1-SK1

Listen to a conversation between a student and a residence hall director

(man) Hi, Tina, sorry I had to give you more hours in the office than you asked for, but, so many of the other
resident assistants need time off to study for midterm exams.
(woman) No, that’s fine. I don’t mind. I’ve only got one midterm.
(man) Great! I’m glad to hear that.
(woman) I, uh, about that summer camp job I’m applying for, the one I told you about last week.
(man) Oh, right, that letter of recommendation, sorry, I haven’t finished it yet.
(woman) No worries, the application deadline is not until next month. I was just wondering if you had
everything you need.
(man) Yeah, I was gonna email you. I would like some more details about the camp and your motivation.
(woman) Sure, um, the summer camp’s run by the education department and I’m an education major, so,
(man) It’ll give you some good experience then.
(woman) Right
(man) I know the engineering department runs a summer program for high school students. My daughter
participated last year, but I didn’t realize there was a regular day camp here for younger kids.
(woman) Yeah, they come to campus Monday through Friday for different educational activities. And,
hopefully, it’ll get them thinking about enrolling here someday.
(man) I see. So, besides your work here as a resident assistant, I’ll mention your major. Anything else you think
I should include?
(woman) Um, do you know about the community garden near the library?
(man) Yeah, I just read about it in the campus newspaper actually. What’s that got to do with?
(woman) I helped to get it started and now I’m in charge of recruiting the volunteers.
(man) Really?
(woman) Yeah, I’ve already signed up a lot of students like me who love gardening. Um, I grew tomatoes and
other veges, you know, at home. We’ve got some agriculture and biology majors involved, too, and even some
professors from those departments.
(man) Seems like a lot of work, though, coordinating so many people?
(woman) Yeah, in the beginning, it was a ton of work, finding a site, tilling and planting, and keeping
everybody on schedule. But now that the plants are sprouting, I’m hoping it’ll attract more people to keep it
going. Anyway, since I helped organize that project, I think it could help my application if you wrote about that.
I’d love the campers to spend a couple of hours a week there, you know, to learn about gardening.
(man) Great idea! You know with your experience helping students in the residence hall, and you involvement
in the gardening project, it sounds like you’ll be a top pick to work in that camp.
(woman) I wish I had that much confidence. I know I’d be great at this, but tons of students are applying to be
camp counselors.
(man) Well, good luck then

Listen to a conversation between a student and the director of student housing.

Hello, it's been awhile. How have you been? Well, it's hard to believe my freshman year is almost over. Yes, it
goes quickly. So how'd it go?

Go very well. Good. And now.

That time again, gotta get everything in order for September.

Our alright. Then. So you're living at one of our program houses the eco house, if I remember correctly. And
you like to go back there next year, actually, no, I wouldn't. Oh, was there a problem?
Nothing like that. All the residents of the eco house are great, really committed to sustainable practices like
recycling, organic gardening, energy conservation. It's just that now I wanna broaden my horizons, move on to
new things. So i'd like to give the Mary Blake house a try.

Try, well, you do know the Mary Blake house doesn't have a specific focus, a specific theme.

Yeah, I know. But they actually have faculty living in the same building alongside the students. And each week
the faculty invite a different guest scholar to have dinner with everyone at the house.

That's right. Guess scholars from a variety of academic backgrounds i'd have the chance to pick their brains, get
insight into their experiences. I've decided that I wanna get a more expansive view of everything. I can
appreciate that.

Um, so how do I go about applying? Well, the application process is initiated through our website. Now we're
trying to make things easier.

Save time for the students. So everything is available right on your homepage.

Exactly. Now, something to keep in mind if your application is approved, residents of the Mary Blake house
can interview to be student assistance. Student assistants are university staff members who provide residents of
the house with various types of support. Compensation includes a Free room and a reduction in the cost of the
house meal plan.

I'll definitely make a mental note about that, um, just for records. How did you first learn about the Mary Blake
house? Oh, you're.

My roommate, a classmate of hers, lives there. And I know that they had a famous architect as a guest there last
week and this week, a Broadway playwright. Why do you ask?

Well, we've been trying to generate publicity to get the word out about it since it's a relatively new program.
Well, I'm sure it'll take off. And I'm hoping that they'll decide to invite a journalist when I lived there. Any
reason? Well.

That's what I'm thinking of.

Changing my major course of study to freshman years been really eye opening for me.

Yes, apparently. And say, you know, it seems like you'd be able to give us a lot of feedback about your
experience at the eco house. We conduct a program House review every three years, and we're right in the midst
of that process. Could I count on you to help us out with that? It's just a form to fill out a questionnaire. I don't
see why not.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

As we said, uh one of the high points in the history of art is certainly the Italian renaissance of the 14th to the
16th centuries. Um And surely one hallmark of the Italian renaissance was the ceiling of the sistine chapel in
rome. So how did this particular work of art actually come to be? Well In 1508, a famous young sculptor,
michelangelo, was commissioned to paint a new ceiling for this important chapel or church, a a ceiling with
scenes of various well known stories. And this ceiling was huge over 900 square meters plus it was 20 meters or
more off the ground. Now, um the actual term for the kind of painting he did there is fresco um fresco. An
Italian means fresh or wet. it means painting directly onto wet plaster.
Now the method wasn't new, but it became very popular during the Italian renaissance. Uh Anyway, a fresco,
it's a simple enough concept, but but very tricky to actually do. Uh You would have your wall, or in this case,
sealing already built And To do a fresco. You would take fresh, uh wet plaster and and smooth it onto the wall
or ceiling to make a a fresh, moist layer, uh and then paint directly onto that wet plaster. The good thing about
this is as soon as you put on the paint, it starts sinking into the plaster. So when the plaster dries the paint, the
color is locked into it. It's literally become part of the wall or ceiling or whatever. And So if you do it right, the
colors, the images in a fresco could last a very long time. But remember, we said that frescoes are difficult to
actually carry out. Well One big problem is the time limitation. You can only paint while the plaster is wet.
As soon as the plaster dries, the paint no longer sinks into it. The paint color would no longer actually become
part of the wall or ceiling. So As soon as you lay on a plaster layer, you have to get to work on it With only
about 24 hours at most from the time the plasters applied uh till the time, it'd rise. And there's hardly any room
for error either. As soon as the paint touches the plaster, it starts to become part of it. Uh So there's very little
opportunity to uh to correct any mistakes. Ok. So you can only lay out as much plaster as u can finish painting
that day. but how much is that? Well Uh Typically, an artist could do about well could do a rectangle, uh maybe
a meter by a meter and a half. So fresco painting was, in this respect, radically different from other kinds of
painting. From painting on canvases or on wooden panels, you were always working against the clock. I mean
um there's a story of one Italian painter who would paint with one brush in each hand just to speed things up.
Now, it it wasn't just the art that michelangelo had to worry about, but also the logistics.
Aside from getting paints, which were really expensive at the time, there was the particularly difficult problem
of of painting a ceiling, this ceiling of a church that was still being used for ceremonies the entire time it was
being painted. And remember, besides being nearly a thousand square meters in area, the ceiling he had to paint
was 20 metres up or more. Does anyone else here have a problem with heights? Well And this ceiling wasn't
flat, but curved. So Michael angelo needed scaffolding to do his work. Now, traditional scaffolding involves
building ladders up from the floor uh with a platform at the Top where you can stand or sit or or lie down, as
Michael angelo may have done to do your work.
This would have been fine for the height and shape and size of the building itself. But all those ladders holding
up platforms would have really cluttered the floor. So instead, Michael angelo built a system of wooden foot
bridges that came out from the walls of the chapel. So Michael angelo ceiling there in the sistine chapel wasn't
just a beautiful work of renaissance art, but one of the great examples of a very difficult art form of fresco with
all the logistics involved in this case, and the massive kind of undertaking that it was. So even aside from its
beauty and its historical significance, the sistine chapel, especially that ceiling, is recognized today as one of the
achievements of the Italian renaissance.

1-sk1
Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.
So we've been talking about the outer solar system and the planets, jupiter and saturn. Now we turn to another
gas giant planet, a urinous, which is one of the more difficult planets for astronomers to study. Because it's so
far away from us. To give you an idea how far away it is. One orbit around the sun takes uranous 84 earth years.
Yes, Kevin,

didn't the voyager spacecraft get close enough to take pictures of it?

Yes, the spacecraft did get close enough to take pictures and measurements. In fact, we've learned a lot about
uranus is moons and rings from the voyager flyby. Nevertheless, you can study a planet without making close
up observations. And We have been able to deduce quite a lot about uranus from observing it from earth. For
example, when you look at uranus through a telescope, it appears blue, like a blue green desk. What does this
tell us? What it's made of? Well No, not exactly. It tells us the composition of the planet's atmosphere. It tells us
that uranous is atmosphere, has methane gas in it. How well the explanation for the blue green color goes like
this? Methane gas absorbs red light.

So as sunlight passes through your innocence atmosphere and is reflected back into space, the methane gas
absorbs most of the red portion of the light. And let's the other light pass through. That's the blue green color.
We see using indirect observations, we can make inferences about the composition of the planet's interior, Uh
For example. We know you're innocence mass, how much stuff there is and its volume, how much space that
stuff takes up. So we were able to calculate its density. Knowing urinous as density gives us clues about its
chemical makeup, because the density of a substance is consistent. And So planets that have the same density
usually are made of the same material, uh but not always. For example, uranus and jupiter have almost the same
density.

However, we know that jupiter has a lot more material, a lot more mass than uranus. And all that mass presses
on itself, increasing its own density. So even though they're densities are almost the same, uranous probably is
made up of heavier elements than jupiter. So is uranus made of rock uh of iron? We're discussing gas giant
planets, remember? No, its density is still much lower than that of rocky planets. Uranus might have a small
core of rock or iron, but we think it's primarily composed of ordinary water mixed with methane and ammonia.
Now, another feature of uranus, is it's rotation axis, which is nearly level with its path around the sun. No other
planet in our solar system is tilted so far on its side. Do we know why you're innes is? Tilt is so different. Well
Some astronomers think it might be the result of a collision with another object.

Early in your anus is history, which change your and this is rotation. A result of this tilt is that the poles get
most of the sunlight half the time, one pole and half the time the other within a year. And remember that's 84
years. So you get very long seasons. It probably doesn't get warm anywhere. They're so far away from the sun,
right? And not only as urine as far away from the sun, it doesn't generate any heat, unlike the other giant planets
which actually give off more heat than they get from the sun. So uranus must have a very low core temperature.

And we don't know why. Some astronomers think it has to do with the unusual tilt, that the collision that
knocked uranus onto its side may have caused it to release much of its internal heat. But there's other theories.
But getting back to your question earlier about the voyager spacecraft, I don't want you to think that these space
missions are somehow superfluous in terms of what we can learn about a planet. So, for example, we know that
uranus has a magnetic field, and this is something that we can't learn from our vantage point here on planet
earth. You have to get up close for that.

1-sk1
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

Yeah. In the animal kingdom, camouflage is a common strategy to avoid predation. There are many examples.
The most famous might be the chameleon, a lizard that can change its skin color to match its surroundings. But
they're also insects that look like leaves or flowers. Frogs that look like rocks. You could probably think of a
dozen more examples. First of all, let me introduce a technical term that's often used for camouflage. And that
scrip sis, when we examine crips is in the animal kingdom, it may appear that there are a thousand different
patterns animals used to hide from predators.

However, recent research involving cephalopod is is teaching us that there is actually less there than meets the
eye. Squid octopus is and cuttlefish are several pots and they are uniquely suited for crips research because
individual animals don't have a fixed coloration that actually can very quickly change the appearance of their
skin to match almost any habitat. Several pots can produce up to 50 different colors, patterns and textures. But
what the research is showing us is that all these patterns employed by the several pots are variations on just
three basic types of crips. As the first is uniform or stipple. the woods stipple is taken from visual arts. It means
making small dots to create the impression of a solid color.

Anyway, uniform or stipple body patterns are used by several pods to match their skin color to fairly uniform
backgrounds, like a sandy sea bottom. A sandy sea bottom has one basic color with little variation, so an
octopus would only need to change its skin color to one basic color to match the environment. When a
cephalopod needs to blend into a non uniform, a more varied background, like gravel, which is made up of
small rocks of various sizes and colors, the several part shows a mottled body pattern model. Body patterns
consist of alternating irregularly shaped dark and light patches in the skin that roughly match the size of the
dark and light objects in the immediate area.

And Finally, several pots also use what's called disruptive coloration. Disruptive body patterns are irregular
patches of different shapes and colors that serve to distract and observers attention and obscure the outline or
true shape of the animal. In other words, a disruptive pattern makes it difficult to see the shape and size of the
animal. Disruptive patterns can also achieve some level of general resemblance to the background. That is, they
often contain small regions with model patterns, or even uniformity. Several cuts will adopt this crips strategy
when the background is irregular and contains relatively large and very patches of colors and textures.

Now you may be asking yourselves why studying cephalopod crips is is important. Well While evolution has
produced a wide variety of body coloration and patterns in the animal kingdom, the basic pattern types we've
observed in several pots are used throughout the animal kingdom and ecological habitats. And that goes not just
for animals that can change their cryptic pattern, but also for animals that have just one cryptic pattern they
cannot change. In other words, these same basic strategies are used by the communion and frogs and insects we
talked about and by larger animals as well. For example, the tigers pattern of black stripes on a lighter
background is a form of disruptive coloration.

1-sk2
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the facilities management office.

Hi. Can you? Ok.

Yeah. Um, I hope everything's okay. After all the problems with computers on campus this week, I mean, the
events scheduling requests, the other the room requests were affected, were they?

Oh, no, I I don't think they were.

But we've been so busy trying to get back on track.

Who wait. You can the technology help desk, aren't you? Is there another problem? Everything seems okay. I I
mean, if there's nothing wrong, you didn't have to come over.

And over here you could have called or or emailed.

Well, um, actually there's a room I reserved for an event. Uh, I expected to get confirmation earlier this week,
but I haven't heard yet. So I thought I drop out it.

Well, the problems we had have slowed us down. I don't think we lost anyone's reservations. But we've been a
little behind on sending out the confirmation EMAIL names to me.
Seems I requested the auditorium in marston hall. And it's for this Friday morning.

Um.

I don't see a reservation in your name for the order term. But here's one for the conference. Woman marston.
That's a smaller room.

Yeah, I reserved that room first, but I cancelled it. When I reserved the auditorium. I realized I would need a
larger room for my class. Uh, more people are coming than I originally thought.

Well, let me check again. No, I don't see it. And it looks like the auditorium has already been reserved. I'm
sorry. I don't know what happened. It's possible lost the form, or that someone thought you had submitted the
same reservation twice. Hard to believe. But they might not have noticed it was two different rooms.

Well, can you check and see if there's another room available at that time that will accommodate 40 people?
The speaker has a flight to Chicago that after means so.

Oh, oh, I see that there is a room available and little hole at that time. And, oh, oh, what's the matter? The screen
is going blank. Not again. You want me to look at it.

Oh, wait, oh, it's okay.

Sounds like you're still having problems. If you want, I can come back after my class and try to figure out what
the problem is.

Thanks. That would be great.

Okay, i'll reserve the auditorium. And another whole, it's the small auditorium. Is that okay? And i'll cancel the
boom marston hall.

Right? And the small auditorium holds 40 people. Yes, it does. Good night should do it.

Thanks a lot for your help o and see you later.

Listen to a conversation between a student and his engineering professor. Uh, you wanted to see me, professor
white.

Yes, Paul. Thanks for coming in.

Um, I was looking over the bibliography for your paper and I'm afraid that some of your sources aren't very
reliable, really.

Which ones?

Well, one of your sources is John Anderson skied to renewable energy sources. Did you notice that this Guide
appears on a website that sells solar panels? You can't rely on websites that have something to gain by
providing Information that favors their product. There are other more academic, and maybe more reliable
websites dealing with types of alternative energy technologies. For example, those associated with universities
and scientific institutes, I know it's not always easy to figure out which websites have trustworthy content, but.

Um, yeah, I see what you mean. I'll go over my bibliography again and take out the sources I have that are like
that. Since I'm here, can I ask you a question about one of the technologies I'm writing about for sure? So, uh,
title turbines, my impression is that they're basically like wind turbines, though obviously, instead of being wind
powered water, current spin the blades of the turbines to generate electricity. Right?

Well, there are several kinds of tidal turbines. The simplest kind is called a horizontal access turbine. And yes,
with those, the concept behind how they work is similar to how wind turbines work.

And is it true that they are less damaging to the environment than other title turbines? I was wondering about
that. But couldn't they be more dangerous to fish and marine mammals?

That's a good question. But these technologies are new and aren't yet widely used. So it'll take a while before we
understand their full environmental impact. Okay?

Actually, I'm really interested in that aspect. The environmental impact of renewable energy technologies.

That's an interesting choice. A lot of people think of renewable energy sources as automatically good for the
environment. But technically speaking, any sort of development is going to have a footprint to.

Uh, it well, I think the stuff with tides and water currents is particularly interesting.

If that's the case, you could do a more in depth paper, one that focuses on what we do know. There are some
titled turbines in operation near the coast of Norway and one in operation near New York city. Look for some
Information on the norwegian tidal turbines and how those have affected marine life.

That's a great idea. Banks.

Listen to part of a lecture. In the biology class.

Aging of course is a natural part of life for all living things. Most theories of aging of why aging occurs fall into
1 of 2 categories. First, you have the biological clock category. Theories in this category assert that all
organisms have a sort of internal biological clock that there sort of genetically programmed to age in a certain
way at a certain rate. The second category asserts that aging is the result of the gradual accumulation of damage
to cells and tissues.

In In this second category, we have a theory called the Free radical theory, which will now examine, according
to this theory, an organism cells in irregular metabolic processes uh by metabolic processes. I mean things like
cellular respiration and reproduction. Uh In their regular metabolic processes. Cells generate oxygen molecules,
some of which have an extra electron. That extra or Free electron makes the whole molecule. Unstable The
unstable molecule is known as a Free radical.

Ok. And According to this theory, these Free radicals cause damage to other molecules and structures within the
cell, including most significantly to the cells DNA and is this gradual degradation of DNA and tissues and
larger structures that drives the aging process. So how does this theory hold up? Well Some organisms do have
some protection against Free radical damage in the form of substances called antioxidants. Antioxidants,
through a series of chemical reactions, can help stabilize Free radicals, so they can't damage the cell. One
important antioxidant is an enzyme called superoxide dismutase, or s o d in experiments with fruit flies. When
researchers increased the level of s o d there was less Free radical harm. The fruit flies had longer life spans and
stayed younger longer.

So this seems to show that, indeed, at least in some invertebrates, Free radical damage is what causes aging. Ok.
And there's another line of thought that at one point was used to support the Free radical theory, it was
discovered that when organisms such as yeast, a fungus were given a calorie restricted diet, they lived longer. If
their diets included far fewer calories than normal, but still included all the necessary nutrients. Their life span
increased for a while. Researchers explained this by arguing that the limited food intake LED the yeast cells
metabolism to slow down. And remember, according to the Free radical theory cells, metabolic processes, what
brought about those extra electrons that created Free radicals?

And So the argument went at the time, if the cells metabolism slowed down, the rate of Free radical production
also slowed down. So there was less cell damage, and that's why the yeast cells aged slower and lived longer.
However, later research, this time on roundworms, suggested that while it was true that organisms on a calorie
restricted diet live longer, it wasn't because of a slower metabolism. In fact, the researchers in this wrong worm
study claimed that the special diet actually increased cell respiration. And What happened was this increased
respiration activated a certain gene. A gene has been linked to a longer life span. And these researchers claimed
that it was actually the activation of this longevity gene, not the slowing of Free radical damage that lengthened
the lifespan.

1-sk2-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a psychology class.

The chapter on human personality in your book devote some space to the fairly new field of personality
neuroscience and functional magnetic resonance imaging, or FM r I who so today I want to talk about the use of
FM r i's for studying personality by using pictures of the brain images that show the brain while it's processing
Information or stimuli. You're probably familiar with medical Fmri's, which are used for diagnostic purposes.
FMri's are used mainly in research. Um Standard medical m r i's only show the brain structures.

But FM r i's show what's actually happening inside the brain, which parts are most active at a given time? In
other words, how the brain is functioning that makes them more useful than medical m r i's. As a research tool.
How do FM eyes work? Well Basically, they use magnetic fields to measure blood flow and oxygen levels in
different parts of the brain. And this Information can be used to determine which parts of the brain are activated.
When. So in a sense, you're creating a map of the brain associating different parts of the brain with different
actions or emotions or thoughts. And Now, FMi's are being used to try to get answers to questions that
psychologists have been asking for some time. Questions about personality, which has been defined as a set of
psychological characteristics that remain stable over time. For example, are there different personality types? Is
there even such a thing as a personality? Jane?

Um Wouldn't using FM r i's be a better way to answer those kinds of questions than traditional research
methods? Like using questionnaires? I mean the book does say that questionnaires aren't very accurate. Well
That's true. Psychological question is have their problems. After all the Information you get through
questionnaires can be inaccurate, mainly because they rely on what people say about themselves. And that can
be influenced by a lot of extraneous factors, like memory or or desire to present yourself in the best possible
light, etc. So question is tend to be somewhat unreliable. But still question is and other traditional methods
shouldn't be discounted entirely. Paul. But why use questionnaires at all? I mean the book mentions an FM r I
study that seemed really good on the amygdala, Well The amygdala study, yes that's 1 FM r I study whose
conclusions are well supported.

The amygdala is a structure in the brain that processes fearful stimuli. In this study, you'll remember subjects
were shown photographs of angry and fearful faces. And the researchers looked at how they responded, or
should I say how their brains responded Well In some of the subjects? The amygdala was activated. When the
subjects viewed the pictures, we say it lit up. You could see this change in the FM r i's. In other subjects, there
was no change in the amygdala. And Then And this is what's interesting. The same group of people were
brought back a year later, and they were shown the same photographs, and their reactions remained the same for
people whose amygdala lit up the first time.

It lit up again a year later. What this suggests is that this aspect of personality, the response to fearful stimuli, is
stable over time. So it might be a partial counter argument to the claim. You sometimes hear that personality, in
fact, does not remain stable over time. So there are problems then with other FM r I studies. I have to say that I
think a lot of the excitement around personality neuroscience in general is misplaced. The problem is over
interpretation. When researchers use FM r i's, they very often find significance where there really isn't any. The
brain is incredibly complicated.

And measuring blood flow can't possibly tell you everything about the sophisticated processes going on at the
neural biological level. But what about those brain maps that they showed us in our books where a part of the
brain is associated with this or that thought? Here's how I see it. The maps of the brain you get from the FMr I
studies are like geographical maps. They're useful, but they limited. They're not gonna tell you much about the
people of a country. For instance. The same goes for brain maps. They'll tell you it is heightened activity in a
region of the brain. But they don't tell you, for example, why people behave as they do for that. We still need
the support of traditional research methods. So let's not throw those away just yet.

1-sk2-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a philosophy class. The professor is discussing ethics.

So what is ethics? Well Ethics is the study of what's right and wrong, good and bad. The great ethical thinkers
have concentrated on what makes an act right. What makes it wrong? And What are our duties? What are our
obligations? These are the typical questions that you encounter in the study of ethics. So John paul sartre, the
French philosopher. So it's pretty clear that soccer rejects most of the approaches to ethics in the history of
western philosophy approaches to ethics that try to ascertain the fundamental principles of morality.

For example, the English philosopher John stuart mill in the 19th century did exactly that. He said what is the
most basic and fundamental principle of right and wrong? And He came up with his theory of utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism claims that uh an act is right if it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number of
people. So if the way a person chooses to act benefits as many people as possible, if no other action could
benefit more people than the person has acted rightly. So mills theory and other major teachings in western
ethics seek to provide principles, rules that we ought to follow basic guidelines for human action. And sartre
rejects this emphasis on rules to explain why he gives an example that's become very famous.

A young frenchman during the second world war is trying to figure out what to do. This young man lives alone
with his mother, and his mother relies on him, so he feels an obligation to take care of her. On the other hand,
France is at war, so the man also feels an obligation to help protect his country. What should he do if he stays
home? The benefit is pretty certain. He could continue to help his mother, but she's only one person. If he joins
the French resistance and helps defend his country, he could probably help more than one person. But then
again, he might die in the first moment of battle, and in effect, help. No one at all. Possibly he could help a lot
of people by joining the resistance, but not definitely. So mill would tell this young man do what will promote
the greatest happiness of the greatest number. But which of these two actions staying home or joining the
resistance would promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number? There's simply no way to answer the
question. You could say, well maybe there's some other rule or principle that would work here.

What if I'm simply out for my own gain? I'm going to do what's in my best interest? Would that tell our young
frenchman what to do? So what is in his own best interest to help his mother to help his country? Again, no way
to answer the question. Based on principles alone. Sartre actually tried to answer this question using many
different ethical principles. The Uh Well The result in each case was that there are no ethical principles that will
settle the issue for the young man. Finally, the man just has to decide, and he must take responsibility for his
decision. That's the tough reality of it. Ethical philosophers, from the beginning of western thought, have
offered us principles. But these principles don't give us real decision making procedures. And they don't address
the idea of taking responsibility for our actions and the consequences of our actions. Taking personal
responsibility, being held accountable for what we do. This is a core concept in soccer as philosophy.

But could we interpret mills ethical theory to mean that there are multiple choices that are all equally good?
Well Certainly, you might claim that in some cases, it's ethically or morally indifferent. What you do, neither
choice is preferable. Each one is permissible. But still, what do I do? Knowing that an act is permissible is not
telling me to do it? I still have to choose I have to pick one option over another. Of Course The case of the
young frenchman is not an everyday experience, but it certainly drives home soccer as point. All of us are in a
predicament of making decisions everyday. And most of us probably think there is a right and wrong that there
is some ethical principal out there that will tell us what to do. But that sort of principle in itself doesn't give us
much practical guidance. And soccer would argue that this is true in all cases.

1-sk3-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a university housing representative.

Hi. I um, I I was here this morning. Uh, I spoke to your assistant to uh, Laura. I guess it is. And she couldn't
help me. So uh, you thought you'd come back and try your luck with me?

If we couldn't help you, I'm not sure I can.

But well, I can try when seems to be the problem.

Well, I need out really badly in the lottery for dorm rooms next year.

I'm sorry to hear that. But that's just the luck of the draw. You know. You get a random number. And that
determines when it's your turn to choose a dorm room. It's not a perfect system, but at least it's impartial. Well,
here's the situation. Okay it's not just a bad number. It's a terrible number. I'm almost at the bottom of the list.

I think I get to pick a room like at the end of the third day when like the smallest, darkest rooms will be the only
ones left. You know, like those ones in Parker hall, they're really too small. I really don't want to live in one of
those. Yeah, news are usually the last to go. But my read and I talked to him about this and he's totally cool with
it. Um, he drew a really great number. Okay? You can still leave him. Only have to do a show up with him. And
it's his turn to choose and sign up to share a double room. Oh.

I didn't know you could do that. I assumed isn't that where you work on actually? No. But that may not be a bad
idea.

Actually, my idea was that, well, my room mate, the one who probably get a very nice room, right? His name is
Gerald. Anyway, job was lucky, you know, got this great number. But then he changed his mind about the
dorms. And now he's planning on moving completely off campus.

Next year he's going to write an apartment. So he said, I could have his number. No problem. No, sorry. It
doesn't work that way.

I'm sure, Laura, explain it to you. When people don't show up to select the drawing room, when their turn
comes up, we just move onto the next person. They can't give their number to someone else. All right?
Um, but now I guess I'm thinking maybe what about the other thing you mentioned? Like dealing with someone
who got a good number that you can do?

These people go for single rooms. But you know, some people like rights. Do you have someone in mind?

Not yet. I mean, no one immediately comes to mind. But I think I'm gonna start asking around right away.

And this is for double rooms only. Oh no, you can even go for a triple or quad only. It is one guy with a really
good number. And the rest of you can tag alone.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her creative writing professor.

And having a lot of trouble deciding they gave us, you know to write a short memoir. I've started it like a
thousand times every time I feel like it's terrible.

Ll, I'm gonna let you in on a little secret. Whenever I give an autobiographical assignment, the majority of my
students are totally fine with it and can go on forever, in fact. But a few like yourself hesitate at the idea of
having to write about themselves.

At least I'm not alone. So do you think that maybe I could could write a short biography of someone else
instead?

No, no, that won't work. I'd rather, you turn in what you thought was a poor paper about yourself than a brilliant
one about someone else.

Um, it's okay if I do a mediocre job.

I really don't think that's gonna be a problem for you. You know, it's not bad for writers to be pushed out of
their comfort zones. And it may help to remember that my main goal is to get people to experiment with
different genres.

The effort you put forth will be apparent in your work. And that will help determine your grade.

Yeah. But I'm still not comfortable with the idea of turning something I'm not super proud of. And it's also the
length issue. How could I possibly sum up my whole 18 years and 15 pages or less?

I think you're confusing memoir with autobiography. They're not the same. Technically no. Though the terms
are often used interchangeably. Um, generally autobiographies conical the office life from his or her earliest
memories to the present.

Memoirs tend not to be so broad, they're more thematic. Take Katharine graham, the former publisher of the
Washington post, she wrote a prize winning autobiography that goes from her early years to her retirement. If
she had set out to her memoir, she might have focused on, say, her newspaper's coverage of the Nixon
presidency. Or she could have concentrated on her childhood, or even a single memorable event, and how it
shaped her values.

Oh, I see. WOW, WOW. Um, when I was 10, my family moved to a different town. Thing. Two years later, just
as I was settling with my friends, we moved again and need to start all over. But then last fall, when I moved
into the dorms here on campus, making friends who wasn't a problem, I love even nervous. And I'm sure that
was due to those early experiences.
What a perfect theme for your memoir you think definitely. Just take what you told me and just flush it out with
some anecdotes and, um, develop your insights a bit more.

Listen to part of the lecture in an educational psychology class.

Some of you may have heard about learning styles. The idea that there are different ways to teach or learn the
material Information. And these are not equally effective for every learner. Different learners prefer different
ways of learning. For For example, of visual learner might want to see vocabulary words written down or be
shown a picture or a chart. an auditory learner. When we want to hear the new word being used at aesthetic or
physical winner, we prefer to physically interact with the material in some way, like uh like maybe eating
around a set of chords with new vocabulary words written on them. And From this idea of different learning
styles.

Something called the meshing hypothesis has developed. The idea behind the national hypothesis is that one
takes place most effectively when it's matched to the individual students preferred learning style. And And so if
this is the case, it makes sense to match how we teach our students to how each one prefers to learn. Right? The
meshing hypothesis has influenced a lot of schools in the united states, which have spent a lot of money to
determine how individual students prefer to learn, and also to purchase materials for teaching these teams by
targeting their individual learning styles. But is there any evidence to support the hypothesis?

Well, teachers do tell lots of anecdotes in stories about how the students will invest. But as for solid evidence
from scientific studies, well, a recent journal article concludes it doesn't amount to much. The article is written
by four psychologists who looked at the experimental research that's been done on the mission hypothesis. They
want to see how well steams did when the learning style of each student was identified. And then all the
students were randomly divided into classes where the teaching is based on one particular learning style or
another. The only really valid proof for the national apothesis, they argued, would be to give the same test to all
the students at the end of the course.

And see that the students in the class that matched their learning style generally outperform the students in
class. That didn't match the learning style. As it turned out, sometimes performance matched up with the
student's learning style, and sometimes it didn't. So based on these results, the psychologists argued that there's
no point in trying to adapt teaching styles to match the learning style of each student, which by the way, has big
implications for the push to purchase expensive educational products that target individual learning styles
instead. And And And this is the key. I think the common thread in the research was that all students tended to
do better when the instructional technique was tailored to match the material able.

Learning What I mean is, let's say your science teacher and you're going to teach your students about molecular
structure. You could give your students something to me, or you could design an activity where your students
actually build models of molecules. If you accepted the meshing hypothesis, you might try to present separate
lessons to fit the distinct learning styles of different students. But research shows that most students, even those
who consider themselves visual or auditory learners, will do best with this particular subject matter. If they
build models.

Interesting her, and i'd say a warning for us to be a bit more critical before we blindly adopt the latest trends. On
the other hand, the psychologists looked experiments, but not teachers and goats and observations. Teachers can
directly observe the results that their instruction has on students. And some have said they do see a difference in
students learning when they the teachers match how they teach to how the students learn.
So I have to wonder if there is not potentially valuable Information here, uh Information that didn't get the
consideration it deserves And In case it all comes back to the question of what will the meshing hypothesis
should play in how we teach our students. even some experts who totally be the main styles group, it's not a
good idea to try to tailor teaching to each student. One other hand, some research has shown that when
instruction about learning styles is part of the training, teachers receive teachers details to value their approach,
and their students do benefit.

1-sk3-2
Listen to part of the lecture in biology class.

Ok. So we've spent a lot of time this past week talking about migratory birds and how they survive their long
journeys. Well There's some interesting research that's being done to determine what certain migratory birds eat
during their journeys, and more importantly, what they eat at different times during migration.

And this research involves using breast collectors, tiny breath collectors. Here's how it works. It consists of a
small mass connected to a balloon filled with oxygen. The mask is fitted over the bird's beak, and the bird inhale
the oxygen from the board. And then when it exhaled, it replaces the oxygen with carbon dioxide. Syrian
researchers analyzed the carbon dioxide for the carbon signature of the food the bird ate recently.

Now, the carbon signature the researchers measure is the ratio of carbon 12 to carbon 13, two different forms of
carbon in the birds breath, and the ratio will vary depending on what the bird ate. You said they could determine
what a bore date at different times during migration. How do we do that? Well Good question. What happens is
that over a period of time, as the bird digest its food and the body absorbs the nutrients, the crime in signature
moves from the birds blessed to its blood and then to its feathers.

The carbon signature in breath tells us what the bird ate earlier that day. The signature in the blood plasma tells
us what it ate two or three days before. And the signature in the red blood cells tells us what it ate two or three
weeks before. And finally, the carbon signature in the bird's feathers tell us what it ate a month or so ago. The
scientists can basically create a dietary record by analyzing a bird's breath, along with the carbon signatures in
different tissues from the same bird. Ok So what if the carbon signature in a bird's feathers is different from the
signature in its breath?

Don't tell us that the byrd changed its diet over the course of migrating. Wouldn't. Yes, it would. In fact, that's
what tests revealed about white throated sparrows on black island. We learned during the course of their
migration, white lettuce sparrows switch their diet from berries to corn when at a step oversight on block island.
Now this indicates that they're eating at bird feeders because that's ingredient in bird feed. And there's no cora
grown on this particular island. So researchers know that birds are using bird feeders, but they don't know why
is it because there isn't enough of the food they usually eat available to him? Or is it because they prefer corn?
So we'd know gay dispels usually switch to a diet of corn and migrate. Is this a nutritious diet for the migration
period? Or are they just getting by on corn when what they really need is mary's.

This raises the question about the importance of feedings to the birds as they migrate. If we can understand the
sparrows diet, we can divide them with proper nutrition while they are migrating on Top of that block island
used to have a lot of farming, but now residents rely on tourism tours often come to see the flocks of migrating
birds. So we talk about proper nutrition for the stairs. It could be corn, it could be various red. That's what needs
further research. So what about other animals? Could breath collectors beings to find out about their diet? Yes,
of course you need a different sized mask.
This research is not only significant to biologists studying birds, for instance. Biologists are studying the eating
habits of bears to find out if they eat different foods when they're nursing than when they're not nursing.
Because they want to wear their nursing bears are more carnivorous than non nursing. Theirs. How do you like
to be the biologist who puts the mask on the bear? Of Course The bears are so dated before that's done. So it's
not as risky as it might seem. Anyway, seen researches being conducted all over the world, since the
Information it provides can be very useful to conservation efforts.

1-sk3-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an oceanography class.

Uh for several decades now we've been picking up all sorts of sounds in the deep sea with hydra phones. that
that network of underwater microphones. I mentioned of course a lot of these sounds have been identified,
sounds made by sea animals, movements of the earth's crust, ships and submarines. The list goes on, but these
mysterious sounds to sounds. We're We're not sure of the source. Some last a few minutes, others drone on for
years. We don't know if their biological, geological or human made, but it's important to find out.

And a lot of efforts been spent doing just that. When a steve sound is first detected, it's given a name like uh
there's one called upsweep. It's a flat tone, very low in pitch, accompanied by rising tones. Up sweep was heard
continuously between 1991 and 94. And for some reason, it got louder during the last 15 months of that period.
At first we thought upsweep was some sort of whale song, but that couldn't be because the sound was detected
on both sides of the pacific ocean simultaneously. No whale could possibly make a sound that loud loud enough
to carry clear across the ocean. Also up swoops. Total pattern didn't vary where as well. Songs change
seasonally. As the mammals migrate. Did we ever figure out the source?

Well Some people think it came from an underwater volcano, like some gas bubbling out of a crack in the
seabed, or a stream of lava coming into contact with seawater. The best evidence for this hypothesis comes from
seismic studies. Geologists use the seismometer to trace up sweeps point of origin. Now, size monitors are
normally associated with measuring the power of earthquakes. But earthquakes aren't the only things that send
waves of motion through earth's crust. Seismic waves can be created when underwater sound waves hit a solid
object, like an island. So using seismometer, geologists were able to trace up sweeps origin to the southern
pacific, about halfway between new zealand and chile.

A research ship was dispatched to the area and found that there was indeed a chain of volcanoes there. But we
still don't know if it was lava or gas that was making the sound or something we haven't thought of yet. Another
mysterious sound is named slow down. Slowdowns been detected a few times every year since 1997, both in the
atlantic and pacific oceans. It's been described as sounding like an airplane. Some people think that, like
upsweep, slow down any mates from an underwater volcano. But because slowdowns in the southern
hemisphere, which suggests the antarctic region one researcher, christopher fox. Um, he's the director of a major
acoustic monitoring project.

Well Fox thinks it's from ice gracia lice slow down spectrogram uh spectrogram sort of a graph of sound
frequencies, slowdowns. Spectrogram looks a lot like the spectrogram of the sound made by rubbing your
fingers over a piece of paper fiction, basically. So fox hypothesize as that slowdowns coming from a glacier
sliding across a piece of the antarctic continent. In fact, he tried to correlate the timing of slowdown with the
occurrence of no nice events like a huge chunk breaking off. He didn't come up with anything, but that doesn't
necessarily mean he's wrong.

And if it is ice rubbing on land, well that's important. Information even more important than using sound to find
underwater volcanoes, it would be further evidence that the antarctic ice sheet is breaking up. So the study of
ocean acoustics could add to our knowledge base of climate change. A challenging aspect of ocean acoustics
research is that no sounds occur at very low frequencies. We can't hear them by just putting on headphones. On
listening. What researchers have to do is record what may or may not be silence. Then they speed up the
recording. If there is a low frequency sound there, then we'll hear it on the speeded up playback. I leave you
with one more mysterious sound, one called bloop.

