamwork, time management etc.
II. Case studies are complex examples which give an insight into the context of a problem as well
as illustrating the main point. It was developed by Christopher Langdell. Case Studies are
trainee centered activities based on topics that demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied
setting.
III. Role Play: Role playing was introduced by Moreno. In this each trainee takes different role
corresponding to a situation assigned to them. For example, in role play one trainee may be
assigned a role of sales manager whereas other may assigned a role of Sales head and they are
instructed to interact regarding the monthly sales.
IV. In-Basket Exercise: It is also known as in-tray training or “incoming email” training, consists of
a set of business papers which may include e-mail SMSs, reports, memos, and other items
which one faces in a day. Trainee would be required to act on these items and his reactions are
observed. It is checked whether he can prioritize the decisions to be made immediately and the
ones that can be delayed.
f. Sensitivity training: It is also known as laboratory or T-group training which evolved from the
group dynamics concept of Kurt Lewin. This training is about small group sessions in an
unstructured form which requires people to interact and become sensitive to feeling and behavioral
pattern of others.
h. Brainstorming: In brainstorming a problem is given to the group and each of the members in the
group are required to present their ideas. The brainstorming sessions is free and frank and each one
is encouraged to participate.
Purpose Method
Job Knowledge On the Job experience
Coaching
Understudy
Apprenticeship
Mentoring
Organizational Knowledge Job Rotation
Decision Making Skills In-Basket
Case Study
Management Games
Inter-Personal Skills Role Play
Sensitivity Training
Case Study
Irrespective of how training is organized, the care must be taken to ensure right learning techniques is
used. There are two different way of learning
1. Pedagogy (Mechanistic Model): This model consider learner is passive. As per this model education
is imparted and learner just gathers the information. This model is not good for training.
The various criteria used for measurement of Training and Development are Internal and external
criteria
Later a 5th level -> ROI was added to this 4-level evaluation model
Attitude is a crucial factor to understand because it helps managers to understand their employees in
a better way. It can be described as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a way towards some
object. Attitude development is an important part to be developed as part of training and
development
1. Emotional: Emotional Component involves person’s feelings or their effect – positive, neutral, or
negative – about an object. They play a key role in behavior of employees.
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2. Information Component: It consists of Beliefs and information that an individual has about an
object
3. Behavioral Component: Consists of personal tendency to behave in a certain way
Career is more than just the job or sequence of jobs a person holds over a lifetime. Even the activities,
attitudes and behaviors that are associated with job are also part of career
1. Exploration: The exploration stage is the pre-employment stage (early adulthood stage), wherein the
individuals are in their mid-twenties and are in transition from their college life to the work
environment. They form certain perceptions about work.
2. Establishment Stage (25 to 35 years of age): Individual searches for work and gets his first
appointment. It is also called as a learning stage. At this stage, the fresher commits many mistakes
and try to learn from these mistakes. The individual is yet to reach peak productivity at this stage and
hence it is also called ‘going uphill’.
4. Late Career Stage: For individuals who continue to grow in mid-career late career is all about time to
relax a bit. These individuals become valuable to the organization because of their experience. For
individuals who have stagnated or started declining in mid-career will not be valued that much
5. Declining stage: This is the last stage of career development. At this stage, an individual must step
out of his work or get a retirement from his official commitments.
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2.1.2 Career Patterns/Career Concepts
The expected changes emerge as pattern of movements that occur in life related to work. These are
known as Career Concepts. Various Career Concepts are
1. Linear Career Concept: Plan for upward movement within the same profession using organizational
hierarchy. Upward movements of employee are also known as going up the ladder
2. Steady State Career: Individuals choose a profession, acquire higher skills, but do not choose to go
higher up in the hierarchy
3. Transitory Pattern: Individuals shift from one job to another not necessarily related to the previous
one without acquiring any excellence
4. Spiral Career: Individuals take on a new job, work hard, perform well, move up in the status and
rank, then move on to another type of work and follow the same pattern of development and
performance
5. Plateau Career: Reaching a level higher than where one started but then continuing the same level
Author by the name Schein has given comprehensive framework of 3-dimensional model
1. Managerial Competence: Person having this drive seeks managerial positions that provide
opportunities for higher responsibility, decision making, control and influence over others.
2. Technical or Functional Competence: People having this anchor seek to make career choices based
on the technical or functional content of the work.
3. Security: If one's career anchor is security than he is willing to do what is required to maintain job
security (through compliance with organizational prescriptions), a decent income and a stable
future.
4. Creativity: This drive provides entrepreneurial and innovative opportunities to the people.
5. Autonomy: These people seek a career that provides freedom of action and independence.
Apprentice: Beginning of the career where he does routine work under the supervision of the mentor
Colleague: Beginning of making independent contribution. Less dependence on superiors for advice and
direction
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Mentors: Individual develops ideas, manages others, and must learn to assume responsibility for
subordinates’ work
Sponsors: Needs to broaden perspective and think long term. Needs to define the direction in which the
entire organization or at least a major segment would develop.
Career Planning has benefits both for organization and Employees. Employees get increased
productivity, self-development, higher motivation etc. Organization gets to attract and retain talent
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2.3 Career Development
Career plan sets career path for an employee, career development ensures that the employee is well
developed before he moves to the next ladder in hierarchy or makes a horizontal movement from one
line to another. For example, if employee has chosen a career path to move from Sales to HR then
career development would mean giving him proper training and exposure to HR Functions.
Career Development is different from employee development since career development has long-term
orientation covering the entire work-life of an individual, employee development has immediate and
intermediate-term orientation.
1. Career Development Programs by Organization: These are the programs initiated by the
organization
2. Career Development Programs by Individuals: These are programs initiated by the individuals
themselves and are also known as Self-Development Programs
Subjective success factors are those which are kind of not materialistic rather intrinsic. Objective success
factors are those which are linked to money, power, position etc.
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2.3.4 Career Development for some Special Groups
There are some special groups which require career development programs more than anyone else.
These are
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2.4 Self-Development
The career development by individuals is called self-development. Self-Development is also known as
Self-Control or Self-Management. In self-development process following 3 conditions must be met
1. Patent -Self: Patent self can also be called external self which normally comprises of individuals
identify and physical features. For example, we recognize a person by saying he is handsome
and has blue eyes
2. Inner – Self: Inner self signifies the behavior patterns, values and other psychological factors
including strengths and weaknesses. For example, if we say person is a very king man then that
is example of inner self
Process of discovering and utilizing the tremendous potential within one’s individual personality is called
self-development. We will discuss about the aspects of self-development at following levels
Individual Level
1. Motivational Pattern
2. Locus of Control
3. Power Bases
Interpersonal Level
1. Interpersonal Needs
2. Transactional Analysis
Group Level
Different Individuals work for distinct reasons. Some work for money and benefits whereas some work
for satisfaction, appreciation, and self-growth. HR policy of the company needs to be sensitive towards
various needs of employees
Locus of Control
Locus of Control is belief of an individual about who is responsible for what happens in life
1. External: Believe that events are determined by external forces like other influential persons in
society, luck, destiny and so on
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2. Internal: Believe individuals can determine events. If one works hard then he can control is destiny
The beliefs in turn decides how the person needs to be treated. One with external locus of control need
be made realized that it was his efforts which lead to satisfactory results so that he believes in internal
locus of control
Power Bases
Power means a person’s potential to get others to do what he or she wants them to do, as well as avoid
being forced to do what he or she does not want to do. They can be of following types:
Persuasive Bases: Expertise, competence, and modelling. Modelling means example set by behavior
Interpersonal Needs
1. Need for Inclusion: To establish and maintain a satisfactory relationship with people with
respect to interaction and association
2. Need for Control: It means controlling behavior of people
3. Need for Affection: It means need for love from each other
These needs to be examined for an individual and not for a group. They facilitate creating awareness
about one’s tendency to be wanted to be loved, acknowledged, belonged, or controlled
Transactional Analysis
Transactional analysis is given by Berne. Berne defined three ego states in an individual.
1. Parent: The parent ego state is a result of the messages (conditioning) people receive from their
parents, elders, teachers, and others during their childhood. Their messages are recorded in
people’s heads. These messages help in regulating one’s behavior by telling what is right, what is
wrong.
2. Child: The child ego state is associated with behavior that appears when a person is responding
emotionally. A person’s child ego contains natural impulses and attitudes learned from
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experiences. The child ego state can be classified into adopted child, Natural Child, and Little
Professor
a. Adopted state is one which adapts to what must be done to others to get along
b. Natural Child tries to enjoy everything and take things as they come
c. Little Professor is thinking part of the child
3. Adult: This state evokes behavior that could be described as logical, reasonable, and rational.
Behavior from adult ego state is characterized by problem solving, analytical and rationale
decision making
Analyzing Transactions
When two people communicate, one person initiates a transaction with the transactional stimulus. The
person at whom the stimulus is directed will respond with the transactional response. Simple
Transactional Analysis involves identifying which ego state directed the stimulus and which ego state in
the other person executed the response.
According to Dr. Berne, the simplest transactions are between Adults ego states. For example, a
surgeon will survey the patient, and based upon the data before him/her, his/her Adult decides that the
scalpel is the next instrument required
But not all transactions proceed in this manner. Some transactions involve ego states other than
the Adult.
This leads us to Parent – Child transactions, which are almost as simple as Adult-Adult transactions. “The
fevered child asks for a glass of water, and the nurturing mother brings it.” In this example, the small
child’s request is the stimuli, and the parent providing the water is the response. This is nearly as simple
as an Adult-Adult transaction.