We think it's made by an animal because it consists of a rapid variation in frequency. But it was detected by
hydra phones that were placed very far apart. So is there some creature out there larger than the largest whale,
or somebody just far more efficient in making sound? Maybe one of you will eventually solve the puzzle.

1-sk4-1
Listen to a conversion between a student and an American history professor

(woman) Professor Farrington, I have a quick question about something you said in class yesterday.

(man) Sure, Karen

(woman) You mentioned that, um, about how Park City in Utah went from a boom town in the 1800s to ghost
town and then became prosperous again. I was, well, that’s an interesting cycle and, well, maybe for my
research paper I

(man) Yeah, that might make a good topic since similar things happened in other mining towns.

(woman) So comparing them might be interesting?

(man) Yep, absolutely!

(woman) So what triggered the downward turn in Park City?

(man) Well, in 1870 there were fewer than 200 people living in the Park City area. After silver was discovered
there, the population grew very quickly. I think it reached around ten thousand by 1900, but soon after that, the
silver that was close to the surface had all been mined. So they had to dig deeper and deeper which reduced the
profit margin not just because it’s time-consuming but going deeper led to problems with flooding. It’s time-
consuming and expensive to pump water out of mines. So that was the big thing, I think, I mean, there are other
factors that contributed too, like, the recession and a stock market panic in 1907. If you do write about this, you
have to get into that.

(woman) OK, and it was, what, tourism that brought it back again?

(man) Basically, yes, the ski industry kind of started about the same time in the 1920s. At first, there was only a
few folks hiking up to the top of the mountain and then skiing down. As the sport became popular, so did the
mountains around Park City. By the 1960s, it was a major ski resort with thousands of skiers.

(woman) And the same with the other abandoned mining towns?

(man) Well, some, but some became tourist’s attractions not because of skiing but because people were
interested in their history, um, one old mining town in the middle of California desert, uh, it’s called Bodie.
That’s now a state park. It’s popular because the buildings have been preserved as they were in the 1940s.
(woman) Wow! So maybe I could choose a couple of towns that went through that whole cycle and talked about
them in some depth as a way of illustrating the general boom-and-bust phenomenon? Maybe find some
firsthand accounts?

(man) Well, for this, yes, it’d be better to go into some depth about specific towns rather than talking a lot of
them in broad terms. And yeah, uh, definitely, give it a shot, but, you probably won’t be able to find many
diaries or personal accounts, not many people who lived in mining towns could read or write. Oh, and also,
remember the impact of national events.

(woman) Right, the local and the national, OK, thanks

Listen to a conversation between a student and an advisor at a university career center.

I'm Brian Jefferson. I spoke to you over the phone. Yes, I remember you. So you brought in your resume,
correct? Yeah. I've got the basics down on paper, but I just think it needs polishing. Well, we'll look at your
resume one on one today, talk about what works, what could be improved. Great. But i'd suggest you also attend
a resume writing workshop. It covers not only your resume, but also writing cover letters to potential
employers. I can reserve a spot for you in an upcoming one if you want. We have spots open for this Friday
morning, actually.

Ah, yeah, that would be good.

Also I wanted to ask you, do you offer workshops on job interviews? Definitely. And students tell me they're
really helpful. Let's them know what to expect.

It's when students don't know that they get most worried, you know, okay, i'd like to sign up for both, then sure.
And hey, what field are you studying? Graphic design? And you're graduating when this semester is my last
one. I need to start interviewing for jobs right away. I'm a little behind schedule. Okay? Well, just to let you
know, we get new job opportunities in all the time. And actually.

Lee. There is.

A position open for a graphic designer and ash ling to.

WOW. That's close to here.

It's only a short term opportunity. But if you got the job and were successful at it, um, sometimes these short
term jobs turn into long term ones you never know.

There's also an internship for graphic designers that you could apply for. It lasts all summer.

It's over in blue harbor. Is it a paid internship? Yeah. The salaries about the same as the position. And ash
Linton, okay, I should apply to both them. Those are the only two opportunities I know about for graphic
designers right now. But like I said, we get new announcements in all the time. So you should keep checking
back. We post new opportunities daily on the career centre website.

Oh, I didn't know about that. Okay.

I'll check it online every day then. And, uh, well, if you're going to be applying for jobs now for graphic design,
it's customary to include some samples of your work. Yeah.

Photographs of pieces.
From my portfolio and you submit them electronically along with the resume itself. Most company websites
make provision for that instructions on how to send the photos, what format, and so on. Yeah, we covered some
of that in one of my classes. Someone said, I should get my work professionally. Photograph though. But that's
really expensive. Well, some people do. But.

Really? The. Images just need to be clear. Employers will know that you're a student. If they want to see your
art in closer detail, chances are they'll call you in for an interview. Okay, now we should take a look at your
resume.

Listen to part of a lecture in an introductory computer science class.

Okay, so we've discussed some basic underlying concepts of computer systems that drive application and
programming. And Now I want to focus on a related topic, technology design. Other way developers think
about and design computer systems and software. This isn't just a technological problem, but a philosophical
one as well, which is made clear in one of the books you've been assigned to read this semester to illustrate, let's
talk about leonardo da vinci and the Outlook that his work seems to reveal.

Now, leonardo da vinci, as you may know, was both a great artist of the Italian renaissance and a great inventor
with contributions to multiple fields, including architecture, anatomy, and engineering. Uh Da vinci was able to
think both scientifically and artistically, and he blended science and art in his drawings of human anatomy. His
work demonstrates that humans were front and center in his way of thinking about the world, um as though he
was thinking, what human problems can my designs solve now, it may seem obvious to say we want our
computers to solve human problems. But there's an important distinction made in the book.

You'll read the distinction between old computing and new computing. The old computing refers to a way of
thinking about computing that was driven by thoughts like improving computing power and speed, how many
gigabytes the machine might have, how fast a machine is, and so on. Uh Don't get me wrong. Uh These features
are still important. The problem is when these are the end goal, because the power and processing speed are sort
of irrelevant. If the machine is poorly designed and doesn't meet the expectations of the user. New computing,
on the other hand, refers to an approach to design that focuses on the end goal, or more specifically the end
users goal, what the individual might need or or want out of a computer.

It places humans frighten center. In new computing. The focus shifts from what computers can do to what
people can do with computers. So instead of thinking about big power, for the sake of having a fancy
impressive machine, developers concentrate on individuals or specific groups of individuals. for example. Uh
They create products that support human activities um activities, like collecting Information or communication,
or disseminating Information to others. I think the vinci would be very surprised about how well informed
people are about medical issues today when they arrive at their doctor's office.

Ok Uh So it's really important to find out what people want, what's useful to them. Before we develop new
technologies. Which brings me to the next point about new computing. That designs should be not only useful,
but also user friendly. Besides usefulness, usability is important. The idea that computer programs, accessories,
websites, really anything related to your computer should be easy to use. Sounds simple. I know other term.
User friendly has been around for years. The problem is we don't always create things that are easy for users to
use. Take websites. Many of you have probably been on. Web sites were really confusing. You couldn't find the
Information you were looking for. Or there was so much Information on the site that you just gave up.
Again. This is where thinking like the vinci can help. The goal is to solve problems, not create new ones. Those
websites might be really easy for their designers to navigate, but they aren't the ones that need to use the sights.
So again, the designers need to involve the users from the beginning to find out their expectations and what kind
of tasks they want to perform. I should tell you that not only computer science researchers, but researchers from
other disciplines like sociology and psychology, for example, are involved in this new computing approach,
which makes sense. But again, old computing is still important. We still need people to think bigger and faster
and be able to take care of computing issues that are secondary to other developers who think like da vinci, who
are concerned with human centered computing.

1-sk4-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an architecture class.

Ok So as we've consistently seen over the past week, architectures traditional approach has often been to design
first, then figure out how to make it work. So what i'd like to talk about now is a structure, a facility that totally
reverses that mindset. For this project. Engineers started out by imposing an energy consumption limit on the
facility, and architects built all the design plans around that number.

In other words, energy considerations determined the design, and it did so in ways that are so advanced that the
facility really raises the standard for energy efficiency. It's a research facility in colorado, the first of its size to
achieve the goal of net zero in the united states, meaning it creates as much energy as it uses. Let's take a look at
the basic footprint, just an outline of the foundation to start. So you see there are two long buildings connected
at their centers forming kind of a crooked letter age. And these aren't typical buildings, as you can see from the
footprint, their long as well as thin.

Can anyone think of a reason why that decision was made so that there'd be more surface area for solar panels
on the roof? Well That's the right kind of thinking. Certainly, solar panels were used for this facility. They
supply electricity. but you know the shape of the buildings has even more to do with the sun than just that it was
carefully designed to make an abundance of natural light available throughout the entire facility. First, the
architects decided to narrow the width of those rectangular buildings, 50% thinner than the average modern
office building. So that light could penetrate through the many windows into the middle of each building. And
Secondly, they consciously position the buildings on the site to maximize their exposure to daylight, So the long
sides get the most sun. Hm. Ok So lots of light. But uh from what i've read, windows are a primary source of
both heat loss and heat gain.

For a building. I mean how can having so many windows be energy efficient? Well The architects used
particular kinds of windows. You mean insulated windows, the kind with multiple layers of glass and gas
between each layer. Um As I mentioned earlier, this facility sets the standard that's old technology. For instance,
throughout much of the facility, they've installed electro chromic, windows, electro chromic windows use a
single pane of glass that dark and zortman attic Lily and blocks out the sunlight. As the temperature rises, an
electric current actually changes the tent there placed where the building's windows get the most sun innovative,
and it only gets better.

You see, under each of the buildings, architects designed a broad, shallow basement space that's kind of like a
maze. Air, either from within the building or from the outside, is pulled into the basement space through air
ducts, and then forced to move slowly around concrete barriers. The air is sort of guided through the maze.
Now, these concrete barriers, they absorb heat from the air. If the air is warm, or if the air is cold, the cold is
absorbed into the concrete.
So It could be either way. Uh Let's say it's hot air hot waste air being pulled in from the computer room, say
well that air moves slowly back and forth around these barriers. In this particular situation, then the heat from
the incoming air is transferred to the concrete, which then holds on to it, storing the heat until later when it
slowly released throughout the building. That's the concept of thermal mass in a nutshell. Okay So on the air, it
could be hot or cold.

So then it'd be like um walking into an old stone, like an old stone castle during summer time. It's so much
cooler inside the castle during the day because the walls had retained the cold from the night air. That's right, it's
precisely the same thing. Thermal mass. As a matter of fact, the outer walls of the facility consists of large
panels of concrete, nearly a foot thick for that very reason. And they play a huge role in maintaining the
temperature of each building.

1-sk4-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.

Last time, we discussed technologies like radio, carbon dating, and digital imaging that help us interpret
archaeological evidence. Now, you remember we looked at some of the challenges of drawing conclusions from
the available evidence. One example I wanna mention has a strong impact on our ideas about the population
size of ancient settlements, in particular in western europe. During the period known as the early middle ages,
the early middle ages from roughly 500 ce to 1000 ce, refers to the period in western europe following the fall
of the Roman empire.

Now, you remember the Roman empire was the major world power about 2000 years ago. At its height, it
included all the land around the mediterranean sea and extended as far North as well the island of britain. and
Roman sites have been easy for archaeologists to find. There are ruins of huge buildings like the colosseum in
rome, or even entire cities, like the ruins of pompeii, just south of rome. And When we look across the expanse
of the empire, the evidence shows a landscape that was densely populated. In addition to the obvious remains,
the huge public buildings and monuments. We see countless remains found in private buildings, like statues,
decorative artifacts, shards of pottery.

But then there's a sharp decline in the amount of archaeological evidence that dates from the early middle ages.
Now, from this picture, it would be tempting to conclude that there was an equally sharp decline in population.
But let's look again, as we said, the romans left behind countless long lasting remains. Items made of materials
that were strong, durable Roman houses, for example, were made of mortar and cement with tiles for the roofs.
But in the early middle ages, homes were made of organic materials, mostly wood. and they had thatched roofs,
simple structures of straw and mud. Materials like these decay over time. So naturally, that makes it difficult to
find these sites.

Another reason Roman sites are so much easier to locate is that even small artifacts are visible. Roman pottery,
for example, it was typically grazed. So it's very shiny, easy to see against the soil. But pottery of the early
middle ages was brown or gray, and it wasn't glazed. So you'd have trouble spotting it at an excavation. Its it's
kind of camouflaged against the soil. So it's easy to draw the wrong conclusions about population size based on
the available evidence. I mean less compared to sites that were unearthed in britain, one dating from the Roman
empire, the other from a few centuries later. During the early middle ages, the Roman site is called bradley hill.

The bradley hill was a farmstead that would have been inhabited by a few families. So figure about 20 people
living there. From this one site. We have remains of a tiled roof and others dirty materials, and thousands
literally thousands of shards of shiny pottery. Now compare that with the settlement in britain from the early
middle ages called you wavering. We know from writings from that period that you're wavering was the estate
of a regional king and that it was occupied by over a hundred people for more than 200 years. But what's left of
you wavering? Virtually nothing, nothing from the palace, most likely built of wood. In fact, the only evidence
we have of that are the post holes, the holes dug in the earth where the timbers or wooden posts were placed to
support the walls and roof. And we didn't even know about these until aerial photographs revealed markings
that weren't evident from the ground.

And This is just one example of how a new perspective in this case made possible through aerial photography,
helped us realize that evidence or the lack of it, could lead to false conclusions. Now, look I'm not saying I
mean it's possible even likely, that there was some decline. I'm just saying that evidence, especially when it's
Incomplete or analyzed in isolation, doesn't tell the whole story. Now, all this may not seem relevant to this
weeks reading about the ancient mayan populations in central America, which will get to in a minute.

But you'll notice that your book includes population distribution maps that have been generated based on
archaeological evidence. So a word to the wise population distribution maps for western europe show lots of
large empty spaces for the early middle ages, even though evidence like those post holes and documents about
your wavering might paint quite a different picture.

1-sk5-1

Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the university art museum.

Uh.

Hi. Is ur Nathan around? No, sorry. He's gone for the day. Can I help you with something?

Thing? Well, I hope so.

See, I'm supposed to start volunteering as a tour Guide on Monday.

I'm scheduled to give a tour at 10. I did my first volunteer training session with Nathan the other day. And I was
supposed to have the second session tomorrow afternoon, which is the last one you guys offer this week, right?

Yes, it is. In fact, it's the last one we have scheduled for this semester.

Yeah, that's what I was afraid of. So I don't know what to do because I'm signed up to give that tour on Monday.
And it turns out I have to make up a test tomorrow afternoon. Hmm.

Well.

Yes, that is a problem, I'm afraid. Because we do require two training sessions before you're allowed to start
giving tours.

I know uh, I was hoping maybe I could work something out with Nathan. He uh, he gave us his home number at
the original training session. But I'm not sure where I put it. Could you possibly give it to me again?

Well, no, I'm not allowed to give out employees phone numbers. It wouldn't do you any good anyway.
Nathan can't waive that training requirement anymore than I can. But I can sign you up for the first session next
semester. And you could start giving tours then.

That's too late. Oh, not that I wouldn't want to do tours next semester. I mean, I do wanna keep doing it. It's just
that, see, I really need to start this semester. It's my art history professor is giving me a chance to bring my
grade up. He said I could get extra credit if I wrote a paper for him and volunteered here at the art museum.

Is this professor Tyler is class mhm? Yeah, I thought so here not the first student he sent our way. Look, did he
specify that it had to be as a tour Guide?

Well, not exactly. I just thought.

Cause believe me, we could use you in other capacities.

Really like. Well, it's not as glamorous as being a tour Guide. But we always need people to work in a museum
gift shop.

Or.

Or how are you?

Data entry, data processing, stuff like that. Um. Pretty good actually, because we desperately need someone
right away to help us keep our membership lists up to date. Work on our monthly newsletter, things like that.
Sounds kind of boring. I know. But after you've had some experience, it could lead to a paid position.

Well, that certainly be a plus. Tell you what. Let me just check with professor Tyler. Make sure it's all right
with him. And i'll get back to you sometime tomorrow. Okay?

Okay. Great.
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the study abroad office.

Hi. What can I do for you? Yeah, I have a question about my passport. I'd like to know if I should have it
renewed before I go abroad, cause, um, it's going to expire before I come home.

Oh, yes, you should. Are you by chance on one of our semester abroad programs? If so, you should talk to the
person in charge of that program.

Not exactly. But i'd like to go to France next semester.

I heard you have a program there, right?

Well, yes, we do. But I'm afraid you've already missed the deadline for the spring semester. It was September
15th. But you might not have been able to go anyway. The program is popular and students signed up quickly.
You can still apply for the fall semester.

Next fall. Well, that's, I mean, i'll be out of school at the end of next year. And i'll be working on an independent
study all year. And I I'm supposed to work closely with my instructor, professor Jacobs, here at the main
campus. And I I can't leave the country.

Maybe you could go in the summer. It's a shorter time to study abroad. But you'd have the experience of living
and studying in France.
HMM, I don't know. Are the courses the same as in the spring?

Pretty much the same.

What's your major?

French language and literature.

What's the deadline for the summer?

You should have a few weeks till the deadline. But remember, it's a popular program. I'm a little surprised you
miss the deadline for the spring semester. Didn't your advise or suggest that you apply for the program to
improve your French language skills? I mean, it's very common for language majors to do that at some point.

Well, I just changed my major this semester. And before that I wasn't planning to go abroad.

Now I want to live and study in France. And since I have to take a lot of French courses between now and
graduation, well, it would also help me to fulfill the French departments requirements.

Have you discussed this with your adviser? He might have good advice.

No, not really. He's really busy. And um, I'm a new student in the department. He doesn't know me very well.
So i've been feeling kind of nervous about talking to him about it. But I suppose he has to write me a
recommendation letter, right?

Yes, he does. And you're gonna have to talk to him sooner or later if you want to go. You know even though the
program is popular, a good letter of recommendation can make all the difference. So talk to your adviser if
you're still interested. And ah, oh, be sure to take the brochure for the program in France and let us know if you
have any more questions.

Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.

If I asked you to name an ancient civilization from peru, many of you might say the incas, but let's consider
instead the impact of a mysterious culture from North central peru that thrived in a collection of valleys called
the norte chico region. Archaeologists have been finding evidence that suggests that naughty chico is a region
where the early inhabitants of south America first began a pivotal transition from being hunters and gatherers,
and formed a complex and substantially developed society.

This would be around 3000 BC well before the incas even existed. These sites were so advanced that nothing
like them could be seen anywhere else in the americas at the time. There's no official name for the culture yet,
but it seems that its architecture and developments had a profound influence on subsequent cultures in the
americas. For thousands of years afterward. At each site, archaeologists have identified one or more enormous
platform mounds, sort of like rectangular, terraced pyramids. Throughout the whole region, people were
organized enough to plan and produce these large terrorist pyramids, something the americas had never seen
before.

And Each of the sites apparently served as a residential center, so people lived and worked there. It seems they
were farmers. Now, this collection of over 20 residential centres is very exciting for a number of other reasons
as well. For one thing, their existence has called into question a previous theory about how complex society
emerged in the americas. You see, in the 1970s and eighties, archaeologists had examined the coastal site in
peru called as perot, as perot was one of the first of these sites in norte chico to be discovered and studied
extensively. That was about 40 years ago. It's directly on the coast and it has these same mounds dating from the
same period, about 3000 BC e apparently os.

Pero was a fishing village. And based on this fact, archaeologists concluded that the first complex society was
based on and sustained by ocean and marine resources without agriculture. They didn't know yet, though, that
os pero was just one of many such sites in the region. And most of these other sites were inland quite a distance
away from the coast. But now we know that all these inland sites exist, and that they were built around the same
time. Another exciting thing about this recent researches that it calls into question some long held assumptions
about how complex societies develop um you know when when we work with any ancient society and consider
its classification. a standard, traditional hallmark used to classify the culture as complex is the presence of
ceramic pottery.

The other major birthplace as of complex civilization around the world, like Egypt or mesopotamia, they all had
pottery. But did this mysterious civilization provide us with evidence of any ceramic pottery? Know, this
culture is unconventional in that respect. Researchers have also discovered botanical remains of domesticated
plants, including cotton, squash, chilies, beans, and avocados. But interestingly, they found almost no evidence
of preserved corn or other grains.

This means that this early culture develop not only without pottery, but also without a staple grain based food,
which is usually the first large scale agricultural product of complex societies. So here again, the ancient
peruvians took a different path to civilization. Additionally, in one specific archaeological site corral, they've
uncovered artifacts called qi pu. Yeah, basically a keepers and intricate collection of hanging strings, cotton
strings of many colors. Each keeper contains an elaborate combination of color and design that communicates,
meaning each one has a wide variety of special intricately tied knots.

People transmitted Information in this manner. There was meaning associated with the color selected, the not
used the fiber chosen. There are even those that speculate. It may have been a writing system. Interestingly, the
3000 inhabitants of this one particular city corral appear to have left. Why? Well Here's what we know, there
doesn't appear to be any evidence of an invasion from outside enemy forces. There is no sign of rebellion from
the people who live there. What we see instead is an orderly process whereby the occupants covered the
buildings with substantial amounts of gravel and pebbles, and then we're gone.

1-sk5-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

We've been discussing predator prey relationships. Uh Will someone summarize what we went over last class?
We focus on camouflaging where species tries to blend in with its surroundings. In order to hide from predators.
You showed us examples like the octopus um octopus is can change the color and even the texture of their skin
to blend in really well with their environment.

Ok, and today i'll talk about another type of adaptation. Mimicry. Yeah, Ah Nothing fancy about the term here.
Mimicry to mimic just means to imitate. In biology, a group of organisms called mimics can develop a trait or
behavior that imitates the appearance of behavior, sound or scent of another species. Unlike with camouflage,
the goal of mimicry is not to blend into the surroundings. The goal is to be mistaken for some other species.
Again, we're talking about this in the context of predator prey relationships. Mimicry is usually used as a way
for animals to avoid predation by disguising themselves as another species that looks unappealing or even
dangerous when something harmless imitate something dangerous that speight see on mimicry.

A basic example of bait see a mimicry. Some flies have evolved to mimic the black and yellow stripes of bees
to make themselves look more dangerous. Predators associate attacking bees with getting stung so they avoid
bees, flies mimicking. Bees want predators to think they can sting. But there are more complex cases are. We
recently discovered a type of octopus off the coast of indonesia that mimics not just one animal, but several. It's
the first and only known species that can do this. Researchers founded impersonating to specific types of
poisonous fish and one type of poisonous sea snake. It shifts its body shape and its movements to resemble
these toxic animals.

And when mimicking the sea snake, which has yellow and black bands, the octopus also changes color to have
these colored bands. There's evidence that it may decide which animal to mimic. Based on which predator is
nearby. It's actually choosing to turn itself into I mean choosing to look like a particular form in response to a
particular threat. Exactly. For instance, when there's the threat of being attacked by nearby damsel fish, this
octopus specifically chooses to mimic the sea snake, because the c snake eats damsel fish. Anyway, it's a
dramatic finding. The fact that it can take on multiple disguises suggests other species might have this capability
to Ok So much for bait. See on mimicry?

Now some animals use mimicry for a different purpose. Researchers have been studying the margay, a small cat
that lives in the Amazon jungle. One time they noticed a mark a mimicking the cries of baby tamarin said a type
of monkey vocal mimicry itself is an unusual, but it's usually used to scare a predator species away. What's odd
is that in this case, the relationship is reversed marg as prey on tamarin yps, so they don't need to hide
themselves or make themselves seem more dangerous. This marga instead tried to sound scared or threatened to
draw tamarin zine close by sounding like a baby term and that's being attacked. So it seems that rather than
using mimicry to avoid a predator, Mars are actually using it to attract their prey. To find their next meal.

The researchers noted that the marg as high pitched squeals weren't a very good imitation of a baby tamarin, but
that these squealing sounds attracted the attention of adult tamarind. Anyway, still, none of the tamarind really
fell for the trick. When temperance got closer to the crying sounds, they realized it was coming from the margay
and escaped before they could be attacked. Even so that marquez even use this technique suggest that they've
had some success with it in the past.

Maybe we were just observing them on an off day. And marquez probably aren't the only cat species in the
Amazon adopting sneaky strategies. People who live in the Amazon have said they've heard other cat species,
like jaguars and cougars, tricking their prey this way. But those are just anecdotal reports, and they still have to
be confirmed by researchers. This type of mimicry may not be an innate inborn trait. Ma game arms may teach
it to their young. So it's possible not all marg as have this capability. It might just be a learned behavior kept
within families.

1-sk5-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

Ok The collection of moon rocks that astronauts brought back to earth in the early 1970s has provided us with a
lot of Information about the nature of the moon. But there's one thing about the rocks that's especially puzzled.
Scientists ever since these missions, why did so many of them have a magnetic signature evidence of having
been magnetized in the past? After all, we know the moon, unlike earth, has no magnetic field. Today. Well
Let's back up a bit here and discuss earth's magnetic field. It's explained by the dynamo theory. The dynamo
theory explains how earth generates a long lived global magnetic field.
Now we know earth has a molten metallic core that is a core made up largely of hot liquid iron Well As the
warmer molecules of this iron liquid rise, the cooler portions sink in a circulatory motion. This circulating
metallic liquid inside earth, along with the rotation of the earth, creates electric currents. And these electric
currents in turn create earth's magnetic field. A molten core that generates a magnetic field is a dynamo. And
the action of this dynamo magnetize is rocks on earth. But the moon doesn't have a magnetic field now, and
scientists have long believed that it has never had one. Why?

Well For one thing, the moon is cold. And It was also thought that the moon was too small to have had a molten
core. So it came as a big surprise when astronauts returned with rock samples that had been magnetized. Well
Ever since those early missions, scientists have been debating the answer to this question. Some scientists have
argued that the shock of the impact of media rights and asteroids left a magnetic signature on the moon rocks c
3.9 billion years ago. Relatively soon after the moon formed, it underwent a period of heavy meteorite and
asteroid bombardment.

The scientists thought it was the impacts during this period of bombardment that uh shocked or altered many of
the moon rocks and left a magnetic signature on them. Other scientists, however, have theorized that at one
time, soon after the moon formed, it could, in fact it had a molten core and a magnetic field like earth does. And
that it was this not meteor strikes, that was the source of the magnetic signatures on the moon rocks. So who's
right? Well The very detailed recent analysis of a particular moon rock known as the truck tow may have finally
help to shed some light on this debate. The truck tow is made of troctolite, a combination of minerals that
crystallized very early in the moons history.

And I mean very early, this rock is about 4.3 billion years old. And the magnetic signature found on truck tow
was very different than the signature on other moon rocks. It suggests that the rock spent a very long period in a
magnetic environment. Millions of years, you see, magnetization from a meteorite generates a short lived
magnetic field, which results in a certain magnetic signature. And the truck tow just doesn't show that In
laboratory tests, scientists found it had been exposed to to stable and intense magnetic events, each followed by
a long cooling period. The first event of the one we're most interested in occurred about 4.2 billion years ago,
about 300 million years after the moon formed of the time when the moon would most likely have had a liquid
metallic core.

And Because of the prolonged nature of the magnetic event, scientists speculate that it was caused by a
magnetic field generated by a molten metallic core and not a media strike. So even if truck tow had been
subjected to that later bombardment that occurred 3.9 billion years ago, it's not the source of the magnetization
that scientists found. Well This lunar dynamo theory certainly is very appealing to many of us. For one thing,
we've been trying to explain the origin of the moon for a long time. And this theory fits very nicely with the
most widely accepted hypothesis of the moons origin, the giant impact hypothesis.

The giant impact hypothesis, also allows for the possibility that the moon had a small molten core. We'll talk
about that theory and other ways. The two theories jive in in a few minutes now, admittedly, having only one
lunar rock as evidence isn't enough for a lot of scientists, but it's a good start.

1-sk6-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and his studio art professor. Hi, professor Jones, do you have a
minute share, Marty?

What's up? Is it about the class assignment this week? No, no. I'm almost done. Really enjoying it. I'm glad to
hear that so well.
I've been talking to some of the other students in our studio art class, and we were wondering who to talk to
about maybe buying art supplies that are more environmentally safe for the art classes. Well, that be me, as the
chair of the art department, I do have a say in purchasing decisions. But of course everything is voted on by the
department faculty. You know, we only buy some eco friendly products. For example, the easel Zinn, your
painting studio, they're made of wood from a south American eucalyptus tree. The trees grow really fast, and
new trees grow from the stumps of trees that have already been harvested. Has that for a renewable resource? I
didn't know that.

That's great. We were thinking about like drawing paper and pencils. There are some really cool companies that
use recycled paper to make drawing paper and some pencil companies that make greater products out of wood
from sustainable forests. Well, I can see you've done some research. Why don't you write up a proposal? You
can give us a list with the prices of the eco friendly supplies you'd like the department to consider. And the
faculty can compare that to the cost of supplies we're buying now at our next meeting. Oh, yeah, I should have
realized it all comes down to cost. Well, yes, in part. I mean, we do have a budget for supplies. And most of that
money has been spent for this year. But you know, the university has been allocating extra funds for a lot of eco
friendly initiatives.

It's part of their new green campus initiative. Yeah, the solar panels were recently installed on the roof of my
dorm. And actually, I read an article about the initiative in the campus newspaper.

There's a committee. I I think there's even some student representation that makes the decisions about how the
university will implement some environmentally friendly practices. Right? The green committee and the solar
panels you mentioned are just one of the many things they've done.

So I don't know, given the university's commitment to becoming more environmentally friendly, and the fact
that the university does receive partial funding from the state government to support this initiative, you never
know.

Okay. Um, when do you want the figures? Well, uh, the next meeting of the art department faculty is at the
beginning of next month. It gives you about three weeks. That should be enough time. We'll get to work on it
right away.

Thanks for your help.

Listen to a conversation between a student and a university employee.

WOW. You guys aren't too easy to find.

Yeah. They've got us in the basement.

Well, there could have been a better sign. Anyway, I made it. Could I get some color copies of this fire? Sure.
How many do you need? 500.

It's for a fundraiser I'm organizing.

And I need enough copies for each faculty and staff member, plus a few to hang on bolts and boards. What kind
of fundraiser?

Oh, it's to raise money for a new sandbox at the preschool on campus.

Oh yes. My wife and I looked into the preschool for our son. But he arrived on campus too late for him to
enroll. I just started at the university this semester, so maybe we'll get him in next year. Do you work here?
No, not exactly. I'm majoring in early childhood education. And for a research paper, i've been spending time
there observing the different ways they teach pre reading skills.

I was really surprised by all the learning tools and techniques that they use in the classroom and even on the
playground. Yeah, it's it's fascinating what they do with kids these days.

Anyway, another thing that surprised me was how sparse their playground is. Just to slide some balls and a
couple of swings for like 45 kids, the director told me she'd love to have a big sandbox two, which got me
thinking, I have to do 20 hours of community service to graduate.

So I offered to organize a fundraiser to buy a sandbox. And the director really love that idea.

I figure that'll take 20 hours at least.

So how are you gonna raise the money? I got my adviser, professor Campbell, to teach a parenting workshop
there. He's gonna give tips on raising toddlers.

WOW.

Great idea. Toddlers can be a Challenge. I know that from experience.

I'm sure anyway, the workshops just three weeks away. So I need to distribute the flyers as soon as possible.
Could I get the color copies right now?

Nearly i'd say yes. But our color copies are undergoing routine maintenance right now. So it might take a day or
two. But if you need them right away, you could use one of our black and white copiers there.

All self service.

I guess that'll be ok.

Thanks.

By the way, how much you gonna charge for that?

Workshop.

$50. But that registration fee also includes a copy of professor Campbell's new parenting book. He wrote this
great book about table as that sells for $25.

$50 seems a little high.

But since you include the book to, yeah, the books gotten some great reviews to, um.

Can I have one of your flyers after you make the copy?

Ease. Sure. I'll give you a few if you wanna help me spread the word.

Listen to part of a lecture in an evolutionary biology class.

Today, we're going to look at a classic study in the evolution of natural populations and examine how the
authors of the study interpreted the data. But before getting into the data itself, we need some background. The
study was concerned with evolutionary changes in a population of ground finches on the galapagos islands. You
you've probably heard of these ground finches that live on the galapagos islands, a group of small islands in the
pacific ocean. They're called darwin finches.

There are 13 species of these birds. They're generally small, blackish or dark, brownish in color. And their poor
fliers. In fact, many can't even fly from one island to another. So they aren't present on all of the galapagos
islands, but it kind of confined to one or two islands. There's really nothing out of the ordinary about the finches
with one exception. That exception is there, beeks. There, beeks, are the most visible difference between the 13
species and what makes them so interesting to evolutionary biologists. The sizes and shapes of their beeks range
from large, broad, almost parent like beeks, too small, very thin, beeks. So why these variations and different
gradation?

Yps it's primarily a matter of food specialization. The finches with the broad beeks with the parrot, like beak
source usually feed for at least part of the year on either large heart fruit or large seeds and other types of hard
foods. The finches with the small biggs feed mostly on insects on juicy, pulpy fruit, or on small types of seeds.
They've adapted, you see, to fill various ecological niches. In this case, the niches are various sources of food.
When charles darwin travelled to the galapagos islands in 1835, he was immediately struck by the perfect
gradation zine the size and shape of the beeks. There's a famous passage in his diary, which later on biographers
identified as showing a moment that changed. Wins thinking pushed him in the direction of a theory of
evolution.

Darwin had noted it was possible to imagine a point in history when one species of finch had somehow made it
to the galapagos from south America, and maybe from that point forward finches, beak sieve alvear for different
purposes. I should say here that even though the finches may have provided the spark for darwin theory of
evolution, it was another 24 years before he published his work on the subject. It took a long time for the idea to
crystallize. Okay? Anyway, because of darwin, many evolutionary biologists worldwide have studied the
finches, all aspects of their behavior and their biology. But perhaps the longest lasting most methodical study
was done by a couple, peter and rosemary grant, who spent most of their summers from roughly the 1970s well
into the 1990s, working on one of the smaller galapagos islands, an island called daphne major.

There they observed the finches and their behavior in minute detail down to the level of individual finches,
taking many measurements and getting to know the finch population on that island to a degree no other
biologist ever had before. Among the things the grants were trying to determine with the evolutionary pressures
that may have affected the occurrence of certain traits in the entire population. Over time, major environmental
events, like droughts or shortages of a preferred food source could have caused changes to the size and maybe
even shape of the finches beak. So over time, had such events occurred in the past were events like these still
occurring?

As for the changes themselves that these events might have produced, the glance didn't actually expect to find
them in live populations of the finches, because like everyone else, they thought that evolution was a process
that unfolded over thousands or hundreds of thousands or millions of years. But to their surprise and the
surprise of evolutionary biologists everywhere the grants did find evidence, barely detectable evidence. I we're
talking about changes to the average shapes and sizes of beeks that were only measurable in millimeters.

So that's very small. But they did indicate that evolution was occurring in measurable ways with each finch
generation. And these changes correlated to observable, environmental or ecological factors. It was a significant
finding. So now what we're going to spend the rest of today's class doing is examining some of the data, the
grants collected, and consider how they use it. I'll pass out some charts.
1-sk6-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.

Let's review why is pottery such an important subject of archaeological analysis? Pottery contains more
Information than we might think. Can you explain what you mean? Like sudden changes in the style and shape
of pottery might help us figure out when certain cultures may contact with each other and borrowed each other's
ideas, designs, even technology. Good. Today I want to expand our discussion into the topic of classifying
pottery classification is simply an attempt to categorize or group the pottery based on specific characteristics.

We'll look at ancient mayan pottery, which by now is my specialty. Archaeologists have traditionally attempted
to classify these vessels by using a single classification system. But the complexity other variation of ancient
mayan party is just too great. In my opinion, to use only one system, I advocate the use of several systems, as do
some of my colleagues who have been researching the mayan archaeological sites of Mexico and central
America By utilizing more than one system of classification. We aren't as likely to neglect important details or
lose important Information. So I think what you're saying is when we use a single classification system, we can't
label a vessel with lots of details. But when we classified a lot of different ways, that gives us a more Complete
picture.

Yes. If we're able to label a large quantity of pottery in several ways, we can more clearly see relationships
between them. Because of having a more Complete picture of each one. I everybody in this class is from a
different state or country. Nobody's from exactly the same place. So if I only classify people by where they're
from, I might say that you have nothing in common. But what if I add more layers? Andrew, you're a skier. Sale
is also a skier. So if we have a classification for your extra curricular activities, we find you two have something
in common, snow skiing, I get it. So we begin by determining what classifications will be possible and what
classifications will be useful.

These would be, in my opinion, the vessel shapes the surface finish, which looks at texture. Finally, what we
call pastes, i'll explain pastes later. Andrew, would you limit it to just three classification systems? Shapes,
surface finish, and pastes? Not necessarily. When we encounter pottery decorated with a lot of detail, we might
want to add a classification system for this to one we could call decoration. So let's look at my first
classification type pottery shapes. We need to consider the basic proportions and size of an object. But what if
the objects broken? Obviously, intact pottery is the best. But if all we have in front of us is a collection of
pieces, as long as those pieces are of a reasonable size, we can still classify shapes reliably.

We just have to reconstruct the object. Now, even if you're able to reconstruct and then determine how to
classify pottery in terms of its shape, you might be unable to classify its surface finish, for instance. With many
of the pottery collections found at the archaeological site of polling k too little surface finish was preserved to
make a determination. Really what we need are comprehensive and accurate illustrations of ancient mayan
pottery. Having drawings of their profiles allows us to compare the shapes of pottery, found it different
archaeological sites, because we can't personally go to all the locations.

But eating and archaeologists and art historians do attempt to illustrate every single piece. There are problems
like three different people might draw the profile of the same part, but the drawings don't turn out exactly the
same, very true. Illustrating involves some simplification of the pottery. And people may have different ideas of
which features are important to keep in the drawing and which can be left out. What else? While drawing the
profile of every single part probably takes tons of time, so it could be expensive. Aha, but digital photography is
so popular and inexpensive. Now, why don't we just give up on drawings and make a collection of
photographs? You can't get more accurate than a photograph. That's a natural question. I'll get to that in a
second.

1-sk6-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

We were talking last time about indirect influence is some painters had on those of later errors. Let's focus for a
moment on a painter who was famous not just for his paintings, but for his influence, his direct influence on
other painters during his own time. I'm talking about rembrandt. rembrandt taught just about every significant
painter of his era. We're talking the 16 hundreds in the netherlands. He was so influential that there have been
lingering questions about the authenticity of some of the paintings attributed to him.