However, not all transactions between humans are healthy or normal. In those cases, the transaction is
classified as a crossed transaction. In a crossed transaction, an ego state different than the ego state
which received the stimuli is the one that responds. An example is as follows:
Agent’s Adult: “Do you know where my cuff links are?” (note that this stimulus is directed at the
Respondents Adult).
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This is one the classic crossed transactions that occurs in marriage. Instead of the Respondent’s Adult
responding with “I think they’re on the desk”, it is the Respondent’s Child that responds back.
According to Dr. Berne, one must look at how the words are being delivered (accents on particular
words, changes in tone, volume, etc.) as the non-verbal signs accompanying those words (body
language, facial expressions, etc.). Transactional Analysts will pay attention to these cues when
analyzing a transaction and identifying which ego states are involved.
People make assumptions about their own worth as well as the worth of the significant people in their
environment. Thomas Harris called these combinations as Life Positions. These life positions are
described in terms of okayness. Thus, the individuals are OK or Not OK. 4 Life positions can be described
as below
The self-development of individual should be such that people are always involved in complementary
transactions and not crossed transactions
Group Dynamics:
How does one perform in a group is important to understand the concept of self-development? Various
stages in group formation are
1. Forming (Awareness) Members with varied awareness get acquainted, understand the team’s
goal and its role
2. Storming (Conflict) Conflict among the members helps the team in defining itself
3. Norming (Cooperation): Norms laid as in how the task will be accomplished? What would be the
rules and regulations of the team?
4. Conforming (Adjustment): Adjusting one with the team expectations and norms
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5. Performing (Productivity): Members behave in mature fashion and focus on accomplishing their
goal. Full energy dedicated to work
The self-development at this level should be such that people behave in mature way and are able to
contribute to group goals
1. Self-behavior management
2. Self-study
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3. Time Management
4. Continuous practice
1. Self-Awareness: Ability to recognize, understand one’s mood, emotions, and drives, as well as their
effects on others
2. Self-Regulation: Ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods and propensity to
suspend judgement – to think before acting
3. Self-Motivation: Passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or status and propensity to
pursue goals with energy and persistence
4. Empathy: Ability to understand the emotional make up of others and skill to treat people according
to their emotional reactions
5. Social Skills: Proficiency in managing relationships and building networks and ability to find
common ground and build rapport
3. Grid Training and Development: Grid Organizational development is based on blake and mouton
model of leadership called the Managerial Grid which we have already discussed earlier. There are 6
phases of Grid training
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a. Grid Training: They learn about managerial grid, learn about different leadership styles on
grid, analyze their own style and work on improving problem solving skills, communication
skills etc.
b. Team Development: Emphasis is placed on improving manager-subordinate relationship and
focus is now on leadership style so that team operates on 9,9 on the managerial grid
c. Inter-Group Development: This phase puts emphasis on improving coordination between
teams
d. Organizational goal setting: Top managers together create an ideal mode of the
organization. They set goals to be tested, evaluated, and refined by managers and
subordinates working together throughout the organization
e. Goal Attainment: Each subunit examines how their activities should be carried out to achieve
excellence and take corrective actions
f. Stabilization: The results of all the phases are evaluated to determine which areas of the
organization still need improvement or alternation. Efforts are made to stabilize positive
changes and identity new opportunities for the organization
4. Organizational Redesign: The structure of the organization can be changed to make it more efficient
by altering the flow of authority and responsibility. Changes ca be made such as moving from
product to organizational structure
5. Work Design: It is the process of defining tasks and jobs to achieve both organizational and
employee goals. In this individual job are designed through job design and job redesign
6. Job Enrichment: Already discussed earlier in the course
7. Survey Feedback: The survey feedback lays importance on making the procedures efficient. The task
can be done only if there are good procedure to complete the task. This method was first used at
Institute of Social Research of University of Michigan.
8. Process consultation: Process Consultation is also like survey in which the consultants make
improvements in the process
9. Team Building: Team building is attempted to assist the workgroup in learning how to identify,
diagnose and solve to problems by themselves
Replacement Planning is essentially making ready a backup. These backups are sometimes called ‘truck
lists’ because these are readily available in case someone is hit by truck.
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Succession Planning basically involves two set of factors
1. Human resources factors which helps identify which are good or essential managers
2. Business Activity which helps us identify which are essential positions
The effective succession planning takes place when essential managers are mapped to essential
positions.
Identification of Key or Essential Managers: Key Managers are identified using potential Appraisal. 4
types of resources are identified (also known as stoner’s types)
3 HR Outsourcing
HR Outsourcing is a process in which the human resource activities of an organization are outsourced to
focus on the organization`s core competencies.HR outsourcing has become a popular solution for
organizations to remain competitive and cut costs. It also provides skilled professionals who are focused
specifically on HR.
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4.2 Lateral Thinking
Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and creative approach, using reasoning that is
not immediately obvious and involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-
by-step logic. The term was promulgated in 1967 by Edward de Bono.
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Important Points
1. This Summary Sheet shall only be used for Quick Revision after you have read the
Complete Notes
2. For Building Concepts along with examples/concept checks you should rely only on
Complete Notes
3. It would be useful to go through this Summary sheet just before the exam or before
any Mock Test
4. Questions in the exam are concept based and reading only summary sheets shall not
be sufficient to answer all the questions
1 Performance Management
Performance Management basically is process of
1. Planning Performance as in what employee is expected to achieve within a certain time frame
2. Appraising the Performance whether the result has been achieved
3. Giving Feedback to Employee regarding where he lacks or what are his strengths
4. Counselling Employee regarding how he can improve his performance.
We shall discuss these steps one by one except the first step which is amazingly simple and there is
nothing to explain further.
1. Subjective evaluations: Traditional performance appraisals are often based upon a manager's or
supervisor's perceptions of an employee's performance. The review may be influenced by many
non-performance factors such as employee 'likeability', personal prejudices, ease of
management, and/or previous mistakes or successes.
2. Negative perceptions: "Quite often, individuals have negative perceptions of PAs". Receiving
and/or the anticipation of receiving a PA can be uncomfortable and distressful and potentially
cause "tension between supervisors and subordinates".
1. First Impression (primacy effect): Raters form an overall impression about the employee on the
basis some first impression.
2. Halo Effect: The individual’s performance is completely appraised based on one perceived good
or bad quality, feature, or trait. If a worker has few absences, his supervisor might give him a
high rating in all other areas of work.
3. Horn Effect: The individual’s performance is completely appraised based on a negative quality or
feature perceived. “He is not formally dressed up in the office and therefore he cannot be a
good worker.
4. Central Tendency: Appraisers rate all employees as average performers. That is, it is an attitude
to rate people as neither high nor low and follow the middle path.
5. Spillover Effect: The present performance is evaluated much based on past performance.
Example would be employee being given high rating because he has good ratings in the past
too.
6. Recent Effect: Rating is influenced by the most recent behavior ignoring the commonly
demonstrated behaviors during the entire appraisal period. For example, if a person has
performed good in the last one month but was not performing well for the rest of the year then
he might not be an excellent performer but may be rated excellent
7. Stereotyping: This implies forming a mental picture of a person based on his age, sex, caste, or
religion. It results in an over-simplified view and blurs the assessment of job performance.
14. Idiosyncratic rater effect: Sometimes the rates are so biased that rating tells us more about the
rater than the person being rated. Such as phenomenon is called Idiosyncratic rater effect
1. Objective production
2. Personnel
3. Judgmental evaluation
In criterion deficiency there might be more emphasis on quantity than quality. An example of this is
that of a job of a secretary and not being able to include a criterion that measures the competency of
performing word processing tasks means that there is a criterion deficiency in the evaluation of
performance of the secretary.
The factors which are outside employees control leads to employee Criterion contamination. For
Example, keeping amount of sales in the criteria for evaluation of secretary since secretary does not
pitch for sales and hence sales target should not be part of evaluation of secretary
1.1.4.2 Personnel
The personnel method is the recording of withdrawal behaviors (i.e. absenteeism, accidents). Most
organizations consider unexcused absences to be indicators of poor job performance.
Traditional Methods
1. Ranking Method: Here, each employee is compared with all others performing the same job and
then he is given a rank i.e. First Rank, Second Rank etc. It states that A is superior to B. B is
superior to C and so on. This method ranks all employees, but it does not tell us the degree or
extent of superiority i.e. by how much one employee is superior to another.
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2. Paired Comparison: In this method, each employee is compared with other employees on
one- on one basis, usually based on one trait only. The number of times this employee is
compared as better with others determines his or her final ranking. This method is not useful
for Large number of employees
3. Grading Method: In this method, certain categories of worth are established in advance and
carefully defined such as outstanding, satisfactory, and unsatisfactory. Employee performance
is compared with grade definitions. The employee is, then, allocated to the grade that best
describes his or her performance.
4. Forced Distribution Method: This method was evolved by Tiffen to eliminate the central
tendency of rating most of the employees at a higher end of the scale. The method assumes
that employees’ performance level confirms to a normal statistical distribution i.e., only 10
percent employees can be higher performer and only 10 percent can be poor performer and
like this for every rating a certain percentage is predefined.
6. Checklist: Under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the form of Yes
or No based questions is prepared. Here the rater only does the reporting or checking, and HR
department does the actual evaluation.
8. Graphic Rating Scale Method of Performance: This method is also known as linear rating
scale. Under this method, scales are established for a number of fairly specific factors. Normally
these factors are employee characteristics and contribution of an employee in terms of quality
and quantity.
9. Essay Method: In this method, the rater writes a narrative description on an employee’s
strengths, weaknesses, past performance, potential and suggestions for improvement. Its
positive point is that it is simple in use. Since the essays are descriptive, the method provides
only qualitative information about the employee. In the absence of quantitative data, the
evaluation suffers from subjectivity problem
10. Field Review Method: In field review method employee is not reviewed by the superior but by
another person who is usually from the HR department. The basic idea is that such a person may
take more objective view in appraisal and may not be influenced by various types of errors.
11. Confidential Report: It is the traditional way of appraising employees mainly in the Government
Departments. Evaluation is made by the immediate boss or supervisor for giving effect to
promotion and transfer. Usually a structured format is devised to collect information on
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employee’s strength weakness, intelligence, attitude, character, attendance, discipline, etc.
report
12. Group Appraisal Method: This is a method in which employees are rated by group of appraisers
consisting of immediate supervisor and three or four other members. The advantage is that it is
thorough method with least bias as it involves multiple raters
13. Self-Appraisal: Self-Appraisal involves appraising the employee himself in terms of hoe he views
his performance himself. The major advantage of this method is that employees become more
involved, improves communication between superior and subordinate and improves motivation
of employee.
Modern Methods
1. MBO: MBO is Management by Objectives. This method is also known as Appraisal by Results .
The concept of “Management by Objectives‟ (MBO) was first given by Peter Drucker in 1954. It
can be defined as a process whereby the employees and the superiors come together to identify
common goals which are in line with Organizational objectives. The set goals are to be taken as
the criteria for measurement of their performance and contribution
2. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS): It was developed by Smith and Kendall to provide a
better method of rating employees. BARS are descriptions of various degrees of critical behavior
about a specific performance dimension. It differs from "standard" rating scales in one central
respect, in that it focuses on behaviors that are determined to be important for completing a job
task or doing the job properly, rather than looking at more general employee characteristics (e.g.
personality, vague work habits
For example, the below BARS is to gauge the behavior-involvement in the job. The performance
dimension here is ‘involvement in job’
3. Assessment Centers: This concept was first applied to military situations by Simoniet in the
German Army in the 1930s and then selection of British Army in 1960s. In India companies like
HUL, Eicher, Crompton Greaves, Xerox and Modicorp have adopted this technique. The basic idea
was to assess candidate in social situation using variety of assessors and methods. An assessment
center is a central location where managers come together to participate in well-designed
simulated exercises. Assesse is asked to participate in basket exercises, interviews, work groups,
simulations, presentations, and role playing which are essential for successful performance of
actual job. At the end of the process, feedback in terms of strengths and weaknesses is also
provided to the assesse’ s.
4. 360-degree Feedback: Another method used to appraise the employee’s performance is 360 –
degree appraisal. This method was first developed and formally used by General Electric Company
of USA in 1992. In India companies like Reliance, Wipro, Infosys, Thermax, Thomas cook etc. are
using this method
Under 360 – degree appraisal, performance information such as employee’s skills, abilities and
behaviors, is collected “all around” for an employee, i.e., from his/her supervisors, subordinates,
peers, self-appraisal and even customers and clients. 360-degree feedback, also known as multi-
rater feedback, multi-source feedback, or multi source assessment
5. Peer and Self-Assessment: While assessment can be performed along reporting relationships
(usually top-down), net assessment can include peer and self-assessment.
I. Peer assessment is when assessment is performed by colleagues along both horizontal
(similar function) and vertical (different function) relationship.
II. Self-assessments are when individuals evaluate themselves. Graphic rating scale is used
for self-assessments
6. Cost Accounting Method: This method evaluates an employee’s performance from the monetary
benefits the employee yields to his/her organization. This is ascertained by establishing a
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relationship between the costs involved in retaining the employee, and the benefits an organization
derives from Him/her
7. Human Asset Accounting Method: In this method the employees of the organization are treated as
Human Capital and money estimates are attached to the value of the organization’s personnel and
its external goodwill. The principle behind this system is that like any other asset, human asset is
also valuable to the organization.
Psychological appraisal is one of the types of Potential Appraisal. This method assesses the
employee's potential for future performance rather than the past one. It focuses on the employee's
emotional, intellectual, and motivational and other personal characteristics affecting his/her
performance.
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III. Simulation games and exercises
IV. Performance appraisal records
4. Organizing the System: After covering the above preliminaries, we must set up a system that will
allow the introduction of the scheme smoothly giving answers to some puzzling questions:
5. Feedback: If the organization believes in the development of human resources it should attempt to
generate a climate of openness. Such a climate is required for helping the employees to understand
their strengths and weaknesses and to create opportunities for development
Generally, Appraisal feedback is given through an interview. There are 3 types of interview
1. Tell and Sell Interview: In this the basic idea is to tell the deficiencies to the employee and convince
him regarding those deficiencies. The appraiser also gives suggestions to overcome the deficiencies.
2. Tell and Listen Interview: The basic idea is to communicate the feedback to the employees and then
listen to his reaction. Therefore, interviewer acts as an indirect counsellor rather than dominating
the discussion.
3. Problem Solving Interview: In this interview, the basic objective is not just to communicate the
appraisal results to the employee but to invite him how he perceives the problems and what are the
possible solutions as per him.
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• Feedback should be descriptive and non- evaluative. Rather than putting the employee in a
defensive position by telling him” Your coming in late convinces me that you are not serious
about your work”, a manager may say, “I notice that you have been regularly coming late and
I am deeply concerned about this”.
• It should be two-way process where employee is also given a chance to express his/her
views on the performance
• It should be focused on the behavior of the person rather than on the person himself. The
intent is not to condemn the employee as an individual
• When conveying feedback, it is generally desirable to back it up with few examples of actual
events.
• Feedback should be given timely, continuous, checked, and verified.
Performance Counselling is interactive process between the employee and his counsellor, mentor,
coach etc. to anticipate the likely problems in the job performance and defining proactive actions
to overcome those problems
Mostly counseling is done for work performance issues, but counseling can also be done if a person
has some personal problems like alcohol abuse or death of dear one. So, counseling should be done
when we have issues like excessive workload, lack of awareness of policies, performance issues,
lack of team spirit, family problems etc.
1. Directive Counselling:
a. This is Counselor Centered. In this approach Counselor directs the client to take certain
steps to resolve the conflict. This assumes that client cannot solve the problems by himself
b. It gives more importance to intellectual aspects than emotional aspect
c. “Put that cigarette out now as this is a nonsmoking area” is a form of directive counseling
2. Non-Directive Counselling
a. It is client Centered. The idea is to create an atmosphere in which client can resolve the
problem by himself
b. Also known as Permissive Counselling
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c. Gives more importance to emotional aspects than intellectual aspect
d. Example would be: So, the reason you are not effective is that you stayed up late last night.
What are you going to do to ensure that this does not affect your performance again?
1. Identify the Need: One should be clear why counseling is needed. Is it due to unruly behavior or
not coming to office on time or due to substandard performance etc.?
I. Rapport Building: In the rapport building phase, a good counselor attempts to establish
a climate of acceptance, warmth, support, openness, and mutuality.
II. Exploration: In this phase, the counselor should attempt to help the employee
understand and appreciate his strengths and weaknesses. Questions should be asked
which help the employee focus on his problem. Problem identification is a critical step in
planning for improvement.
III. Action Planning: The main contribution of the superior in this phase is in helping the
employee think of alternative ways of dealing with a problem.
Finally, the superior may render some assistance in helping the employee implement
the agreed upon action plan.
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4. Follow Up: Counselor should provide support to the employee and should review his
performance on regular basis. If required there might be change in action plan
1. Faulty Assumptions: There are some faulty assumptions such as managers think opinion is better
than formal operational process
2. Psychological Blocks: The psychological blocks such as managers feeling on appraisal as extra
burden, disliking or resentment of subordinates, disliking of communicating poor performance to
subordinates
3. Criterion Problem: Criterion problem is that it is very difficult to define the criteria for performance.
Most of the times criteria is vague or ambiguous or not measurable easily
2 Compensation Management
2.1 Meaning of Compensation
Compensation include direct cash payments, indirect payments in form of employee benefits and
incentives to motivate employees to strive higher levels of productivity
The above categories are sometime treated differently. Some may see Fringe benefits as part of
Incentives, some may see stock options as part of incentives rather that pre-requisites, some may see
club membership as Fringe benefit rather than prerequisite. So do not worry in case these gets mixed up
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2.4 Factors for Compensation
What is the basis or factors on which compensation gets decided? These factors are also called
contingent factors and they are of two types – External and Internal Factors
Internal Factors
1. Company objectives: Company Objective plays a key role in compensation structure. If company
wants to recruit best talent from best colleges then obviously the compensation would be high.
2. Ability to pay: If company is making higher profits then it can pay higher salaries
3. Nature of Jobs: Highly skilled jobs will command higher salary.
4. Potential for Performance: On the same job two people might get different salary due to different
performance
External Factors
1. Market situation or prevailing market rate: For a particular talent, there is always a rate prevailing
in the market which most of the companies are ready to give.
2. Demand and Supply: Certain kind of resources are scarce in the market. So, such people are always
given higher salaries by the company
3. Trade Unions: If trade union has high bargaining power then it may negotiate better resulting in
higher salaries
4. Legal framework such as government regulations on minimum wages, regulation on provident fund
and gratuity
5. Cost of Living: If cost of living is high then workers shall demand high salaries
Skill based pay is based on skills of the individual and is different for different individuals. This is also
called competency-based pay.
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Broad banding (or 'broad grades') is the consolidation of traditional pay structures, consisting of many,
narrow pay ranges into a few, wider ranges or bands.In a broadband pay structure, the numbers
of salary grades are consolidated into fewer, but broader, pay ranges. Broad banding was first used by
IBM and general electric in 1990’s.
Broad banding helps in reducing time to analyze jobs and evaluating jobs, enables employees to focus
on content of job, its challenges, and its developmental opportunities rather than worrying about grade
level.