I he ran a workshop where he actively encouraged his pupils to imitate his style, even collaborated with them.
So since the late 1960s, there have been serious efforts to examine his paintings in an effort to prove that it was
indeed rembrandt himself who painted them. What happened was the really interesting results of these
investigations had to do with not so much authentication, but what the results revealed about rembrandts
methods, his procedures. Now, one aspect of these paintings that the investigators focused on was the lower
layers of paint. The first layers that were applied to the canvas or wood panel. You have a couple of ways of
seeing under the surface.

The older technique is simple. X radiography x radiography is the same technique a doctor uses to take a picture
of your bones. But if you x ray of painting, you can see the lower layers. All right? But only the lighter areas,
the dark areas don't show up. But there is another technique that does reveal the darker shades. It's a little more
complicated. It's called autoradiography. This technique involves exposing the painting to mild radiation.
Different colors use different pigments, and different pigments will have different reactions to the radiation.

Some will hold on to the radiation longer than others. That is, the rate of decay is not the same for all pigments.
So if you were to lay a strip of x ray film over the painting, say, five minutes after it was exposed to the
radiation, it would pick up one pigment, lay a strip over the painting after a month, and it would reveal an
entirely different pigment. Ok. So now with autoradiography, researchers could see the darker shades
underneath, as well as the lighter areas. It allowed them to reconstruct how the paintings were started. What
they were able to see was the importance of something called the underpainting. Now under painting under
painting looked like the finished painting, but it was completely done in shades of just one color, usually brown
or sometimes gray. So with underpainting, an artist was better able to envision his final painting. And this
confirmed reports from his students and from others that rembrandt didn't work from paper sketches. Basically,
he had the whole picture worked out in his mind before ever setting brush to canvas.

Another thing the autoradiography confirmed is that rembrandt didn't work with a full pallet. What I is he divide
the painting up into sections and work only with those colors he needed for a particular section before moving
on to the next. This is quite different from how later painters would work. A 19th century French artist like
season, for instance, season would work on the painting as a whole. Using a full palette of colors. It looks like
painters of rembrandt. Sarah only used a full palette at the very end when touching up, and almost finished
painting. So we ended up learning more from radiography about rembrandts techniques, then about how to
authenticate his paintings.

But it was an amazing project. I the researchers were very lucky to have access to these paintings at all.
Generally, you can't just take paintings off a museum wall and start analyzing them, especially when this
involves removing the paintings from public view for months on end. I'm afraid in the future, we're going to
have to find different methods for analyzing other works.
1-sk7-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and his psychology professor.

Yeah.

Thanks for meeting with me, professor Davis. And you know your class is great. It even got me thinking of
changing my major to psychology.

I think he'd be a good fit. You're always full of insightful questions. And actually, I didn't see you at the
informational meeting for the psychology club.

But I think it's something you'd enjoy.

Yeah, I wanted to go. But I had a study group for another class.

The club sounds great.

Lectures from people in the fields volunteer in opportunities seems really useful.

Yes, it's a valuable experience and fun when I was a student. Unlike some other fields, psychology is such a
broad field. What clubs like these offer, the events, lectures, internship opportunities. They helped me find a
focus when I was in school. And that's why I offered to be the club advisor. You know we're meeting tonight. A
few students will be talking about their summer internships.

Oh, i'd love to go, especially if I decide to major in sight.

But I have another study group tonight for our class. Actually, we're going over the nerve pathways of the brain
and we're gonna talk about the research s a good idea.

The first paper is always a little daunting, yeah, especially since, well, that's why I'm here. Actually, we've
covered so much like the background on brain anatomy, the case studies, and articles on decision making and
problem solving.

So I'm wondering how to approach this.

Well, look to the central task, a case study and analysis of a particular psychological process. Use that as a basis
to organize what you've learned about the biological basis of behavior. I wanna see that you can connect all the
Information we've covered in class, use it to draw conclusions about that psychological process. But I mean,
couldn't different people come to different conclusions? Yes. But if your analysis makes sense and incorporates
what we've learned in class, you'll get credit. I know it's tough. But do you remember what we were saying in
class about experts and novices?

Um, well.

Well, experts recognize patterns and Information, right? Where novices might just see random details so experts
can solve problems faster.

For yes. And to be able to do that, experts have to go through a lot of trial and error to hone their skills.
Um.

They couldn't see those patterns without all of the experience of connecting the Information. Can you said it?

So consider this an exercise.

It's.

Like in that article, you had us read about that experiment about the physics problem in Newton's laws of
motion. Right?

The difference in how experts and novices approach the problem. Yeah.

Yeah, it was interesting to see that novices tried to solve it by recalling equations like plugging numbers into
equations, formulas, et cetera. Whereas experts, they would first think about the major principles like, uh, like
Newton's laws and how and why those laws apply to the physics problem.
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the university's theatre.

Hey.

Everyone's been telling me what a great lineup of plays you guys are presenting this season.

Yeah, it's gonna be wonderful. I'm excited about it. Have you seen our production of hamlet? We do it every
year.

No, I haven't. But I want to.

I also want to see a streetcar named desire.

Um, but mainly I was wondering, see my parents are coming to visit the first weekend in November. And i'd
like to take them to see something.

Oh, you're in luck. That's when hamlet opens. And if you're interested in street car as well, have you considered
purchasing season tickets?

Uh, not. Really? But is there a discount if you buy season tickets? You know, is it cheaper than buying
individual tickets for each show?

Though it.

Does come out to a few dollars cheaper per ticket. But there are other advantages. Season ticket holders are
assigned the best seats for one, and they can buy extra tickets for individual performances before they go on sale
to non season ticket holders. Hm. So, uh, you want to get season tickets for yourself and then buy extra tickets
for your parents. The only catch is I can't guarantee that the seats would be together because season and
individual ticket orders are processed separately. That's not a problem.

But I'm not sure if I want to do season tickets. How hard do you think it would be to get tickets for the hamlet
performance? Like if I came in next week? I need to confirm the date with my parents.

Well, right now we're selling season tickets only if you want to buy tickets for the play. Only individual tickets
go on sale next month. You'll be able to buy them here at the box office or order them through our website.
But i'll tell you, based upon past year sales for hamlet, I wouldn't wait too long to get the tickets once they go on
sale. And, oh, I forgot to mention season ticket holders also get Free admission to something new this season,
pre performance talks. The talks start an hour before each show and will be given by faculty in our drama
department.

The idea is to enhance the audiences appreciation of the plate are about to see. We'll also serve some light
refreshments. Regular ticket holders who want to attend will have to pay an extra fee.

That's a great selling point for season tickets. So does that mean you like the bottom? It would be great to go to
all the performances. But realistically, I don't know if I can swing that.

Sure. I understand you've got plenty of time to decide about season tickets. In the meantime, why don't you grab
one of those flyers from the rack over there on your way out? It's got a Complete calendar of all our
performances, matinee times, evening shows. There's also details on single ticket prices, as well as season
tickets and other package deals.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

We were talking last time about indirect influence is some painters had on those of later errors. Let's focus for a
moment on a painter who was famous not just for his paintings, but for his influence, his direct influence on
other painters during his own time. I'm talking about rembrandt. rembrandt taught just about every significant
painter of his era. We're talking the 16 hundreds in the netherlands. He was so influential that there have been
lingering questions about the authenticity of some of the paintings attributed to him.

I he ran a workshop where he actively encouraged his pupils to imitate his style, even collaborated with them.
So since the late 1960s, there have been serious efforts to examine his paintings in an effort to prove that it was
indeed rembrandt himself who painted them. What happened was the really interesting results of these
investigations had to do with not so much authentication, but what the results revealed about rembrandts
methods, his procedures. Now, one aspect of these paintings that the investigators focused on was the lower
layers of paint. The first layers that were applied to the canvas or wood panel. You have a couple of ways of
seeing under the surface.

The older technique is simple. X radiography x radiography is the same technique a doctor uses to take a picture
of your bones. But if you x ray of painting, you can see the lower layers. All right? But only the lighter areas,
the dark areas don't show up. But there is another technique that does reveal the darker shades. It's a little more
complicated. It's called autoradiography. This technique involves exposing the painting to mild radiation.
Different colors use different pigments, and different pigments will have different reactions to the radiation.

Some will hold on to the radiation longer than others. That is, the rate of decay is not the same for all pigments.
So if you were to lay a strip of x ray film over the painting, say, five minutes after it was exposed to the
radiation, it would pick up one pigment, lay a strip over the painting after a month, and it would reveal an
entirely different pigment. Ok. So now with autoradiography, researchers could see the darker shades
underneath, as well as the lighter areas. It allowed them to reconstruct how the paintings were started. What
they were able to see was the importance of something called the underpainting. Now under painting under
painting looked like the finished painting, but it was completely done in shades of just one color, usually brown
or sometimes gray. So with underpainting, an artist was better able to envision his final painting. And this
confirmed reports from his students and from others that rembrandt didn't work from paper sketches. Basically,
he had the whole picture worked out in his mind before ever setting brush to canvas.
Another thing the autoradiography confirmed is that rembrandt didn't work with a full pallet. What I is he divide
the painting up into sections and work only with those colors he needed for a particular section before moving
on to the next. This is quite different from how later painters would work. A 19th century French artist like
season, for instance, season would work on the painting as a whole. Using a full palette of colors. It looks like
painters of rembrandt. Sarah only used a full palette at the very end when touching up, and almost finished
painting. So we ended up learning more from radiography about rembrandts techniques, then about how to
authenticate his paintings.

But it was an amazing project. I the researchers were very lucky to have access to these paintings at all.
Generally, you can't just take paintings off a museum wall and start analyzing them, especially when this
involves removing the paintings from public view for months on end. I'm afraid in the future, we're going to
have to find different methods for analyzing other works.

1-sk7-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

One of the most noticeable differences between polar regions and tropical regions is the tropical ecosystems are
much more diverse in terms of the plants and animals. We find there now the money that the farther you are
from the equator, the more seasonal fluctuations in temperature there tend to be. So how do you think this
affects animals in polar ecosystems? In terms of food? John, I would guess that with big changes in seasons and
you know plants dying and animals migrating in the fall, it keeps changing. What kinds of foods are available in
polar regions?

Right? And with that, the feeding behaviors of polar animals, they tend to cover a lot of territory in search of
food. And they need to be what we call generalists mean that in their eating habits, their amazingly flexible. A
really good example is the arctic fox. It nearly eats smaller mammals, like mice and rabbits. Well Yeah That's
the idea. Very small mammals of that sort. But in the summer, it's diet expands to include migratory birds, and
especially their eggs, as well as insects and even berries. It also feeds on seals or anything else that polar bears
have killed and left behind. So the arctic fox is definitely a generalist. That's pretty hard to categorize according
to one particular type of food. Now in the tropics, temperatures are much more stable. So what does that mean
to animals and ecosystems?

They're and well with temperatures about the same year round, their food sources would probably be much
more stable too. So they wouldn't have to keep adapting their feeding behaviour to changing conditions. Right?
And typically, these animals survive quite well on just one or two food sources. They've become what we call
specialists living in one small part of the habitat, feeding on one particular kind of food. There's a south
American bird, for example, called the yellow eared parrot that lives in columbia, not far from the equator. It's
mostly green, actually, but with patches of yellow feathers on the sides of its head, near its ears. Anyway, this
yellow eared parrot nests in one particular species of palm tree, the wax palm. And it's very picky about what it
eats mainly the fruit of the wax palm. But you said there's more diversity in tropical ecosystems. I mean just
because an animal prefers one special kind of food, why is that lead to more diversity? Good question.

What happens is that in the tropics, with each species more or less specializing in a particular type of food,
they're more likely to divide up the ecological resources. So each little bit of the habitat essentially becomes a
Micro habitat that supports the species uniquely suited to thrive on the food and in the living space that this
Micro habitat provides. So in c overall ecosystem, you end up with lots of Micro habitats and lots of different
species that are not competing with each other. Much at all. There's a place for everyone. So the generalist
species cover a lot of territory, but the specialists, unlike the generalists, they don't need to. Okay. Now here's a
question to consider. Based on what we've been saying. In which kind of ecosystem, polar or tropical, would
you expect species to have a better chance of survival? I'd say an animal species would have a better chance of
surviving in the tropics, because well if they each have their own little Micro habitat with no competition for
food or whatever, they've got it made. Right? That's what you might think, except there is a downside to being a
specialist.

Can anyone think of what that might be? Well Something he said, if they each have their own Micro habitats?
but what if that Micro habitat disappears? Keep going? Well, if they can eat only one kind of food, and that
food grows, only one particular, like a habitat. Well If that Micro habitat disappears, they're out of luck, they
might all starve, and the species could die out. Right? Extinction is a real threat, and species on the brink of
extinction. Lots of these live in tropical regions, and they're mostly specialists whose Micro habitat is being
destroyed, often due to human activities. This was certainly true of the yellow eared parrots less so now that the
wax palms are legally protected. But it's definitely something to think about.

1-sk7-3
Listen to portable lecture in on earth science class.

Now, one of the things I like to do from time to time in this class is look at how knowledge we've gained from
studying. Earth's geology has been applied to answer questions outside our field to take the mass extinction that
occurred around 13000 years ago, when most of the giant mammal species of North America vanished from the
geological record. Creatures like woolly mammoths, saber tooth cats, giant slots, beavers and camels. So what
caused these animals to suddenly disappear?

One possible answer lies at the start of a period of sudden climate change called the younger, driest. Um Let me
back up a minute. Just before this extinction, earth was coming out of a long ice age. Glaciers were beginning to
receipt, but then temperatures in North America suddenly plummeted again, setting off this frigid thousand year
period known as the younger, dry us. North America became so cold that glaciers started expanding again. And
one theory is that this sudden change in climate would have made it difficult for these large beasts to survive.

Of Course There have been other climate changes, some even more extreme and longer lasting, yet with no
evidence that they triggered any extinction events. So maybe not the strongest theory, uh which means we need
to look elsewhere. Maybe space I mean we're all familiar with how impact events can affect life on earth. Like
um it's now generally agreed that the media triggered the extinction of the dinosaurs. Of Course Since that
period has been widely accepted, it's tempting to look to space to explain all extinction events. A large meteor
crashing into earth would scatter cosmic debris and cause massive fire storms.

And that's the theory proposed recently as an explanation for the large mammal extinction. Researchers who
support this theory claim to have found evidence of a meteor impact at a site in the state of arizona in a layer of
sediment called the younger, driest boundary. The younger, driest boundary, or why? Db is a very thin layer of
sediment that was laid down across North America at the beginning of the younger, driest period. And What's
particularly significant about this 13000 year old layer is that under it, we find lots of fossils of these large
mammals. But above it, that is after the why db was laid down, Well Not a single one. So what happened here?
Although the researchers suspect a media event, they didn't find any evidence of an impact crater.

But they say they did find evidence of several types of particles commonly associated with media impacts,
including nano diamonds and high concentrations of certain magnetic particles. Manner diamonds are small
particles that can either originate in space or be formed in the extreme pressure of an intense explosion, like the
impact of a meteor. For example, the magnetic particles can also come from space, and the ones found in the
why db are very similar to particles associated with other media impacts. Recently, however, a new group of
researchers tried to replicate these findings And While they also found nano diamonds and high concentrations
of magnetic particles at the arizona site, these researchers wondered whether the presence of such particles
might be accounted for in other ways. So to test whether the magnetic particles were unique to the y db, they
analyze dirt from the rooftop of a researchers house.

And In fact, they found magnetic particles in the rooftop sample. To turns out that these particles are not just the
result of impact events. They can have many origins, including the ash from nearby coal burning electrical
power plants, or even cosmic dust that originates in space and then falls to earth. Okay? But then how to explain
the elevated concentrations of the magnetic particles in the sample from the y d b well these samples had come
from a river bed where rain water would have carried and deposited the particles. And In fact, additional
samples taken from outside the river bed continually normal concentrations of the magnetic particles in the y d
b as for the nano diamonds.

While a group of meteorite or comet fragments colliding with earth would certainly provide the high
temperatures and pressures needed to create such nana diamonds, there might be other ways to explain their
existence. It turns out they're also commonly found in cosmic dust, which could explain their presence not only
in the y d b but also in the rooftop sample. So if there's no strong evidence for a media impact or for a certain
climate change, then we need some other explanation for the disappearance of so many large North American
mammal species during the younger dryers.

1-sk8-1

Listen to a conversation between a student and a university travel administrator

Student: Thanks for the list of travel agencies. This'll really help if I get a chance to go to another conference,
but now my question is: you said that the university doesn't pay for everything, doesn't cov erall the costs of
school-related travel.

Administrator: Nope, we do cover the cost of the conference itself, the registration fees' but university policy is
that we only cover up to a certain amount of travel expenses. We calculate the average cost of traveling to a
city, the average cost of food；lodging' etcetera, and are willing to pay that much back to you.

Student: Right. So how do I find out what the average costs are?

Administrator: Welb on the travel office's webpage you'll find a chart with a bunch of cities. Just find the
columns for the city that you're traveling to, like Philadelphia, that's where you went, right?

Student: Yea, the Eastern Literary Society Conference. It w as ." I went to hear some presentations, you know.

Administrator: Ok, so the chart will tell you how much the university will cover for trips to Philadelphia. There
will be a column for food, one for transportation, one for hotel, but I'm guessing tha t…

Student: Yes, since Philadelphia's only an hour from here and the conference was just one day, I guess that's
why I wasn't overly concerned about the expenses, but I did take the train in and of course I ate lunch there, so
… anyway, can I have a copy of the expense form? I'll need to fill it out.

Administrator: Sure, but it's quicker if you do it online. That way your information goes directly to the travel
office. We'll be in touch later if we need your receipts.
Student: Ok, I already tried that, but the system, it wouldn't let me get to the form.

Administrator: Really? That's strange.

Student: Yeaz it kept asking for my… for a preapproval number.

Administrator: Ok, the number your department gave you when you completed the preapproval request.

Student: Preapproval request? I didn't know. No one told me about a preapproval request.

Administrator: That’s why you're having trouble. See, the policy is that your department has to preapprove you
for the travel, so that we, the university travel office, so we know you're doing legitimate school-related travel.
We can't be reimbursing people for their vacations.

Student: WelL how was I supposed to know? I mean, my professor only asked me like two weeks ago after
someone else canceled.

Administrator: Oh, well that's it. That student probably filled out a preapproval request. You're department can
probably update that form with your information. Then it'll show up under your name instead and you can do
the online form.

Student: Oh, really? Let me talk to them and see what I can do. I'll come back to you if I have questions after
that.

Administrator: Ok and good luck.

Student: Thanks for your help.

Listen to part of a conversation between a student and his music education professor.

Student: Hi Professor Wilson! Sorry I'm late. My bike had a flat tire this morning.

Professor: Oh no! Well, sometimes things happen.

Professor: So, what did you have in mind for your project?

Student:I was thinking of creating a computer game to teach music to young children.

Professor: That sounds interesting. I don't think we've ever had anyone do that for a class project. Tell me about
it.

Student: Well, my mother's a music teacher…

Professor: So you're following in her footsteps?

Student: Hers and my fathers. They're both music teachers.

Professor: Ok, ok, go ahead.

Student: And my mother recently told me about a teaching method called the Orff Method where you begin by
introducing the very most basic elements of music; speech patterns, rhythmic movement, two-note melodies,
and so on and then you move on to more advanced stuff. I know there are other methods that do that sort of
thing, but the key to the Orff Method is at every step you encourage the kids to use what they're learning to
create their own music and that draws out the kid's natural affinity for music, their natural ability for music.

Professor: Yes, that's a great method. We actually cover it in another class I teach.

Student: Oh, ok. Yea, I guess you would probably already know about it. Anyway, and I hope this is ok, I'm
also taking a computer-programming class this semester and for a project in that class we have to come up with
an idea for a computer game and then write the program.

Professor:And you want to combine the two projects?

Student: Yes. I know it might look like I'm trying to get out work by submitting the same project for two
classes, but in fact I think I'll end up doing a lot more work this way.

Professor: How's that?

Student: Well, it'd actually be much simpler to just make up some simple game for the computer project and just
do some sort of research paper on the Orff Method in your class. It's going to take a lot more work in both
classes to combine the two because first I'll have to learn all about the Orff Method then I'll have to invent the
game that's based on the Orff Method and then I'll have to learn to do some pretty sophisticated programming to
create the computer program for the game.

Professor: Ok, well first I'm pleased that you're synthesizing learning from more than one course.

Student: 0k.

Professor: And I agree that it's going to be a lot of work if you do it right.

Student: Don't worry. My goal is to create something I can put on the market and make some money to help
payoff my student loans, so…

Professor: Wow! That's unusually ambitious.

Student: It runs in the family. My parents already have a number of educational CDs and DVDs on the market.

Professor: Ok, ok. Well, you sold me. I'll be looking forward to seeing what you come with.

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class

When we hear the word bacteria, a lot of people think germs or disease, but bacteria can be good or bad and if it
weren't for the good bacteria we wouldn't be able to survive, but before getting into that let me reiterate that
bacteria are virtually everywhere. There are bacteria living in soil, living on windowsills, they're living on us,
and they're living in us. As you know, bacteria are organisms; tiny, single-celled organisms. They move, they
breathe, they do a lot of the things that we do. They have metabolic activities. They can break down sugars,
build proteins, and secrete things and all these things happen just on a much smaller and faster scale. A number
of research studies have shown and now' this is hard to believe, but the number of bacterial cells in and on our
body .actually exceeds the number of our human cells. If you consider all the human and bacterial cells that
exist in and on our body, only one in every ten cells in our body is human. The rest are mostly bacteria. Now,
because the bacteria cells are much smaller, that doesn't mean that we are 90% bacteria, but still, I find that
amazing. Nine of ten cells are bacteria. So, why do we have all these bacteria?
At least 500 different species in the digestive system alone and why do I say they're helpful? Lets look at some
examples. First, our bodies can't make certain vitamins, like certain B-vitamins and vitamin-K, which plays an
important role in blood clotting. So, we have these good bacteria in our digestive system. They eat the food we
eat and secrete those vitamins for us. Also, some bacteria help us digest food that our own digestive enzymes
cannot otherwise process. For example, at least one bacterial species breaks down the complex carbohydrates
that are found in vegetables and other plant foods. Our own enzymes can't do this for us. The bacteria in our
digestive system also compete for the same nutrients that bad bacteria need. You know, the ones that if allowed
to grow unchecked can be harmful to us. The re're so many more good bacteria than bad bacteria normally that
the good ones overwhelm the bad ones by taking up most of the available nutrients.

The bacteria on our skin do a similar thing. They prevent the bad bacteria from getting a foothold, so they really
serve as another layer of protection against infection, so when you wash your hands with antibacterial soap, you
know, the soap that helps kill bacteria when you use it, well, what does that do? It's going to kill the bacteria
and not just the bad bacteria.The soap doesn't discriminate between the good and bad .A lot of the good bacteria
that's protecting you will be destroyed as well.

Another thing that inadvertently kills good bacteria are antibiotics. Most of them are what we call broad-
spectrum antibiotics, which means they kill all kinds of bacteria, not just the bad ones. So to replenish some of
the good bacteria, we can take probiotics like the ones contained in yogurt. There's a bacterium used to help
make yogurt and it's the same kind of bacterium that can aid digestion, so if you get sick and you're given
antibiotics the doctor might tell you to eat yogurt. That's one form of probiotic therapy.The doctor would
actually say to you to eat yogurt with live cultures，with live bacteria. You see, all yogurt is made with live
bacteria, but some yogurt brands destroy the bacteria in the processing.

Anyway, there's plenty of evidence that probiotics can help treat or prevent certain digestive problems, but if
you go into a health food store you may see probiotic supplements claiming to lower blood pressure and do
things beyond improving gastrointestinal health. While these claims may very well be documented in the future,
right now they're merely postulations based on laboratory data； test tube experiments, not on what happens
when people actually take probiotics.

1-sk8-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a psychology class.

P: Now when the last class ended, we were talking about how we evaluate other people, how we look at other
people and determine which people are likely to be helpful to us and which people are likely to hinder us as we
go through life and we noted that the ability to distinguish between these two kinds of people, to perform what
we call social evaluations, is critical to our survival. Yes, Karen?

SI: Is that a learned ability or something we're born with？

P: Well, there've been studies that suggest that we are born with a certain capacity for social evaluation, that
infants as young as six months are able to make social evaluations. David?

S2: I don't doubt that that's possible, but at six months, babies are still preverbal, so...

P：That's a good question. One of the studies I'm referring to consisted of two experiments done by researchers
at Yale University. In both experiments, the researchers looked at a group of six-month olds. To prepare for the
first experiment, the researchers constructed a little stage and on that stage, they constructed a little hill, ok?
And then they got three wooden blocks: one in the shape of a circle, one in the shape of a square, and one in the
shape of a triangle, ok? And on each of these blocks, they glued a pair of eyes, little circles with black dots in
them that looked like eyes, ok?

So in the first phase of the experiment, the researchers showed the infants a series of brief scenarios. In every
scenario, one of the blocks, lets say the circle block, played the role of a climber trying to get to the top of the
hill, ok? So the circle block was the climber. At first, the climber block would appear by itself and start
climbing up the hill, but it would be struggling. Then in some of the other scenarios, one of the other blocks,
lets say the square, would appear and would always help the climber block get to the top of the hill; gently
nudge it up the hilt ok? So you had the square block always helping the climber block and in the rest of the
scenarios, the other block, lets say the triangle, would appear and would always hinder the climber block. It
would always block the climber's path and force it back down the hill, so the triangle block was always
hindering the climber block. Ok, so that was the first phase.Then in the second phase of the experiment, the
researchers placed the helper and hinderer blocks in front of each infant and they noted which block each infant
reached for.

S2: And the idea was that they'd reach for the helper block?

P: That's right and that's exactly what happened in most every case. Karen?

S1:I’m wondering how you could be sure that they're choosing based on social evaluation. I'm mean, maybe
they just like circles better than squares or maybe they just like to see things going up the hill more than they
like to see things coming down the hill or something.

P: Excellent question, which is what the researchers were obviously wondering as well because,as I mentioned
earlier, they did a second experiment. They took another group of six-month olds and showed them scenarios
very similar to the ones in the first experiment, ok? Only this time, the climber block didn't have eyes and it
never moved by itself. It only got pushed up the hill by one block, very gently, very smoothly and down the hill
by the other block very gently, very smoothly.

SI : So in the second experiment, the idea was that the babies wouldn't perceive the climber block as a living
thing and it wasn't trying to do anything, so it couldn't really be helped or hindered.

P: Exactly.

SI : So then there wouldn't be any social evaluation in vo lved .

P: Exactly and this time, when the researchers offered the infants the wooden blocks they didn't have a clear
preference.

SI : That's very interesting.

P: Yes and what's considered most significant about these studies is not so much that the infants were able to
make social evaluations, but that they were able to evaluate interactions between unknown individuals;
interactions that had nothing to do with themselves. That's pretty sophisticated.

SI : Especially for a six-month old.

P: Yes.
1-sk8-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a music history class.

Today I'd like to look at an important piece of music of the 20th century. It's a ballet； so you might imagine
graceful melodies and dancers, refined and beautiful, but this traditional view of ballet was challenged and
altered one evening in Paris in May of 1913. The theater was reopening after extensive renovation and the
audience was impressed when they saw the newly restored elegance. The first piece that evening was a very
traditional ballet with unremarkable music, but that could not be said about what followed: the premier
performance of The Rite of Spring by Igor Stravinsky.

The Rite of Spring opened with some very high notes played by the bassoon, normally a deep-toned instrument.
Such strained； pinched notes that many in the audience had no idea what instrument was playing then another
instrument came in playing a different melody with a slightly different rhythm, one that didn't really mesh with
the opening bassoon. Gradually, more and more instruments came in, each playing a perfectly beautiful melody,
but none of them really making sense with what the other instruments were playing. It sounded (chaotic), but
then things really went crazy when the curtain went up and the audience saw the dancers. They were wearing
rough costumes and weren't poised elegantly like traditional ballet dancers and when they started dancing, I
should mention here that the choreography was created by Stravinsky's collaborator, Naginski, and Naginski, in
the words of an eye witness, Naginski had the dancers repeat the same gestures a hundred times. They stamped
in place he said, they stamp, they stamp.

Well, very soon noise started to build in the audience and it quickly became clear that there were two different
camps, supporters and detractors. Members of the audience began to shout at each and soon people were
actually fighting in the aisles. The lights were even turned on so the police could escort some of the offenders
out o f the building, though that didn't really seem to help much. In fact, it's amazing that the performers
actually made it through the piece, but when it was over, while applause broke out from some who were ecstatic
about what had happened, and angry shouting from many others who were shocked and appalled by what they
felt to be a complete betrayal, a breakdown of traditional ballet. The chaos that evening was a great
disappointment to Stravinsky. Ironically though, the producer of the program that night was not at all upset. He
was overjoyed that everyone in Paris would soon be talking of nothing but this, well what many were calling,
this terrible scandal. Then as now apparently, producers like almost any kind of publicity. Even notoriety sells
seats, they say.

So, that's what happened at that first performance of The Rite of Spring. What's not quite so clear is why, what
set off this huge uproar?Was it that Stravinsky's music was such a break from the past? The retelling of the
events of that evening certainly created the popular impression that this piece marked the dawn of a new,
modern age in orchestral music. That helped establish the piece's reputation as an important, even revolutionary'
milestone in musical history and I'd say this reputation is pretty well deserved ，but that's actually a different
question from the one we were trying to answer .As to what in fact caused the near riot, well consider this: after
the first few minutes of the performance, there was so much shouting in the audience, that Stravinsky's music
could hardly be heard. rm hardly alone in concluding that it was less the music than the staging that outraged so
much of the audience. Ballet lovers were so shocked by Naginski's choreography in many cases, that the music,
well lets just say it didn't get a fair h earing.It was only when the work was performed in concert without any
dancers about a year later that Stravinsky finally felt it a true success, but that was just on the eve of World War
I and so it wasn't performed as a ballet again for seven years. After the war, when The Rite of Spring finally
returned to the stage as a ballet, Naginski's choreography was abandoned and with dancers performing totally
new steps, the work went on to become a modern classic.
1-sk9-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and the supervisor of employees at the university library. The student
is a part-time employee at the library.

student: Hi Melissa! How was your economics exam?

Melissa: Pretty challenging, actually. Thanks for letting me take time off from here to stu dy for it.

Student: Well, like we said when we hired you, your schoolwork is always a priority as long as you give us
sufficient notice as to when you need off. Why you were out though we had a staff meeting explaining a couple
of things. Well be dividing work in a new way and well also be using a new procedure for employees to keep
track of what work they do.

Melissa: You mean instead of keeping track of how many hours we work per week?

Student: No, no. You'll still need to keep track of your total hours so you can get paid each week.The new
procedure I'm talking about will be extra.

Melissa: And you said the work will be divided differently?

Student: Yes. You work at the circulation desk, right?

Melissa: Right. Student: So, right now you check out books for students, log the returned books, and sort them
by category so the stock team can put them back on the shelves. Anything else?

Melissa: No, that's about it. Student: 0k, well we're expanding that job to have you do some other tasks too, so
going forward you will also help students locate books on the shelves and put returned books in their proper
places on the shelves.

Melissa: Oh, that'll be good. There are times when I sit at the desk just waiting for students to come by to check
out or return books.

Student: Ok and now for the tracking procedure. We're asking employees to keep track of the specific tasks they
do and for how long. For example, when you're at the circulation desk, how much time do you spend checking
in returned books and separating them or how much time do you spend checking out books for students to
borrow?

Melissa: Wow and this seems very specific. I mean like, why do we have to do this with such like, why do we
have to be so detailed?

Student: Welb the university wants a written job description for each role, so we're putting together a summary
of student jobs at the library with specific details about each job; what specific tasks it entails and how much of
the job is spent on each task. It won't be as complicated as it sounds.
You'll have a piece of paper listing all the tasks you do and you'll just need to write on it how many minutes you
spend on each task. You'll submit it with your weekly time sheet.

Melissa: Ok and before I forget' I have a project due for my world history class at the end of the month, so I'll
need to take a few days off again
Student: That's fine. Email me the details. For now, go meet with Ms. Stanton in the reference section.She'll
show you how to help students who are looking for specific books.
Listen to a conversation between a student and his American literature professor.

Professor: Did you decide to do your paper on Thornton Wilder, the novelist or Thornton Wilder, the
playwright? He was both you know.

Student: Oh, the novelist, for sure. I just finished reading his book, The Bridge of San Luis Rey and I really
liked it. I know why it's so popular. I'm just not sure what to focus on in my paper.

Professor: Why do you like the book?

Student: I like the way Wilder uses different characters to illustrate different ideas. It's like they're not realistic
human beings. The characters are more like types, you know?

Professor: That's a good observation. Many novelists write realistic fiction. They shape their novels with the
intention of portraying actual situations, but if that's not Wilder's goal, then what is he up to would you say?

Student: I think he's trying to teach something, something philosophical kind of, something that's true for
everybody everywhere.

Professor: You mean a moral lesson, like a fable? Alright, good. So, we have a 20th century North American
author telling a fable that's set in 18th century Peru. I'm curious... does that seem remarkable to you at all?

Student: No, not really. Probably some people just like writing about the past or about places they've been. I
figured maybe Wilder had visited Peru and thought it would be a great setting for a novel.

Professor: Interesting theory, yet Wilder hadn't visited Peru when he wrote The Bridge of San Luis Rey. I'd like
to suggest another possibility to you that his choice of setting was intentional, so he could do just what you
mentioned.

Student: You mean, if you want to teach a moral it's better to set your novel someplace you've never actually
been so you're not distracted by what you know about the place, what you remember.

Professor: Right. Also, a setting in the past has the same effect, plus it gives you a certain amount of distance
from your characters, but Wilder received some harsh criticism for doing that.

Student: He did?

Professor: Yes. You see, Wilder avoided contemporary settings in most of his novels. He was actually accused
of being out of touch with the real world and therefore not an important author because he didn't write about
contemporary life and contemporary problems.

Student: What kind of sense does that make? Like you said' he probably stayed away from contemporary
settings so he could concentrate on the philosophy, the moral truths.

Professor: There was quite a debate over it at the time. When you do your paper, you'll need to do a bit of
research into that and one other thing you'll need to research … well, I also recommend you take a look at
Wilder's comic novel Heaven's My Destination. That book did, in fact, draw in many ways on elements of his
life and yet some people think it has a lot in common with The Bridge of San Luis Rey, so you might have the
basis there for a fruitful comparison.
Listen to part of a lecture in a marine biology class.

I want to elaborate a little bit on something we talked about last week when we talked about how fish navigate.
We had briefly discussed that fish are able to sense changes in water pressure and water currents because of
their lateral line. The lateral line, if you'll remember, is a line of small holes that runs horizontally along a fish's
body. Each of these holes is connected to a canal that sits just under the fish's skin and within the canal there are
these small sensory hairs that move back and forth when they're stimulated by changes in water pressure from
water entering the canal. This sensitivity to water pressure allows the fish to detect changes in currents, which
helps them to navigate, to make their way through the environment and I bring this up because you need to
understand it for today's discussion, which is actually about how the manatee navigates.

You should be familiar with manatees. They're large marine mammals that are found in warm water, costal and
river ecosystems; places where salt water and fresh water meet.In North America, they can be found in Florida
and the Caribbean. The manatee's habitat is often characterized by dark , murky water. As a result, it's very
difficult for manatee's to see in this environment. It's difficult to see any distance. It's difficult to see any
objects. Manatees don't have very good vision anyway and unlike other marine mammals, such as whales and
dolphins, manatees don't use echolocation. Echolocation's when animals produce really high-frequency clicks
and then detect the echoes of those clicks that bounce off objects in the water. It allows animals like whales and
dolphins to sense how far away objects are and to navigate. So, manatees cannot echolocate and their habitat
makes visual orientation less than ideal. So, how do they navigate?

Well, manatees have an unusual characteristic. They have these very tough hairs that are spaced more or less
evenly all over their bodies and about a hundred years ago, one scientist, well his instinct was and don't ask me
how he came up with this, was that this might have something to do with manatee navigation. His opinion was
that these were tactile hairs. Tactile has to do with the sense of touch and tactile hairs are so called because they
allow animals to feel what's going on in their environment. They're different from other hairs because of the hair
follicle sinus they sit in. The hair follicle sinus is just like a small sack within which a single hair sits in the skin
of the animal and importantly, the sinus is attached to lots of nerves ;more nerves than other kinds of hair
follicles. So when the hairs touch something or move, the nerves sense the movement and send a signal to the
brain.

Now, here's what was a little peculiar about the scientist's proposal. Other mammals have tactile hairs, but
they're usually restricted to the facial region. An example of this is the whiskers on cats and dogs, so what this
scientist was proposing, just based on an instinct, was kind of unusual, but if his instinct was correct, that these
were tactile hairs, then it's possible these hairs do constitute a system that enables navigation, something similar
in function to what fish have.Anyway, that was a hundred years ago, but all of this came to light again recently
when a researcher analyzed some magnified images of manatee hair follicles. He found out that indeed these are
sinus follicles and the hairs in them are indeed tactile hairs, so together these hairs form a sensory system for
manatees. What he also found is that on manatees, these hairs are spaced far enough apart that they don't touch
each other, so that they don't overlap and interfere with each other. In other words, so the manatee doesn't sense
itself. So this research is all very interesting, but the big question is how similar manatee tactile hairs and fish
lateral lines are.

What information is the manatee receiving from the tactile hairs? Like, can tactile hairs allow manatees to
detect stationary objects such as rock formations or riverbanks? See, there's patterns of flow in the water and
stationary objects disrupt that flow. Fish perceive these kinds of disruptions because of their lateral lines and the
research is ongoing, but preliminary findings seem to say that yes, manatees have this ability. Lets take a look
now at one particular experiment.
1-sk9-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a music history class in our discussions of renaissance music.

Up till now, we've established that when music was copied and distributed to others, it was all written by hand.
You can imagine the tedious nature of that work. Right today, though, I want to turn our attention to printed
music music that was published through the use of a printing press. And we will see that the printing of music
actually changed the audience for it, and therefore changed music itself. Let's start with a man named at aviano
petrucci music printer ottaviano petrucci printed his first publications around the year 1500.

These were gorgeous publications and they were very expensive to produce, mainly because they required a lot
of time and a great deal of precision. Printed music became, in short, a luxury object for the upper class. We
know from existing records that for the price of one petrucci print of music, you could purchase several
volumes of literature. The revolution in music printing came around 1520 with a French printer named pierre at
an yang. The first thing pierre at and your did was to get an assurance from the king that he would be the only
one who could set up a music printing shop. In all of France. This is understandable since it was such a risky
enterprise, but I let's be realistic with no competition.