Living Wage: A living wage is one which should enable the earner to provide for himself and his family
not only the bare essentials of food, clothing and shelter but a measure of frugal comfort including
education for his children, protection against ill-health, requirement of essential social’ needs and a
measure of insurance against the more important misfortunes, including old-age.
Fair Wage: Fair wage, according to the committee on Fair Wage, is the wage which is above the
minimum wage but below the living wage. The lower limit of the fair wage is obviously the minimum
wage; the upper limit is set by the capacity of the industry to pay.
Time Wage Method: In this method the worker is paid for the time he has worked on hourly, weekly or
monthly basis
Piece Wage Method: In this method workers are paid on the basis of quantity of output irrespective of
the time taken
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Balance Method:
Suppose the time wage is Rs. 500 per week and the piece wage rate is Rs. 10 per unit. As per his
production, his wages during the 4 weeks in a month will be as shown
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1. Financial Incentives include all those payments in monetary terms that provided to employees to
motivate them for better performance.
2. Non-financial incentives are the one those which do not impact employees in monetary terms, but
they are still important as they help in providing motivation to employees.
a. Individual Output Linked Incentive: The individual gets paid more based on higher output.
The more he produced, more will be his Incentive
b. Group Output Linked Incentive: Some companies have introduced group-output linked
performance incentives. In this all members share equal incentives irrespective of their
output. By providing fair treatment to team members through team-based compensation,
group cohesiveness is increased. However, there is drawback of this called social loafing in
which some members in group do not provide required effort because they think that anyway
whole group will be rewarded the same.
2. Bonus: Based on Payment Bonus Act, 1965 gives govt. of India the power to prescribe minimum
bonus of 8.33 percent of the basic pay up to basic salary of 3500 per month. As per this act bonus
is treated as deferred pay to be given later.
3. Scanlon Plan: This was introduced by Joseph Scanlon at United Steel Works of USA. In this
employee can participate by giving suggestions to cut costs. Any resultant cost savings from these
suggestions is distributed among the employees.
4. Profit Sharing: It is the distribution of Profit of the company with employees. The percentage of
profit to be distributed is determined in advance. Profit sharing is different from other incentive
schemes as here profit is shared after long interval of efforts whereas in other schemes incentives
follows efforts immediately.
5. Co-Partnership: In co-partnership the employees participate in equity capital of the company i.e.
when shares of company are floated, they buy them on the market prices. The shares may be
allotted to them and hence employees become shareholder of the company. They not only share
profits but also participate in decision making of the company
6. Employees stock option: Employees are given shares of company in such a way that they enjoy
long-term benefits due to appreciation is share prices.
7. Cafeteria Compensation Plan: A cafeteria plan is an employee benefit plan that allows staff to
choose from a variety of pre-tax benefits. This arrangement is also known as smorgasboard,
menus or cafeteria plan. The basic idea is that many employees attach different values to various
incentives and rewards and hence let them choose their rewards by themselves.
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8. Fringe Benefits: Discussed later
a. Intrinsic rewards: Intrinsic rewards are the satisfactions that an individual obtains from the job itself.
It means, they are the factors of esteem and self-actualization needs of the employees.
b. Extrinsic Rewards: Extrinsic rewards are the benefits provided externally. These rewards are
provided in term of money, promotions, and fringe benefits.
4 Fringe Benefits
Employees are provided various types of benefits which are not linked to productivity of the employee
but rather they are given to all employees depending on their seniority level in the organization. They
are basically payment to employees directly or indirectly either in cash or in-kind excluding
wage/salary and incentives linked to productivity.
1. Employee Welfare
2. Social Security
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4.1.1 Employee Welfare
As per Arthur James – “Welfare includes anything that is done for the comfort and improvement of
employees and is provided over and above the wages”.
Employee welfare is not only about monetary benefits, but it is understood to include such services,
facilities and amenities which enable the persons employed to perform their work in healthy, congenial
surroundings and to provide them with amenities conducive to good health and high morale.
1. Economic Services: These provide additional economic security over and above the wages and
salaries. For example, credit facilities for borrowing money in times of need
2. Recreational Services: Jon often becomes bored by their daily life. For this they need recreational
facilities such as indoor games, library, reading rooms, radios, T.V etc.
3. Facilitative services: These are conveniences which employees usually require such as canteen
facilities, housing facilities, medical facilities, washing facilities, educational facilities, leave travel
reimbursement facilities
1. The statutory welfare schemes include such as Drinking water, Latrines and Urinals, Lighting,
Canteen facilities, Lighting, washing places, changing room, rest rooms, maternity leave etc.
2. The non-statutory welfare schemes are the following: Personal Health Care facilities like
Doctors on duty, Flexible timing for the workers, Employee Assistance Programs like counseling
for stress, Harassment Policy to protect employees from harassment especially sexual
harassment to Women, Medi-claim Insurance Scheme etc.
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4.1.1.1.3 Intramural or Extramural Activities
Another way to categorize is based on internal or external facilities. Facilities provided inside the
organization are called Intra-mural facilities such as latrines and Urinals, Canteens etc.
Those provided outside the organization are called extra-mural facilities lie housing accommodations,
maternity benefits, holiday homes, club membership etc.
2. Religion Theory: Religion theory implies that the fruits of today's deeds will be reaped
tomorrow. Inspired by this belief, some employers plan and organize canteens and crèches.
3. Philanthropic Theory: The philanthropic theory of labor welfare refers to the provision of good
working conditions, crèches and canteens out of pity on the part of the employers
4. Paternalistic Theory: According to the paternalistic theory, also called the trusteeship theory, of
labor welfare, the industrialist or the employer holds the total industrial estate, properties and
the profits accruing from them, in trust. In paternalistic theory the employer acts as a parent to
them and takes care of their needs.
5. Placating Theory: This theory assumes that appeasement pays when the workers are on strikes
or angry. Workers are like children who are intelligent, but not fully so. As crying children are
pacified by sweets, workers should be pleased by welfare works.
6. Public Relations Theory: According to this theory, welfare activities are provided to create a
good impression on the minds of the workers and the public, particularly the latter.
7. Functional Theory: Also known as the efficiency theory of labor welfare, the functional theory
implies that welfare facilities are provided to make the workers more efficient. If workers are
fed properly, clothed adequately, and treated kindly, they will work efficiently.
8. Social Theory: The social theory implies that a factory is morally bound to improve the
conditions of the society in addition to improving the condition of its employees.
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3. Insurance benefits such as health insurance, life insurance etc.
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SUMMARY SHEET: MANAGEMENT
FRINGE TOPIC OF ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR PEOPLE MANAGEMENT
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
CHANGE MANAGEMENT
• Strong Organization Culture: Strong organizational culture refers to a situation where the employees
adjust well, respect the organization’s policies and adhere to the guidelines.
• Weak Organization Culture: In such a culture, individuals accept their responsibilities out of fear of
superiors and harsh policies.
1. Artifacts: The dress code of the employees, office furniture, facilities, behavior of the employees,
mission and vision of the organization all come under artifacts.
2. Values: The thought process and attitude of employees have deep impact on the culture of any
particular organization.
3. Assumed Values: The third level is the assumed values (certain beliefs and facts) which stay hidden
but do affect the culture of the organization.
.
1. Constructive Culture: encourages healthy interaction amongst the employees. The key features of a
constructive culture are: Achievement, Self-Actualizing, Encouragement, Affiliative
2. Passive Culture: In a passive culture, the employees behave contrary to correct/ideal way.
The characteristics of a passive culture are: Approval, Conventional, Dependent, Avoidance
3. Aggressive Culture: The key features of such a culture are: Opposition, Power, Perfectionist,
Competitive. In the above culture, employees are aggressive, compete against each other and try to
become perfectionist by identifying their mistakes and eventually minimizing them.
According to Hofsteide there are majorly SIX dimensions (In 2010 Hofstede added a sixth dimension,
indulgence versus self- restraint) which influence the culture of the workplace:
1. Power Distance Index (PDI), 2. Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV), 3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index
(UAI), 4. Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS), 5. Long-term Orientation vs. Short-term Orientation (LTO),
6. Indulgence vs. Restraint (IND)
1. Power: Organizations where the power remains in the hands of only few people.
2. Task Culture: Organizations where individuals with common interests and specializations come
together to form a team to achieve the targets.
3. Person Culture: Organizations where the employees feel that they are more important than their
organization follow person culture.
4. Role culture: Role culture is a culture where every employee is delegated roles and responsibilities
according to his specialization, educational qualification and interest.
Resistance to Change
A mild degree of resistance to change is considered to be positive as it provides a great extent of
behavioural stability as well as predictability. It is believed to have a favourable influence on the decision
making, evaluation of the available alternative critically and leads to a healthy brainstorming on the viability
of various ideas and strategic alternatives.
Individual Resistance to Change can be classified into the following categories as below:
Age of Discontinuity:
Legendary Peter Drucker has coined the term Age of Discontinuity to describe the way in which
disruptive change affects us. In Drucker’s model, the four sources of discontinuity are: 1. Globalization,
2. Cultural-pluralism, 3. Knowledge-capital, 4. New-technologies.
Future Shock:
Alvin Toffler, came up with an idea about the intersection of different paradigms and the accelerating
rates of change and their impact on businesses.
Tipping Points:
Malcolm Gladwell, used the term Tipping Points, to describe the phenomenon of trends acquiring critical
mass and then taking off to impact business and society in the process.
Strategic Decay:
Gary Hamel postulated the concept of Strategic Decay to explain how the value of each strategy decays
over time irrespective of how brilliant the strategy was in the first place.
In above 4 theories, thinkers were attempting is to explain how change is the only constant and hence,
businesses ought to be prepared for anything to happen and hence must strategize and build their
business models accordingly.
1. Top Down Change Management: This kind of intervention relies on the fact that the organizational
change cascades from the top level of the management to the bottom most level in an organization.
2. Transformational Change Management: This intervention relies on the influencing capabilities of
a transformational leader who can set constructive.
3. Strategic Change Management: This intervention introduces new ways of doing work.
All these interventions lay stress on the role of leadership, strategic planning, involving employees in the
overall process and proper communication.
NOTE: Model 1,2,3 AND 7,8,9 are important for RBI Grade-B exam
Organization(wide) Centric Change Management Model
According to Lewin, Change for any individual or an organization is a complicated journey which involves
several stages of transitions before attaining the stage of equilibrium or stability. For explaining the process
of organizational change, he used the analogy of how an ice block changes its shape to transform into a
cone of ice through the process of unfreezing.
Stage 1 - Unfreezing: This is the first stage of transition and one of the most critical stages in the entire
process of change management.
Stage 2 - Change: This stage can also be regarded as the stage of Transition or the stage of actual
implementation of change. It involves the acceptance of the new ways of doing things.
Stage 3 - Freeze (Refreezing): During this stage, the people move from the stage of transition (change) to a
much more stable state which we can regard as the state of equilibrium.
During the stage of Unfreezing, the driving forces should be made stronger to motivate a change in the
behavior or ways of working, while the restraining forces should be made weaker or removed. The driving
forces from the external environment could be Globalization, Technological Development and IT revolution.
The Hard elements are within the direct control of the management: 1. Strategy. 2. Structure 3. Systems.
The Soft elements are less tangible and are difficult to be defined and identified: 4. Shared Values 5. Style
6. Staff 7. Skills
As per the below diagram, the shared values located at the centre of the model influence all the other
elements of the model which are interconnected and interrelated.
John Kotter (1996), in his book “Leading Change”, introduced 8 Step Model of Change on the basis of research
of 100 organizations which were going through a process of change. 8 Stages of Change are as follow:
1. Create urgency – This step involves creating a sense of urgency among the people
2. Form a powerful coalition –Getting right people on the team by selecting a mix of skills, knowledge.
3. Create a vision for change – This stage is related to creating the correct vision
4. Communicate the vision – Communication with people regarding change and its need.
5. Get things moving (Empower Action) – In order to get things moving or empower action, one needs to get
support, remove the roadblocks and implement feedback in a constructive way.
6. Create Quick Wins (Focus on short term goals) – Focusing on short term goals .
7. Build on the Change (Don’t give up) –not to give up while the process of change management is going on.
8. Make it Stick (Incorporate change) – Besides managing change effectively, it is important to reinforce it.
Dunphy and Stace (1993), put forth a situational or contingency model of change, which emphasized on the
fact that organizations should vary their change strategies in accordance with the environmental changes for
arriving at an ‘optimum fit’.
Dexter Dunphy and Doug Stace has categorised CHANGE into four types of scale: 1. Fine-tuning 2. Modular-
transformation 3. Incremental-adjustment 4. Corporate-transformation.
1. Collaborative Style: The collaborative leadership style attracts large scale participation
2. Consultative Style: The Consultative Style of Leaders consult the employees before implementing
organizational change
3. Directive Style: The Directive Style of Leadership involves least participation from the employees.
4. Coercive Style: This form of leadership exercises coercion for implementing organizational change.
Based on the interaction between the Scale of Change and Style of Management/Leadership style, Dunphy
and Stace propounded a model of 5 different types of Change:
1. Taylorism: This is the kind of change in which the change is usually avoided, and small adjustments are
made.
2. Developmental Transition: This kind of change is facilitating in nature
3. Task-Focused Transition: This technique focuses on new techniques and new procedures.
4. Charismatic Transitions: through effective communication and development of trust or faith, the change
can be implemented smoothly.
5. Turnarounds: This kind of change is path breaking in nature using authority.
All the three processes are integrated and interdependent on each other. The model is illustrated through
nine phases as demonstrated in the diagram below:
Limitations of ADKAR Model: This model is built for incremental change and has a narrow focus. If
leaders wanted to make a macro-level change or were not exactly sure of how deep they needed to go
with transitions, this method would probably not get the job done.
3. The New Beginning – When the neutral phase is passed through support and guidance, the stage of
acceptance and energy enters the picture.
1. Denial – Denial is the first stage of the model and is a stage when one is unable to accept the news.
2. Anger – When the news actually gets absorbed, then the first reaction is usually that of anger
Advantages: This model is all about employee resistance and helping them to ease bad feelings can have
on the team. It helps managers prepare for how to deal with every emotion which workers will feel about
the change, and they can even connect this process to effects on productivity.
1. Denial: This is the stage in which the feeling of change does not easily sink in and we ignore the change
completely as if nothing has happened.
2. Resist: During this stage, we understand that the change has taken place and it cannot be ignored,
but the acceptability is resisted.
3. Explore: This is the stage of exploration during which the organization builds up its coping or adaptive
mechanisms to tackle the resistance.
4. Commit: This is the stage during which the individuals are re-empowered and they accept the new
methods or processes.
Implication: The model can be considered as a vital framework for understanding the process of change
and it provides crucial insights on how one can manage change successfully by minimizing the resistance.
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The Satir Change Model
Rooted in behavioural psychology, this model more people-centric than many management frameworks. The
purpose of this model is to focus on understanding the thoughts and feelings behind behavioural change. The
Satir Change Model theorizes that when unexpected or significant change happens, individuals go through a
series of predictable stages: Late Status-Quo, Resistance, Chaos, Integration, New Status-Quo
Stage 1: Late Status-Quo: The group is at a familiar place. The performance pattern is consistent.
Stage 2: Resistance: The group confronts a foreign element that requires a response. Often imported by a
small minority seeking change.
Stage 3: Chaos: The group enters the unknown. Relationships shatter. The loss of belonging and identity
triggers anxiousness and vulnerability.
Stage 4: Integration: The members discover a transforming idea that shows how the foreign element can
benefit them. The group becomes excited.
Stage 5: New Status Quo: If the change is well conceived and assimilated, the group and its environment are
in better accord and performance stabilizes at a higher level than in the Late Status-Quo.
1 Late Status Quo Encourage people to seek improvement information and concepts
from outside the group.
2 Resistance Help people to open up, become aware, and overcome the reaction
to deny, avoid or blame.
4 Integration Offer reassurance and help finding new methods for coping with
difficulties.
5 New Status Quo Help people feel safe so they can practice.
1. Trigger Layer: This layer is concerned with the need identification and also the avenues for change
2. Vision Layer: This layer involves articulation of the futuristic vision of the organization
3. Conversion Layer: Mobilising support for the realization of vision
4. Maintenance & Renewal: This involves bringing reforms or change in the values, attitudes and
behaviours.
This model provides a whole new dimension to the concept of organizational change and describes the role
played by six interconnected or interdependent variables like people, task, strategy, culture, technology and
design. All these 6 variables are the key focus of planned change. The model has been represented in the
diagram below:
Change agents act as the champions or change catalysts. The change agents may play the role of a
consultant who assists the client in strategically identifying and implementing solutions for overcoming
organizational problems.
Havelock and Shaskin identified some important characteristics of change abbreviated by HELP Scores:
Homophily.Empathy. Linkage. Proximity. Structuring. Capacity. Openness. Reward. Energy. Synergy
Change agents bring changes broadly in four areas: Structure, Physical Setting, Technology, and People.
1. Structural change is all about making changes in the organizational structure, authority and
hierarchical framework, job redesign, and various other structural variables.
2. Change in technology implies a change in the techniques, methods, processes or best practices
or the way of working itself.
3. Change in the physical setting involves a change in the layout and also the spatial
arrangements.
4. Change agents also facilitate a change in the attitudes of people, skills, behaviour and also their
perceptions.
In a management setting, decision cannot be taken abruptly. It should follow the steps such as:
The important thing to remember about the OODA loop is that feedback is an integral component of all
stages with information flowing back and forth between the individual and the situation.
1. Volatility: The global macro environment is highly volatile due to the intersection of global and local
events. What happens in an isolated corner of the world is no longer restricted to that place in terms
of impact, but, has cascading effects on all regions worldwide.
2. Uncertainty: Apart from volatility, the present global environment is also highly uncertain. This is
mainly due to the convergence of different forces all coalescing around the same time leading to
systemic vulnerabilities that bring with them uncertainty.
3. Complexity: The current macroeconomic environment is hyper complex as well as multi-layered and
complexity is the norm rather than the exception. For instance, global corporations operate in
multiple jurisdictions which means that they are subject to the specific laws and regulations of each
country in addition to the rules governing bilateral and multilateral trade agreements.
4. Ambiguity: Another characteristic of the global economy is the many layers of ambiguity that present
themselves to decision makers in multinational firms. The intersection of the various forces means
that decision makers have to first understand the situation by digging in deep and peeling through
the layers of complexity and confusion.
DECIDE Model:
The DECIDE model is related to rational decision making, proposed by Guo (2008).
D.E.C.I.D.E. model suggests going through the following stages:
2 Interpersonal Relationship
A strong bond between two or more people refers to interpersonal relationship. An interpersonal
relationship can develop between any of the following:
According to Social Exchange Theory “give and take” forms the basis of almost all relationships though
their proportions might vary as per the intensity of the relationship.
Social exchange theory says that if the costs of the relationship are higher than the rewards, such as a lot
of effort or money put into a relationship and not reciprocated, this could lead to issues.
3 TEAM BUILDING
What is a team?
A team is a group of individuals, all working together for a common purpose.
Difference between Group and Team: A group can have individuals with varied interests, attitude as well as
thought processes. A team must have individuals with a common objective to achieve.