How could he have failed anyway? At? And yon used a new less expensive way of printing music than petrucci
did. Admittedly, the Prince weren't as attractive as petrucci is Prince, but they were much, much cheaper.
Therefore, they actually got used. They weren't just for collectors to display on a shelf. Since they got used the
paper itself degraded. And so we don't have nearly as many at on your Prince as we have petrucci prints. How is
the music at on your own printed used well at a neon printed lots of songs and people were singing them for
their own entertainment in their own homes Use this amateur sort of domestic performance meant that the
musical arrangements needed to be less complex than the arrangements professional musicians would use. This
gave rise to a new genre called parisian. Chanson shall song is the French word for song. Although the genre
was popular throughout europe, it came to be known as parisian shall song, because so many of the songs were
printed in that. And you'll shop in Paris. And here is a key feature of parisian chanson.

Imagine you're standing around a dinner table with three friends getting ready to sing a song that has four
different vocal parts. In the printed music book. You see only your line of music, only the part that you'll
personally be singing in front of you. That makes sense, then you won't be distracted or confused by everyone
else's parts. Right? True. But actually having only your part could make it a bit more challenging, because you
might not know what everybody else is about to sing, or even who's supposed to sing first. Like, think of an
orchestra with different instruments. Not all of them start playing right at the beginning of the song. May be just
the violins start, and then the trumpets come in later, and so on.

But an orchestra has a conductor to tell the musicians when to start, but there's no conductor in your dining
room. So the composers of parisian chance or worked around this by having all four voice parts start at the same
time. And in the same rhythm. Now as the song progressed, the rhythms, melodies and harmonies did get more
difficult, more varied. But these songs always had everyone singing the same pattern at the beginning. So this is
a very interesting moment in music history where it's very clear that the business side of music, that is to say the
selling of printed music by pierre at onion, those who followed the business end of music shape the artistic end,
the technology that allowed at annual to produce inexpensive Prince affected music itself by leading to the
creation of an entirely new genre of music.

1-sk9-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.
Archaeologists have many reasons to be interested in studying the remains of plants. Historically, humans have
relied on plants as a source of everything from building material to food and medicine. So identifying plant
remains at ancient human sites would help us gain insight into the way of life of a culture at a given point in
time. But plants decay quickly. So it's rare to find intact specimens to examine even such seemingly sturdy stuff
as seeds. Don't hold up over time. What do we do?
Fortunately, some plants leave behind microscopic traces of themselves that don't decay. Pollen and starch
grains, for example, have been used in archaeological studies, as have what are called fighter lifts. Finalists are
very tiny mineral deposits, almost like pieces of hard glass that form in the cells, or between cells of many kinds
of plants. The minerals originate in the ground water that the plant absorbs through its roots. When the water
runs through the plant cells, the minerals are deposited. So a phytolith is essentially a cast, a 3D impression of a
plant cell, or depending on the species of the space between cells.
And when the plant dies, it's phytolith sar released into the soil. Now the plant suffers no ill effects from the
fighter lifts. In fact, plants can benefit from them. For example, leaves dense with vital, it's are rigid and better
able to absorb the sun's rays for photosynthesis. And these leaves can also deter hungry herbivore yps. And
think about it. If you were an herbivore, a plant eater, would you prefer to chew on a nice soft leaf or one full of
hard mineral deposits? Now, researchers have been actively analyzing fighter lists for about four decades, and
they've proven to be extremely important. You see, in addition to the fact that fighter lists don't decay, the shape
of a species vital' is as unique as your fingerprints are to you. So we can tell what species left behind the fighter
lists we happen to be studying. And with advances in technology like computer imaging and the electron
microscope, we can even distinguish between closely related plants, like wheat and barley.
That, incidentally, is something we couldn't do until recently, because the only tool we had was the standard
light microscope. The electron microscope, which uses electron beams, allows us to see details we'd never see
with light microscopes. Ok, so what exactly can fighter let's tell us about the past, Their presence on residue
from vessels used for cooking and storing food? Let's us know what a population was eating. We can also
determine when a particular plant was first domesticated, for example, we use vitalist to distinguish between
wild and domesticated maize. This is actually something researchers want to know about may's. When did
people first start to plant it as a crop? So what we've been able to do is identify ancient sites of maize
agriculture, take samples from different soil layers, and study the fighter lits from each layer. The deeper the
layer, the older the soil is, and we can date the soil layers.
So far, we've been able to trace domesticated maize back nearly 10000 years. It could be even older.
Technology is making advances all the time. And now we couldn't have studied the domestication of maize
without fighter lists. Granted, pollen can be useful. As I said, it resists decay. And it's possible to determine to
some degree would plant a grain of pollen came from. But consider the purpose of pollen. It's to be carried away
from the plant, right?
By wind or animals. The plant contributes to the continuation of its species by spreading pollen around. So i'd
argue that pollen is only a very loose sort of indicator of land use for the site where it's found. But fighter lips,
on the other hand, are generally found very close to where the plant lived there deposited in the soil where the
plant decayed. So if you find a high concentration of fighter lists from a domesticated species of plant in one
area, it could be an indication that you may have discovered a field and agricultural field. Now, there are several
databases and guides that identify the fighter lists of thousands of species. This means when we come across a
phytolith, we can look it up in these resources and find out what plant it came from.

1-sk10-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor.

OK, Karl. How could I help you?

It's about my term paper of the urban planning class. Instead of doing library research, I was thinking of doing a
survey of my own and using the data in the report.
That's an nice idea. I think doing this kind of hands-on project is great experience, especially if you decided to
go to graduate school.
But I have been having a lot of problems designing a survey.

Ah, it's not as easy as it looks, is it?

No. Now I am not even sure if I can stick with my plan or switch back to a more traditional paper.

Well, you might as well get some experience sooner well than 33ewtlater. What's the topic again? Nothing
really complex. I just wanted to survey local people about the proposal for widening route 62 from a two-lane
road to a four-lane highway.

OK.

So do I go about selecting the people I want to survey? A lot of what I read have stress having a representative
sample. But I'm not sure how to do it.
Well, yes. A representative sample is crucial. You want the people you survey to be as close to an accurate
reflection of the larger population you are interested in as possible. Imagine that the town as a cake with raisins
in it and imagine that for some reason, most of the raisins end up on one side of the cake. If you cut a piece
from the other side, would that be truly representative?
Would that be an accurate reflection of the cake?

No. You'll be missing the raisins.

Exactly! So for your project, what if you only survey people who live in houses along route 62, you think that
would be useful?

Well, no. Because everyone there would probably be opposed to the widening.

Yes. And that's why a representative sample is important. You don't want a sample that's biased, too strongly
one way or the other. So, how do you do that?

Well, I could make sure my survey reaches people in all parts of the town.
Good. So how can you do that?

Well, I'll go and make phone calls, just choose numbers at random from the local phone director.

Instead of passing on questionnares , because people often don't

But I don't see how I chjould get a representative sample using the phone.Well. Make sure you're getting a nice
balance of numbers. Phone company can tell you what numbers have been assigned to different parts of town.
For example, for numbers in my neighborhood, that was a 256 and I live on the edge of town, where I guess
you'd find a lot of pro-highway people. So make sure you don't call mostly 256 numbers.
Listen to a conversation between a student and an editor in the department of university publications.

Hi, Mr. Miller. I'm Jennifer Johnson.

Ah, yes, Jennifer. Thanks for stopping by. I got two emails and the photos attached came through as ok Great.
Did you like them?
Yeah, they're very and some are shot from very eye-catching angle. You're obviously very comfortable behind
the lens.

But, you know, when I first looked at them, the library has a new entry right now, the engineering lab is twice
as big. When did you take these?

About 2 years ago, for a class on architectural photography.For the final program I shot photos of some campus
buildings. We have such gorgeous architecture here.

Ok, now I see. Yeah, there have been so much new constructions and re-constructions here in the last couple of
years, buildings expansion and so on.
Right. This place has changed a lot.

You see. We need our guide book to reflect the way the campus looks now, that's one reason why we're doing
this revision. We want to make sure the photos of each campus building. We want interior and exteriot shot,
shots of students studying or participating projects of the lab and nice area shot of the university.

Sounds great.

You know, we almost hire a professional to take the architectural shot, a photographer we used in the past. But
this time, I thought it'd be nice to provide the opportunity to photography students.

You're majoring in photography right?

Yeah. And after graduation, I want to shoot pictures for a big architectural firm or an architectural magazine
maybe. So when professor Howard told us that you're looking for pictures of the campus, it seem like a chance
to ?? for my portfolio, you know.

It's definitely good to get to work in an official university publication. Employers are impressed by full color,
high-profile stuff.

The guide book's high-profile?

Sure is. It's used online by thousands of prospective students and their parents and we've been printed version to
college fairs. For many high school students, it's their first in-depth look at
ourcampus.

Cool. So I'll reshoot those two buildings, the lab and the library. And do you want to photography anything
else?

We're going to replace all the architectural shots, so really anything that excites a fancy. But the missing
deadline is 5 o'clock tomorrow. You can email me if you want.

Tomorrow? I have classes all day.

Hmm, I understand. I guess there're some really great shots, I can be a little flexible. Just try to get them as soon
as you can, OK?

Certainly for the end of the next week.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Earth science class

OK. Before we finish class, I'd like to briefly talk about something else. Has anyone ever heard of something
called flotsam science? No? I'm not surprised. It's a research method, but one of the more unusual ones out
there.
Now, flotsam, of course, refers to cargo or records from ship that floating to washed up on shore.

Flotsam science began quite accidentally some years ago, when a shipment of plastic bath toys, shaped like
frogs, ducks and turtles fell off a cargo ship into the Pacific Ocean in stormy weather.

No one thought too much about this, it happens all the time. But then these toys started to wash up onto
beaches, thousands of miles away. Scientists who track ocean currents were exciting, since they knew when and
where that had occurred, they realize they could trace the routes these toys would have taken if they floated
through the Pacific.

So flotsam science is, generally speaking, the science of floating junk.

But this is legitimate if perhaps unconventional scientific discipline. In fact, thanks to flotsam science and these
travelling bath toys and other harmless stuff that dropped off ships like athletic shoes, sports equipment, you
name it. Scientists now know a lot more than they used to, about the currents in the northern Pacific.
That information, in turn, has allowed scientists to identify long term changes in water temperature and salinity,
the amount of salt in the water in these currents.

Before flotsam science, scientists have been trying to determine these information for years by using expensive
scientific devices that they would set a drift in the ocean. But there are problems with these devices. For one
thing, they need to travel a great depth, as much as two kilometers down, because if they ride on the surface of
the ocean, their senses could be obstructed by algae, ??, other organism that thrive in the sun-lit portion of the
ocean. But if they travel way below the surface to avoid these obstructions, well, they don't tell you much about
surface movement of the water, which is what we want to know.Another problem is that the batteries don't last
long enough to record the sophisticated data, but bath toys, athletic shoes, that sort of thing, they travel on the
surface, and they don't need batteries. And a lot of merchandise that falls off ships, like athletic shoes have
manufacturing codes on them the scientists use in tracing the origin of these objects, and keeping track of their
movements.

And now, scientists are using flotsam science for more than studying ocean currents. For example, some
scientists are trying to use flotsam science to study glacial melt water. In the warmer summer month, ice from
the top layer of glacier melts, forming pools of melt water. So far, it's been a challenge to determine just how
much ice of the glacier melts in the summer or where the melt water ends up because it travels through moulins.
A moulin is a giant crack in the glacier that melt water drains through and once melt water enters the moulin, it
is extremely difficult to track.One scientist set out to determine where melt water from a glacier in Greenland
ends up. It was in the neighboring body of water.So what did scientists did is to set a special scientific
instrument equipped with a tracking device down the moulin in Greenland's largest glacier. Unfortunately, this
rather expensive device disappeared.

OK, so what else could be used? Now you have to realize that conditions inside the moulins are intense, it's
freezing cold, plus there's a high pressure from the way of all that ice above. So what was need was something
really durable. He finally decided to use yellow rubber duck, a children bath toy.Their advantage being the most
cheap, and stand high pressure and low temperature. Well, after printing his email address, and offer a reward in
three different languages on the duck, he dropped 90 of them down the moulin he was researching. Now he
hasn't actually had any of these ducks returned yet, but he remains hopeful that some one will find the duck and
return to him.
1-sk10-2
In our studies of impressionism, we've already seen how the outdoors..em…how outdoor settings and natural
subjects figure prominently in European impressionist paintings of the 19th century.

Nature and natural landscapes were key to the artist's new resource of light and color which places an emphasis
on the artist's impressions, what the artist actually saw in different light conditions rather than on idealized ? of
places and scenes.

But these are the only subjects we see in the paintings of Child Hasome. Hasome was one of the most important
impressionist painters in the United States. He was unique for…em…his body of work represents a really
interesting dichotomy of both rural and urban elements.

Now, don't get me wrong, like the best majority of impressionists, Hasome did paint many rural outdoor things.
But the city, especially New York city were into many of his work too. You see, imagine impressionism
developed during the industrial age, a very dynamic time in US history, the late 1800s, early 1900s. Everything
was changing, how people live, where they live , their job.
Increasing numbers of people from throughout the world immigrated here to fill the new factory job, and
naturally, they flocked to the big cities where those jobs were. So the cities grew very noisy and crowded. Most
of the early impressionists reacted to this by using an art to counter the busy urban environment. In contrast, all
these change and commersion, their paintings emphasis nature, peace, and permanent. Many of these artists
maintain studios in New York city or Boston, but they were summoned in the countryside. And these spots were
ideal for their open-air style painting, painting outside with natural lighting. Hasome spent most of his summer
on upper door island. Upper door island was a popular vacation spot of the east coast. So popular it got almost
as crowded as a city.

Yet, Hasome's upper door paintings emphasis solitude, a retreat from urban life. We see flowers, the ocean are
inhivitable lucky quiz with human subjects largely absent which is art considering how it might have been
surrounded by people. Because back in the city, Hasome did focus on people, his paintings of city life or
realistic studies of the relationship between people and the city.

The greatest examples are series of paintings made in his New York city studio. Let's have a look at one piece
from that series, the breakfast room went through morning. As you can see, the breakfast room is distinctively
urban, it doesn't hide the city. You can make up the traces of tall building, the flat iron building, one of New
York first skyscraper and the major feature of the city skyline, uhn … , when this painting was made. In fact,
the flat iron building was considered a symbol of modern rise. So its inclusion in this quiet domestic scene is
significant I think even more significant is how Hasome and where. Notice on Hasome ties the interior and
exterior elements together. First, there is an implied triangle formed by the woman on the left, the flat iron
building in the centre and the bowel of fruit on the right, three corners.

By structuring the scene in this way, Hasome links the woman and her immediate environment to the cityscape
behind her. Emm…. the same thing with color, the blue in the woman's dress is echoed in the flat iron building,
and beyond in the flowers, it's the same yellow as the building is at the extreme light. This use of color makes
your eye automatically link dis… elements together.

Yet, well the city is visible, is also controlled. The buildings and skyline are painted with nuded cool colors
while the woman's inward glance and windows keep the focus inside the room, creating a separation from the
bustling city outside. (5)So Hasome is econologing the changes of modernity by incorporating the city into a
quiet domestic scene but he obscure the flat iron building behind the curtain. In fact, the whole cityscape is
murky, suggesting that is the presence of people's personal lives or to be limited. He is probably expressing his
own ideas about how society should relate to this new. Indeed the theories of paintings was directly response to
his experience of urban growth and all that is symbolized. He couldn't have painted the breakfast room in the
rural mid west. It wouldn't have been the same painting. The nuded city has a source
of inspiration.

1-sk10-3
Polar bears inhabit the Arctic, on the outer perimeters of the sea ice. to be exact. When polar bear die, their
bones almost always end up deep down on the floor of the icy Arctic Ocean. They basically disappear forever.
Recently, however, a polar bear's jawbone was found within the Arctic Circle, on an island in Noway Svalbard
archipelago.

This bone held in a valuable information regarding the polar bear's revolutionary past. For instance, exactly how
long the polar bear has existed as a species has been a matter of wild debate.

So researchers took the opportunity to perform dating analyses on the bone, and also to analyze its DNA. The
bone was determined to be about 120,000 years old, and the DNA analysis established that it was indeed the
bone of a polar bear. Now, in order to map out the polar bear's genetic profile, researchers performed
mitochondrial DNA analysis. Usually when we think of DNA, we think of the DNA that's in cell's nucleus, but
in fact, a cell mitochondria also contain DNA. In this particular situation, mitochondrial DNA analysis made
more sense than nuclear DNA analysis.

You remember from a previous lecture that a mitochondrion is the energy producing structure In cells, right?
Well, it has a much more stable structure than a nucleus. That's a distinct advantage when you're investigating
ancient delicate samples. Additionally, there're up to 1,000 mitochondria within a single cell. But there are only
two copies of nuclear DNA within a cell. This abundance of samples makes mitochondrial DNA analysis a
much easier procedure.

As far as genetics and ancestry are concerned, we've long been- aware that polar bears are young species,
evolutionarily speaking, and that they branched off from brown bears. But this jawbone fossil has helped us
better estimate when that splitting off probably occurred. By the way, as part of their investigation, researchers,
studied a unique geographically isolated group of modern brown bears living in southeastern Alaska. It turns
out these brown bears have genes that resembled polar bear genes more than they resembled the genes of other
brown bears. Anyway, the jawbone fossil appears to have come from a polar bear that had lived shortly after.
Well, historically speaking that is, shortly after polar bears agreed to split info a different species.

And what does all this mean? Well, because the fossil is so old, polar bears must have survived Earth's last
interglacial warming period, about 45,000 years ago. But polar bears are Arctic animals and live on the ice. In
that unique environment, how exactly did they manage? Well, one theory suggests that polar bears may have
been able to find a few remote cold icy places, such as, well, this Svalbard islands to live on until the climate
eventually cooled
again.

Controversially, because the last warming period was actually warmer than the one now, the one more presently
experiencing. Some people believe that polar bears will be able to pull through again. But there's something
they are not taking into account, namely, the pace at which climate change is occurring today. The climate
today is becoming warmer at a very accelerated rate. Polar bears are highly specialized species. It is unrealistic
to expect them to be able to adapt in such a short window of time, incidentally, the climate isn't the only factor
that might have an effect on the polar bear's future.
Recently the offspring of a polar bear and a grizzly bear was discovered in the southern Arctic. This hybrid was
a result of a polar bear and a grizzly bear mating. You see it seems that grizzly bears in Canada have been
moving northward, intruding on the polar bear's territory. This is actually the first time that we've seen such a
hybrid in the wild, but it's possible that hybridization could occur more and more frequently, resulting in
increasing numbers of offspring that can no longer be considered true polar bears. And if that pattern continued
over time, well.

1-sk11
Listening to p art of a conversation between a student and a bookstore clerk.

M: Hi，I'm here to return a book that I bought for a psychology class. I dropped the class, so... I won't need the
book anymore.

W: Well, have you checked our return policy?

M: No, why?

W: Well, you should have done that first, it's printed on the back of your purchase receipt and it's also posted at
the front o f the store.

M: Okay, herefs my purchase receipt... urn... but why do you ask?

W: The school does allow students to return books, but only one week after the start of classes, and, well, I’m
sorry, but you bought this book two weeks ago.

M: Ugh，I’ve been so busy, thafs why I dropped the course in the first place.I mean, look at it, it's completely
new.I didn't even write my name on it.

W: Yes, it does look like very good condition, but I'm really sorry, thafs the school policy.

M: The school should really change the policy.One week isn’t rea lly a whole lot of time. I mean, it should be
until the middle of the semester or something, you know?

W: Yes, well, the school changed the policy about 7-8 years ago.The school used to allow returns during the
entire semester. But what happened was that after students took a class, they would bring back their textbooks
to the bookstore and ask for a full refund for the book at the end o f the semester.

M: Oh, no! Then there's nothing I can do?

W: Well, the school does buy books at the buyback price. But, it won’t be a full refund.

M: Okay, so how much is the buyback price?

W: Oh, it's 50% of the original price of the book，and only if the book will be used by the school for that class
during the next semester. Let me check, what was your class num ber?

M: Psychology 201.
W: Okay. Hold on j ust a second please while I look that up. Well, it looks like the Psychology department is
planning to change the book next semester, so they won’t be using the book you have. Em, and that means we
won't be able to buy back your book.

M: WHAT? Then what on earth am I sup-posed to do now?

W: Well, we have an agreement with the book distributors. They buy back any books that we can’t sell, and
then they sell them to other colleges that still use the books as used books.But, their buy-back price is pretty
low. Your book will probably come out to about 25 dollars.

M: Jeez，are you serious? I paid over a hundred bucks for this book and I mean I never used it.

W: I know, I know. Well, however, this is sure better than before when we didn't have any agreements with the
distributors.

M: Really?

W: Yeah, back then, we couldn't do anything for the students. They couldn’t return any books even if they
dropped a course within a week. So, Vm really sorry, but, at least you can get some of your money back.

M: Yeah, I guess so. Ill do that then. Anyway, thanks.

Listen to a conversation between a student and the director of the Student Activity Center.

D: Is everything ready, Jack?

S: Yeah! We have fifteen students who signed up for the trip to New York so far, and everything is setup.

D: Great! So... our train will arrive....

S: It gets into the city at noon, and that would leave us enough time to visit the art gallery downtown.

D: You’ve organized this very well! It's such a privilege having an art work by one of our students in that
exhibition.

S: You can say that again! My roommate, you know, he's so modest that I never realized his work is being
exhibited. So, since I was going anyway, for the opening and all, I think my roommate wants me to make a
student event out of it. Working here at the Student Activity Center made me realize how popular our activities
are. I figure d there will be an interest in it!

D: Yes! I'm sure students will be very much interested in it. And what you've done is jus t so good, including
these posters. They look great!

S: Thanks for saying that. And 1 also appreciate that you approved some funds for us. Anyway, um... there’s
something I wanted to talk with you about. The bus.

D: The bus?

S: Yeah. Actually, it came to my mind at the last minute. I’ve already checked the weather forecast, and they
predict sunshine for that day. I mean, we shouldn’t miss this big chance to walk the High Line.

D: What line?
S: Oh! Haven’t you h eard o f it? It’s amazing...! Ifs like... a park in th e sky. Well, originally it was a sole train
line and was used for freight，not passengers.But, once it was replaced by trucks with lower costs, it was
abandoned for a long time.After years of debate, the city agreed on a project to turn the area into an over a mile-
long park. Ifs really cool w ith all the beautiful flowers and trees and also we get to see these fantastic views of
the city. Moreover, it goes from the train station to all the way downtown near the
gallery.

D: Sounds wonderful, but what if not everybody is interested in walking? Some might prefer the bus. Have you
considered this?

S: Um…then, we might divide up into two groups.

D: But you should keep this in mind Jack.The poster says that you will be in charge of the tour for all. If you
want to take the walkers, then you should find someone to lead the rest o f the people on the bus.

S: But who?

D: Well, I didn't grow up in New York like you did, but I got my graduate degree there. So I think I still remem
ber how to get around the city. And I can't wait to see that exhibit.

S: You do? Oh! That would be so great!

P: Is there any way to read someone's mind? Well, the chapter on human personality in your book talks about
the fairly new field of personality neuroscience,. It s an acronym for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

So, today, I want to talk about the application of fMRls for studying personality. fMRls produce pictures...
images of the brain while it's processing information or stimuli. I guess you are familiar with MRI which is a
medical imaging technique used for diagnostic purposes. However, fMRls are mainly used in the research
world. Um... standard medical MRIs only visualize internal brain structures, but fMRls show what’s actually
happening inside the brain. In other words, how the brain is functioning at a given time. That makes fMRls a
more useful research tool than medical MRIs.
As for how fMRls work，well，basically, they use magnetic fields to measure brain activity in different parts
by detecting associated changes in blood flow, and oxygen levels. So, in a sense, this information allows you to
produce detailed pictures of the brain. A map with different parts of the brain, with different actions or
emotions, or even thoughts.

And now，by using this technology, psychologists have been seeking for answers for some questions about
human personality. Personality is a set o f psychological characteristics that remain stable over time. The
questions were about, for example, the types of personality and the existence of itself. Yes?

S: Um, for those questions you’ve mentioned, I read the chapter and it says that questionnaires aren't very
reliable.

P: Right, well, there are some weaknesses using Psychological questionnaires. After all, the information
conducted from questionnaires can be inaccurate. That's simply because th ey rely on what people say about
themselves. And that can be subjective with lots of influences caused by many extraneous factors such as
memory, or desire to present themselves in the best possible light.
(So), questionnaires are somew hat unreliable. But you cannot neglect them entirely. (I mean), questionnaires
and other traditional methods are (still) relevanttoday. Yes, Paula?

SI: But from what I read, fMRls study seemed really good on the amygdala?

P: Well, Yes, let’s talk about that. The amygdala study done with fMRls had its conclusion well supported. The
amygdala, so named because it resembles an almond, is a set of nuclei in the brain and i f s responsible for
regulating the emotions of fear and anxiety. In this study, I hope you recall, subjects were shown pictures of
angry, and fearful faces, and the researchers examined how their brain responded to it. Well, in some of the
subjects, the amygdala was activated when they saw the picture. You could see changes in the fMRls. On the
other hand, in other subjects, there were no changes observed. And then, what’s interesting was a year later, the
same group of people was tested again with the same procedure, and their responses remained the same. For
people whose amygdala lit up the first time, it lit up again a year later. What this study suggests is that the
reaction to fearful stimuli, one aspect o f personality, is stable over time. (So), it might be a partial counter
argument to the claim that personality does not remain stable over time.

S: So, what about other fMRls studies? Are there more problems?

P: Well, in general, a lot of people misunderstand personality neuroscience with the surge of excitement. The
(problem) is overinterpretation.
Researchers who use fMRls place significance on where there aren't any really. You know, our brain is
incredibly complicated. And measuring blood flow can’t possibly tell you about the sophisticated processes at
the neurobiological level.

S: What about those brain maps in our book? Which part of the brain is associated with this or that thought?

P: I have to say how I see it. The brain maps you get from the fMRls studies are like... sort of.... geographical
maps. They're useful, (but) you cannot get everything out of it. They’re limited.

They're not going to tell you much about the people o f the country, for instance, the same goes for brain maps.
That's how you heighten activity in a region of the brain.(But) they don’t tell you, for example, why people
behave as they do. (Therefore), you still need the support of traditional research methods. (So), you shouldn't
throw those away and take them into account.

1-sk11-2
Professor. OK. It’s important to measure a hurricane's intensity before it reaches land because it can help save
lives and avoid the enormous costs of an unnecessary evacuation. But the factors leading to a hurricane’s
intensity like wind speed is very tricky to measure,they're changing constantly. So can anyone tell me how we
get information about the intensity of a hurricane that’s on the way? Jennifer?

Jennifer. Well, don’t we... like....fly planes into it?

Professor: Right. Planes th at m onitor hurricanes fly through the eye o f a hurricane to measure the speed o f
the storm’s wind. But it’s very expensive and brings a lot o f risks.

Jennifer: I understand the point about it being risky for the pilots with the high winds and lightning and
everything. But um.. how can it be so expensive?
Professor. Well. You see, hurricane-monitoring planes are built to withstand strong winds. And they're usually
loaded with a lot of sophisticated equipm ent that will measure wind speed and other things. One plane costs
about 100 million dollars and its single flight costs like... 50 thousand dollars. Plus, it can take as many as 10
flights to monitor a h urricane as it approaches land. From the readings of these measurements of hurricane
force, we can determine whether to evacuate the area. But that's an expensive approach. I mean, we can’t simply
fly planes into ev ery hurricane and cyclone.Now a couple of researchers think there may be a better way to
measure a hurricane's intensity... uh... a much more cost-effective way. It has almost no risks and requires much
lower tech equipment so this method is very promising. It’s a microphone... an underwater microphone called a
hydrophone. OK, so, how it works is... um... it receives acoustic waves underwater. By measuring the noise of a
hurricane underwater, we can predict the speed of hurricane winds with an amazing precision. Yes, John?

John: But how can we hear winds blowing over the water if the microphone，the hydrophone is underwater?

Professor. Well, hurricanes don’t just blow over the water leaving it untouched, do they?

John: Oh yeah. The water gets churned up.

Professor. Hurricanes chum up the waves like crazy. The roiling action o f the wind actually turns the water into
a bubble-filled froth. (3)(And) all this action creates a unique rumbling sound under the water whose volume is
a good indicator of the intensity of the storm... uh... the speed of the hurricane winds. Uh... hydrophones can be
deployed hundreds of meters below the surface ahead of the hurricane's path while conditions are still safe.
Also, the total cost for such a deployment would be a small fraction o f the cost of even a single flight into the
storm.

Jennifer. I wonder how they figured this out. I mean, how would it occur to anyone to put a microphone under
water to measure the speed of the hurricane winds?

Professor: Well, this actually brings us back to something I’ve talked about in class before. It’s the... ah... value
of combining scientific disciplines to deal with complex meteorological problems. In this case, the idea came to
light when two researchers from different fields met a few years ago. One was Nicholas Makris, an expert of
underwater acoustics and the other was Kerry Emmanuel, a hurricane expert. So... uh… well... the research was
triggered by their conversation.

Emmanuel asked Makris, “ Is it possible that underwater noise could be analyzed to determine the intensity o f a
hurricane? ” Makris said “yes, in theory at least. ” It was a commonly known fact that wind speed has
something to do with underwater noise. But it was not until Makris met Emmanuel that the idea occurred to him
to use that relationship to measure hurricane winds. So，Makris started looking for specific evidence to support
the theory. He thought there may have been a situation where a hydrophone was deployed for some other
purpose and unintentionally recorded hurricane noise. (And) he found it.

In 1999, a hydrophone in the middle of the Atlantic, ju st under a kilometer b elow the surface was listening for
underw ater earthquakes when a hurricane passed over it. The hydrophone picked up a low rumbling sound, like
the thundering sound, from the churned up water. And on the same day, a plane had flown into the hurricane
and made direct wind speed measurement. When Makris compared the data, he found that there was almost a
perfect relationship between the power of the wind and the power of the wind-generated noise. And there was
less than 5 percent of error, which is about the same as the errors you get from measurements from airplane
measurements.

1-sk11-3
M: What I really want from you guys is that you learn how music can affect our feelings, really grasping the
essence of music. Actually, you already knew music has an influence on human's feeling in many ways before
ever coming to this class. However, Td like focus on "how to do this1’ today. Actually, it's the thing about
humans. Music is universal form and has been so in every human civilization since the beginning of time. It’s
Like we're hard-wired to appreciate music.

Okay, when we hear music, it stimulates some areas of our brain. In addition to this, when we hear a low
frequency sound transforming to a high frequency sound, it actually makes our brain react in a certain way. So,
this is what I want to talk to you about today, a research done on the relationship between music and the brain.
This research involved Positron Emission Tomography, or PET scan.

This is a kind of scan that can project three dimensional images of the internal organs, and can even detect and
display the areas in the brain that are being stimulated.
Here's one experiment. Researchers asked subjects to listen to music, and they used the PET scan to detect what
areas in the brain were being stimulated. Well, so what did they find out? One region is very obvious, the are a
of the brain devoted to audio stimulation. I mean, it's music, right?

But, the thing that was really amazing was that another area o f the brain lit up.If s the part that handles visual
information. This was definitely something that the researchers had not anticipated. Now, if you think about it,
it's really amazing that the visual area lit up because of audio stimulation.

Specifically, the areas that lit up are called Brodmann areas 18 and 19, known as the mind's eye.
There is a visual cortex in each hemisphere o f the brain. The left hemisphere visual cortex receives signals
from the right visual field and vice versa. These areas like a mental canvas. So, when you listen to music, your
mind tries to symbolize an image to go well with that sound. These two areas are in the outer layers o f the
cerebral cortex.

All right, another remarkable outcome of the experiment was that music even activated not only the cerebral
cortex but also areas deep in the brain. They are called the limbic system. The limbic system is a deep primal
area of the brain that has to do with memory and emotion. And, if
you think about it, that makes sense too. I mean, even myself, when I listen to a song that I loved as a child, I’m
instantly transferred ba ck to the feelings that I had at that time. Much in the same way，if you listen to fast,
upbeat music, you’ll tend to feel a little happier. Therefore, music is closely connected to both visual images
and emotions. So people have tried to make good sounds, or music, since ancient times.

Okay, now let’s take a look at how people made sounds, I mean music. Apparently, music has been important to
people since a very, very long time ago. In fact，the oldest known instrument, a type of flute, is dated to be 30-
40 thousand years old. That predates agriculture. Was music more important than food? Anyway，um，let's
see, 31 broken pieces of a mammoth tusk were found in Germany by a team of archaeologists.

Experts have concluded that it was capable o f producing a very broad range o f complex sounds.
Now, let’s talk about the flute in more detail... I mean, about making it. It would take such a long time to obtain
a mam-moth tusk, hollow it out，cut it perfectly in half, and drill holes into it.

Then, putting the two halves back together again and making an airtight seal, oh, and that would have been done
with stone tools. Can you imagine the amount of time? oh, and that would have been done with stone tools. Can
you imagine the amount o f time?

You really have to marvel at the amount of work that it must have involved. Okay, so ifs obvious that music
must have been important. But why? Why was music important?
Well, there are some researchers out there that believe music is JUST something that tickles certain areas of our
brain. But I think music is much more than that* First, in ancient civilizations, hunters, for example, could have
sung and danced together to coordinate attack strategies during combats. Um, there is one more example. In
those ancient societies, when mothers, carrying babies, would go out and look for berries, the mother would
have to put her baby down to gather them, right? Well, the mother could have sung to the baby to let the baby
know she was still there. As a result, music connected people then and still does now.

This is also true with modem music including rock and roll, the blues, jazz, and hip hop.

1-sk12-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a dining services director.

S: Hi. I don't know what my parents were thinking. They sort of went overboard and bought me the plan o f 235
meals a semester.

D: Well, I bet they were probably thinking that this is your first year of college and that you ’d have plenty to
think about without having to worry about food. It’s pretty common for first year students.

S :It is?

D: Yeah, and most students will try to cut down on their plans in the second year.

S: My first year is almost done. And I wanna go for the smallest plan available next year. What are my choices?

D: Well, besides the 235 what you have this year, we got the 190.

S: What about the 95 meal plan?

D: Oh, that's only for 3rd and 4th year students.

S: I don't understand. Only juniors and seniors?

D: It's based on the idea that juniors and seniors have other dining op tions.You know，some move off campus.
Others join clubs that provide certain meals on a regular basis. As you know, most of these clubs aren't open to
younger students.

S: I think it makes a certain kind of sense. But still... Anyway, I guess I'll have to go w ith the 195 meal plan. I
mean, if that’s the smallest plan available for me. 1 was hoping Pd be able to eat out a lot more next year.

D: Well, ju st one more year and then you'll be free to do whatever you want.Juniors and seniors aren’t required
to buy any meal plan. They buy one only if they want to .

S: OK. I guess I can deal with that. But my real question is I still got about 60 meals left on this year's plan. So
I*d like to know if I could carry them over.

D: Carried them over? You mean like if you can use them for the next year?
S: Yeah, I mean, see，I didn’t use ’em，and they’ve been paid for already.

D: I’m sorry you can’t do that.

S: How about... well... can’t the price of those leftover meals... I mean... can it be deducted from next year's
charges or something?

D: No, according to our policy, we do not provide credit for unused meals.
S: Well, is there any way to get a refund then?

D: No, I'm sorry. We don't provide credits or refunds.

S: So, what am I supposed to do now? How am I supposed to eat 60 meals in two weeks?

D: Well，you can invite your friends or guests... as m any as 15 people on your particular plan. Why not show
your generosity? Make the most of it .

S: But all my friends have their ow n meal plans... and probably the same plan I have with more meals than they
know what to do with. It seems like a waste o f money i f there’s no refund.

D: I understand how you feel. But there’s nothing I can do for you. Maybe you could talk to the dean, if you
feel that strongly.

S:You know. I really should. But I don't have the time right now with all my school work and stuff. I don't
know. Maybe later I'll ask the dean if the meal plan policy could be made more flexible.
Listen to a conversation between a student and the university work-study coordinator.

S: Hello, are you Mr. Terry? I’m Allison.

C: Yes, I am. What brings you here?

S: I just stopped by the financial aid office to square my tuition away. And... ah... I was told that I should
participate in the work-study program offered by the university to meet one of my financial aid
requirements.And I believe that you，Mr. Terry, are who I should talk to about…Um... a part time job for this
semester.

C: Oh, alright. Let’s see... you are....Alliso n... Pearson?

S: Right!

C. Well, I know we made our schedule today but we’re supposed to meet at three.I'm sure that's what my
calendar says. Why did you come so early?

S: I’m so sorry about that, but I’ve got a problem with my housing situation. I couldn't help it. I mean, they
assigned three people to my dorm room which is only for two. And the housing advisor is available only at
three o’clock to straighten it out. So, could you possibly accommodate me? I’m in trouble.

C: Alright, however, I won't have much time because I do have a workshop in fifteen minutes. So we*d better
go through this very quickly.

S: Oh, thank you! I’m sure it won’t take too much.

C: Good! Well, in general, the school offers a wide range of jo b options in many different departments. The
majority of these work positions are service jo bs on-campus, but there are a few places that are off-campus too.

S: Okay.

C: The number o f job s is limited although we guarantee every student a slot. The early birds, who meet with
me first, always get the wide st selection they can choose from. Currently, there are only twenty-five jobs
remaining.
S: Oh! Did people apply last year? I mean, H ow did these positions fill out so fast?

C: No, but it is jus t first come first served basis each term. It's a shame that you didn’t come and see me last
week. Anyway, urn.... here's the list of available positions. Consider which particular job is best suited to your
interest and skill set. Anything look appealing to you?

S: Urn.... Yeah! The campus bookstore job looks interesting. And ah... the lab opening looks appealing too.
Actually, I like both.

C: In the campus bookstore, for example, you'd probably stock shelves, and arrange the display areas, the sort of
work that is relatively routine and predictable. On the other hand, the computer lab assistant position requires a
lot o f computer know how, not only can it be quite demanding and stressful, they usually work with other
students who have a research deadline. In a pressure-filled situation, you know, sometimes people can get tense
when their computers begin acting up.

S: Well, I thrive under pressure. I mean, I was a peer counselor during my high school years. And also, um...
this is the most important thing, I guess... I know m ost computer software programs inside and out. So, I’d be
comfortable handling tech questions or issues.

C: It sounds like a perfect match.Um... here’s the phone number.The next thing you have to do is set up an
interview with the computer lab supervisor. Best of luck to you, Allison.

Listen to part o f a lecture in a music history class.

P: OK, we're gonna continue our discussion of 20th century music. In the early 20th century, some composers
in Europe and the United States, composers of so-called classical music had already started abandoning
traditional forms... um... in favor of newer and different ways. They were exploring new types of making music.
As the century progressed though, the styles of avant-garde composers began to take further shape.

People didn't always appreciate new styles of music being experimented. It was actually the other way around.
You see, for many people, avant-garde music was too radical and difficult. They even thought the government
should put a ban on it. Now, as a case in point, let's look at the composer John Cage. Cage is among the most
famous composers of 20th century avant-garde music. His earliest compositions were written in a traditional
style, but then he quickly moved on to create unique kinds of works. So, what caused him to change? He had
two particular experiences that entirely changed how he thought about music. One was when he met with the
avant-garde painter, Robert Rauschenberg in 1951. Now, what does painting have anything to do with making
music?

Well, avant-garde is a term that applies to a lot of artistic genres, The famous painter, Rauschenberg had created
a series of famous painting that was composed mainly of white paint.
There was basically nothin g on his paintings... just different textures of white. I mean, literally... just white.
However, the concept behind these paintings actually wasn't so simple. He was trying to show that even if you
don’t create any artwork, you can still have something... because even on a purely white canvas, there’s still
plenty to see... shadows, reflections, dust. Rauschenberg's white painting was highly influential for Cage and
opened up a whole new way of understanding what art could be.

The other important experience in Cage’s development came when he stepped into an anechoic chamber of
Harvard University. An anechoic chamber is a room with walls that are designed to absorb all sounds made in
the room. The word, anechoic means totally silent.So this is an ideal place where you can experience absolute
silence. When Cage entered the room, he heard two unexpected sounds - one high, his nervous system in
operation, one low, his blood in circulation.

He was deeply affected. It was at this point that he realized that music doesn't need to be created intentionally. It
is already all aroun d us. This idea is what came to be called found sound,.

Basically it's the sounds that are already there... traffic outside your window s, raindrops or whatever. Cage
thought that they were ju st as musical as sounds made by musical instruments. It was these experiences that led
Cage to create a composition that would express the idea of found sound. He wanted to provide an opportunity
for the audience to identity random and natural sounds of the environment as music. So he composed his most
famous piece called 433H commonly known as the silent composition. This piece was completely silent. It
consisted of the pianist going up to the piano and not hitting any keys for four minutes and thirty-three seconds.
In other words, the entire piece consisted of silence. The only thing the pianist did was raise and lower the lid of
the keyboard to let the audience know the beginning and ending of a movement.

This composition had three movements but not a single note was played in any of them. Well, when it was first
performed on stage, the audience was furious. People began whispering to one another, and some people began
to walk out. It was called ridiculous and crazy by critics. For Cage, though, the music wa s jus t fine. He said
that the audience was scandalized because they just missed the whole point of his music. He believed that there
was no such thing as silence, no such thing as a complete absence of sound. During the performance, in fact,
there were sounds of the wind in trees, raindrops pattering on the roo f and people muttering. Cage had a
different understanding of silence. He defined silence as simply the absence of intended sound or rather turning
off our awareness. I f we give up intention, then we hear silence. So, to understand 4 33” as music, the audience
had to pay close attention to the sound around it.

Well, this was quite revolutionary so the reactions of people at the time were pretty much legitimate. I mean,
it’s confusing and even confounding to people even today. Cage’s silence composition is still performed all
over the world. Unfortunately, though, I guess it's often misinterpreted. You see, it's be en choreographed, so
sometimes it includes dance performances with the beat of the dancer's feet against the stage floor. And they
make some noises on purpose to call attention to the fact the piece is basically silent. Now do you think these
performances reflect Cage’s ideas well?

1-sk12-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a Environmental Geology class.

P: OK. Let's continue our discussion of natural gas. In class yesterday, we said that it is now widely considered
to be the fossil fuel of the future, or at least of the next 50-100 years or so. Anybody remembers why? Jane?

J: Um... it’s probably because it's a lot more plentiful than oil, right? And... it doesn't produce as much carbon
when it’s burned.
P: Great!It actually emits very little carbon into the air. So it forms much less carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
And tha fs because it's a gas. You see, it efficiently converts its energy content to power... um... much more
efficiently than your conventional fossil fuel because gas bums more completely.

And also, it goes a lot further in terms of what it can be used for. It can be used to generate electricity, heat
homes, run cars ...Also proven reserves of methane which is the most important ingredient in natural gas have
increased tremendously for the past few years as the exploration goes on. We estimate that just... just taking the
reserves we know about... it can last for about a hundred years, some say even longer. So, wha t do you think?
Pretty promising, right? Um... clean burning, multi-purpose and plentiful supply. But, what's the drawback?
Tom?

T: Well, methan e its elf is a greenhouse gas, isn't it? So if it’d find its way into the atmosphere...

P: Right. It could be a contribution to the greenhouse effect in a big way. Um... wh at else?

J: It's explosive.

T: And it stinks! [students laughing]

P: Hmm, well, I think maybe therefre ways around that last one. Anyway, what I want us to think about today
is... well, as I m entioned earlier, the current reserves of natural gas should be enough to last us for a hundred
years or more. But that's not all. You see, there are other newer sources that we’ve only started to... to explore
their potential, um... sources that we've only recently begun tapping because of technological advances.H
sources like deep underground sites or... or gas trapped in unusually hard rock. And then there's another kind of
natural gas that we still don't have the technology to mine. In fact, if we could find out a way to get to it... ah...
to extract this unconventional natural gas, it might turn out to be the most abundant source ever found. We're
talking about anywhere from 6 to 13 times the gas currently believed to exist in the world’s proven reserves,
maybe more... So naturally the related industry is going crazy about this new source. And, what I’m talking
abou t here is what's called ’methane hydrates? Methane hydrates are a little crystals th at form when methane
combines with molecules of frozen water. Together, they form a kind of a ice-like substance that contains a
good amount of methane. Methane hydrates were first discovered in 19th century in the Arctic regions. But now
they are found all over the world's oceans. So it’s no surprise the energy industry is starting to pay serious
attention to them.

But the problem is", uh, we’re still in the beginning stages of the research process. Little research was done on it
until recently. So nobody really knows how to begin extracting the methane from methane hydrates, or how
much methane we could get. We also don’t know how the extraction process might affect the environmental
consequences. I mean, these hydrates are stable now as long as they're kept cool and pressurized. But if we start
messing them up, well, we really don’t know yet ju st what might happen. The consequences might be
something we'd never think of.

Careless pursuit of mining could precipitate the release of a great amount of methane into the atmosphere. And
methane,, as we already noted, is a powerful greenhouse gas. And this could easily happen when we drill into
the ocean floor and thereby creating an underwater landslide. See, the sediments on the ocean floor are unstable
because they're mixed in with methane hydrates. So, they're prevented from solidifying. And if there w ere an
undersea landslide, the methane hydrates could mix with the ocean water, melt and release methane into the
atmosphere.Tom?

T: Well, you... you said something about these hydrates being stable as long as they remain cool and under
pressure, right? So... I'm thinking, you know, with the global warming and all...
P: That's an excellent point! Tom. In fact, I happen to be one of those scholars who believe that about 250
million years ago, m ethane hydrates were released under similar circumstances to what we're experiencing with
global warming and climate change today. And these methane hydrates actually were responsible for the largest
mass extinction in Earth’s history when more than 90 percent of all life on earth died out.

So to get back to TonVs point, with today's global warming causing ocean temperature to rise，and those
methane hydrates." well could it happen again?

1-sk12-3
Listen to part o f a lecture in an Archaeology class.

P: Talking about one popular myth in Archaeology, some people simply think excavation is digging the site
until something valuable is found. Well, while there is an element o f luck involved, we have an array o f high
tech devices to help us figure out where to put our efforts. You know, we can’t jus t dig up the site randomly
looking for an ancient structure. There is one o f the newer tools actually created by a different field of study.
The machine relies on particle physics. Um... interdisciplinary I'd say. And it is called a m uon detector, or
counter.

Muon is a charged elementary particle similar to electron. Okay, let me start over. On Earth, most naturally
occurring muons are created by cosmic rays，which consist mostly of protons, many arriving from deep space
at very high energy. When these charged particles of cosmic rays collide with molecules in the upper
atmosphere, they break up into smaller particles, muons. Traveling at the speed of light, muons can penetrate
tens of meters into rocks and other m atter on Earth’s surface. In fact, they can pass through solid matter, so
they can transm it deep into the surface.
Thus, this property of muon is perfect for archaeologists to take advantage of.
Let me explain. Over the course of several months, one detector can build up a picture showing the shadows of
structures they’re studying - like the Mayan pyram id in Central America, for example. We’re interested in
finding out if there are buried chambers or other rooms inside. Well, a muon detector can track a great number
of muon passing through the less dense space inside the pyramid. Yes, you have your hand up?

S: I don’t think I get how this device works exactly.

P: Okay, well, when muons pass through... uh... say... stone walls of a pyramid, dense material, they lose
energy. So, in the case of empty space, more muons can pass through because they lose less energy.The muon
detector can identify the area by measuring the amount of muons in each place. We can see darker colors in
empty spaces, so we wind up with a sort of.... picture of the site and its internal structure.

S: Picture?

P: Yes, in the same way that CT scans produce a 3-D picture of your body using x-rays. It literally is like
tomography in the medical sense.

S: Okay, so if darker areas show up inside the pyramid, we assume it's an empty space with more muons.

P: You got it. This technology enables us to see what’s inside of the structure before we dig up the site. So, now
we know exactly where to excavate, and we can minimize the damage. You know, even a little damage could
result in losing crucial information forever.
Now, it was when archaeologists began to use muon detectors that they improved. Four decades ago, In 1967, a
physicist buried these detectors in the ground, surrounding the Egyptian pyramids.

He was looking for buried chambers. However, he saw no surprises in that experiment. But he did demonstrate
that the technique worked.One of the problems was that the machine he used was about the size o f a water
heater. It was so big that many archaeologists doubted its practicality.Then, there was another issue o frange.
With the detector used in 1967, we could only scan from m uon directly above it but not from the sides. So, it
actually had to be placed underneath the pyram id first, so we could look up into the inside o f the ancient
structure.

It would be nice, for instance, to have a system that didn’t take six months to produce an image. I believe that’s
way better than the year it took for the 1967 study to get the results, but still... Well, there’s good reason to
believe that with bette r equipment, we're going to use muons in much more diverse manners. Muon detectors
can also be used in other areas of science. For instance, to scope our nuclear waste sites or even look for the
underground.

1-sk13-1
Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a student and a Department of Housing employee

S: Hi, I'm a first year student and I've lived in student housing for the past 6 months.A classmate just told me
that I might have missed the application deadline for the next academic year. I didn't know I had to apply again
so early. I thought I'd better stop by. Um, has that deadline passed?

Employee: Well, housing is a three-stage process with a few different deadlines. One of them is approaching
soon, but none of them has passed yet. So you're fine.

S: Great! Oh, that's a relief! Could you tell me then about what I need to take care of?

Employee: Sure! For stage one, you only have until end of this week to do two things.First, you need to go to
the university home page and complete the housing re-application online. And secondly, if that gets approved,
you have to pay the $1,000 non-refundable housing deposit.

S: Uh oh, I mean the $1,000 is not a problem, it's the non-refundable part that…

Employee: Well, what do you mean?

S: Well, it's just that I don't know yet precisely where I'll be next year. I applied for the university's study abroad
option, but they won't make their decision for a few more months. So I do really need to plan for both
possibilities, but if the $1,000 is non-refundable …

Employee: Well, you still have to meet our re-application and deposit deadline to remain eligible for any future
guaranteed housing. Otherwise, you'll always be put on the waiting list.However, the study abroad program is
an exception to our non-refundable policy. So if you get accepted into that program, you can submit a Study
Abroad Notification Form to our office.

S: But what will that do?

Employee: That way, we can change your status. But you'll still be eligible for future housing and the $1,000
will be credited to your account.
S: Oh, okay.
Employee: Now, as part of stage two of the housing process, coming up in about a month, there'll be an official
open house session. It'll provide students with an opportunity to visit the different student housing buildings.
And also, to learn more about the surrounding communities. You know, since we're a city college, some of
those areas have different attractions which give each of them a different personality.

Take Tremble Hall for instance, it’s right next to a Weekend Farmer's Market. And there's Clark Hall, which is
on the same block as the Art Museum. Lots of options to explore.

S: Great! I'll plan to attend. And what about roommates? There's two friends I'd like to live with. Can I arrange
that?

Employee: Yes the day after the open house, submit a roommate preference card.
Make sure only one person submits all the information on one card. Now, we do the best we can do
accommodate groups. However, please be aware as space becomes limited, individuals in the group may be
placed in different locations.

S: Got it! And what's stage three?

Employee: That's the final stage where you select the specific room that you'd like.
S: I know you put a lot of effort into making all the arrangements for the play in New York, getting us the
special group discount, plus getting the department to help with the price of the tickets.

P: Well, it's not every day that we have the opportunity to attend a production of Aeschylus the Persians
performed by the National Theater of Greece no less. You know it's the earliest surviving Greek tragedy, the
very first one.

S: Oh, I didn't realize that the Persians was the oldest of all the Greek plays. That's kind of neat. Aeschylus lived
in like the 5th century B.C.E. right?

P: Yes, he lived during a series of wars that the Persians chronicles, the Persian Wars, and that's what makes
this play unusual. It talks about historical events that were occurring more or less around the time it was written.
We'll talk about it in next week's class.

S: Oh that's interesting. Is it the only Greek play that talks about like current events at that time?

P: That's right. Well, the only play that we know of anyway. If other playwrights write on similar topics, those
plays have been lost. But we're getting sidetracked. You wanted to tell me something?

S: Yes, I know you're not going to be too happy about this, but I just don't think I would enjoy this play.

P: I'm sorry to hear that. Um, what's the problem?

S: Well, seeing a play in a language I don't understand. I just don't think I'd get very much out of it. So I...

P: Well, you'll surely understand some things. We'll be studying the play beforehand so you'll be familiar with
it. Anyway, attendance is required, it's in the syllabus. And there's a short paper due on it too, that's also
mentioned in the syllabus.

S: I sort of misplaced my syllabus.

P: Well, you'll need to get a copy from a classmate. Anyways, the play will have supertitles
That's common practice nowadays.

S: Supertitles?

P: Like subtitles in movies； but they usually project them across the top of the stage.

S: Oh yea, I know what they are! They had them when our Intro to Music class went to the opera in New York.

P: Well, there you go. See, people go to the opera all the time and they don't necessary know the language in
which the opera is being performed. What language was your opera in?

S: Russian, another language I don't understand.

P: And, did you enjoy it?

S: Well, it was frustrating at first, not understanding the words. But, once I got past that, yea, I actually did get a
lot out of it.

Teacher: I'm sure most of you know that we've been able to extract certain compounds from plants for use in
medicine. Um, compounds like proteins. Proteins from some plants can be used in medicines as antibodies in
vaccines. And we can even cause some plants to produce certain proteins by incorporating DNA into the plants
cells, usually in the leaves. We then extract the proteins to use as antibodies.

However, we've never been able to produce enough protein to make the process worthwhile. It hasn't been
practical, until now. Now it appears that it is possible to get a large amount of useable proteins from plants.
Some researchers have recently succeeded in doing this by using plant seeds to produce these proteins, rather
than the leaves or the other parts of the plant. Now there are a number of advantages to getting protein from
plant seeds to produce antibodies.

But we have to be sure that these proteins are just effective as human proteins, and so far the research has
shown they are effective . That antibodies produced from plants seed proteins are effective in humans, which is
great. Because typically antibodies for vaccines and medicines too are produced from microorganisms like
yeasts or bacteria and it's a rather complicated process.

Okay, so what makes plant seeds good production units? Well, for one thing, there's lots of them right? One
plant can produce a lot of seeds. And then there's the issue of storage. Seeds can be stored for long periods of
time, and the protein retains its effectiveness. Now that's not true with other parts of the plant .Leaves for
instance, you can't store them very long which means that you have to get that protein out right away, as soon as
it's produced. But using plant seeds as production units, allows you to isolate the protein whenever you need it.
And you can transport seeds all over the world. Even to places where refrigeration might be a problem. Not so
for yeast or bacteria. But with seeds, it seems quite possible that we'll be able to supply vaccines to places that
need them.

Where as before, transporting and preserving these products over long distances simply wasn't feasible. And
another major benefit of extracting plant proteins for medical use, it's cost effective.Unlike the production of
proteins for medicinal purposes using yeast or bacteria, like insulin which is a vital protein used in medications,
extracting proteins from seeds doesn't require high-tech production labs with all kinds of equipment. And since
refrigeration is not crucial for maintenance or transport, it's much less expensive to store and maintain plant
seeds than other sources of protein. We estimate the total production cost to be 10 to 100 times lower.

1-sk13-2
Teacher: So, um we just got started with the French painter Paul Cezanne in our last class. Cezanne, he created
most of his paintings in the late 19th century, though in many ways his work is a culmination of the
Impressionist Movement that began several decades earlier, a movement that was spurred in part by the
growing popularity of photography.

Student: But um, didn't artists, painters feel threatened by photography?

Teacher: They did and that's one of the reasons painters of the mid to late 19th century worked so hard to
distinguish their paintings from the types of images that are captured in photographs. Here's one argument that
they used.They’d argued that the camera could only capture a single moment in time. But for them, that wasn't
how people actually perceived reality. Our perception of reality is not a snapshot; it's formed over time they'd sa
y.

So, the techniques these painters to suggest the passing of time moved away from the conventional techniques
of realistic representation. You know sharp details, sharp outlines. Outline objectives in their painting became
increasingly blurred. And they experimented with color to create mood. Um, that painting titled “ Impressions
Sunrise” that we discussed a few classes ago is a good example, the one with the harvest scene? There was a
sense of time passing of the day just awakening. The colors ran into one another, there were no real distinctions
between objects. The viewer got a sense of the play of light, of surfaces shimmering.

This blurring of outlines became a signature of this new style of painting. David?

Student (David): This kind of reminds me something I read in a book recently about Cezanne and the blurring
of the outlines, and the process of sight? I think it was…

Teacher: Um, I know which book you're talking about and I'm not sure I “ .though it does certainly fit in with
what we are talking about. Let me explain a bit about the book to the class. Now, remember what said about the
Impressionist Movement leading up to Cezanne? Well, Cezanne took the technique of blurring outlines even
further. His paintings particularly the later ones, lacked boundaries •••they're more abstract. They consist of
patches of colors that blend into one another, and you can hardly tell what the objects are. Now, the author of
the book that David's talking about, proposed that there's a connection between Cezanne's style and the way our
visual perception works in general.

Modern neuroscience tells us that visual perception is basically a two staged process. Information that the
human eye initially transmits to the brain, is this pretty disorganized bunch of lines and patches of color, that's
the first stage. But in the next stage, the brain processes this blurred and somewhat chaotic image, to create the
final picture, sharp outlines, and distinct objects. This of course all happens automatically, and we are only
aware of the final result. But this book argues that Cezanne somehow intuitively that before the final sharp
image is formed, there is this stage where colored or lines are blurred. That's what he represented in his
paintings. Mind you, he supposedly did this decades before scientists actually understood this process.

Student: So, Cezanne just gives us the initial chaotic impression and it's up to our brains to make meaning out of
what our eyes see.

Teacher: Right, that's what the book argues. That Cezanne somehow understood that that's how our vision
worked.
Student (David): So Cezanne with this abstract style is simply forcing us to go through the same process of
making sense of what we see as um, as the process that the brain goes through to make sense of the information
it receives from the eyes. Seems like a pretty strong case to me.

Teacher: Well, you can certainly make the argument. But to me, it's a stretch.You see, this two stage process
happens automatically in our brains. I mean, how could Cezanne be aware of this? I think it's simply the case of
Cezanne just continuing the tradition of this new painting style that did away with outlines. And experimenting
with it, to see how far he could take it and what kind of visual experience it would give the viewer. To me, that
doesn't make him a neuroscientist.

1-sk13-3
Teacher: Okay' you want to talk about a really significant invention? How about mechanical refrigeration and
air conditioning? Think about it； our country would be a very different place without it. For example, how
about the fact that hotter regions of the United States like Florida would only have a fraction of the current
populations, or that we probably wouldn't have many skyscrapers since you can't open the windows 50 stories
up because of high winds. And then open window was about the only way to cool a room in the past. And
industrial applications of refrigerated air have been extremely important. Let's look at the printing industry for
example.

Paper expands and contracts according to the amount of moisture in the air•So before air conditioning, it could
be impossible to align the inks for printing in color. So even something as mundane as color magazines,
something we take for granted, it's the regulation of temperature and humidity in the print shop that makes them
possible. Now it turns out making something cold is not so easy. I mean to make something hotter, you can heat
it with fire for example. But to cool something, sure if it's winter you can get some ice and you're okay, but how
practical is that? And what if it isn't winter?
Now, one of the guys that who mulled over this problem, was a Doctor John Gorrie.
Dr. John Gorrie moved to Apalachicola, Florida in the 1830's. In those days, Florida with its hot, humid
summers； its snakes, alligators, mosquitos, and its tropical diseases was a hard place to live. But Apalachicola
was actually the second largest port in the Gulf of Mexico. Much of the cotton grown in the Southern U.S.
States, and that was a lot, was shipped out
of Apalachicola.Now in the 1840's, Dr. Gorrie in deciding how to treat those tropical diseases, deduced that
since they occurred in the summer, they must be in some way caused by the heat. The cure therefore, would be
to in effect change the season.

Take summer and the heat of it away. Oh we're lucky he drew that conclusion, instead of the correct
one，Which is probably why he didn't go down in history for any great medical breakthroughs. Anyway, his
first experiments with these treatments, led him to develop cold rooms, or rooms cooled with ice. In some cases,
the ice was in the ceiling. Gorrie understood of course the principle that cold air is heavier than hot air, and that
air cooled by the ice would fall down over the patients. In other cases, he had fans blowing over the ice.
Nevertheless, the bigger problem as you can imagine was acquiring ice.

There were ice companies at the time that sawed huge blocks of ice out of frozen lakes and ship this ice all over
the world. But keep in mind, Florida isn't close to the Northern United States. Ships filled with ice had to sail a
long way and well； some ships would encounter storms, or ice would melt. What actually got there was very
much in demand, and subsequently not cheap. You have to wonder how much ice would be left say in August
since it had to be stored all summer in insulated warehouses. So what do you think Gorrie did? Well, with his
inclination for tinkering and his science background, he set out to invent an ice making machine!
Just imagine, he took advantage of some very basic principles, the most important being this: air that's
compressed' cooled and then allowed to re-expand, gets very cold indeed. And that seems simple, but it's
basically the principle all of our subsequent refrigeration technology is based on. Now, Gorries first attempt at a
refrigeration machine was big and clumsy. It leaked and broke down a lot, but it did make ice. Unfortunately,
although Dr. Gorrie did get a patent for his refrigeration machine in 1851, he never really raised enough money
to develop it.He blamed the ice industry for his problems. It's pretty clear that they didn't want to see his
invention perfected.

Even worse, the media ridiculed his achievement. It's a shame too, because Gorrie was a visionary. He thought
this invention could later be adapted to transporting perishable foods all over the country in all seasons among
other uses. It's unfortunate nobody took him seriously at the time.

1-GM1-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and his Psychology professor

(woman) So, Jake, I got your email about missing class. You have the class syllabus, so hopefully you’ve been
keeping up?
(man) Yeah, I had to go home on short notice, but I’m caught up. Um, speaking of the syllabus, this part about
the research paper or project?
(woman) Well, you can write a standard research paper, but the project’s an option. And since we cover so
much in this introductory class, you have many choices. I’ve had students do memory tests and surveys are
always popular.
(man) Yeah, I have this idea for a survey, but I wanted to run it by you first.
(woman) OK
(man) Well, I was looking through an academic journal and saw this article about urban legends, you know,
those strange sometimes scary stories that usually start out, “Have you heard about the person who…”
(woman) Sure, you don’t want to believe them, but you kind of do. Those are fun. You know, most colleges
have their own urban legends. There’s one about our campus library that it’s sinking into the ground because
the architect’s design didn’t account for the weight of the books.
(man) I hadn’t heard that one.
(woman) Now, you said this was an academic journal?
(man) Yes, psychology journal, uh, for the study, university students read four urban legends and answered
questions about them, like, how believable they thought they were. Students received different versions of the
stories; some had added details that others didn’t.
(woman) Hmm, what kind of details were added?
(man) Well, it usually involved specific names and places. The versions without details might say, “A woman
was eating lunch.” But the version with details would say, “Last month my classmate was having lunch at a
fancy department store.” So after some time passed, they were asked to think about the stories they’d read and
retell one of them or actually write one of them down. The researchers wanted to see what effect the variables
had, like does adding details make it more likely that a story will be retold.
(woman) I see. You know, there’s been research done on rumors such as what information people pass along
and what makes a story believable. So, you’d be testing something similar?
(man) Sort of, I wanted to compare the findings from my study with the one I read about. I actually had to read
the results section of the study twice to make sure I wasn’t misinterpreting it. Apparently adding details to the
original stories didn’t affect whether the students believe them or whether they repeat them. That caught me a
little off guard.
(woman) Interesting! So you’ll just replicate that study?
(man) Well, I’d also like to explore whether the topic of a story has an effect on its believability or on how often
it’s retold. So one of the stories will be set in the university, like the one you mentioned about the library. I
anticipate it’ll be more believable than the others since students can relate to it.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a university librarian

(man) Kim, it’s spring break. You’re still here?

(woman) I had to finish some work but I’m leaving tomorrow. But that’s the thing. I can’t find my reader for
History 300. I think I left it on the train and I need it before I leave for break. I just can’t seem to reach any one
from class.
(man) By reader do you mean a published work?
(woman) No, uh, my course packet, I guess it’s called something the professor compiled specifically for this
course. It’s like a bunch of articles, chapters from different textbooks, all kinds of stuff, over two hundred
pages.
(man) A course packet, yes, a number of professors here take that approach. But unfortunately, the library
doesn’t receive copies of the packets. There are handled through the bookstore.
(woman) I went to the bookstore but they’re already stocking the shelves for next term’s courses.
(man) OK, I guess we can see if the professor put anything on reserve. Uh, what class did you say it’s for?
(woman) History 300, with Professor Bailey, Carol Bailey?
(man) And you can’t get in touch with her? Do you know if she’s on campus over break?
(woman) Oh, she’s on a hiking trip in an area where internet access is kind of iffy. I emailed her, but she told us
not to be surprised if she can’t get back to us until the last day of break.
(man) Bailey, Carol, let’s see. No, there’s nothing on reserve. Do you recall the titles of any of the articles by
any chance? We probably have the journals and books these articles and chapters are taken from. But I need
something to go on in order to find out.
(woman) I remember one. It’s a textbook chapter and it’s actually the one thing I really need to read over spring
break. It’s on marriage in ancient Greece. And I think the title was pretty straightforward like “What marriage
meant to the ancient Greeks”, something like that. You see. I’m writing a paper on kinship in early European
societies, the laws and customs governing family relationship.
(man) Hmm, what about your syllabus? Anything helpful there?
(woman) It has titles and lecture topics. It does mention the course packet, but only the pages we need to read.
But I don’t think there’s a bibliography or anything.
(man) Wait. Here’s something. Marriage in Ancient Greece, oh, but it’s not from a textbook. It’s from the
Classical History journal, n 1992 article.
(woman) That sounds kind of familiar, but it can’t be right. What I’m looking for is more recent.
(man) OK, would you like me to locate the article for you anyway?
(woman) I don’t know. Um, OK, you know what? Actually, yeah, Marriage in Ancient Greece, it’s the right
topic, so, it could be useful. It’s not the one from course packet but at least I’ll have something.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Engineering class

(male professor) This week we’ve been discussing the recent efforts in construction to build a greener, uh, a
more ecologically sustainable way. Today I’d like to talk about the role of cement in modern construction. Now,
cement is used to make concrete and it’s important that you keep in mind the difference between the two.
Cement is the powdery substance that’s sold in bags. You can take the dry cement, mix it with sand and rocks
and water, and when that mixture dries it hardens and becomes concrete.

Concrete’s an important material, because it can be used for almost any building application, from sidewalks
and flooring to foundations to, uh, walls, for example. And remember, all that concrete’s been made from
cement. We may think of concrete as part of the modern urban landscape but the truth is it isn’t so modern at
all. In fact, the ancient Romans also used cement to make concrete and maybe the Egyptians before them. But,
um, they weren’t using modern cement.
Now, modern cement, uh, what we use today, is called Portland cement. Portland cement’s been around since
the early 1800s and has been an amazingly successful and popular building material ever since. The main
ingredient is limestone. But for the limestone to be usable as cement, it first needs to be heated and turned into a
powder. OK, we’re talking about ecologically sustainable building, right? The problem here is that the process
of making Portland cement is ecologically dirty.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and a main contributor to the global warming problem. And huge amounts
of carbon dioxide are emitted twice during the cement-making process. First, that limestone rock has to be
melted and this, of course, requires extremely high temperatures, which means using huge amounts of fossil
fuels, and that means creating carbon dioxide. And on top of that, the limestone itself emits carbon dioxide gas
into the air when it’s heated.

Researchers have been trying to make a better cleaner form of cement and they’ve mostly focused on finding
new materials to mix into the old Portland cement formula to replace some of the limestone. One of the first
attempts to make greener cement involved the mineral compound magnesium oxide. Compared to limestone,
magnesium oxide melts at a much lower temperature. So, not as much fossil fuel needs to be burned when it’s
prepared for use in cement.

The problem was, though, that even when magnesium oxide was used to replace some of the limestone, it still
resulted in large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. In fact, in some of the tests, nearly double the amounts
that came from the limestone process. This is because of the way magnesium oxide itself is made. It’s produced
by heating magnesium carbonates and in this process carbon dioxide is released.

Now, other attempts were made using things like ash and coal residues, but the fact is they were trying to
improve a product whose chemistry is not well understood. How concrete hardens? What are the chemical
changes taking place? We don’t yet have all the answers. Recently, the search for greener cement has led us to
an interesting place: the Egyptian pyramids.

It’s commonly believed that the pyramids were built by carving huge solid blocks of rock and then hulling them
into place. However, some researchers concluded that some of the blocks were cast in place, using a type of
concrete with a cement base. Even they looked like solid rock, powerful microscopes have revealed that their
molecular structure is different, more similar to a mixture.

Now, a lot of archeologists don’t accept this. There’s still controversy. But based on their discovery, these
researchers have tried to replicate the process. And what they found is that by using minerals similar to those
used by the Egyptians, the massive amount of heating used in Portland cement isn’t necessary. We’ll go into
detail later, but apparently all the Egyptians did and all these researchers have to do is blend the mixture like
baking bread without an oven. And this method holds some promise.

All right, now, the real obstacle that any new cement technology has faced is the proven track record of
Portland cement. I mean, it’s hard to think of any other industrial product that’s been around so long, is
relatively cheap, and still holds up so well. But if these researchers are right about the pyramids, well, there’s no
doubting how well and how long that material is held up, right?

1-GM1-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a Sociology class

(female professor) Today we’re gonna look specifically at what’s called architectural sociology, which
examines how architecture influences and reacts to sociocultural phenomena. This field uses sociological
perspectives, uh, sociological research to enhance building design. And we’re gonna start by looking at front
porches on houses in the United States.

So, the front porch was traditionally a semi-open area built on the front of a house, uh, a place to sit and read a
newspaper, enjoy the fresh air; socialize with neighbors. But for a long period, the desirability, um, the number
of homebuyers demanding a front porch attached to their new house was declining. We’ll get into the reasons
for its decline in a moment and also the reason that’s kind of making a comeback these days. First, let’s
consider two concepts: push forces and pull forces. The history of the front porch in the US actually illustrates
these forces well. What do you think they mean? Yes, John?

(male student) Um, I’m guessing, uh, things that either draw you or pull you onto a front porch or the things that
push you away from it?

(professor) Well, you’re right about the push forces. Push forces are the characteristics, the things that make
front porch undesirable or unlikely to be used. So, can you think of any push forces that might be related to the
front porch?

(female student) The weather? If it’s too hot or too cold?

(professor) Right, sure

(female student) Maybe even insects, mosquitos, if you’re sitting outside?

(professor) OK, good, and in the 1920s, something was happening in the United States that made porches less
desirable, anyone?

(male student) Uh, cars? Cars were becoming really popular.

(professor) Exactly! And how do you think the cars acted as a push force?

(male student) Well, cars back then were a lot louder and smokier, I mean, they polluted more. So, sitting on
your porch with the noise and pollution, I guess people didn’t want to do that.

(professor) And another thing, people who now own the car wanted a garage to put it in, often the porch was
sacrificed to make room for a garage. OK, so, uh, let’s move on to pull forces. These also take people away
from the front porch. In the summers, the porch used to be a cool and breezy place compared to the inside of a
house, which was often hot and humid. But eventually there was a new way to get cool. I’m talking about the
invention of the air conditioner and that technological advance would be considered a pull force.

(female student) I get it. All pulling us inside away from the porch and I’d guess there was a lot more, too, uh,
computers, video games, television?

(male student) But, to be honest, I really don’t see the downside to not having a front porch to sit on. I mean,
watching people walking up and down the street isn’t really a very exciting thing to do. Besides, who has time
for that?

(professor) Well, people’s lives have become a lot busier than it used to be, but, many homes still has a place
for, say, gathering with family and friends. Something has replaced the front porch you see, the back yard.
Many people see it as much safer for children than the front porch, which is facing the street. And it’d also offer
more privacy. But what’s lost here? What’s the difference between sitting on a front porch and sitting in the
back yard?
(female student) Interactions with neighbors

(professor) Exactly! So privacy is gained but interactions with neighbors are lost. But, like I mentioned earlier,
there’s a new trend. Front porches are starting to make a comeback, Houses in many new developments are
being built with porches specifically because people see the value in getting to know their neighbors, uh, in
developing a real sense of community. So, are these new front porches actually being used? Well, those push
and pull forces still exist. They are real and they are strong, probably stronger than people’s good intentions.

1-GM1-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a Studio Art class.

(male professor) We’re going to continue working with oil paints but in ways you’re probably not yet familiar
with. For the next few classes, we’re going to experiment with some different techniques starting with impasto.

Impasto, basically, is applying a thick layer of paint to a rigid surface, a piece of wood, let’s say, or a very
tightly stretched canvas. Now, normally, with oil paints, you create your painting one thin layer on top of
another. And what you end up with is a fairly flat surface. But with impasto, you apply a large amount of paint
to represent a three-dimensional texture by creating a three-dimensional painted surface. It’s kind of like the
icing that covers a cake full of peaks and valleys. Actually, there’s quite a famous series of paintings of cakes
done in impasto. They’re so convincing and look good enough to eat.

Anyway, one characteristics of impasto is its ability to reflect light. And no doubt, this was the original reason
painters as far back as the 15th century began using impasto. The light it reflected emphasize the gleam of the
rich silks and furs their subjects wore sparkle of their jewels. And the contrast between these impasto details
and the rest of the flat painting really made these features stand out.

But later on, another reason for using impasto was its ability to convey movement in the painting. And a point
to keep in mind in your work is that the thicker the impasto is the more it suggests movement. For instance,
Vincent van Gogh, van Gogh, the 19th century post-impressionist, was one of the first painters to use impasto in
this way. Here’s an example.

In this painting of Cypress trees, notice the textures, the peaks and valleys created by the thick paint. By using
impasto in this way, van Gogh communicated the shimmering movement in the trees and the sky. As viewers,
we can almost feel the breeze blowing on that day, a feeling that really comes alive with the artist’s use of
impasto.

Today’s artists might use impasto for a different reason. Many contemporary artists feel a painting’s surface, its
texture, should be a major focus of the art work, not something just there to display colors and lines. Impasto
enables the artists to incorporate the texture and feeling of an object right into the surface of a painting without
explicitly representing an actual image of the object.

So, what gives impasto this texture? Well, it mostly comes from the way it’s applied. Instead of applying small
amounts of paint and scrubbing them into your canvas, like you’re used to doing with oil paints, with impasto
you apply a thick mass of paint straight from the tube, or with a paint brush or with a flexible pallet knife or any
other tools you may find that gives the texture you’re after, even a toothbrush. You then mold or sculpt the paint
onto the canvas with quick, short strokes. The idea is to be spontaneous, energetic, like van Gogh.

1-GM2-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the university transportation office

(man) Hi, I got this letter.

(woman) Uh, let me guess, about the parking situation?

(man) Yeah, about the closing of lot 3 and how all the students in my residence hall will be assigned a new
parking lot

(woman) Yes, the university’s gonna take that space where lot 3 is and build a new residence hall there. You
know about the housing shortage, I guess.

(man) I do and, well, they may be solving one problem but they’re just creating another, if you ask me. I mean,
we’re also having major problems with parking, right?

(woman) That’s true and a lot of people agree with you, but the university spent a lot of time studying the
problem and this is their decision, so, anyway, do you have your current parking tag from your vehicle?

(man) Uh, no, it’s still in my car. I didn’t know if I should bring it in. I was worried I would get a ticket if my
car didn’t have a parking tag displayed in the window.

(woman) Well, since we’re in transition right now, if the parking enforcement officers see a car parked without
a parking tag, they’d check the license plate number in their computer system and they won’t give you a ticket
as long as it shows that you’re registered to park there.

(man) Oh, OK

(woman) And the parking tag for lot 3 won’t do you much good in about a month anyway.

(man) Oh, that soon?

(woman) Yes, we were pretty surprised that they are moving so quickly. But, in any case, students in your
residence hall have been assigned the north parking lot.

(man) OK, but, there’s nothing available in lots 1 or 2? I’d like to keep my car as close to my residence hall as
possible.

(woman) A lot of students have been complaining, but, only the north lot is available.

(man) But you see I work as a lab technician for the Chemistry department on the other side of campus and it’s
like really odd shifts, evenings, weekends. Sometimes I’d have to set my alarm and go out in the middle of the
night. It’s a pretty, uh, demanding job.

(woman) I can certainly see how this’ll make life difficult for you. Unfortunately, it’s out of my hands.

(man) Well, there are spaces for visitors right in front of my residence hall. I wonder do you think I can get a
special permit to park there. I mean, because of, you know, like my situation.

(woman) Well, in your case, that wouldn’t be unreasonable. But, you’d have to submit a special request form to
the head of transportation.

(man) OK
(woman) And she’s reviewed at least 25 of those requests in the last two weeks and she’s granted a grand total
of, well, one.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her Ancient History professor

(woman) Hi, Professor Jones, how was the conference in Athens?

(man) Remarkable, it’s my favorite conference, The Art of Ancient Greece. And it’s always a thrill to present in
front of one’s colleagues. In fact, you’ll be seeing my presentation during our next class.

(woman) Sounds great, anyway, our last exam, you said you were planning to grade them on the plane?

(man) Planning being the operative word, unfortunately, my computer crashed, so I had to redo my entire slide
presentation on the plane to Athens using a borrowed laptop. The computer’s been fixed, so, hopefully, I’ll get
the exams graded over the weekend and back to you on Monday.