Team Development
Team development creates a captivating atmosphere by encouraging co-operation, teamwork,
interdependence and by building trust among team members.
1. Stage 1: Forming During this stage, group members may be anxious and adopt wait-and-see attitude.
They will be formal towards each other
2. Stage 2: Storming During this stage, team members are eager to get going. Conflict can arise as people
tend to bring different ideas of how to accomplish goals
3. Stage 3: Norming This stage is when people begin to recognize ways in which they are alike. They
realize that they are in this together.
4. Stage 4: Performing This stage is when team members are trained, competent, as well as able to do
their own problem-solving.
5. Stage 5: Adjourning Many teams will reach this stage eventually. For example, some teams exist only
for one project, and even permanent teams may be re-allocated through organizational restructuring
Types of Teams
1. Permanent teams- These teams perform on a permanent basis and are not dissolved once the task is
accomplished.
2. Temporary teams - Unlike permanent teams, temporary teams lose their importance, once the task
is accomplished.
3. Task Force - Such teams are formed for a special purpose of working on any specific project.
4. Committee - Committees are generally formed to work on a particular assignment either
permanently or on a temporary basis.
5. Organization/Work Force - Such groups are formed in organizations where team members work
together under the expert guidance of leader.
6. Self-Managed Teams - Self Managed Teams consist of individuals who work together again for a
common purpose but without the supervision of any leaders.
7. Cross Functional Team - Individuals from different areas come and work together for a common
objective to form a cross functional team.
8. Virtual Teams - Virtual teams consist of individuals who are separated by distances and connected
through computer.
4 Conflict Management
Conflict arises whenever individuals have different values, opinions, needs, interests and are unable to
find a middle way. Conflicts can be of following types:
1. The Traditional View of Conflict: The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided.
2. The Interactionist View of Conflict: The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but
also an absolute necessity for a group to perform effectively.
3. Functional conflict: minimal level of conflict can help keep a group viable, self-critical, and creative
thus supports the goals of the group and improves its performance
4. Dysfunctional conflict: A conflict that hinders group performance is a destructive or dysfunctional
conflict.
5. Task conflict: Task Conflict relates to the content and goals of the work.
6. Relationship conflict: Conflict based on interpersonal relationships.
7. Process conflict: Process Conflict relates to how the work gets done
Conflict process:
A conflict process deals with five steps that help alleviate friction, disagreement, problems or fighting.
The five steps are:
1. Potential opposition or Incompatibility: In this stage, there are potential areas of conflict that
could develop, and they consist of communication, structure and personal variables
2. Cognition and Personalization: When one of the factors mentioned in the potential opposition
stage actually materializes as a conflict, then stage two occurs based on cognition and
personalization
3. Intentions: The third stage is regarding intentions, or decisions to take action in a certain way.
4. Behaviour: At this stage, conflicts become visible
5. Outcomes: The action–reaction interplay between the conflicting parties results in
consequences…
Phases of conflict
Another simplified view of conflict can be described below in has five phases:
1. Prelude to conflict - It involves all the factors which possibly arise a conflict among individuals.
2. Triggering Event - No conflict can arise on its own. There has to be an event which triggers the conflict.
3. Initiation Phase - Initiation phase is actually the phase when the conflict has already begun.
4. Differentiation Phase - It is the phase when the individuals voice out their differences.
5. Resolution Phase - The resolution phase explores the various options to resolve the conflict.
Elements of Negotiation:
1. Process- The way individuals negotiate with each other is called the process of negotiation. The
process includes the various techniques and strategies employed to negotiate and reach to a
solution.
2. Behaviour- How two parties behave with each other during the process of negotiation is referred
to as behaviour. The way they interact with each other, the way they communicate with each other
to make their points clear all come under behaviour.
3. Substance- There has to be an agenda on which individuals negotiate. A topic is important for
negotiation. In the first situation, going for the late-night movie was the agenda on which you
wanted to negotiate with your parents as well as your friends.
Models of Negotiation
Negotiation is defined as a discussion among individuals to reach to a conclusion acceptable to one and all.
Let us go through various models of negotiation:
1. Win-Win Model - In this model, each and every individual involved in negotiation wins. Nobody is at
loss in this model and every-one is benefited out of the negotiation. This is the most accepted model
of negotiation.
2. Win-Lose Model - In this model one-party wins and the other party loses. In such a model, after
several rounds of discussions and negotiations, one party benefits while the party remains
dissatisfied.
Bargaining Strategies
1. Distributive bargaining: Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win–lose
situation.
2. Integrative bargaining: Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win–win
solution.
1. Preparation and planning: Before you start negotiating, you need to do your homework. What’s the
nature of the conflict? What’s the history leading up to this negotiation? Who’s involved and what
are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want from the negotiation? What are your goals?
2. Definition of ground rules: Once you’ve done your planning and developed a strategy, you’re ready
to begin defining with the other party the ground rules and procedures of the negotiation itself.
3. Clarification and justification: When you have exchanged initial positions, both you and the other party
will explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands.
4. Bargaining and problem: The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give-and-take in trying to
hash out an agreement.
5. Closure and implementation: The final step in the negotiation process is formalizing the agreement
you have worked.
Third-Party Negotiations
There are three basic third-party roles: mediator, arbitrator, and conciliator.
Mediator: A mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and
persuasion, suggesting alternatives, and the like.
Arbitrator: An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement. Arbitration can be
voluntary (requested by the parties) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract).
Conciliator: A conciliator is a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the
negotiator and the opponent.
R - Rapport: As the name suggests, it signifies the relation between parties involved in negotiation.
A - Analysis: One party must understand the second party well. It is important that the individual understand
each other’s needs and interest.
D - Debate: Nothing can be achieved without discussions. This round includes discussing issues among the
parties involved in negotiation.
A - Agreement: Individuals come to a conclusion at this stage and agree to the best possible alternative.
6 Public Relations
PR or public relations is nothing but the practice of protecting as well as enhancing the reputation of any
particular organization/firm or for that matter any individual.
▪ Awareness: To create a positive image of an organization, the message must reach the public.
Information must reach in its desired form for effective public relation.
▪ Acceptance: The audience must understand what the message intends to communicate. They ought
to agree with the message.
Press Agentry/Publicity
Press Agentry Publicity model is also called P.T Barnum model. Press Agentry Publicity model follows one-
way communication where the flow of information is only from the sender to the receiver. The sender is not
much concerned about the second party’s feedback, reviews and so on.
Flow of information takes place only from the public relations experts to the target audiences. (One-way
communication)
Contents
1 RISK MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................................... 4
Principles of Risk Management ............................................................................................................ 4
Risk Management Process ................................................................................................................... 5
Risk Treatment and Risk Response Planning ....................................................................................... 6
Risk Response Planning ................................................................................................................. 6
Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) .................................................................................................... 7
2 Crisis Management ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Types of crisis: ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Crisis Management Model ................................................................................................................... 8
Gonzalez-Herrero and Pratt Crisis Management Model .............................................................. 8
Structural Functions Systems Theory ............................................................................................ 9
Diffusion of innovation Theory ..................................................................................................... 9
Unequal Human Capital Theory .................................................................................................... 9
Crisis Management Plan ....................................................................................................................... 9
3 Public and Private Administration............................................................................................................... 9
New Public Management Model........................................................................................................ 10
Personnel Administration .................................................................................................................. 11
Process of Personnel Administration/ Management.................................................................. 11
Problems in Personnel Administration ....................................................................................... 12
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4 Psychology ................................................................................................................................................. 12
Modern Approaches to Psychology ............................................................................................ 12
Branches of Psychology ...................................................................................................................... 13
Psychodynamic Approach .................................................................................................................. 14
The Important Role of Unconscious............................................................................................ 14
The Id, Ego and Superego............................................................................................................ 14
Carl Jung’s Psychodynamics ........................................................................................................ 14
Humanistic Perspective of Psychology ............................................................................................... 15
Humanistic Perspective and Management ................................................................................. 15
5 Psychology and Personality Development ................................................................................................ 15
Personality .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Determinants of Personality .............................................................................................................. 16
What is Personality Development? .................................................................................................... 16
Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory of Personality Development ............................................................. 16
Freud’s Structural Model of Personality ..................................................................................... 17
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development ................................................................................. 17
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development ........................................................................................ 18
Personality Traits - Meaning and Different Types of Traits ............................................................... 20
Personality Types - Different Types of Personality ............................................................................ 22
Personality Disorders - Meaning and Different Types of Disorders .................................................. 23
Myers–Briggs Type Indicator .......................................................................................................... 24
Ideally in risk management, a risk prioritization process is followed in which those risks that pose the threat
of great loss and have great probability of occurrence are dealt with first. Refer to table below:
IMPACT ACTIONS
LIKELIHOOD
The above chart can be used to strategize in various situations. The two factors that govern the action
required are the probability of occurrence and the impact of the risk.
1. Organizational Context: Every organization is affected to varying degrees by various factors in its
environment (Political, Social, Legal, and Technological, Societal etc).
2. Involvement of Stakeholders: The risk management process should involve the stakeholders at each
and every step of decision making.
3. Organizational Objectives: When dealing with a risk it is important to keep the organizational
objectives in mind.
6. Support Structure: Support structure underlines the importance of the risk management team.
7. Early Warning Indicators: Keep track of early signs of a risk translating into an active problem.
8. Review Cycle: Keep evaluating inputs at each step of the risk management process - Identify, assess,
respond and review.
9. Supportive Culture: Brainstorm and enable a culture of questioning, discussing. This will motivate
people to participate more.
10. Continual Improvement: Be capable of improving and enhancing your risk management strategies
and tactics.
1. Establishing the Context: Establishing the context means all the possible risks are identified and the
possible ramifications are analysed thoroughly. Various strategies are discussed and decisions are
made for dealing with the risk.
2. Identification: Once the context has been established successfully, the next step is identification of
threats or potential risks. This identification can be at the level of the source or the problem level
itself.
3. Assessment: Once the risks have been identified, they are then assessed on their likelihood of
occurrence and the impact.
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Apart from this, typically most of the organizations follow a risk management cycle.
According to this cycle there are four steps in the process of risk management. The first step is the
assessment of risk, followed by evaluation and management of the same. The last step is measuring the
impact
1. Avoiding Risk - Risk avoidance requires identification of the risks first and foremost.
2. Transferring Risk - Risk transfer is one of the better means to dilute the impact of the risk.
3. Mitigating Risk - Risk mitigation is a control process that essentially stops a risk before it starts making
an impact.
4. Accepting Risk - Finally, there are certain risks that are unavoidable. A risk that is acceptable can be
considered passive since no action at all is taken upon the same.
Till now we have discussed how Risk is managed at organisational level. Next section discusses a similar
concept famously termed as Enterprise Risk Management (ERM).
It is an approach where in risk is looked upon as an opportunity and at the same time is monitored such
that it may not affect an organization to a large extent.
Typically, the following four strategies, called as ‘risk response strategy’ are adopted by organizations while
facing a risk. Similar approach is also discussed in previous section, under RISK RESPONSE Planning.
2 Crisis Management
Types of crisis:
1. Natural Crisis
▪ Disturbances in the environment and nature lead to natural crisis.
2. Technological Crisis
▪ Technological crisis arises as a result of failure in technology.
3. Confrontation Crisis
▪ Confrontation crises arise when employees fight amongst themselves.
4. Crisis of Malevolence
▪ Organizations face crisis of malevolence when some notorious employees take the help of
criminal activities and extreme steps to fulfil their demands.
5. Crisis of Organizational Misdeeds
▪ Crises of organizational misdeeds arise when management takes certain decisions knowing the
harmful consequences
6. Crisis due to Workplace Violence
▪ Such a type of crisis arises when employees are indulged in violent acts
8. Bankruptcy
▪ A crisis also arises when organizations fail to pay its creditors and other parties.
9. Crisis Due to Natural Factors
▪ Disturbances in environment and nature such as hurricanes, volcanoes, storms, flood;
droughts, earthquakes etc result in crisis.
2. Planning: Once a crisis is being detected, crisis management team devise relevant strategies to avoid
an emergency situation.
3. Adjusting to Changes: And finally, employees must adjust well to new situations and changes, for
effective functioning of organization in near future.
▪ Crisis management plan helps the employees to adopt a focused approach during emergency
situations.
▪ Crisis management Plan elaborates the actions to be taken by the management as well as the
employees to save organization’s reputation and standing in the industry. It gives a detailed overview
of the roles and responsibilities of employees during crisis.
Herbert Simon cited very practical and easy to understand differences based on popular beliefs and
imagination and therefore might seem more appealing. He said that public administration is bureaucratic
while private administration is business like. Public administration is political while private administration
The term New Public Management was coined by scholars from UK and Australia (Hood 1991 and Hood and
Jackson 1991), who were working in the in the areas of public administration which proposes a new point of
view towards the organizational design in the public sector.
The new public management which emerged in the 1980s represented an attempt to make the public sector
more business-like and to improve the efficiency of the Government borrowed ideas and management
models from the private sector. It emphasized the centrality of citizens who were the recipient of the
services or customers to the public sector.
Personnel Administration
Personnel administration is another term for a human resources (HR) job. Employees form the core and the
backbone of any organization and public organizations are no different. According to authors William
Mosher and J. Donald Kingsley, the key to better governance lies in effective personnel management.
For effective personnel administration there are certain criteria that need to be fulfilled like:
1. Highly qualified workforce of civil servants
2. Fair and equitable wages
3. Rights of representation
4. Work conditions to be decided taking the employee choices and needs in consideration
5. Establishing the prestige of civil service employment
1. Classification is the first step in personnel management wherein similar kinds of posts are grouped
together based on their duties and responsibilities.
2. The second step becomes position classification which explains the individual position of that role
within the public administration machinery.
3. The third step is the process of recruitment. Recruitment in government organization is all about
finding the right people for the right job.
4. The next step is the training. Training develops skills and habits and also develops the requisite
mental attitude and morale of the civil servants.
5. Next comes, the promotion or the increase in rank or status. It is essential that the employees are
provided with timely promotion to develop their talent and increase their morale and motivation
levels.
6. The last step is the pay and service of the civil servants. .
4 Psychology
The term ’Psychology’ has been derived from two Greek words ’Psyche’ which means life and ’logos’ which
means explanation. As per Seyidov (2000), Psychology analysis is a pertinent area of concern for the HR or
Management professionals, as it addresses the four crucial problem areas: Employee Motivation,
Interpersonal Relations, Leadership and Selection of the talent pool.
2. Evolutionary Approach: Charles Darwin propounded his ‘Theory of Evolution’ in his book ‘Origin of
Species’, 1859. According to him, organisms evolve or change over a period of time due to changes in
the behavioural traits or heritable characteristics.
3. Psychodynamic Approach: Sigmund Freud focused on the power of our unconscious memories,
feelings and thoughts in influencing people’s behaviour.
4. Behavioural Approach: Watson and Skinner reckoned that the behaviour is influenced by both
negative and positive reinforcement in the form of reward or punishments.
5. Cognitive Approach: Chomsky, Piaget revealed in their studies that human brain stores, processes
and interprets the information very much like a computer.
7. Socio-Cultural Approach: Human behaviour and thoughts are different and differ because of the
cultural differences.
Branches of Psychology
Let’s analyse the vast field of psychology by understanding the various branches of this field and their areas
of concentration
Let us now discuss some important Modern Approaches to Psychology in Detail such as:
Psychodynamic Approach & Humanistic Approach
According to Freud, an individual is expected to be in a state of mentally stable when all the 3 elements are
in a stage of equilibrium.
According to Daft, the three crucial components of Humanistic perspective in the organizational context are:
1. Employee’s job performance will increase when they are treated with respect and dignity by their
managers.
2. The theorist analysed the relationship between employee motivation and the nature of task.
3. Focus has been given on analysing the complex relationship and interactions within the
organizational setting.
1. Heredity - Heredity refers to factors that are determined once an individual is born. An individual’s
physique, attractiveness, body type, complexion, body weight depends on his/her parents’ biological
makeup.
2. Environment - The environment (social, cultural, family, natural, political) to which an individual is
subjected to during his growing years plays an important role in determining his/her personality. The
varied cultures in which we are brought up and our family backgrounds have a crucial role in shaping
our personalities.
3. Situation - An individual’s personality also changes with current circumstances and situations. An
individual would behave in a different way when he has enough savings with him and his behaviour
would automatically change when he is bankrupt.
Personality development also is said to have a positive impact on one’s communication skills and the way he
sees the world. Individuals tend to develop a positive attitude as a result of personality development.
“Thanatos” was a figure in Greek mythology, though he never really existed as a person. Thanatos symbolizes
death.
1. The id is the aspect of personality present at birth. It is the most primal part of the personality and
drives people to fulfil their most basic needs and urges.
2. The ego is the aspect of personality charged with controlling the urges of the id and forcing it to
behave in realistic ways.
3. The superego is the final aspect of personality to develop and contains all of the ideals, morals, and
value imbued by our parents and culture. This part of personality attempts to make the ego behave
according to these ideals.
The ego must moderate b/w the primal needs of the id, the idealistic standards of the superego and reality.
For Example: After seeing a delicious dish we immediately want to eat it, this tendency is driven by Id, while
Superego says that you are not hungry so no need to eat it; and Ego mediates between ID & SUPEREGO, and
allows to taste a small bite.
Freud's concept of the id, ego, and superego has gained prominence in popular culture, despite a lack of
support and considerable scepticism from many researchers. According to Freud, it is the three elements of
personality that work together to create complex human behaviours.
NOTE: We have covered this theory in detail in HRD Topic. Kindly Refer to the HRD Notes/video lecture.
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:
• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
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• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.
• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think
very concretely about the world around them.
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid.
Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
• Abstract (existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence)
thought emerges.
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
The ability to think about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of
cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.
2. Conscientiousness: As the name suggests, individuals with a Conscientiousness personality trait listen to
their conscience and act accordingly. Such individuals are extremely cautious and self-disciplined. They
never perform any task in haste but think twice before acting.
3. Extraversion and Introversion: Carl Jung popularized both the terms - “Extraversion” and “Introversion”.
Extraversion: Extraversion refers to a state where individuals show more concern towards what is
happening outside. Such individuals love interacting with people around and are generally talkative.
Introversion: Introversion, on the other hand refers to a state when an individual is concerned only
with his own life and nothing else. Such individuals do not bother about others and are seldom
interested in what is happening around.
4. Neuroticism: Neuroticism is a trait where individuals are prone to negative thoughts such as anxiety,
anger, envy, guilt and so on. Such individuals are often in a state of depression and do not how to enjoy
life. They always look at the negative sides of life and find extremely difficult to cope up with stress.
2. The Mechanic:
As the name suggests such individuals are inclined towards machinery like aeroplane, motorcycling,
cars, races and so on. They are interested to know why and how certain things function. Theories do
not interest them. Such individuals are extremely adventurous and have a strong power of logical
reasoning.
3. The Nurturer:
Nurturers are individuals with a large heart. For them, the happiness of others is more important
than their own interests. Such individuals actually live for others.
4. The Artist:
Artists have an eye for natural beauty and creativity. They do not blindly copy others and aspire to
create a style of their own.
5. The Protector:
You would find such a personality type in very few people, making it a very rare personality type.