(woman) Oh, OK, um, it’s just that I’ve been anxious to find out how I did on the essay section.

(man) Where you’ve chosen ancient Greek sculpture and critique it?

(woman) Yeah, um, I picked the caryatid.

(man) Ah, sculpted female figure.

(woman) Yeah, one of the ones holding up the roof of that temple at the Acropolis, but, maybe they’re
considered architecture not sculpture?

(man) Um, I’d call them sculptures with an architectural function, to support a section of a temple’s roof instead
of the usual types of columns.

(woman) Hoof, that’s good, cause writing that critique gave me an idea for a research project, actually.
(man) Really? What specifically did you want to research?

(woman) Uh, the caryatid hairstyles. How ornate they are with all those curls, braids, and twists?

(man) They’re certainly intricate. And they have a specific function as well. Without those stunning hairstyles
distributing the roof’s weight, the caryatids might have broken at the neck, which the weakest part of the
statues.

(woman) I never thought of that. What interested me was did Greek women really wear the hair like that in the
sixth century B.C.E.? Were those hairstyles even possible? And how I want to research this is by trying to
recreate one of the hairstyles and write about the experience.

(man) Interesting idea! Creative! But do you think it’s scholarly enough for a research project?

(woman) Hmm, OK then, what if I research the hairstyles worn by the Greek women at the time? I could use
the experience of recreating a hairstyle to support my conclusions, because I’m sure the statues are based on
how women appeared by then. I can’t imagine hairstyles like that coming strictly from a sculptor’s imagination.

(man) You know, similar hairstyles also appeared in paintings and on coins from ancient Greece. And if all
these images were indeed modeled after real women, what does that say about ancient Greek society? I mean,
who had the time to sit for hours while the hair was braided and curled?
(woman) I guess the noble women, women from the ruling class. And they probably had reasons to dress up
like for feasts and stuff.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Astronomy class

(male professor) The main thing to keep in mind as we study the Sun is magnetism. The Sun’s magnetic field is
produced by the flow of electrically charged particles. And you’ve all heard of sunspots, right, those dark spots
on the surface of the Sun? OK, well, sunspots appear when very intense regions of magnetism rise to the Sun’s
surface. The locations where sunspots appear drift back and forth between the Sun’s equator and the poles. That
we’ve known about for a long time. They appear closer and closer to the Sun’s equator over the course of about
an eleven-year cycle before circling back to the poles for the next eleven or so years.

And this continual movement of the location of sunspots, these shifting magnetic fields, is the cause of pretty
much all solar activity what we call solar storms, such as flares, solar wind, and so on. And this is important to
know because solar storms send radiation into space often disrupting communication systems here on Earth.
Very strong storms affect our weather satellites and even mobile phones so it’s helpful to know when they
might happen.

OK, so, sunspots are areas of concentrated magnetic fields and the movement of sunspots is directly related to
the intensity of solar storms. And just like weather on Earth, solar storms can be intense or mild depending on
how much sunspot activity there is. Well, we’ve recently discovered what causes the Sun’s magnetic fields to
move and in doing so we’ve learned a way to predict the strength of solar storms.

It turns out that sunspots are moved by a giant circulation system about 200 kilometers below the Sun’s surface,
a great conveyor belt as we call it. It’s actually two belts. See here?

One above the Sun’s equator and the other below. And these conveyor belts move the sunspots in a loop,
between the solar equator and the poles. Now, remember, there’s a similar circulation system here on Earth. It’s
the Great Ocean Conveyor Belt.

The great ocean conveyor belt is a network of currents that carry water from ocean to ocean and it controls the
weather on Earth. Well, in much the same way the Sun’s conveyor belt controls the weather on the Sun. But
instead of carrying water, it carries gas. And as the belt moves, it sweeps up, it collects magnetic fields, and it
affects the development of future sunspots.

Now, how do you observe a gas belt that’s 200 kilometers below the Sun’s surface? Well, it was the movement
of sunspots that led to the discovery of this belt. By measuring the speed that sunspots drift toward the equator
or poles, we get an idea of the speed of the belt. OK, now, as I said, the average sunspot cycle is eleven years. It
varies somewhat. In shorter cycles the circulation of the Sun’s conveyor belt is faster and in longer cycles it’s
slower. And we can predict the intensity of solar storms by looking at the speed of the sunspot cycle. In other
words, the circulation of the belt influences the time it takes for sunspots to drift to the equator or poles. But it
also influences the strength of future sunspot activities and the intensity of solar storms.

Let me explain. The faster the belt moves the more magnetic fields it sweeps up. That means the number and
size of the sunspots will be larger two sunspot cycles later. An intense sunspot cycle will mean more solar
storms and vice versa. And that’s important because, well, think about the safety of space flight, for example.
This next sunspot cycle is supposed to be intense. We’ve determined that from calculating the belt speed about
twenty years ago. And when solar activity is intense, it means there’ll be dangerous radiation storms in space. In
recent years, the movement of the belt has slowed down considerably, which means that about twenty years
from now, there’ll be a weak sunspot cycle and we probably won’t have to worry about radiation storms. Good
news for astronauts!

Now, can we use the conveyor belt to predict the solar maximum? Uh, the solar maximum is the time of the
most intense solar storms during a cycle. That’s something we wanted to do for a long time personally, that
would be nice, but, well, while the Sun’s conveyor belt does give us a solid way to predict the general intensity
of solar storms, we are a long way off from more specific predictions.

1-GM2-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a Literature class

(male professor) OK, today we’re gonna talk about an important influence on eighteenth century British poets,
the influence of discoveries made in the sciences. Surprising, isn’t it? Science and arts may not seem
compatible. As one late eighteenth century poet William Blake said, “Art is the tree of life. Science is the tree of
death.”

(male student) Well, that makes sense. Artists and scientists understand the world differently, don’t they?

(professor) In some ways, that’s true. Poets want to convey the mystery of nature, while scientists seem to want
to take the mystery out of nature, to unravel its mysteries through experimentation. Nevertheless, they both try
to explain the world and nature. And I think they’re also both moved by the sense of wonder that nature
inspires. But for much of the eighteenth century, one scientist and his discoveries really got the attention of
poets and that was Isaac Newton, one of the foremost thinkers of his time.

Newton, as you know, was a mathematician and physicist, a major figure in the scientific revolution of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Among his accomplishments were his three laws of motion. They resulted
in formulation of the universal law of gravitation and he developed calculus. And he was very important to the
European intellectual movement of the eighteenth century called the enlightenment. The intellectuals of this
period promoted the use of reason to further our knowledge of the universe. Um, anyway, in 1704, Newton
published a book on the properties of light called Opticks.

In this book, he published the findings of his experiments with light and prisms. He had discovered that light
could be refracted or broken up into the colors of the spectrum. This knowledge that light is the source of color
in the world gave light added significance and it did not go unnoticed by poets. In fact, Newton’s discovery
about light was so often written about that many of these poets were referred to as Newtonian or scientific
poets.

(female student) Hadn’t poets written about light before?

(professor) Yes, they certainly had. Light has always had an enormous symbolic power. But before Newton,
when light was used symbolically in European poetry, it was often part of the duality: light in opposition to
darkness. But Newton’s discovery that light was the source of color, well, that’s a more complex image and it
really captured the imaginations of poets of the eighteenth century. Poets described the same phenomenon that
Newton described in Opticks, but through the imagery of natural world, sunrises and sunsets, for instance, and
the colors of gemstones, and, of course, rainbows.

(female student) Well, maybe poets understood Newton’s theories, but what about other people? His book was
written in Latin, weren’t they?
(professor) In general, yes. But Opticks was written in English and in an accessible manner, a style that was
relatively, um, nontechnical. Also a great number of popular science books were being published in England at
the time that sought to explain many of Newton’s theories. So the general public was better informed than you
might think.

(female student) So it seems as if not all poets felt the same way Blake did about science and art.

(professor) No, they were caught up in the enlightenment. But at the end of the eighteenth century, there was a
backlash against the enlightenment, the Romantic Movement. Like William Blake, many artists and
intellectuals emphasized the role of emotions in life and downplayed the importance of reason. They believed
science could not explain the mysteries of life and the natural world.

1-GM2-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an Archeology class. The professor has been discussing the Anasazi, a native
people of North America

(female professor) The Anasazi, as we’ve said, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, lived in a region
where the states of Utah, Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico meet today, known as the Four Corners region.

We know a fair amount about how they lived during this time, what corps they farmed and so on. What we
don’t know is what happened at the end of the thirteenth century that caused them to completely abandon their
settlements in the Four Corners region. So, first of all, where did they go? Now, the conventional wisdom, the
theory is that when the Anasazi left the Four Corners region they moved south to a site called Pinnacle Ruin in
what is now southern New Mexico.

And there’s good evidence to support that theory. To begin with, the Pinnacle Ruin site sits at the top of a cliff
which is very similar to the cliff-top locations of Anasazi communities in the Four Corners region. Also, the
ruins of buildings at Pinnacle Ruin have thick stone walls which are typical for more northern regions. And we
found a large amount of pottery with black-on-write designs, again, very similar to those made by the Anasazi
in the Four Corners settlements. And we know it was occupied within a decade or two of the 1300s which
corresponds to when the Anasazi disappeared from the north.

But why did the Anasazi leave the Four Corners in the first place? Here we are less certain. The Four Corners is
an arid region. So droughts probably depleted their resources. And we see evidence of this in the size of the
rings in the wooden logs that were used to make the roof beams in Anasazi houses. The rings in the center of a
tree limb allow us to determine its age, right? Well, they also tell us about climate because trees grow at
different rates depending upon the amount of water and nutrients they receive each season. And we can see that
there was very little rainfall in the late thirteenth century. And that explanation, that what drove the Anasazi
southward was drought, that’s been the conventional wisdom for quite some time.

Not too long ago, however, an archeologist named Jeffrey Dean found a complication in the tree ring data.
What Dean found is that while precipitation in the Four Corners had been consistent for several centuries before
1250 it had fluctuated wildly between 1250 and 1450. So while there may have been drought years during that
period, Jeffrey Dean said, “They seemed to have interspersed with years when there was rainfall.” So that’s one
possible glitch in the prevailing theory.

But there’s another issue: even if there was a long drought, would that have been enough to force the Anasazi to
leave? That’s the question that a researcher named Carla Van West investigated a few years before Dean did his
climate study. Van West created a model in which she first calculated the productivity of the Anasazi’s corn
fields under normal conditions. She then used climate data to determine the effect that drought would have had
on the Anasazi’s crop yields. She was able to estimate the maximum annual crop yield for a given area and
what proportion of an individual’s diet would have come from the crops.

All of this data led to her conclusion that a thirteen-century drought would still have left enough productive land
to support thousands of people. So it couldn’t have been the only factor involved in why the Anasazi left. What
else could have been involved? Well, there’s evidence that in addition to difficulties caused by the climate,
other people may have moved into the Four Corners area and forced the Anasazi out. You see, the settlement at
Pinnacle Ruin appears to have been built all at once as if an entire large group of people settled there at the
same time rather than individual families moving there over a period of time. And since the drought, while
significant, probably wasn’t enough to cause this massive migration. There must have been some additional
factor that’s not as easy to read in historical evidence.

1-GM3-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and her Ancient History professor

(woman) Hi, Professor Jones, how was the conference in Athens?

(man) Remarkable, it’s my favorite conference, The Art of Ancient Greece. And it’s always a thrill to present in
front of one’s colleagues. In fact, you’ll be seeing my presentation during our next class.

(woman) Sounds great, anyway, our last exam, you said you were planning to grade them on the plane?

(man) Planning being the operative word, unfortunately, my computer crashed, so I had to redo my entire slide
presentation on the plane to Athens using a borrowed laptop. The computer’s been fixed, so, hopefully, I’ll get
the exams graded over the weekend and back to you on Monday.

(woman) Oh, OK, um, it’s just that I’ve been anxious to find out how I did on the essay section.

(man) Where you’ve chosen ancient Greek sculpture and critique it?

(woman) Yeah, um, I picked the caryatid.

(man) Ah, sculpted female figure.

(woman) Yeah, one of the ones holding up the roof of that temple at the Acropolis, but, maybe they’re
considered architecture not sculpture?

(man) Um, I’d call them sculptures with an architectural function, to support a section of a temple’s roof instead
of the usual types of columns.

(woman) Hoof, that’s good, cause writing that critique gave me an idea for a research project, actually.
(man) Really? What specifically did you want to research?

(woman) Uh, the caryatid hairstyles. How ornate they are with all those curls, braids, and twists?

(man) They’re certainly intricate. And they have a specific function as well. Without those stunning hairstyles
distributing the roof’s weight, the caryatids might have broken at the neck, which the weakest part of the
statues.
(woman) I never thought of that. What interested me was did Greek women really wear the hair like that in the
sixth century B.C.E.? Were those hairstyles even possible? And how I want to research this is by trying to
recreate one of the hairstyles and write about the experience.

(man) Interesting idea! Creative! But do you think it’s scholarly enough for a research project?

(woman) Hmm, OK then, what if I research the hairstyles worn by the Greek women at the time? I could use
the experience of recreating a hairstyle to support my conclusions, because I’m sure the statues are based on
how women appeared by then. I can’t imagine hairstyles like that coming strictly from a sculptor’s imagination.

(man) You know, similar hairstyles also appeared in paintings and on coins from ancient Greece. And if all
these images were indeed modeled after real women, what does that say about ancient Greek society? I mean,
who had the time to sit for hours while the hair was braided and curled?

(woman) I guess the noble women, women from the ruling class. And they probably had reasons to dress up
like for feasts and stuff.

Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the student affairs office.

(man) Um, hi, I’d like to ask about something my professor mentioned to me. I’m going to be graduating this
spring and she says something about a student commencement speech that it’s an opportunity I should look into.

(woman) Sure, I can help you with that.

(man) Great! I studied English Composition and I really want to be a speech writer, so this English professor of
mine, she told me about that about the speech for the graduation ceremony this spring. She said it’s a real honor
to be chosen for that and it’d be a great way for me to, uh, to use what I’ve learned.

(woman) It certainly is an honor and it’s a way to, uh, to represent your graduating class and also really inspire
them for the future. And the speech itself will be short, only about four minutes long, so you’d need to stick
closely to your main point; concentrate on deliver a clear direct message.

(man) Yeah, the only thing is I’ve never given a speech in front of a large group of people before. I want to
write the speeches not deliver them. So I was wondering if I could just write a speech and then someone else
could deliver it.

(woman) Uh, sorry, but, it doesn’t work that way. The person chosen as a student commencement speaker
writes the speech and delivers it. But the university really works with you to prepare you. You’d work with a
speech coach and do a lot of practice so you’d definitely be ready.

(man) Well, if that’s the case then I’d like to go for it.

(woman) Great! Now to apply there’s an application form

(man) Of course

(woman) And you’d need a letter of intent, you know, explaining why you want to give the student
commencement speech and why you think you should be chosen and also you’ll need to sketch up a broad
outline of the speech you’ll give if you were chosen.
(man) Oh, I thought the entire speech would have to be written before the speaker’s been chosen. That’s what
my professor said, the one who told me about this. She said she used to help students write their commencement
speeches.

(woman) That was the way we did it but, well, that changed a few years back.

(man) Ah, I see. Uh, is there anything else I need to include? My resume or something?

(woman) Your resume, no, but you’ll need to provide a list of the classes you’ve taken, a transcript actually
with your grades on it and besides the transcript, uh, two letters of reference and, um, there might be something
else. I can’t think off the top of my head. But you can find the application form online along with an application
check list and information about the selection process. They’re all on the student affairs Web site.

Listen to part of a lecture in a Theater class

(male professor) So, let’s continue with our discussion of set design in the theater. We were about to talk about
the nineteenth century when we finished last time. Now, the traditions I’m talking about today mainly concern
the United States. In other places, in parts of Europe and Asia, for instance, theater was developing in different
directions.

OK, so in the nineteenth century we had the emergence of realism and naturalism. Now, these terms are
understood a little differently in US theater compared to, say, French literature and theater. But in terms of set
design they were enormously influential. Both realism and naturalism called for very realistic, true-to-life plays.
As a result, new styles of acting came into favor. Different types of drama were being written, but above all, the
stage and scenery, well, that had to be realistic.

Of course there are limits to how natural or realistic something can be on a stage, but during the nineteenth
century and into the twentieth century producers and set designers pushed at those limits. So, for plays with a
domestic setting, extremely realistic interiors were set up. Usually the living room, the common space of the
house, was the location of the action in domestic plays. And to present realistic interiors the box set was
developed.

The box set has three walls and a roof and a substantial number of authentic details. If there were windows in
the fake wall that was the back of the set, there would be fake trees set up behind the fake windows just to
complete the illusion. In the early twentieth century, this sort of obsession with realism reached its peak. One
producer actually imported furniture from a former French palace for a play whose action took place in a French
palace.

Now, not every production can have this fine attention to detail. Think about the costs. And some people even
though the elaborate sets actually took away from the production. But, well, I think there’s a place for all kinds
of productions. It depends on the nature of the play. So it’s interesting that out of this fascination with realism
the sets eventually became simpler. How did that happen?

Well, it wasn’t only producers of the domestic plays that wanted realistic sets; when staging plays by
Shakespeare, a sixteenth century English playwright, producers also tried to make the historical details accurate.
So even if they were producing, say, King John, which was set in year 1200, they tried to make the sets look
like 1200. But in researching those details, eventually some people came up with the idea, mostly around
universities, “Why not stage the plays as they had been staged in Shakespeare’s day?”
So, they researched that and as it turns out the sets back then were very minimal with the emphasis on the
actors, the words in the play. So, even as this focus on realism was peaking, this other trend, this trend towards
staging plays as they’d been staged historically, was emerging, not only for Shakespeare’s plays but also for
ancient Greek plays.

Now, as you’ll remember the style in which plays were staged in ancient Greece was also quite distinct. Sets
were minimal. All that was usually on stage during ancient Greek plays were the actors, who wore masks, a
large stone table and, well, that was about it. And these plays were popular with the modern audiences, so
producers realized that sets maybe didn’t have to be elaborate in order to have an effective play.

1-GM3-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a Biology class.

(female professor) Symbiosis, the close relationship living together between microorganisms and animals, is
actually incredibly common and, in fact, necessary for our survival. So if you just think about us. We can’t
make things like vitamin K, which is crucial for blood clotting. But bacteria inside us, in our gut, can. And so
we give them food. They live in our gut, in this happy safe environment, and make vitamin K for us and get free
food. Um, termites actually can’t digest wood, but the bacteria in their gut can. That’s a symbiotic relationship
where the bacteria get food and now the termites can live on wood, which is otherwise a kind of useless
material. So, it’s throughout the animal kingdom that microbes and animals are working together. I mean, there
would be very little life on this planet if, uh, if we didn’t work well with different microbes.

Now, speaking of symbiosis, one bacterium you encounter in your reading is particularly interesting: Vibrio
fischeri. Vibrio fischeri is really cool, because it glows in the dark. And things like this, in and of themselves,
always excite scientists. And it’s a fascinating organism that has learned that it can end up being protected and
form a symbiotic relationship by being able to glow in the dark. One animal that it goes into symbiosis with is
the angler fish.They’re deep sea fish, kind of creepy looking.

(female student) What’s that on its head?

(professor) It’s a lure. Um, we know these deep sea animals. It’s very, very dark and they’re going to be
attracted to any sort of light that’s around. And the angler fish has this long dangly thing that sticks out in front
of it that’s full of Vibrio fischeri that gives off just enough light to attract prey but not so much as to illuminate
itself. And then it eats those fish that are attracted to the lure.

(male student) Oh, devious.

(professor) OK, now, let’s talk about the bobtail squid.

This squid, I think it’s actually even cooler. The bobtail squid have Vibrio fischeri living in them as well. They
live in fairly shallow waters in the Pacific Ocean off Hawaii. They’re nocturnal so they hide during the day and
come out at night.

Now, if you imagine a dark night, the squid blend in fairly well just because it’s dark and they’re sort of
clearish, translucent. But the problem is they’re not translucent enough. So if you have a bright moon, the squid
are visible from below by their dark silhouette.

(male student) And show predators where they are.

(professor) Exactly! So they develop this special organ where they host Vibrio fischeri. Organ glows just
enough to light up the squid so its silhouette becomes as light as the sky and the squid become invisible from
below.

(female student) Wow!

(professor) Now, what’s got some of us who aren’t marine biologists so excited about Vibrio fischeri is that we
figured out which genes, which part of their DNA, allow them to glow in the dark. And we’re using that in
molecular biology now, in transgenic technology.

In transgenic technology, also called gene splicing, we take a gene out of one organism and put it in another.
For example, let’s say you found a gene that protects some wild plant against pests. And you want to transfer
that gene into a crop plant because you want to protect the crop against pest damage. Let’s say you already
managed to take the gene out of the wild plant and now you were trying to put it into the crop plant cells. OK

The problem is how can you quickly tell whether you successfully got the gene inside the cells? That’s where
Vibrio fischeri glow-in-the-dark gene comes in. What you do is you attach the glow-in-the-dark gene to your
pest-resistance gene and transfect the two genes together. If the cell starts glowing in the dark, that’s a sign that
the two genes got in which is what you wanted to find out. So, if you’re doing experiment with a whole bunch
of cells, it’s really easy to separate the ones that received the genes from those that didn’t. And that’s really
invaluable when you’re doing this type of experiment.

1-GM3-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an Astronomy class.

(male professor) OK, let’s get back to the Sun, this time looking at the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere,
the corona. It’s made up mainly of the elements hydrogen and helium, although carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are
also present in trace amounts. And these elements, well, they wind up streaming away from the Sun and through
space as part of a phenomenon called the solar wind.

Now, this solar wind, it’s blowing through space, right? But what happens when they reach Earth? Well, Earth
is surrounded by a magnetic field that provides a certain amount of protection. But if the solar wind is strong
enough, it can penetrate the magnetic field and cause storms. And a powerful storm can really disrupt out lives
here on Earth. Uh, back in 1989, a magnetic storm caused satellites to lose attitude and even caused power
blackouts in Canada and the United States. So you can see why it’s important to study the solar wind. Satellites
collect information on wind speed and particle density for use in making predictions about the solar wind and
possible solar storms. So there’s a lot of data, a lot of different things being measured and recorded and one
major question is how do we organize and present this data? Now, we usually use what’s called scientific
visualization.

Scientific visualization, in the form of charts or graphs, allows us to look at information and try to pick out
patterns or anomalies. We can then go back to the original data to analyze it further. But while scientific
visualization is a useful tool, the information can become visually overwhelming, especially when we’re dealing
with complex sets of data. Now, you may not know this but the ear, as opposed to the eye, is much better at
making sense of complicated information and discerning patterns in what otherwise might seem completely
random data. So, if solar wind data could be integrated, the different types of information layered somehow, and
put into an audio format, well, it’d be a lot easier to notice, or in this case, hear patterns or anomalies. And
that’s what happens with sonification.
In sonification, data is converted into an auditory format. So, audio with no human speech is used to organize
and present data. And it has several applications. Think about Geiger counter as an example. The Geiger
counter is a handheld device that measures levels of radiation and uses a clicking noise to indicate the level, so
the faster the clicks occur, the greater the level of radiation. Another example: seismic data from certain
volcanos in Italy and Ecuador have been sonified in the hopes that researchers monitoring volcanic activity
might be able to more accurately make predictions about volcanic activity, so the idea behind sonification aren’t
new.

Now, as you might imagine, sonification is multidisciplinary. It pulls from research and knowledge about
human perception, acoustics, design, the arts, engineering, computer programming, and in this case, astronomy.
So, getting back to sonification, how does it work with solar wind data?

Well, an American astronomer recently asked a music composer to sonify solar wind data. Since there’s no
standardization in how data can be sonified, the composer was given a fair amount of artistic license. In this
case, the end result was not clicks but rather something that sounded more like a musical composition. In this
composition, three sets of data that affect or are related to solar wind are included: the rotation speed of the Sun,
the velocity of the helium in the solar wind, and the different charged state of the carbon in the solar wind.

Now, the speed at which the Sun’s rotating that’s represented by drum beats, the next element of this musical
representation is the velocity of the helium in the solar wind and that’s represented by a sort of crashing noise
like simple crashes and the faster these crashes come, the faster the helium’s traveling. The third element is the
charged state of the carbon, you know, how many electrons it has. To sonify this data, the composer took a
sample of a woman humming, no words, just a vocalization. As the charged state of the carbon changes, the
sound of her voice changes.

Unfortunately, the astronomer who initiated this project hasn’t discovered anything new. But, he’s certain and I
agree with him here that the continued use of sonification will allow us to more easily uncover connections in
large sets of data.

1-GM4-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a university employee at campus security.

(woman) Hi, um, I think my car might have been towed.

(man) OK, well, we don’t handle that here. You’d need to go two blocks up the road on the right to retrieve it at
storage. It’s a brick building with a huge parking lot. But, might have? Where did you leave it?

(woman) In front of Roth Hall, my dormitory.

(man) Did you have a parking permit?

(woman) Yeah, I bought one here yesterday. I knew I need it to move into my dorm.
(man) And did you display it on the dashboard?

(woman) Yeah, I put it where I was supposed to.

(man) Hmm, so, when did you last leave your car?

(woman) I don’t remember exactly what time. I finished moving in around two in the morning. And when I
went out around nine this morning, it wasn’t there.
(man) I see. I guess you didn’t realize that all permits expire at midnight. It says so right on the front of the
permit. So, you’re right, it probably was towed.
(woman) Oh, I bought a permit so I thought I was covered.

(man) But not after midnight, there are no overnight permits. Too bad you didn’t know that. You could have
called us here and whoever was working might have been able to make arrangements with you to let you park
overnight. Depending on the circumstances, we can make allowances.

(woman) And obviously moving is a legitimate reason.

(man) Well, it’s case by case. Anyway, you should have your basic information handy for the people at storage:
the year and the make of the car, your license plate number, and..

(woman) Uh, I’m not sure about those things. See, it’s not my car. My friend let me borrow hers and she
doesn’t go to school here.

(man) Oh, well, that complicates things because the owner of the car, uh, your friend’s gonna have to be there in
person to retrieve it.

(woman) I can’t resolve this without bothering her?

(man) Sorry, they can’t just hand the car over to you without proof of ownership, and, not only that, but there’s
a parking ticket that your friend’s going to have to deal with sooner or later. You’re gonna have to explain that
to her, too.

(woman) Well, she is not gonna like this. She goes to school in Providence. She wasn’t planning to come to
pick up the car until this weekend.

(man) Well, unfortunately, every day the car is in storage, and additional daily storage fee is charged.

(woman) Oh, what a hassle!

(man) Yes, well, I suggest you call her as soon as you can.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her Biology professor.

(woman) You know, I’ve never been all that interested in biology. Was never that good at it, but last class.

(man) Well, glad you feel like you got something out of it. That’s why the university requires everyone to take
general education requirements. You may not think you like the subject, but when you take the class, well, you
might find something you enjoy.

(woman) Yeah, I mean, I still want to be a math teacher, but I’ve never really thought about how research in
biology might inform us about the underlying physical basis of learning, like those birds. I just assumed that,
well, I never really thought about how birds learn to sing.

(man) Right, but our ability to measure, to track which neurons in a bird’s brain activate when the bird is
singing and when a bird is learning to sing…

(woman) Well, that’s just it. There’re neurons that are constantly active when a bird is singing, but then there
are other neurons that only become active when a bird makes a mistake, when it’s trying to copy a song that it’s
heard but doesn’t get it right. So it seems to me that if we understand how birds learn from their mistakes, well,
as a future teacher I have to ask myself what are the implications, if any, for classroom teaching, like, in
knowing how my students are able to learn from their mistakes.

(man) It’s an important question. And, like I said in my lecture, it’s something that researchers are aware of.

(woman) And you, I mean, do you?

(man) No, my focus’s conservation biology, but we do have someone in this department, Professor Jones, who
studies this. At his last university he was on a team that made some very significant gains in decoding the
genomes of the zebra finch.

(woman) How does mapping the genes of a bird…

(man) In this case, singing sets off an unexpected genetic process. When a bird sings, that activates genes in the
brain and the genes involved with singing produce noncoding RNA. The belief had been that noncoding RNA
didn’t play a significant role in vocal learning or serve any biological function for that matter. We actually used
to think it was kind of a junk molecule. But this research suggests otherwise.

(woman) Hmm, I don’t completely understand all that but I’m definitely interested. Are there any classes on the
biology of learning?

(man) There are, but they’re upper level intended for students who have a strong foundation in biology.

(woman) I see.

(man) But there are plenty of journals I can recommend for you to check out. And there’s a group of students
who meet to discuss questions like this. I can get you in touch with them.

Listen to part of a lecture in a History class.

(female professor) As we said yesterday, Britain was the first nation to, uh, stumble into industrialization. Now,
for centuries, literarily centuries, historians have examined the where’s and why’s of this process. Usually, these
studies focus on a rather bland list of numbers measuring how much coal was used or how much cotton was
produced, for example, a chart in your textbook lists that in 1830 Britain produced two hundred million tons of
coal, two hundred million! But how much is that really? Your textbook doesn’t really give you an appreciation
of this number. So, recently we’ve begun to use a new analysis of industrialization that helps us to illustrate the
scale and the significance of numbers like this.

Now, let’s take a closer look at coal. For centuries, coal was widely available in Britain. However, the British
depended on wood as a fuel for general use, and, in particular, as a fuel in the production of important metals
such as iron. That’s because coal contained impurities like iron sulfide. And iron, which was manufactured by
burning coal, was too brittle, easily breakable. This demand for wood had depleted British supplies long before
industrialization. Forests disappeared and the iron industry went into serious decline. So the British then
imported most of their iron. But, then, they developed a new method of producing iron using coal which
overcame the earlier problems of producing low-quality iron. So, thanks to this new process, coal became the
basis of British industrialization.
Now, what exactly does it mean to use two hundred million tons of coal? Here’s a way to put it in perspective:
rather than measuring the coal itself that was used, we can measure the savings that come from using coal
instead of the alternative, which in this case would be wood. This is what we call ghost acreage. When we talk
about a specific resource, we use the term ghost acreage to refer to the amount of land, how many acres of land
or the acreage, that would be needed to replace, um, to provide a substitute for that resource. Yes, Bob?

(male student) So, for coal, the ghost acreage would be the amount of land used to grow enough trees for wood
as a substitute source of energy?

(professor) Right, to replace the same amount energy generated by coal

(male student) But, ghost acreage, what does it replace? I mean, it’s not land you’re actually using for anything
like to grow any product.

(professor) That’s right. It just refers to, gives us some measure of how much land you would need if you were
to replace a particular product. Let’s look at an example. We estimate that in Britain in the 1800s, the total
amount of arable land, land useable for growing things was around seventeen million acres. And to replace all
the coal used in Britain at the time, we estimate you’d have to harvest twenty one million acres of trees. It’s
ghost acreage in that burning the coal did not actually use up twenty one millions of trees. In fact, that was more
than all the available farmland in Britain at the time.

OK, now, if the search for sources of energy drove Britain underground for coal, the search for other resources,
especially cotton, drove it overseas. The role of cotton imports here is impressive even when measured with the
kinds of endless charts and figures your textbook cites, which is either a percentage of total imports or in tons.
But, again, it’s the ghost acreage that shows the real importance of these imported products.

Now, the most likely replacement for cotton would be wool. And wool requires land for raising sheep. So,
again, looking at Britain in the 1800s, we calculate the ghost acreage from cotton to be some twenty three
million acres. Again, this is far more than the total useable acreage available in all of Britain.

Just about any import can be calculated in terms of ghost acreage. Take sugar for example, or timber. All told,
the total ghost acreage Britain required by importing cotton, sugar and timber in the 1800s was as much as thirty
million acres, an impressive number when compared to other countries at the time. So, the upshot of all these is,
well, by using ghost acreage you get a much better understanding of all those large numbers in the textbook.
More importantly, it gives us a truer picture of how much Britain depended on trade with other countries, of just
how much all that industrialization required Britain to import the supplies it needed.

1-GM4-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an Astronomy class.

(male professor) OK, anyone remember what we discussed last class?

(male student) Uh, planet formation, like how planets form out of the gas and dust around young stars.

(professor) Good, and we discussed how diverse planets are in chemical composition, including elements basic
to life. But, beyond that, from the reading, what other factors are necessary for a planet to support life?

(female student) Well, there’s got to be water on the surface, right?

(professor) Liquid water

(female student) Right, so the planet can’t be so far from its star that it’s too cold for liquid water or so close
that it’s too hot.

(professor) And that pretty well describes the habitable zone. The habitable zone is the area around a star where
the temperature isn’t too extreme to support life. Earth’s right in the middle of our Sun’s habitable zone. At its
inner boundary closer to the Sun is Venus, where because of the intense heat, any water it has is locked in its
steamy atmosphere. And on the outer edge is the dry and frozen planet Mars, which may have had some liquid
water once, but Mars’ so small that its atmosphere collapsed very long time age. In order to maintain an
atmosphere, a planet needs enough mass, enough gravity, to hold a good thick atmosphere in place. And that’s
essential that the planet’s gonna be able to stabilize its temperature and keep liquid water on its surface.

(female student) Uh, I’m not sure how that helps stabilize the planet’s temperature?

(professor) Well, if an atmosphere is dense enough, especially if it’s got a lot of carbon dioxide, it could trap
heat; keep it from escaping from the surface. And astronomers have observed that the farther a planet is from its
star, the more carbon dioxide there is likely to be in its atmosphere. So even comparatively distant planets might
still be warm enough to have liquid water and maybe life of some sort could exist in an atmosphere high in
carbon dioxide. That’s why researchers are taking a lot of interest in the planet called Gliese 581d.

Gliese 581d orbits around its star called Gliese 581. Because of the planet’s large mass, it has seven times the
mass of Earth. It’s got enough gravity to maintain a dense atmosphere. Some researchers think it might be the
first identified exoplanet capable of supporting life.

(female student) Exoplanet?

(professor) Yeah, a planet outside our solar system, an exoplanet orbits a star other than our Sun. Gliese 581d
was initially dismissed as it’s too far from its star and thus too cold to support life. But researchers developed a
complex computer program that allowed them to analyze conditions in many possible combinations. And the
results were surprising: even though this planet’s on the very outer edge of the habitable zone, if it does have a
dense mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere, which is likely, it trapped enough heat to partially make up for that
distance.

(male student) Partially?

(professor) Well, we still haven’t talked about the star itself, Gliese 581. It’s what’s known as a red dwarf. The
light from the star is on the red side of the spectrum. Our own Sun has much more blue in its light. When our
Sun’s light reaches our atmosphere, some of its blue light bounces off the air molecules.

(female student) That’s why the sky is blue?

(professor) Right, it’s called Raleigh scattering. Raleigh scattering keeps a lot of the Sun’s energy from reaching
Earth’s surface. But the light from Gliese 581 remember, is mostly red, just about all of it penetrates the
atmosphere of Gliese 581d and that, along with the carbon dioxide, could add and maintain enough heat to
make up for the planet’s distance from its star. Now, it is possible that one side of Gliese 581d might always be
facing the star it’s orbiting. So that side would always be in the light. And the other side would always be dark.

(male student) And permanently frozen I bet.

(professor) Well, if temperatures differ significantly from one side of the planet to the other, the gases in the
atmosphere wouldn’t just sit there, would they? They’d circulate and help even out the heat.
(male student) Oh, then, you’d suppose the conditions on Gliese 581d really could support life?

(professor) Good question, especially since it’s so close to us. Actually, with current technology the trip would
still take three hundred thousand years. But compare to other exoplanets, it’s not far at all. Anyway, our
observational instruments, unfortunately, aren’t yet precise enough to give an answer. When more sophisticated
ones are developed, we’ll have a better idea.

1-GM4-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an Animal Behavior class.

(female professor) So, we’ve discussed some features of social behavior in animals, how different animals
interact with other members of their species. And last class we touched on altruism or the ability to engage in
unselfish behavior, to take action that may benefit others and not oneself. Uh, we have an interesting discussion
about why altruism may have developed. But, today, I want to consider another question that scientists have
been debating for some time, the question whether we can actually see altruistic behavior in animals.

Some have argued that what appears to be unselfish altruistic behavior is actually selfish, to avoid being
harassed, for example, or to derive some reciprocity, some benefit exchange in their helping behavior. For
example, smaller male chimpanzees appear to groom or clean their fellow chimpanzees more often than larger
males. Now, at first, researchers thought this was altruistic behavior because there didn’t seem to be any benefit
to the chimpanzees doing the grooming. They weren’t being groomed in turn.

But on closer observation, researchers realized that the smaller chimpanzees were engaging in this behavior
because it helps them move up in the social hierarchy. But some researchers in Japan wondered whether there
were situations in which chimpanzees might, in fact, help altruistically without expecting anything in return.
Now, past experiments have suggested that chimpanzees are not likely to behave altruistically when it comes to
giving up food. Nor would they offer help unless it’s directly requested.

So the researchers conducted two experiments that tested the importance of direct requests and they didn’t
require the chimpanzees to give up food. Three mother-offspring pairs and three non-genetically related pairs of
chimpanzees participated in experiment one. An individual sat in a clear plastic booth adjoining its partner’s
booth. There was a hole through the adjoining wall that the chimpanzees could pass tools through. In one booth,
a juice box was attached to a wall and couldn’t be accessed without a straw. Another juice box was placed just
outside the other booth and couldn’t be reached without using a stick to pull it in.

At first, each chimpanzee was given the tool it needed to get at the juice. This is what is called the matched
condition. The matched condition wasn’t testing altruism. It allowed the researcher to see how often
chimpanzees would trade tools for unrelated reasons such as play. To establish what might be considered
normal behavior. Next, the tools were mismatched, that is, the chimpanzee who needed the straw had a stick
and vice versa. The researchers then looked to see whether the two chimpanzees helped each other.

They found that in the matched condition, the chimpanzees hardly ever share their tools. But in the mismatched
condition, where each needed the other’s tool, they helped quite frequently, but usually only if the tool was
requested. Requests would be made by reaching through the hole between the two booths, sometimes a chimp
would also make a noise such as clapping or banging on the wall. Mother-offspring pairs tended to make more
requests than unrelated pairs. But requests were the deciding factor for both groups and the unrelated pairs
responded positively as often as the related pairs.

Interestingly, there was more reciprocity in mother-offspring pairs. They tended to exchange tools, whereas
with unrelated pairs, the giving tended to go only one way. This might have something to do with the fact that
one partner in each unrelated pair was dominant and it was the subordinate who typically gave to the dominant,
issues of power. But the exchange between mother and offspring, that left researchers with the question,
“What’s more important, reciprocity or request?”