Protectors are systematic individuals who want the best system to get things done. They often think
irrationally. They are pessimists who find a problem in every situation.
6. The Idealist:
Such people have strong set of values and ethics. They find happiness in helping others. They consider
themselves lucky if they get an opportunity to help others.
7. The Scientist:
Such individuals believe in careful and strategic planning. They are good observers who believe in
constantly gathering information and upgrade their existing knowledge.
8. The Doer:
Individuals with such a personality type are the ones who believe in quick actions and immediate
results. They enjoy taking risks in life and fulfil tasks assigned to them in the shortest span possible.
9. The Guardian:
Such individuals are perfectionists who ensure that everything everywhere is going on smoothly. They
are mature individuals who have a clear set of standards.
Personality disorders can arise due to genetic factors (hereditary factors), environmental problems,
cultural issues and so on.
1. Paranoid Personality Disorder - Individuals with a “Paranoid Personality Disorder” mistrust others for
no reason. They adopt a suspicious attitude towards almost every individual around them.
2. Schizoid Personality Disorder - Individuals with a “Schizoid Personality Disorder” find socializing with
others irrelevant and a mere waste of time and energy. Such individuals do not believe in social
relationships and prefer isolation.
4. Antisocial Personality Disorder - As the name suggests individuals suffering from antisocial
personality disorder do not value the rights of other individuals. They often disrespect people around
and have absolutely no feelings or sentiments for others.
5. Borderline Personality Disorder - Individuals with Borderline Personality disorder often suffer from
extreme mood fluctuations. Such individuals always think in extremes and there is never a middle way
for them.
6. Histrionic Personality Disorder - Histrionic personality disorder refers to a condition where individuals
can actually go to any limit to seek attention of people around.
7. Narcissistic Personality Disorder - Such individuals are only concerned about their own image, pride,
social status and are often self-obsessed. Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder think that
they are the most special people on earth and no one else really exists.
8. Avoidant Personality Disorder - Such individuals feel ignored by others and fear being ridiculed by
the society. Individuals with this disorder fear interacting with others and feel that the other individual
is making fun of him/her.
9. Dependent Personality Disorder - Such individuals are extremely dependent on others and often lack
self-confidence. They are often dependent on others for their emotional needs.
10. Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder - Individuals with obsessive compulsive personality
disorder are obsessed with discipline, perfectionism, orderliness and so on.
1 Introduction
The term business organization describes how businesses are structured and how their
structure helps them meet their goals.
In general, businesses are designed to focus on either generating profit or improving society.
When a business focuses on generating profits, it is known as a for-profit organization.
These organizations are based on some form of ownership. This choice affects several managerial
and financial issues, including the amount of taxes the entrepreneur would have to pay, whether
the entrepreneur may be personally sued for unpaid business bills, and whether the venture will
die automatically with the demise of the entrepreneur.
When an organization focuses on improving the social good through the arts, education, health
care, or some other area, it is known as a non-profit (or not-for-profit) organization and is not
typically referred to as a business.
1. Proprietary Enterprise: Proprietary enterprises are owned by owners. In this case the
business does not exist independent of its owners who have the right to manage and run
the enterprise on daily basis.
3 Non-Corporate Entities
2. Liability
a. There is limited liability of all the members or co-parceners in the Hindu Undivided
Family business
b. The Karta has unlimited liability.
3. Registration: It is not compulsory for joint Hindu family business to get registration
certificate as it is governed by Hindu law act
4. Rights: All the members of HUF have the rights to inspect the accounts. The members can
also claim their share in the family property at the time of partition of the family
5. Control: Karta is the person who has full control over the Hindu Undivided Family
business. Karta can take advice from all the members, but he is not bound to accept their
decisions.
6. Continuity: Continuity is not affected by the death of a family member will stop next
generation control the business after the first generation and thus, business goes forever.
7. Minor Members: A child becomes a member by birth only, so there is no restriction for a
minor to become a member of the business
3.3 Partnership
Partnership is an association of persons who agree to combine their financial resources and
managerial capabilities to run a business and share profits in an agreed ratio. The persons who
join hands are individually known as ‘Partner’ and collectively a Firm. The partners provide the
necessary capital, run the business jointly, and share the responsibility
2. Agreement: Whenever you think of joining hands with others to start a partnership business,
first of all, there must be an agreement between all of you. This agreement is called
Partnership Deed
• The amount of capital contributed by each partner
• Profit or loss sharing ratio
• Salary or commission payable to the partner if any
• Duration of business if any
• Name and address of the partners and the firm
• Duties and powers of each partner
• Nature and place of business; and
• Any other terms and conditions to run the business
3. Lawful Business: The partners should always join hands to carry on any kind of lawful
business.
4. Competence of Partners: Since individuals join hands to become partners, they must be
competent to enter into a partnership contract.
5. Sharing of Profit: The main objective of every partnership firm is to share of profits of the
business amongst the partners in the agreed proportion.
6. Unlimited Liability: That means if the assets of the firm are insufficient to meet the
liabilities, the personal properties of the partners, if any, can also be utilized to meet the
business liabilities.
7. No Separate Legal Existence: Just like a sole proprietorship, a partnership firm also has
no separate legal existence from that of its owners
8. Principal Agent Relationship: All the partners of the firm are the joint owners of the
business. They all have an equal right to participate in their management actively.
9. Restriction on Transfer of Interest: No partner can sell or transfer his interest to anyone
without the consent of other partners.
10. Continuity of Business: A partnership firm comes to an end in the event of death, lunacy,
or bankruptcy of any partner.
4 Corporate Entities
Let us discuss the Corporate Entities now one by one
Its shares are transferable, and its life is not affected by the incoming and outgoing of its members
1. Voluntary Association
2. Equal Voting Rights-
3. Separate Legal Entity
4. Service Motive
5. Distribution of Surplus- Members are paid dividend and bonus out of the profits of the
co-operative society.
6. Elimination of Middlemen- The main object of the cooperative societies is to eliminate
middlemen and to establish direct contact between members and customers.
7. Democratic Management
8. Limited Liability: The liability of members is limited to the extent of amount contributed
by them as capital
7.1 Microenvironment
Micro environment includes all forces or factors that shape the internal environment of a business
enterprise. It includes its mission, policies, resources, culture, organisation structure etc.
1. Competitors
2. Customers of Suppliers
3. Creditors
4. Investors
5. Intermediaries like wholesalers
6. Regulators like SEBI, RBI etc.
Since these forces operate between micro and macro environment, these are also called intermediate
environment.
Porter recognized that organizations likely keep a close watch on their rivals, but he encouraged
them to look beyond the actions of their competitors and examine what other factors could
impact the business environment. He identified five forces that make up the competitive
environment, and which can erode your profitability. These are:
1. Threat of New Entrants: New entrants in an industry bring new capacity and the desire
to gain market share. The seriousness of the threat depends on the barriers to enter a
certain industry.
2. Bargaining Power of Suppliers: This force analyzes how much power and control a
company’s supplier (also known as the market of inputs) has over the potential to raise
its prices or to reduce the quality of purchased goods or services, which in turn would
lower an industry’s profitability potential
3. Bargaining Power of Buyers: The bargaining power of buyers is also described as the
market of outputs. This force analyzes to what extent the customers are able to put the
company under pressure, which also affects the customer’s sensitivity to price changes.
4. Threat of Substitute Products: The existence of products outside of the realm of the
common product boundaries increases the propensity of customers to switch to
alternatives
5. Competitive Rivalry. This last force of the Porter’s Five Forces examines how intense the
current competition is in the marketplace, which is determined by the number of existing
competitors and what each competitor is capable of doing.
The components of microenvironment are following. These are also called components of PESTEL
analysis which is done to analyse the Macro Environment. It is called PESTEL analysis due to each letter
in PESTEL denoting a particular type of force
1. P - Political Forces
2. E - Economic Forces
3. S - Social cultural Forces
4. T - Technological Forces
5. E - Environment Forces
6. L - Legal Forces
Organization A
This organization is a manufacturing firm. Managers are expected to fully document all
decisions, and “good managers” are those who can provide detailed data to support their
recommendations. Creative decisions that incur significant change or risk are not encouraged.
Because managers of failed projects are openly criticized and penalized, managers try not to
implement ideas that deviate much from the status quo. One lower-level manager quoted an
often-used phrase in the company: “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” There are extensive rules and
regulations in this firm that employees are required to follow. Managers supervise employees
closely to ensure there are no deviations. Management is concerned with high productivity,
regardless of the impact on employee morale or turnover. Work activities are designed around
individuals. There are distinct departments and lines of authority, and employees are expected
to minimize formal contact with other employees outside their functional area or line of
command. Performance evaluations and rewards emphasize individual effort, although
seniority tends to be the primary factor in the determination of pay raises and promotions
Organization B
This organization is also a manufacturing firm. Here, however, management encourages and
rewards risk taking and change. Decisions based on intuition are valued as much as those that
are well rationalized. Management prides itself on its history of experimenting with new
technologies and its success in regularly introducing innovative products. Managers or
employees who have a good idea are encouraged to “run with it.” And failures are treated as
“learning experiences.” The company prides itself on being market driven and rapidly
responsive to the changing needs of its customers. There are few rules and regulations for
employees to follow, and supervision is loose because management believes that its
employees are hardworking and trustworthy. Management is concerned with high productivity
but believes that this comes through treating its people right. The company is proud of its
reputation as being a good place to work. Job activities are designed around work teams, and
team members are encouraged to interact with people across functions and authority levels.
Employees talk positively about the competition between teams. Individuals and teams have
goals, and bonuses are based on achievement of these outcomes. Employees are given
considerable autonomy in choosing the means by which the goals are attained