Which brings us to the experiment two: the researchers created the second situation, one in which reciprocity
wasn’t possible, only one partner was struggling for juice and the other partner had the correct tool. The
researchers found that transfer was just as high in the second experiment as in the first. It’s interesting, though,
in both experiments there was virtually no voluntary altruism, that is, the chimpanzees wouldn’t, uh, just see
their partners struggling and offer their tool. An individual had to make a request.

Is this a sign of selfishness or if I may offer my opinion, is it that they’re simply not able to easily discern or
infer the needs or others, something to be investigated. In any case, the result certainly suggests that
chimpanzees can be altruistic, or at least that they’ll help each other without short-term reciprocity. There may,
of course, be long-term reciprocity benefits that aren’t immediately apparent.

1-GM5-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and the dean of student activities.

(woman) Dean Anderson, I’m Sandra Myers. Thank you for seeing me. As I said on the phone, I’m on the
student government committee for new initiatives.

(man) Right, and you have a proposal for a new campus program, something for first-year students I believe.

(woman) Yes, we’d like to start a freshman resource center, a place where first-year students could go to find
out about everything from clubs, on-campus jobs, to how to choose a major.

(man) But isn’t all that information already available?

(woman) Yes, problem is, advising information’s in one place, information about clubs and social activities is
somewhere else. It’s hard to know where to find the information you’re looking for.

(man) So this would be like a one-stop information center, uh, tell me, Sandra, was this a problem for you when
you started here, uh, getting this information?

(woman) A bit, I came from a small high school in a small town, the university, the city, there’s just so much
going on here. And my friends, other first-year students, were in the same boat. Luckily, I had a really great
advisor in my dorm. She became my mentor; help me figure things out, you know. And that’s the kind of
experience we’d like everyone to have.

(man) Well, has type of program been implemented in other universities? Uh, do you know it’s been
successful?

(woman) We did some research and found several programs similar to the one we’d like to see here. A couple
of us actually visited some of the centers. We talked to students who used them to students who work in them
and to administrators. Everyone said the center’s really improved the university experience for first-year
students.

(man) Well, it’s an admirable idea. But you know there’s never enough money to fund every admirable idea.
Have you thought about just setting up a Web site with links to the information?
(woman) That’s definitely part of our plan. But we think it’s important for students to be able to sit down and
talk with someone. We wouldn’t need much, an office in the student activities building, the money to cover
printing costs. We’d staff the center with volunteers.

(man) Well, it sounds as though you’ve put a lot of thought into this. Now, even though the idea is coming from
the student government organization, you’ll still need to submit a formal proposal to our office for
consideration. In addition to explaining the service: who it’s for, its purpose, how it’ll operate; you’ll need to
submit a budget for the year. You’ll find detailed instructions and the necessary forms on the student activities
Web site. And, by the way, all budget requests for next year are due at the end of the month, so you’ll have to
get busy.

Listen to a conversation between a student and an Archeology professor.

(man) I’m concerned about the research paper for your class.

(woman) What’s the problem? I think the syllabus is pretty clear.

(man) Oh, it is. I’m wondering if I should focus my paper on that archeological site in the eastern Canada you
mentioned yesterday or not. I’m interested in it because it’s in such pristine condition. But is that so unusual?

(woman) Uh, the one in Labrador on the coast, right? Well, many of the native Canadian sites in that area have
been disturbed by people, like with building construction or growing cities or even by people digging in their
gardens, you know, those sorts of things. A lot of sites have been damaged by simple erosion, so that site is
pretty unique. And another thing, it’s small. And small sites are where we’ve gotten the majority of our
information on the ancient people of that region.

(man) That’s what got me so confused. See, I would think that the larger sites would be more valuable.

(woman) Many times a small site gets overlooked because it doesn’t contain a whole lot of tools or other
artifacts.

(man) Which kind of makes sense, right?

(woman) But when you add up for data from all these small sites, well, you can start to see what life was like in
an area like coastal Labrador in ancient times. I mean, we can kind of piece together patterns of trade and
mobility, how settlements interacted with one another, how people hunted, what they ate, all kinds of stuff.

(man) Another thing, you said the artifacts that are found at the coastal sites are different from the artifacts at
interior sites?

(woman) Right, there’s so much difference between the coastal and interior sites that we have to wonder if they
belonged to two completely different groups. That’s another direction you can take the paper in if you want.

(man) Were there any shared characteristics?

(woman) There were. They had similar types of structures like stone fireplaces, well, I should leave that for
your own investigation.

(man) OK, and just one more thing, um, would you be willing to write me a letter of recommendation for a
summer program in Archeology? It’s run by Windy Valley University.
(woman) I’m familiar with Windy Valley. What’s this particular program about?

(man) It’s five weeks of field work in Michigan, working on some archeological sites that date to the late
woodland period.

(woman) Oh?

(man) We’d be helping with the excavation of one of the sites, looking to figure out what life was like for the
people who lived there.

(woman) I see, sounds exciting, it’s a good thing you already took a field work methods course. You’ll be able
to use what you’ve learned.

(man) Yeah, I think the methods course is really going to help me in the program.
(woman) Well, just give me all the details, when it’s due, where to send it, and I’ll be happy to write the letter
up for you.

(man) Thanks

Listen to part of a lecture in an Art class.

(male professor) When thinking about the broad world of art, it’s probably fair to say that in most people’s
minds the artist’s role is that of a creator. And the viewing public’s role is that of interested but passive
observer. Well, that doesn’t always have to be the case. There’s a genre of art called participatory art, where the
observers actually become co-creators. They’re crucial to shaping the experience. They become part of the art
itself. And we’re starting to see a lot more participatory art these days. Take, for instance, the work of Paul
Ramirez Jonas.

Paul Ramirez Jonas’ piece is called Keys to the city. Typically, a single key to the city is awarded only to a
special hero or a high-profile visiting official. Ramirez Jonas, however, wanted to provide that opportunity to
regular everyday people in New York City. Over a period of one month, more than fifteen thousand individuals
came to pick up a key to participate. People made their way to a designated spot in the city.

There, they entered a small gated grassy square that had been constructed solely for this experience. Once
inside, they signed their name in an official record book and completed the short statement about why they
deserved a key. Then, two at a time, participants read each other’s statements aloud and awarded the keys. And
these weren’t standard symbolic keys, ones that couldn’t be used. Each of these keys was real. The keys all
unlocked twenty four specific sites spread all throughout the different regions of the city. Since people went on
different days and unlocked the locks in different order, each person’s adventure unfolded in different ways.

Now, Ramirez Jonas’ work can definitely be interpreted as a protest against a technology-filled society that
isolates that distances people. In fact, that’s one of the two main reasons artists choose to create works of
participatory art. And the other main reason they create art like this is that participatory art serves as a criticism
of the power of traditional art institutions. So, typically, over the past fifty years, participatory art has not taken
place inside museum.
However, recently that’s been starting to change. Ironically, museums are now trying to include participatory art
into their programs, since it brings people in, which is certainly a good thing for a museum. Artist Marina
Abramovic’s piece, The Artist Is Present, is an example of successful participatory art installation in a museum.

For The Artist Is Present, Marian Abramovic set up two chairs facing each other. She sat in one chair and
visitors to the museum had the option to sit in the chair facing her without talking and just look into her eyes for
however long they wished. So, you see, again this work is not complete unless there is a visitor there to alter
what is happening. Some sat for five minutes, some twenty minutes, some sat for over an hour. I was fortunate
enough to be able to attend it and it was very thought-provoking and riveting to watch.

Each person who sat opposite to her changed the energy; changed the dynamic of that silence. Ultimately, there
was quite a turnout for both Ramirez Jonas’ and Abramovic’s pieces. But a large attendance is not a
requirement of the art form. Not all participatory art occurs on such a large scale as that. I mean there’s task
event, for example, T A S K, task events involve a selected group of participants, say, twenty people.

There’s something you could even easily hold in a university dormitory lounge. Participants are given basic
materials like cardboard, tape, plastic bags, pens and so on. They’re given two-step instructions. Step one, each
person in the group writes an activity task on a piece of paper and puts it in the box. Step two, each person pulls
a task from the box and interprets it in their own way.

An example of a task could be draw a sketch of someone in the group and have each person in the group draw a
part of it. Or, build a tree. So, at its core, I’d say that the works generated by participatory artists are unique to
the specific combination of participants involved. It’s not really possible to control what the outcome will be;
nor to the artist’s wish to exert that control.

1-GM5-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an Environmental Science class.

(female professor) Today as we continue to examine environmental management practices, you’ll start to see
that developing a coherent wildlife management plan is not often as straightforward a process as you might
have thought. In fact, it can be quite contentious with different groups each trying to make sure that their
concerns and interests are given due consideration.

(male student) But isn’t everybody interested in the same things, protecting wildlife, clean up pollution?

(professor) Yeah, you’d think so. But sometimes when you start protecting one species, you may actually be
endangering another or damaging a habitat or creating some other kind of problem. Um, a good example is a
rather large migratory bird that’s found from Alaska to Mexico, the double-crested cormorant.

There’re six species of cormorant in North America. But the double-crested is by far the most common. It lives
along coast and inland waterways, lakes and rivers, where it feeds on fish. The species was listed as endangered
in the 1970s but it’s rebounded since then.

(male student) That’s great, so what’s the problem?

(professor) Actually, it’s the success of the cormorant that’s causing the problems. Take this island near where I
grew up, South Dumpling Island off the coast of Connecticut. Cormorants started settling on South Dumpling
about ten years ago and now about 500 of them are living there. Some local residents complain that’s just too
many cormorants that they’d become, quote, overabundant.
(female student) Overabundant? Compare to when they were endangered?

(professor) Uh, a very important question, conservationists generally rely on historical data to determine what
current population sizes ought to be. We know that there were huge cormorant colonies all over North America
throughout the 1800s. The largest had about a quarter million breeding pairs. That’s about ten times more than
the largest colony in existence today.

But through various human activities, the double-crested cormorant became endangered. It was particularly
affected by the introduction of the pesticide DDT in the 1940s and 50s. Um, one of the side effects of DDT was
that it damaged bird eggs; made their shells too thin to protect the embryo. So, that colony I mentioned that
once had a quarter million cormorant pairs, by 1969 there were only about five thousand pairs left.

(male student) So how did these birds make a comeback?

(professor) Well, DDT became illegal in 1972. And along with the banning of this pesticide, new habitats were
created, protected areas where cormorants could set up their colonies. Plus, there’s been a large increase in the
number of fish farms, where fish are raised commercially. And those have increased the food available to
cormorants even in places where stock of wild fish have decreased. So, the cormorants have rebounded,
although, and this is crucial, not back to anything like the numbers seen in the 1800s.

(male student) But, basically, we’ve got more cormorants now than we did ten, fifteen years ago. That still
seems like a good thing to me.

(professor) Sure, on the other hand, cormorants don’t necessarily make the best neighbors. They strip leaves off
vegetation to build their nests and their droppings are so acidic that they can actually kill trees. So what used to
be a healthy ecosystem becomes just a barren place full of dead trees, not too scenic. And most people don’t
consider cormorants themselves particularly graceful or handsome either, like cranes or pelicans.

In fact, a lot of the opposition to the cormorant is basically esthetic. You see, people often say they want to help
a once common species thrive again. But they aren’t so enthusiastic when that includes elements of ugliness,
which is the case here.

(female student) Are there other reasons to be concerned about increasing numbers of cormorants?

(professor) Yes, some claimed that their feeding habits are causing economic damage. This is more of a concern
for commercial fish farms than for wild fisheries. But, for instance, it’s been estimated that cormorants have
been causing catfish farmers in the state of Mississippi to lose ten million dollars or more per year.

1-GM5-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a History class.

(female professor) OK, in the last class we started talking about the succession of thought that precedes a
significant advance in technology. And today I’d like to pick up with the thinking that preceded the invention of
the airplane. And although people were thinking about flying long before his time, I’d like to start with
Leonardo da Vinci.

As most of you probably know, da Vinci was born in 1452 and became a principal figure of the Italian
Renaissance. Most people know him for his paintings, uh, the Mona Lisa among them, but da Vinci also had
ideas for many inventions. One idea was for a device that would allow humans to fly. He was fascinated by
birds and had studied their motion in flight. So, it’s only logical then that he would try to imitate the flight of
birds. OK, now, I’d like you to put yourself in da Vinci’s shoes. If you were studying birds and trying to figure
out how you too could fly, what would you come up with? David?

(male student) Something like an airplane?

(professor) And how many birds have you seen that have stationary wings and jet engines?

(male student) OK, uh, I guess maybe the wings would have to move, you know, flap up and down, using
muscle power not jets.

(professor) OK, now, you’re thinking like Leonardo da Vinci. So, da Vinci came up with an idea for what’s
called an ornithopter. The term ornithopter comes from the Greek words for both bird and wing. An ornithopter
consists of a pair of large wings and a harness, which attaches the wings to a person. Now, the person’s
supposed to flap the wings up and down and so be able to fly like a bird. Did da Vinci’s ornithopter work? No.
And why not? Well that was explained about a century after Leonardo in the late seventeenth century by a
mathematician named Giovanni Borelli.

Borelli applied the principles of physics and did a mathematical analysis of muscle performance and strength
that showed humans could not, under their own power, fly like birds do by flapping wings. Given our size and
weight we just don’t have the muscle power.

OK, well, after Borelli, most researchers finally gave up on the idea that a person could fly by flapping wings
using their own power. But they didn’t give up on the idea that the key to flight was flapping wings like a bird.
What they did was they started trying to figure out how to use a motor to provide the power to flap the wings.
And this flapping the wings idea has shown incredible staying power. There are people who are still trying to
make it work today. But, so far, no one’s been able to come up with an ornithopter, even a mechanized
ornithopter that has much practical value. Yes, Susan?

(female student) So, you mean, people focus on the ornithopter idea and not on the other ideas that might have
gotten us flying sooner?

(professor) Ironically enough, attempts to imitate bird flight actually had a negative impact on the development
of the technology needed for flight. David?

(male student) I don’t know. Just the other day I saw a flock of geese flying overhead and I looked at their
design and I was struck by how similar they are to airplanes: long slender bodies, wings at about the same
position and the same proportion to their body, I mean, would people have even thought about trying to fly if
they hadn’t seen birds?

(professor) Well, that’s a fair point, David. We definitely learned a lot from studying bird flight. The Wright
brothers, who are generally credited with inventing the world’s first successful airplane, they were avid students
of bird flight. But they focused more on what we call gliding or soaring flight, the kind of flight you’re talking
about, where birds are relying on an updraft of air to carry them along with minimal wing movement. So, good,
let’s be more specific. The problem wasn’t so much that people were trying to imitate bird flight, but that

(male student) They thought that they had to imitate every aspect of how birds fly, you know, like not just
soaring but with wings that flap?

(professor) And?

(male student) And they were locked into that one way of thinking for a long time.
(professor) Exactly! OK, so let’s take a look at another technology where the same sort of thing happened.

1-HX1-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and the professor.

Hi. Perfect. Atomic.

Ah, hello zhou.

Well, what can I do for you? Everything? Ok. Well.

Yeah, yeah. Anything is fine. And the thing is, the reason I wanted to see is, um, you're the head of the
university of music department, aren't you? You and you specializing gas, right?

Well, I teach courses in classical performance then, as you know, one in music theory. But yes, Jazz piano is
my, uh, my horse.

Okay, yeah, that's what I thought. The the thing is I quite piano too. And in high school I was in office and
faster, like extra curricular stuff.

Aha. Very good. Very nice.

And well, actually for a while, I was considering applying see, I mean, I really wanted to go to the conservatory
and just I use it o.

Um, what made you change your mind?

Well, I thought it would be a good idea to like to keep my academic options open. You know. And my high
school grades and sciences were pretty good biology in particular. So I came here instead for, well, a more
academic education, uh.

Her realize vision.

Right? Well, I figured it made more sense for my future, my career, and all. But the thing is, I really miss
having music in my life. That's why I signed up. You need a theory class. And I have been enjoying it and all
but well, analyzing music, just not me writing it.

Sure. Yeah. So I was wondering, since you're the head of the department, I was wondering if you could
recommend like groups like to play with, you know, in my spare time.

Well, great. Uh, c there there are several performance group here at the university. There's my dad's band, of
course, when I direction play in. And we're we're actually holding auditions for new players next week. But.

Are you really? WOW. Wouldn't that be.

Something. Uh, yes, but, well, we're actually not in need of anyone else on piano right now, which is what you
said you're in what was right? So, uh, oh, right. But but don't worry. We'll find you something. Tree, there are
also quite a few students on there. And as department head, I I'm pretty much familiar with all of them. Yeah,
sure. Oh, and if you go online to the department website, there's also a link to student run web page without
musical group here on campus. It often has notices about local bands needing new players.

Oh, that's good to know about.

So I suggest you check out that web page regularly. They updated every other Wednesday, I believe. Uh,
beyond that, I can assure you that i'll keep my ears open for a Jazz band and need of a piano player. Who
knows? Maybe i'll hear about ones at the end of the month.

That's great. Professor, thank you so much.

Listen to a conversation between a student and a university director of student activity.

So, yeah, a couple of months ago you, um, submitted a proposal form or a trip to Washington DC that their
history, public banking, and it's open to all students on campus. Yeah. And you think they didn't know what
kind of response we get. I only lifted the trip as tentative on the proposal form. But now, well, let's just say the
response has exceeded our expectations. And we're definitely going, that's wonderful. Um, but you'll need to
submit that pain to me and writing, wait, I need to fill up the entire proposal form again. But that'll take forever.
No, no, no, just a supplemental form for the situation. It's easy to fill out. The secretary will give you one on
your way out. O a supplemental form. That's good.

I'll put that up on the way around. Now I was thinking about how it would be helpful if the history club could
raise some funds for the trip, since that's gonna be a bit more expensive than anticipated. And well, recently I
went to the dinner show, you know where dinner served while you walk to theatre performance. Oh, those are a
lot of fun. But you're not suggesting we do a dinner show at the fundraiser. Actually, we wanna do a mystery
dinner show as a fundraiser. You see the audience would get to participate because they'd be like trying to solve
a mystery.

Uh, like at the beginning of the show, we have a scene that introduced the mystery. We who neither members of
the history club, we did the theatre performer. The whole thing was written by members of the drama club. And
they're willing to let us use it to help out our talk, really.

That's a great idea. Working with the drama club, it kind of collaboration can benefit both Bob. I agree.
Anyway, the mystery is that a valuable painting has gone missing. And members of the audience would like
work with the other people at the table to figure out how it happened based on the clues that we did them at the
beginning of. And throughout the show, he realized that this is a huge undertaking. I mean, a restaurant getting
a restaurant with the phase of the talent, and not to mention publicizing the event, you know, getting the word
out so that enough people will come. You need the money for that too.

Well, we've already done a fair amount of preparing. We wanted to make sure it be possible to get it organized
before I can do with the idea. I know we need you to approve ago. Well, do you think you'll be able to pull it off
and make a profit? Yeah. We found a local restaurant that's going to host the event at a discounted price. And
you forget.

Listen to part of a lecture in an animal behavior class.

Ok. Today we're going to be looking at animal behavior patterns that involves passing, as you may already
know, the word hashing is related to the word park attached is a hiding place. And catching, uh, when you say
an animal catches which many animals floors is food in a hiding place. now many animals cast their food
supplies. Uh, yes tells you have a question. well, there's something i've always wondered about when animals
cash food are they really like planning for the future? Like when school type nuts are they just you know hiding
nuts because they have some impulse that tells him to go hide some nuts, or are they really like thinking about
the future?

You know, planning ahead, so they'll have food in the winter? Well, that's a great question. And there have been
some studies that have attempted to find that out in one study. Oh, uh, well, first I should mention, I thought this
is about animal behavior called the michelle kern a hypothesis. the b shaw turner hypothesis is widely accepted
that it states that animals, aside from humans that is, are unable to anticipate future needs, that they are only
able to think in the present, and that any future oriented behavior is serving speakers. they behave in certain
ways simply because their programs to not because they are consciously planning for the future. but recently,
researchers have been re examining this hypothesis. and they've been conducting some studies in an attempt to
demonstrate that animals will ever some animals have an awareness of the future need for food and that they
decisively plan for later meals. they've been cutting your species of bird known as the western scrub Jay
listening subjects half week one. And in one study that I read, researchers were trying to determine whether the
sub days are actually thinking about the future planning for future needs.

When they cast their food. the study was fairly complex, but well, let me just summarize. The first stage of the
study lasted for six days. On the money of the first day, the days were put in a compartment of a large stage
where they had access to food. so the example associate that compartment with food. In the morning, the
researchers called the breakfast compartment. on the second day, the gauge will put in a different compartment
of the cage where there was no food. so they began to associate that second compartment with no food in the
morning. That was, we know, breakfast compartment. and over the next few days, the researchers continued to
alternate the compartment. on the 3rd day, the gates were put in the breakfast compartment on the 4th day in the
no breakfast compartment, and so on. so after several ways, the day had been trained to distinguish between
your breakfast and no breakfast compartments. then after that training period, in the second phase of the
experiment, the jays were giving the opportunity to task need any both compartments. and what do you think
happen, jennifer? they stored the food in the no breakfast and partner. That's right. They scored significantly
more food in the no breakfast apartment. so does this mean they were planning ahead for the next time? They be
without food in that no breakfast compartment?

well, those researchers also did a second study. an interesting thing about gravy is that they'll smoke from the
troubled food caches, if they can. so what these researchers did was they divided the subjects into two groups.
while the cave in the first group were catching their food, they were being observed by other verbs in the state.
but while the days in the second group were catching their food, there were no other birds around to improve
them. later, all the days in the first group returning to this passage dug them up and he moved the food remain
location where the food was new half they hid the food again without being observed by other birds. but the
jays in the second group, the ones that were not being observed by other birds, they did not meet ask their food,
maybe because they didn't need food since there was no perceived threat of a food being stolen. well, it does
look like that first group, the group that meet past their food with planning ahead maximizing your chances of
finding feeding as hat sometime in the future. does that mean to be suffer? The hypothesis is wrong? well,
further research is needed here. I mean, they never know exactly what mental processes the scrub jays were
using and making your decisions. but.

1-HX1-2
listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.
one of the biggest cultural shift in human history was the shift from food gathering cultures to food producing
ones. agriculture was revolutionary because of the lifestyle changes it brought about. and a key factor in this
transformation was the domestication of heart. now, what do we mean by plant domestication? Donathan? it's
uh, when you plant and harvest crops yourself, rather than just picking what's growing while. oh, hey, but um,
well, let's tease this apart of it. when you plant your own trees, work the land. That's what we call cultivation.
and that's the first step towards domestic Asian domestic Asian involves the actual genetic modification of wild
plants.

So they're more than official to people easier to harvest. For example, these changes evolved in the plants
because of cultivation. um. Take wheat, for instance, wheat cycle. It are attached to the stock and carry the
seeds or grain. Rich people grind into flour and then naturally growing wildly. the cyclist fall off the stock onto
the ground over time. ok. So you can gather those cyclists after they fall and then grind up the seeds. Right?
Well, that's fine. If you have a nomadic lifestyle and can be in the right place at the right time. but if you give a
more settled lifestyle, you might want to control things a bit. you prefer a type of heat where the spikelet stay on
the stock until you decide to harvest all that deed at once. well, for that can happen.

The wild plant has to undergo physical changes till the cyclists don't scatter easily. and that's where cultivation
comes in. because once people start growing plants deliberately, they select ones with certain traits, like buy
books that they attached longer. and then human cultivation results in genetically changed plans. that when we
can say those clients have been domesticated. but how long does it take to domesticate plan? How long do they
need for calculated? good question. up until recently, we thought it happened relatively quickly. in fact, in 1992,
researchers made a computer model using data from cultivation experiment, and some domestic Asian could
occur within 200 years or less. so the consensus among most archaeologists was that agriculture appeared rather
abruptly, that crops were domesticated shortly after people began cultivating fields, um, about 13000 years ago.
but more recent data have shown that these assumptions are questionable. in one study, researchers looked at
heat cycle. It's dating from 10500 years ago from a site in Turkey. they'll examine them under a microscope.
and on the lower end of some of them, where the cycle it attaches to the stock, the edge wasn't smooth, it was
jagged. no. What do you think that he was broken off the book? Exactly. They didn't come off easily. They
needed human help.

And that's a sign of domestically that heat. and this is the earliest evidence of domesticated wheat that we have.
but the researchers also found spikelet with need round edges. those were some wild food. so wild and
domesticated week plants were growing together in the earliest cultivated deal. and the researchers concluded
that full domestication might have taken longer than previously thought. That wild plants were replaced only
gradually by domesticated plants once cultivation had begun. so when did people start to cultivate wildly? Was
it when they realized they could use it to make flour? well, that's another of our long held assumption. but guess
what? At a site in the middle east, evidence was found that the people living there 23000 years ago were
grinding wild feed on barley to make flour. But there was no evidence whatsoever that they were cultivating
plants. now that was during the last ice age, which shows that humans were using wild plants for thousands of
years before they switch to cultivation. do we know what made them flips?

there are different hypotheses. one is that the rise of farming has to do with climate changes that occurred from
the last glacial period. Ended. a milder, more stable climate could have triggered the rise of farming. But many
archaeologists think that this can't be the sole explanation that other factors might have fight a role. Like, uh,
social changes as hunter gatherer communities became more sedentary, but makes it so difficult to answer. Your
question is the fact that we're looking for a global explanation for agriculture. you see, contrary to an older news
that agriculture started out in just two places, the near east and the americas. archaeologists now agree that the
medication of plants took place independently in many different parts of the world.

1-HX1-3
listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

ok. Today we're going to spice things up a bit by delving into the heart of a controversy that's brewing in the art
world and the literary world. you see a painting have been discovered from within a family's private collection.
it's known as the cob portrait. and some very well respected scholars believe that this painting is an authentic
portrait of the famous writer wooden fake spear made during his lifetime. now, presently, there are only two
images of shakespeare that scholars considered to be authentic, but they're not painting. there's the funeral
sculpture of his head.

And then there's the engraving of his head on the cover of his first collection of published work. now, the first
path in authenticate ing the cob portrait as a portrait of shakespeare was to establish whether the portrait was
from the correct historical period. through extensive testing, we know that the wood panel on which the cob
portrait was painted come from trees cut down during the late renaissance, and that the oil paints used are also
characteristic of that era. so the portrait has been shown to date from around 1610. In 1610, shakespeare was 46
years old. the next piece of the puzzle was to determine the painting's original owners, the family that privately
owned. The portrait had a very impressive connection. it turns out that the current owner is a direct descendant
of the very person who gave shakespeare both visible public support and money to write his plays. that person
was the earl of southampton. so two pieces of evidence support the claim that the cob portrait is of shakespeare,
but not everyone agrees. some scholars question the clothing worn by the man in the porter. take a look at it.
some point to the fact that, hey, shakespeare was a playwright and a playwright wouldn't be wearing such fancy
is higher. playwrights didn't have high social status, and at that time they restrict laws established by the ruling
queen, queen elizabeth, that regulated, who could wear what?

Now this applied to specific fabric, that the colors and types of clothes penalties, like fines, could be legally
imposed for dressing above one social position. now, that is true. But by 1610, those laws were more relaxed,
and people were demonstrating more social flexibility. so it's entirely possible that shakespeare could have
chosen to wear the outfit or a special occasion. another point people bring up is that the man in the painting
appears very useful. should this man in the image really be holding six, especially considering that time period
life wasn't easy. And this image certainly doesn't look like the image of the heavier and slightly balding man. In
both the funeral statues and the published engraving, shakespeare only lived until he was 52 years old. So could
we have AIDS so very rapidly in only six years? well, in fact, the painting style from that time period typically
idealized. The poet and painters created portraits were very complementary, and people sometimes ended up
looking nothing like their real self, a fact which doesn't make this investigative process easier. now, one art
historian is very doubtful of the claim that this is shakespeare. however, she has different reasons than the ones I
pointed out to the art historians way of thinking n mine too.

And my dad, this faucet is most likely of a completely different individual. you're probably thinking, wait a
minute. You said that the earl of southampton was the original owner of this portrait, and that he was a very
public supporter of shakespeare. oh, yes, that's true. However, here's the twit. apparently the early southampton
was also a very vocal supporter of sir thomas over bury one of his political allies. during that time period, it
wouldn't be at all unusual to have and allies portrait in your collection. additionally documented portraits of sir
thomas over berry looks incredibly similar to the controversial thing. they are a map with regard to age, facial
shape attire. And they both share an intriguing detail in the documented portraits of over barry. his left ear has a
characteristic shape. You can't really see it. Well in the image.

1-HX2-1

Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the student affairs office. Ok. There, Susan.
Fine. Mister Harris.

Congratulations on your election president. Uh.

Thanks. You know i've been on the student activities boards since my first few years. So I thought i'd try for a
leadership role in it.

Yeah, good.

You have a lot of experience in planning events on campus.

Yeah. But i've always been involved in smaller projects. As president, I'm gonna be responsible for campus
wide events. It's gonna be challenging. But a lot of fun too.

Yes.

That's the spirit.

So I have an idea. I'd like to book the Jimmy Smith band to come. I think that will be a great show out on
campus.

Well, if you can convince the band to come here.

Turns out they're doing a show in central university in a couple of months. So they'll be in the area. Hm? And
someone said that Jimmy Smith himself graduated from here a few years back. So I bet we could book them.

Are you a fan? To be honest, I haven't heard them. I don't think they're well known around here.

But I found out that they sound similar to the magic tones.

Yep. They played here last year, right?

Yeah, they were ahead. Well, they're popular. So I'm not exactly sure what I need to. Well, what I need to do to
like get funded.

Well, it can be a lengthy process. First, you need to come up with a budget. You figure out how much it will
actually cost and fill out an application form to request a funding. And you submit the form to me to this office
that is, and the funding board will go over and let me know their decision.

Aha. And if the budget is approved, then depending on how highly anticipated costs will be, I may send it to the
office of the Dean for another approval. Then you can go ahead and try to book the band.

Um, I have heard a rumor that funds are a little low right now.

That's right. You know that most events on campus are funded by the student activity fee, including the tuition
bill. And normally there are enough funds available. But the costs for last year's community outreach day were
much higher than expected.

But we could arrange some type of fundraiser, right? Like a car wash.
You could. But in the amount of money you'd make, especially given the cost of cleaning supplies, you might
be disappointed.

Now? Well, do you have any suggestions?

Well, you might consider an auction. You could obtain items from local businesses to sell them for the highest
bidder. They probably won't mind donating items since it's a Free advertising. My colleague at another
university told me about a student group there that made quite a bit of money from an auction fundraiser.

Yeah, that's a good idea. I just need to know how to get started. Can I have your colleagues number?

No problem.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her biology profession.

So I heard that your field work group ended up camping a few days longer than expected.

Yeah, the bus broke down. It gave us time to gather more specimen from the lake to study in the lab. But
unfortunately, it meant missing a day of classes, including the class when you describe the requirements of the
paper.

Uh, that brings back memories from my undergraduate days. So anyway, what I'm looking for is an ecological
situation in which the solution causes a much greater problem than the original problem it was intended to
solve. The example I gave in class was about cane toads in Australia. They were imported there in 1935 to
control the grayback cane beetles that were destroying the sugar cane crop.

And what this plan back hard. Yeah.

It's a classic case of biological control gone awry. The toads ate some beatles, but they also eat many other ends
and their poison. And being an imported species, they have no natural predators, not good, definitely not even
worse. The codes had no effect on great back pain beagle populations either. Uh, so tell me what you have in
mind for your paper.

Well, I got the idea from a radio interview. I heard it was with an ecologist who claims that the greatest threat to
the greatest number of species in the next 25 years is not global warming as one would expect, but the
cultivation of oil palm tree.

These are, yes. There's been a lot of talk recently about whether oil palm plantations are harmful to biodiversity.
Some areas report losing as much as 80% of the native bird and butterfly population. And the oil palm is being
cultivated in so many places in the world now.

Everybody thought it was a sore winner and need a lot of sense, both economically and environmentally.
There's a crop that's in high demand, easy to grow and won't disrupt the ecosystem, both overdraw. It's a good
profit. So am I right that the paper should be divided into two sections? Yes.

In the first section, you describe the practice, the history of where and how it was implemented, the degree to
which it has been successful and why, and how it has become a conservation problem or a potential problem.

Right? And the second part is about how to develop a suitable policy to deal with the problem. Exactly.

The second section should also include the pros and cons associated with oil palm cultivation. I'm interested to
see what you come up with.
You mean? Because it's not all that. Right?

Oil from the oil palm happens to be very useful. It's in so many products from food.

Listen to part of a lecture in an ecology class. the class has been discussing various ways that populations of
organisms interact in nature.

okay? Up until now, we've been looking at interactions of populations in nature that are classified as negative.
we talked about predators that feed on prey, like the coyote and rabbit, uh, corn root worms that feed on the
corn plant, and so on. in all of the cases we've discussed so far, one organism actually harms the other. now i'd
like to begin talking about composite of interactions. let's start with mutualism and the classic mutually stick
relationship. and this holistic relationship in ecology is when two organisms have a relationship where both
benefit and neither one is harm. some mutual isms are so close that the interacting species actually can't survive
about each other. my favorite example of this is the mutualist relationships between the yucca fair and the yucca
moth. but you read about in your textbook for today, uh, glue. why can't the yucca plant live without the yucca
moth?

well, the yucca plant depends on the yucca moth to pollinate it. um. The yucca moth carries the pollen spores
from one plant to the neck and deposits them into the flower, and that allows the yucca plant to reproduce. the
yucca plant will produce seeds that eventually mature and get carried off by the wind. Uh, far from the original
plan. then those seeds grow into new yorker plants. okay, great. and it's interesting that only the yucca moth can
pollinate the yucca plant. when most people think of a pollinate a basic of fees. but even these can't pollinate the
yucca plant. that's because yucca pollen is really sticky. the b can't move it, but the yucca moth has special
mouth parts that allow it to carry the pollen. and John, why can't the yucca moth live without the upper plan?

uh, well, when the female yucca moth pollinated the yucca plant, he also lays her eggs. and then when the yucca
moth egg hat, the young of larvae eat the developing yucca plant trees, these lovely can't eat any other kind of
food. They have to eat the other seeds or the stars. so it's kind of this perfect relationship. the other mark polley
need to be up a plan. the yucca plant may seed and in return the upper mark get seeds for its young from the
yucca plant except, well, I think be missing something here. I mean I thought you said that in mutualism,
neither species is harm. But the younger mark larvae eat the yucca plant seed. doesn't that qualify as harm? it's
going question done. actually, there are plenty of food for the lobby to eat without harming the upper plant
supply, because the yucca mark typically only lays one to three eggs to flour. so most of the kids don't get eaten
by the marvy when the egg hat. but this raises an interesting question.

what's prevent a female yucca moth from reading at treating female year for mark is one who made more eggs
on each yucca flour than the usual 13. this would benefit the mark, because it could produce more offspring, but
it wouldn't benefit the plastic board. well, one researcher has observed that the yucca plant produces a huge
array of flowers and then dropped a large number of flowers, including many that have yucca moth eggs on
them. this researcher has suggested that the dropping of flowers establishes a kind of lottery. if the yucca moth
lays lots of eggs on only a few flowers, all of its eggs may be thought, and she's produce no young at all. but if
the yucca moth lays fewer eggs are lots and lots of flowers, there's a greater chance that some of her eggs will
be among the flowers that are not dropped. and so in this way, he has a greater chance of producing more yucca
moth. according to this theory, perhaps the upper plan is in the sense watching the mob to lay eggs thin and.
1-HX2-2
listen to part of the lecture in a sociology class.

we've been talking about social trains, what drives it, how it comes about. and now i'd like to talk about a theory
that proposes that technology, that technological advances can cause social change. it's a theory that's been
widely debated. it's called technological determinism. proponents of technological determinism believe that
technology causes social change, independent of other societal influences like culture, economic, political
events, and that the development of new technology, which could be anything from the alphabet to the internet,
drives the evolution of our society and help shape who we are. now.

You know that societal change does occur as a result of new technology. take the printing press soon after its
invention in Germany. In the mid 15th century, literacy rates rose. the notion of authorship became more
important. And in europe, local languages became standardized as they became the language of publication. but
I must point out that some change is caused by a technology are not immediately apparent. some theorists claim
that the invention of the printing press LED to the subsequent scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th century,
because of the increased communication between scientists. and of course, we generally think of these changes
as positive as something good. like, that's not really the point. technological determinism doesn't address
whether a particular technology or the change caused by that technology is positive or negative.

it simply maintains that once the technology is available, change is inevitable, regardless of other societal
influences. in fact, technological determinism purport that not only is change inevitable, but the society cannot.
We missed the changes, they were unable to do anything to prevent them. but opponents of technological
determinism look at the source of pain. they feel that a technological innovation doesn't just come out of
nowhere. Insane society. what you have to have first with a society that somehow ready for a technological
innovation not just technologically ready, but pathologically or culturally ready. the opponents argue that the
technologies themselves are the products of their societies, not independent of them. and we can find examples
in the visual arts to support the supposing point of view. the ancient greeks understood the technique of
perspective. They knew how to make a painting look three dimensional, because you could say they had the
technology, but they didn't employ the technique.

Because in Greek culture, at the time, it was wrong to trick a viewer into thinking that a painting was real.
Opponents of pathological determinism would say that before the ancient groups could start using the technique
of perspective, something in his society had to change. and let's look at the invention of photography moaning
of the chemical and mechanical elements involved in photography existed before the first photographs were
taken in the 19th century. In fact, different inventors in different parts of europe have made similar discoveries
that contributed to the invention of photography. but some art historians have claimed that painting trends in the
west before the 19th century actually delayed the beginning of photography sea. Before the advent of
photography, painters usually painted grand scenes like uh, battles or cleaning from mythology. but in the 19th
century, you begin to have this movement not exactly towards realism, because patients had been realistic for
some time.

it was more a movement towards painting realistic teams that were natural, not rigidly composed. artist now
wanted to capture spontaneous moments from everyday life. we can look at this painting. it's by a 19th century
French impressionist in English. It's called ball at the buena the like l a notice how spontaneous this scene is. it's
a picture of a moment in these people's lives, not unlike a photograph you might see in a family photo album. so
opponent of technological determinism would say that photography at least photography as an art form home
about blue part because society was ready to embrace as arts the everyday object that the camera can capture.
now, I'm not saying that the technological determinist are wrong there, right? That new technologies bring about
social pain. it's just that this other group sensibly, I think,
1-HX2-3
listen to part of a lecture in an earth science class.

Okay, we're gonna talk about the second half of the chapter now the part on soil hydrology. now I want you to
just skim that section. So you'd be familiar with the material, but it won't be on the test because, well, it's a little
updated. It doesn't reflect the most recent research. you see, up until about a year or so ago, we believed that
rain water enters soil mixing in displacing water that's already there. pushing down deeper in the soil, it
becomes ground.

Water heads downhill and eventually enters local streams and river system. over time it evaporates into the
atmosphere. now, most of the time, this is still the case, as far as we know. But recent findings have shown that
how water behaves depends on the oil and the climate. that it isn't always so cut and dry new technology is
available that provides us with a more detailed, stable isotope analysis which left the track waters who travel
through soil as part of the hydra logical cycle, the water cycle. And uh, yes, before you go on, could you please
explain stable isotope analysis? I mean, how it works. ah, right, right. Um.

Okay, stable isotope analysis. the stable isotope analysis is a research method that track water using. I suppose
isotopes are, um, well, each element hydrogen, oxygen and so on has different isotopes. they're like different
versions of the same element. and just as we can identify people from their fingerprints, we can trace isotope
using stable isotope analysis. so researchers collect water from different locations during the rainfall, look at the
isotopes of the elements, and use that Information to track the water through the soil and into nearby string. so a
fairly recent study looked at water in the region in the cascade, the mountains in the northwest united states. that
area has a seasonally dry climate with dry summers followed by arranging. the researchers tested the water.

They analyzed the isotopes of the water in the soil and the trees. and in nearby streams. and they found
significant differences. the samples had two, uh, uh, two distinct isotopic signatures, which means the samples
came from different rainfall. it turned out that water in the soil near the trees did not contribute to stream flow.
furthermore, they discovered that water from the first rainfall of the rainy season remains in the soil far longer
than expected. you see, CLO consists of particles that are packed together, but not so tightly, that there is no air,
no space between them. we call these spaces pause and different soil textures mean different for sizes. and the
area studied the soil around the roots of trees is characterized by small port. uh, when rain waters, the start of
the rainy season, first saturate the ground there, it's build those small pores around the roof and it's held there. so
you might see less than 5% of the first rainfall actually moving down through the soil into the string. instead, it's
highly bound in that soil beneath the tree. and what we've discovered is that throughout the rest of the rainy
season, these trees just draw from that water that is sold those small horse, you see the small causes lower to
drain, they have what's called the longest water resident time.

so in subsequent light bulbs, after the moisture in the soil around the tree, which reaches a maximum new rain,
water flows down into empty larger port away from the tree root of this. Water never really mixes with water in
the smaller pores, and it doesn't stay in the soil as long it moves down through the soil into the strings. now,
obviously, different soils have different pore sizes, and not every location has the same dry, rainy seasonal
patterns. So this study is just a preliminary look at one specific region, one specific circumstance. we need to
repeat the research elsewhere. But with the advances in stable isotope analysis, we can now do it. and here we
read what is, in my view, the most valuable aspect of these research sites, because you see this more
understanding.

2-GM6-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee of the university housing office.

(man) So, what can I do for you today?

(woman) My name’s Janet Randall. I’m a transfer student. I went to State Tech University last year but I
decided to come here to Mount Lincoln University instead because it has a really strong environmental science
program, which is what I want to major in.

(man) All right?

(woman) Oh, sorry, I guess none of that really matters to you.

(man) No, that’s fine. It’s always interesting to hear what brings students to Mount Lincoln.

(woman) Well, anyway, uh, I came here to the housing office after last semester ended in summer, when I
found out I’ve been accepted and I knew I was definitely going to be coming here. And, uh, I met with one of
the housing administrators and, well, he told me that I’d be assigned to a campus apartment not a dorm.

(man) And where were you assigned to live?

(woman) Thomas Hall, which I didn’t know wasn’t an apartment until I moved in yesterday. I guess I just kind
of assumed it was, you know.

(man) Well, didn’t you look on our Web site? We have fairly detailed information about all of the residence
halls here on campus. We encourage students to check out the Web site when they get their housing assignment.

(woman) Yeah, I know, I looked at the map on the Web site to see where the building was but I just assumed it
was an apartment.

(man) I can check if you paid for an apartment. OK, the computer record showed that you paid for a dorm. You
know that there’s an extra charge for living in a campus apartment, right?

(woman) No, I didn’t. Why is that?

(man) Well, the apartments offer more amenities, for instance, each apartment has its own bathroom so only
four people share it. And also the apartments have a small living room and a kitchen.

(woman) Oh, I see.

(man) And also some of the dorms are on the outskirts of the campus; the apartments are all close to the
classroom buildings.

(woman) All right, I mean, I’d be willing to pay the extra charge. It definitely seems worth it.

(man) It’s, uh, a little late.

(woman) Oh, but then why did the housing employee tell me it wouldn’t be a problem when I was here before?

(man) I’m honestly not sure what happened then. But the way this form is filled out indicates that you selected
and should be charged for a dorm room. Do you remember who you spoke with?

(woman) No, I don’t remember.

(man) The fact is campus apartments are assigned to students via a lottery system, a few months before the end
of the semester.

(woman) And since I wasn’t here last semester

(man) But, Thomas Hall is our newest, most modern housing on campus. It was completed just a year ago and
has a lot of great features that students really seem to enjoy.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her English Literature professor.

(man) So, Mary, you got my email. What do you think?

(woman) It sounds interesting, but, I don’t know if I’m qualified.

(man) Trust me, you are.

(woman) But why would high school kids listen to me? I’m not a teacher.

(man) Well, that’s the whole point. OK, let me explain. See, many high school kids think the plays that William
Shakespeare wrote are too, uh, tough not relevant to their lives, old-fashioned. So a few years ago, our English
department started a project to try to find ways to make Shakespeare more interesting to local high school
students; help them connect.

(woman) Well, they do have one thing right: he’s not exactly light reading.

(man) Right, so we thought that one way to make him more accessible, even cool, was to get college students to
mentor the high school students. They’d see young people like you understanding, valuing, having fun with
Shakespeare. You’d show them how to do that.

(woman) Well, would I be working with younger or older high school students?
(man) Mostly ninth-graders and you’d be involved with the less complex play, usually introduced to fourteen-
or fifteen-year-olds.

(woman) So maybe something like Julius Caesar?

(man) In fact, that’s exactly the one you’ll be doing. Now, you’d mostly be working closely with one specific
student, but every once in a while, there’re also larger discussion sessions that all of the students and their
mentors take part in. Students watch scenes from various movie versions of the play and compare them, uh, act
out parts of scenes with other students, that sort of thing. They have a lot of fun; really get involved.

(woman) That’s cool. OK, so, it’s just one play and students are younger.

(man) Right, and as for how you could approach this, pretty much anything goes. We’d leave that up to your
creativity.

(woman) OK, yeah, well. I’d definitely want to read the play out loud with the student. And maybe we could get
into other cool things, too, like that literary technique that Shakespeare uses to help the audience understand his
characters, um, indirect characterization.

(man) Um hum, you certainly could.

(woman) Yeah, I remember learning about it the first time I saw the play Julius Caesar. That character, uh,
Cassius, um, he was Caesar’s childhood friend but then as an adult Caesar becomes the dictator of Rome so he
has control over everyone including Cassius. Cassius never directly tells anyone he’s envious, but the audience
knows it because Cassius starts badmouthing Caesar, like, saying Caesar was weak as a child.

(man) See, you’d be a natural at this. I’m convinced the students in this program would really benefit from your
insights and enthusiasm, just like your classmates do in our Shakespeare class. Everyone always wants to hear
your ideas.

(woman) Oh, well, thanks, well, my schedule’s pretty busy. Of course, I’ve dealt with busy schedules before, so
when do I get started?

(man) Well, I have the full schedule right here.

Listen to part of a lecture in a Geology class

(male professor) As we’ve discussed, the Earth’s not a solid, uniform mass. It’s layered and we traditionally
think of it in terms of three layers: the crust, the mantle and the core. The crust is the relatively thin, cool outer
layer. Then, according to the traditional model, beneath that is the mantle and finally, at the center of the Earth,
is the core. Now, not to totally dismiss the three-layer model, but, researchers who study seismic waves
generated by earthquakes, who study how fast these seismic waves travel through Earth, they’ve pointed out
certain complexities, like, differences within the mantle as it gets deeper. So we now refer, for example, to the
upper mantle which is closer to the crust and the lower mantle.

Naturally we know most about the Earth’s crust because we can directly observe it. But the mantle and the core,
well, we know the pressures get pretty high down there and the basics of physical chemistry tell us that rock
under extreme pressure will change, actually change physically. But if we want to see these changes, well, we
don’t have the technology to drill down beneath the crust. So we’d have to find a way to replicate the pressures
of Earth’s interior in the lab. And that’s where geology meets physics folks.

Early in the twentieth century, physicists started working on ways to squeeze materials at high pressure. This
kind of science is called high-pressure physics. And it turns out that if you can get the pressures high enough, all
sorts of weird things start happening. For example, they did an experiment with water: they squeezed some
water to the kind of pressures you’d find at the bottom of Earth’s crust. And this created a solid ice that could
withstand temperatures near what we think of as the boiling point of water.

Now, to learn what happens to rocks in Earth’s interior, we’d need to re-create the pressures that exist down
there. And we now have a tool that can do that, one that can create pressures more than one million times the
atmospheric pressure at Earth’s surface. This tool’s called the diamond-anvil cell or DAC for short. The
diamond-anvil cell, well, basically, it’s two cut diamonds and you put a substance between the diamonds and
press the diamonds together. Because ahead of each cut diamond is such a tiny area you can create a lot of
pressure by applying a relatively small force, right?

When forces concentrate in a small area, you get high pressure. OK, so, researchers took familiar minerals with
chemical compositions thought to be similar to those in the minerals of Earth’s mantle. They squeezed them in
the DAC and, at the same time, heated them using lasers. So they heated and squeezed these minerals and found
that, with enough pressure and the high enough temperature created with that laser, the elements in the minerals,
mainly silicon and oxygen, will rearrange into a very dense crystal structure.
And if we know how deep underground a very dense crystal like this can be found, how much rock would be
pressing down on it from above, we can come up with a pretty good estimate of the pressure. And for a given
pressure, we now know from our experiments with the diamond-anvil cell, just what the temperature would
have to be to cause the sort of crystal to form.

OK, now let me mention what some geologists did in 2007. Using data based on reflective seismic waves from
earthquakes, they were able to create a 3D map of the lower mantle region just above the boundary of the core.
And this map revealed a mineral with a particularly dense crystalline structure. Remember the crystal that was
created with the DAC in the laboratory? OK, so, once they identified the mineral and figured out how deep it is,
that is, how much pressure it’s under, what could they calculate? The temperature, right? Which worked out to
around 3,600 degrees Celsius and that information turns out to be really critical for understanding important
geological processes going on near that mantle-core boundary. But it’s information we wouldn’t have without
those experiments in the high-pressure physics lab.

2-GM6-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an Art History class.

(male professor) Today I want to discuss some of the important characteristics of sixteenth century Venetian
painting, painting done in and around Venice, Italy. May be the most important feature is color. We refer to
these colors collectively as the Venetian palette. And what’s interesting about it is that it’s not really a set of
specific colors. It’s more of the quality of the colors that were used. It’s not like, for example, the Impressionist
palette. French impressionism is known for its bright pure colors. The impressionists used vivid paints and they
didn’t always mix them well. You can see unblended colors in their paintings. They avoided black and white
and used colors for shadows and highlights instead. So when you hear the word “impressionist”, you know what
colors to expect.

But, it’s different with the Venetian palette. It’s not a set of colors that you can just list. The colors in this
palette are very complex and rich. Also, some of the paints were translucent, making it look like there was light
shining through them. How did they do all this? Well, we now think that painters in Venice may have been
putting tiny particles of glass in them. The fact that Venetian painters used glass to make paint isn’t something
we just now discovered. We’ve known for a while about a couple of colors that were made using glass. One of
them you may be familiar with, even if you don’t know the name, is a color called smalt blue.

Smalt blue is made from a deep blue glass. The glass is broken and ground up into a powder. This powder is the
pigment that gives smalt blue its color. It’s the key ingredient. As I said, we already knew about smalt blue. But
what we’re discovering now, and this is exciting, is that Venetian painters may also have used glass in other
colors. Researchers have examined paintings by a number of sixteenth-century Venetian painters and it seems
there were green and yellow paints that also included glass. This could be the secret to the Venetian palette.
Now, if I’m talking about Venice and I mentioned glass, what comes to mind?

(male student) Um, isn’t Venice famous for glass making?

(professor) Exactly! Venetian glass manufacturing was already well developed in the sixteenth century. Glass
makers were using clear glass and colored glass to make objects like goblets for drinking. Sometimes the colors
were so intense that the glass could be used as false gemstones. And apparently painters in Venice took
advantage of this availability of materials right on their doorstep and used them in fabricating their paints.

What’s interesting about this is that it allows us to look at the Venetian palette in a somewhat different light. It’s
wasn’t just a style that a group of painters in a certain region all just happened to adopt. Instead, it looks like
their physical proximity to Venetian glass manufacturers may have been the key historical factor in the
development of this palette. All right, let’s take a look at a painting by Paolo Veronese.

Like other sixteenth-century Venetian painters, Veronese is known for his use of color and the rich and
luxurious detail in his work. We can see that in this painting, Boy with a Greyhound. Look at the boy’s clothing,
the different fabrics the different textures. Something else to notice is the illusion of realism. The painting is so
realistic that you’d feel you could walk right into the painting and into the landscape behind the boy. Veronese
did this in many of his works. He painted people that seemed to be stepping through doors into the room with
the viewer. The perspective makes it look three-dimensional. Now, if I owned this painting, I’d hang it on the
wall near a door to exploit this effect.

(female student) Excuse me, professor. You said Veronese is known for his use of color, but that painting
looked dull to me, especially the sky in the background, which is gray not blue.

(professor) Interesting point, I explained how smalt blue was made, remember?

(female student) Yeah, with particles of blue glass

(professor) Yes, well, it turns out that smalt blue is a fugitive pigment; that means that it loses its color. So in
that painting, Boy with a Greyhound, the color of the sky changed over time. It used to be blue but now it’s not.

(male student) So it’d faded?

(professor) Essentially yes, the glass particle that gives smalt blue its color contained potassium. Potassium is
what gives the pigment its color. Eventually the potassium comes out of the glass and the paint loses its color.

2-GM6-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an Anthropology class

(female professor) Well, not all ancient writing systems have been deciphered as fully as Egyptian
hieroglyphics have been. In fact, let me mention something that was used by the ancient Inca people of South
America over 500 years ago. It’s called a Khipu.

A Khipu is a bundle of strings with elaborate knots tied into them. Each Khipu consists of a long primary string
that many other smaller hanging cords are attached to. And on each of the smaller cord, a series of knots was
tied. But were Khipu’s made just for decoration or what? Well, this was a big mystery, till the 1920s when an
historian named Leland Locke claimed to have figured it all out.

Locke believed these knotted strings were used in the Incan Empire as a record-keeping system that the knots
on the cord represented numbers and that together all the cords in the Khipu constituted a record of numerical
data like population figures or the amount of grain in the store house. He identified three distinct types of knots:
some resembling a figure 8, some long knots with two to nine turns, and some single knots. Locke believed that
the figure 8 knots represented one of something that the long knots represented the numbers 2 through 9
depending on the number of turns and that the single knots represented ten, hundreds and so on based on their
location on the string. Locke’s explanation seemed to make so much sense that many anthropologists
considered the mystery solved even though his ideas haven’t actually been proven. In fact, about two hundred
of the Khipu’s that have been examined of the time did not follow Locke’s rules.

Recently, a group of researchers revisited the challenge of decoding Khipu’s. They studied a collection of
Khipu’s that were all found in a single location and wondered whether these Khipu’s might be the records of
different levels of administrators one higher than the next. And, in fact, when the numbers on the cords of one
Khipu were added together following Locke’s system, the total was the same as the number on one of the cords
of a second Khipu. And the sum total of the number on that Khipu was found on a cord of a third Khipu.

This provided persuasive new evidence for Locke’s theory that Khipu’s were indeed used for numerical record-
keeping. However, the same group of researchers also noticed subtle differences in Khipu knots: differences
that convinced them that these knots represented more than just numerical data that they might also contained
words and even stories. For example, cords were of different colors and some knots were tied right over left
while others were tied left over right.

In all, the researchers identified seven different constructional details and speculated that each detail represented
something specific. For instance, maybe a particular detail told the reader to interpret a knot as a word rather
than a number. Now, as I said, Locke’s interpretation of Khipu’s as no more than a number-recording system
had been viewed as accurate for a long time. So this new hypothesis that Khipu’s were also a writing system
was met with a lot of skepticism.

But these researchers knew that decoding any ancient text or script is, uh, is kind of like rock climbing where
you’ll have to patiently search out a hand-hold, pull yourself up and then hope you find another hand-hold to
help you get even higher. Well, like a rock climber, when you’re trying to decipher an unfamiliar script, you’ve
got to persevere, search around until you find a clue and then work from there and hope that, step by step, one
clue leads to another until it all begins to make sense.

Now, one analytical technique employed by the researchers is called the suffix tree. With a suffix tree, you’re
just trying to find short patterns that get repeated. For example, let’s look at the name Barbara. Analyzing the
name Barbara, using the suffix tree method, you find a few repeating patterns like “bar” as well as just “ba” and
“ar”. Well, the team had a computerized database containing extensive details on some 300 Khipu’s. And using
the suffix tree method, the computer identified three thousand distinctive five-knot patterns. Each of which
could possibly have meaning beyond just numbers.

Now, this doesn’t prove conclusively that Khipu’s do contain words and stories but pattern repetition has been
the key to decoding other ancient scripts. And being able to see which patterns appear frequently and which
ones seem to be related, this might be a huge step forward in decoding Khipu’s as well.

2-GM7-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and his Organic Chemistry professor.

(woman) Hi, Sam, say, did you have a chance to watch that program I mentioned in class last week?

(man) The one on using microbes to create new fuels? Yeah, it was really interesting.

(woman) Did it inspire you to be a chemistry major?

(man) I do like chemistry, but I’m pretty set on majoring in English. My dream is to be a writer, a poet. I need a
science class to graduate so I thought I’d give this a try.

(woman) Hmm, that could be a first, a poet in my Organic Chemistry class. That probably explains why you’ve
asked some questions that no students in this course have ever asked before.

(man) And that’s good, I hope?

(woman) Oh, absolutely! I think the class has benefited greatly from some of the discussions you’ve initiated.
But I don’t think that’s what you came to talk about.

(man) No, uh, I just wanted to find out if we’ll need to use a lot of calculus on our midterm.

(woman) Yes, and you’ll need to work very quickly.

(man) Oh, OK

(woman) Why? Are you?

(man) Well, I knew we’ll be using some calculus in this course, but

(woman) You’ve taken Calculus 101 and 102, right?

(man) Actually, no.

(woman) But those are prerequisites. You have to take those courses before you can register for this one.

(man) Yes, but, I had calculus in high school so I went to the head of the chemistry department and asked if I
could have that requirement waived. He said that normally you’d have to approve the waiver, but, you were
away for a conference that week, so he went ahead and approved it.

(woman) Hmm

(man) I thought I’d be OK cause calculus was easy for me. But we’re doing some stuff in your course that we
didn’t do in high school.

(woman) Yes, that’s why I never grant request to waive the prerequisites. OK, so, have you thought about
working with a tutor? The chemistry department has a number of advanced students who tutor at the
university’s tutoring center.

(man) I tried that but it didn’t work out, I mean, the tutor was really good at explaining things but she was so
busy that it was hard for us to find times to meet.

(woman) This was through the tutoring center?

(man) No, I saw an ad she posted on a bulletin board and she didn’t charge much, so

(woman) Well, first of all, at the tutoring center the tutoring’s free to all students.

(man) OK?

(woman) And the tutors there have all been recommended by their professors and they receive special training
and they’re available every day.

(man) That sounds like a great program but it’s not so close to my dorm. Wait! I just remembered. My
roommate has taken those classes, I’ll see if I could work with him.

(woman) Well, it’s up to you. If you go to the Organic Chemistry One Web site, you’ll see a link to some past
exams, so you can get an idea what the questions will be like.
Listen to a conversation between a student and the director of campus affairs.

(woman) Now, Greg, in the past, new students moved into their dorms two days early and our office scheduled
orientation programs throughout those two days for them. Wait. Why am I telling you this? You went through
the program when you were a new student.

(man) Yes, but I don’t remember any student advisers being there, so how’s that gonna work?

(woman) Well, this time we’re gonna have breakout sessions on both afternoons. So, in addition to the large
events led by administrators that all new students attend together, like you did, we’re gonna have afternoons
with more personal interactive sessions led by advisers like you.

(man) Hmm, I see. That sounds good. And, uh, how will new students be divided up, like, based on residence
halls they’re assigned to?

(woman) Originally, we thought that’d be a good way to do it, you know, gives students a chance to meet
people they’d be living with. But in the end we decided to set aside time later for residence hall activities.

(man) After they settle in

(woman) And before they get too busy with classes. Anyway, so we’ve added a question to the survey that all
incoming students fill out. We’re asking them to name their biggest concern or worry. Um, for example, I’m
guessing that many will be concerned about the food here. What if they don’t like the food available through
their meal plan, things like that. A bigger issue might be getting along with roommates, avoiding personality
clashes, you know, issues that can arise when strangers are thrown together into a small living space.

(man) Topics we advisers definitely have dealt with.

(woman) Exactly! So we’ll assign each adviser to focus on one specific concern.

(man) But would each group want to spend an entire afternoon on one concern? I mean, don’t new students
need to know a little bit about everything?

(woman) Of course, that’s why the advisers will be rotating from group to group leading discussions on their
assigned topic.

(man) I see. So my topic stays the same?

(woman) Exactly! And another way we’re getting topic ideas is by meeting with each adviser individually,
asking them to reflect on the difficulties they encountered as a new student. Um, anything come to mind?

(man) Hmm, I guess a challenge for me was fitting in, filling part of the university community. Coming from a
small town to this huge campus with thirty thousand students, it was rough at first. I was never very out-going. I
pretty much kept to myself.

(woman) So, how did you integrate into our community?

(man) First, I joined a student club, the photography club, and made some friends there. I also joined the
intramural volleyball league; I’ve always loved volleyball. Um, in my classes, I literally forced myself to voice
my opinions; engage in the discussions. All of that helped me feel much comfortable in social situations.
(woman) Those would be fantastic insights for you to share, Greg. I’m sure a lot of new students worry about
fitting in. Let’s pencil you in for that topic, shall we?

Listen to part of a lecture in an Ecology class.

(female professor) I wanted to start out today by considering chemical ecology. Chemical ecology is the study
of, um, the role chemistry plays in ecological interactions. That’s interactions between organisms and their
environment, particularly for the insect world. We think that chemical ecology can explain a lot about, um, how
insects defend themselves and increase their chances of survival.

Uh, we’re gonna, let’s start out by talking about moth. You’re familiar with moths; they’re similar to butterflies.
Moths and butterflies are covered with scales. The wings of moths, in particular, have a very dense scale cover.
But in most moths, the scales come off easily. The question is, why? Well, insects often get trapped in spider
webs because the strands of the spider webs are sticky. But when a moth with these lightly attached scales flies
into a spider web, um, it can escape. They can actually, the scales become like a detachable layer that can be
pulled off, so as the moth flutters around, its scales stick to the web not the wings and so the moth’s able to fly
away. OK, so it’s not a chemical defense but rather, rather a mechanical one. But I told you about that so I could
tell you about a moth that’s different, the rattlebox moth.

The rattlebox moth also has wing scales, but they are, uh, well, the scales actually contain toxins that have a
foul taste to predators. Now, the reason that toxins get into the scales is because the moth’s larvae feed on plants
known as rattlebox. That’s how the moth got its name cause the larvae feed on rattlebox plants. And these
plants contain high concentrations of chemicals called alkaloids.

Alkaloids are bitter-tasting chemicals found primarily in plants. And many alkaloids are poisonous, uh, like the
ones produced by some rattlebox varieties. OK, so the rattlebox moth larvae eat the plant’s leaves and seeds and
store the toxic chemicals, some of which then get into the wing scales when the larvae change into adult moths.

Now, a rattlebox moth when it gets caught in a spider web, the moth doesn’t struggle. What it does, instead, it
just, it just waits. It waits until, um, the spider comes over and gives it a taste. The concentration of alkaloids in
the wing scale is high enough that the spider can taste the bitterness even after eating just one scale. At which
point the spider realizes that it’s not good eating and then actually cuts the moth out of the web and lets it fly
away. If you can believe it!

Now, the chemical defense of the rattlebox moth allows for some other unusual behavior, too. It flies during the
day time, um, which is unusual for moths, who are mostly nocturnal. And unlike other moths, it has a very
bright color scheme: pink, white, and black. Normally you would think this would be a disadvantage to a flying
insect that could be prey to birds. Uh, but the bright colors of the rattlebox serve, actually, as a warning. It just
sort of flaunts its colors as a warning that essentially that it doesn’t taste good.

Now, as an experiment, we wanted to see if it’s possible to take the poison out of the rattlebox moth, and so,
some of these moths were raised in a laboratory. The moth larvae would feed only on pinto beans which don’t
contain concentrated alkaloids. So without this alkaloid diet as larvae, the adult moths ended up with scales that
didn’t contain the protective poisons. So, as a consequence, in the lab, they were acceptable to predators. Their
bright warning colors couldn’t save them.

OK, and if you looked at this from an ecological perspective, this suggests that the moth has a highly dependent
relationship on the rattlebox plant and chemistry plays a major role in this dependency. If the host plant is not
available, the moth loses its chemical defense. So, really, it’s no surprise that the habitat of the rattlebox moth is
restricted to areas where those rattlebox plants that produce toxic alkaloids can be found.
You might think it could become a problem to have moths that are so unappealing to predators. The moth larvae
feeding on the rattlebox plants, they must be even more repellant to predators than adult moths. But they aren’t
considered a pest, because their host plants are weeds anyway. And because of the alkaloids, the weeds are
toxic to livestock. So, really, the moth larvae are doing us a favor by eating the seeds of these plants.

2-GM7-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a Literature class.

(male professor) OK, um, in today’s class I want to talk a little bit about autobiography and memoir. They’re
both terms for genres of writing, writing about your own life. But they’re different and I want to talk about,
well, I want to start by talking about the relationship between the two words.

Um, if you look at the word autobiography, and it’s probably a more familiar term, the story of a person’s life as
written by themselves, and the three roots in the word are very clear: auto, which means self, bio, which means
life, and graph, which has to do with writing. Memoir may be a less familiar term and I want to spend a little
more time talking about it. It comes to English borrowed from French. And its meaning, as I think you can see
in the word, is a sort of related to memory.

Now, there are some important differences of how these types of writing are approached. And autobiography
generally is an attempt by the person to tell the whole story of their life. They’re writing at themselves but they
attempt to be relatively objective. They tend to start at the beginning and, well, they’d go as far as they can. Uh,
memoir is really trying to do something different in that it’s not necessarily the attempt to tell the whole story of
a life and it can be even more subjective.

I should, could make a distinction between, uh, maybe what I’ll call the traditional memoir or the sort of
memoir that were more common in the past that tended to be pieces of writing about an external event written
by someone who participated in that event. So, you might have a famous statesman or politician, typically
writing about important political or world events they were involved in. And you’d read that kind of memoir to
get a sort of more of a subjective view of what happened.

Then, there’s the contemporary memoir. It’s a kind of writing with even focus on the individual and on the
experience of the writers themselves. And compared to autobiography, memoirs, contemporary memoirs, are
usually a lot more limited in scope. They often deal with just one period in someone’s life. A lot of great
contemporary memoirs had been written on themes of childhood or you can also have memoirs that deal with
just an aspect of someone’s life. There’s a great one by a woman named Vivian Gornick called Fierce
Attachments.

Uh, it covers about twenty or thirty years of her life. But the whole focus of the book is just on her relationship
with her mother and so it’s sort of, it’s a story of her and her mother and their relationship. So, autobiography
places most its emphasis on the importance of a person’s life and what they accomplished. In a memoir, and
here we can go back to how it’s related to the word memory, the focus is on the writer’s perception and how
they felt or what their own view of their experience was.

Uh, memoirs focus not so much on getting the facts right as on giving the reader a very vivid sense of what
some part of their life felt like. Perhaps for that reason with memoir you often get into questions about
truthfulness or accuracy. So there have been a number of memoirs where there’s been a controversy about
whether it should be considered a true, if very subjective story of someone’s life and experience, or if it sort of
crosses the line into fiction. Any questions at this point?
(female student) Uh, has there ever been a case of competing memoirs?

(professor) A case of?

(female student) Two people writing about a similar,

(professor) Oh, I’m sure.

(female student) Or the same experience?

(professor) Oh, I am sure, inevitably. You see that a lot in contemporary politics. How many memoirs are out
there about the last presidential administration? Probably about a couple of dozens, so, yeah, absolutely!

2-GM7-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a Psychology class.

(female professor) So, let me tell you about a little experiment that was done at the University of Pennsylvania.
Back in 1953, the researcher, a doctor, hooked up a volunteer to two devices: one that recorded brain waves and
another that measured the level of oxygen in the blood, which is an indication of how much oxygen is going to
the brain. The doctor then gave his test subject some arithmetic equations to solve. The outcome, the subject’s
brain appeared to be using the same amount of oxygen whether he was doing arithmetic or relaxing with his
eyes closed.

The experiment’s result was surprising, because for a long time, we assumed that the resting brain work a little
like a computer on standby. It was thought that when we weren’t actively engaged in some cognitive tasks, like
doing math or weaving or for some social task like talking on the phone or looking for a face in a crowd, we
assumed that our brain would just stay dormant till we call on it again to perform for us. But, a growing body of
evidence suggests that this actually couldn’t be furthered from the truth.

You see, even though the brain accounts for a mere two percent of our body mass, it requires a lot of energy to
function. In fact, it consumes an astounding twenty percent of the calories we ingest, so the brain is a very
expensive organ whether or not we are actively focusing on a task. So what’s our so-called resting brain up to?

In the 1980s, we obtained some direct evidence that the brain may be doing important things when seemingly at
rest. Uh, positron-emission tomography, the PET scan, had come into widespread use in the 80s. The PET scan,
basically, lets us eavesdrop on the inner workings of internal organs. So psychological researchers rounded up
some volunteers, injected harmless amounts of radioactive glucose into their veins, and then took PET scans of
their brains to see where the glucose accumulated. Uh, glucose accumulates in the most active regions of the
brain, causing these regions to light up on PET scan images.

So, uh, for the first PET scan, the subjects were instructed to close their eyes and not concentrate on anything.
Then a second PET scan was done as the subjects read some written material they’ve been given. Then when
the differences in brain activity between these two scans were compared, researchers saw that a particular area
of the brain was working at full speed while the subjects rested and that the same region quieted down while the
subjects were focused on reading.

PET scans from more than a hundred and thirty test subjects produced the same results. The same collection of
brain areas, areas along the brain’s midline front to back, these areas always lit up on PET scans while the
subjects did nothing and dimmed the moment they started concentrating on something. This area along the
brain’s midline was named the default network.
And, the default network is, I mean, it’s not every day that we find a new functional system in the brain. It’s
kind of like discovering a brand new planet in our own solar system. And the default network maybe even more
important than we initially hypothesized. For example, there appeared to be strong connections between the
brain cells, uh, the neurons, in the default network and neurons in another region of the brain that we’ve already
discussed in the class, the hippocampus.

Recall that the hippocampus is a small region deep in the interior of the brain that’s involved in the recording
and recalling of memories. So, given the default network’s apparent interaction with the hippocampus, maybe
the default network’s responsible for evaluating memories, prioritizing them and using these reflections for
daydreaming, imagining possible scenarios and reflecting upon them, to provide a kind of inner rehearsal for
possible future actions and choices.

2-GM9-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the university bookstore.

(man) Can I help you with something?

(woman) Yeah, I’m looking for this one book, uh, the main text for Anthropology 305, African storytelling?
You have it listed on your Web site but I’ve checked all over and I don’t see it here.

(man) OK, let me just locate that for you. African storytelling, oh, you know what, the professor for that course
actually changed the reading list this semester and, Professor Stone, right?

(woman) Right?

(man) Yeah, he put a new edition of that book on the list this time and it’s been hard to get ahold of. We were
only able to get ten copies to start with, so, unfortunately, we’ve sold out a while ago.

(woman) Oh, right, I know I’m kind of late. Actually, I slipped into the class at the last minute. They just told
me today that a spot had opened up.

(man) That’s lucky for you. But, that course is always popular and it seems especially popular this year.
Students have been coming in all week looking for the new edition and I’ve told them all the same thing.

(woman) Um, but, the Web site said,

(man) If you saw it listed on our Web site that was probably the old edition. We have plenty of those in stock.
But we’re stilling waiting on another order of new edition you need. So, I’ll take your name down and you
should check back, uh, next Friday.

(woman) Next Friday? But isn’t there any way I could get it earlier?

(man) I know it’s inconvenient but there probably won’t be too much reading in the first couple of weeks of
class, so,

(woman) But that’s just it. Well, you see, I’m taking seven courses this semester.

(man) Seven? You’re joking.

(woman) It’s the only way I can graduate this year. But so I was planning to read ahead in this class, you know,
get all the reading done for it now while I don’t have much to do yet. Then later in the semester I’ll have more
time for my other classes so if I have to wait for the book,

(man) I see. Hmm, do you know anyone else who’s taking the course?

(woman) Sure, actually, my roommate is.

(man) Why don’t you borrow her copy?

(woman) Uh, I don’t think sharing her copy would work if I’m gonna do all the reading. I’d need to carry it with
me around campus and stuff.

(man) Then what about the library copy? Don’t professors put library copies of textbooks on reserve, reserved
for students in the course? You could claim one of those.

(woman) Oh, you’re right! Oh, but no, I don’t think they actually let us take reserved books out of the library,
like, you have to sit there and read them. So as much as I’d love to just live in the library these next couple of
weeks!

(man) Right, well, you could always order it online, but you’d have to pay extra for quick delivery.

(woman) Yeah, I was hoping to avoid that so, you still have the older edition, right? Maybe I’ll ask the
professor if it’s similar enough.
Listen to part of a conversation between a student and his Theater History professor.

(man) In class, you were talking about Expressionist Theater back in 1919, 1920. But wasn’t that a time when
Realist plays were being performed?

(woman) Indeed! Most plays of the early 1900s presented life realistically, like what you might call a slice of
life.

(man) But then in Expressionist plays there were all these distortions of reality, like, walls at strange angles,
characters who start singing even though it’s not a musical, unusual props like tons of papers spewing out of an
adding machine.

(woman) Yes, distortion was a hallmark of Expressionism. This art movement was based on emotions, on
projecting the artist’s inner feelings rather than recreating aspects of real life.

(man) But what I wanted to know is how did audiences react to Expressionist Theater? Wouldn’t they found it
to be really weird?

(woman) They didn’t know how to take it. Just as with expressionists’ paintings, the initial reaction was,
“That’s not what a person really looks like. The man’s out of proportion and he’s got two eyes on the right side
of his face. What’s going on?” But this was a goal of expressionism: for artists to express their personal vision,
their inner realities, so to speak.

(man) Were the Expressionist plays popular?

(woman) Not really. Although that one play, The Adding Machine, that you were just alluding to with all the
paper.
(man) Yeah?

(woman) That one did attract a large audience when it first came out, perhaps because it was more accessible
than your typical expressionist play, which might have seemed even stranger.

(man) Did expressionism last long?

(woman) Expressionism was like many art movements in the early 1900s, which had a tendency to develop,
then grow, evolve into something else. So, many expressionist playwrights ended up forming or shifting into
surrealism, the next art movement. And as they learned more about emerging theories of psychology, they
became interested in the subconscious, those subconscious drives behind emotional states. But the influences of
expressionism are still with us. Several years back there was this popular series on television, a dramatic series
that used this technique all the time. For example, the main character, if she was happy, then a computer-
generated image of a dancing baby might appear. But only she and the viewers, of course, could see the baby.

(man) But none of the plays written recently, um, I’m an acting major, so I’ve seen a lot of new plays; acted in
some, too. And I wouldn’t describe any of them as purely expressionist.

(woman) That’s cause today’s playwrights have a large tool box. They can pull out techniques that are most
suitable for their play, or a moment within their play. But in the early 1900s, you were an expressionist and you
wrote your expressionist play and maybe you moved on to becoming a surrealist then you wrote a surrealist
play. You didn’t really combine features of expressionism with bits of surrealism and bits of realism and other
things.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Ecology class

(female professor) So, from our wildlife management discussion yesterday, we see that biologists and land
managers need to know what kind of animals and how many are moving through a particular area. It helps them
to better manage natural resources and, uh, to make policies for government programs and such. Now, when
researchers want to identify mammals living in a certain area, they might study tracks, foot prints that animals
leave there. That’s a traditional method or they might collect animal hairs, fur. Hair is a good source of genetic
information about an animal.

To collect hairs, researchers often use devices called hair snares. To use a hair snare, you set up some bait, like
food, and when an animal comes to eat it, it brushes against the hair snare, which might be something like a
piece of wood with special glue or tape on it. A little bit of hair sticks to the snare and then the researchers study
it: Do DNA test to determine what species of mammal it is. Hair snares work but they can be a bit annoying or
invasive to the animal whose fur’s being collected.

Recently, a study conducted in Hungary avoided this problem by taking advantage of the nest-building behavior
of birds. Most nest-building birds make new nests almost every year. And they incorporate a lot of organic
materials such as twigs, branches, leaves and animal hair. You know, animals shed, leave hairs behind where
they sleep, where they have dens, where they rub and scratch against trees. Well, you can picture a bear, a bear
with an itchy back scratching it against a tree. Well, some pieces of fur get stuck in the tree or fall to the ground
and get collected by birds as they pick up leaves or mud for their nests.
So, anyway, the researchers went through chosen forest areas in the mountains and plains in central Hungary
and collected all the nests they could find. They collected over 3,600 nests. Some nests were in areas relatively
isolated from humans and some were closer to villages and farms. And the best time to collect nests is after the
nesting season, toward the end of the fall, when the birds have migrated and the nests are uninhabited, which is
what the researchers did.

In this way, they avoided being invasive and interfering with egg-laying and the raising of young. The nests
were tagged for location and then taken to a lab where they were dried and put into a deep freeze. This helped
preserve the nests and also sanitize them because, well, who knows what they can be contaminated with. Then
the researchers carefully dis-assembled the nests and when the hairs were separated, they were able to inspect
them under a microscope and do a molecular and DNA analysis. Finally the hairs were categorized according to
species and frequency of occurrence: how many nests contain hair from a certain species.

So, what did they find using the nest collection method? Lots that was expected and some that was not. As you
might expect, the most common animal hairs came from wild animals that are common in Hungary such as deer
and wild sheep. Surprisingly, in one area with human development like pastures and farms and such, the nest
collected there contained only a few hairs from domestic animals like dogs. And some nests had hairs from
animals rarely found in the region like the golden jackal.

Now, the study also reveals some shortcomings of the nest collection method for wild life management. While
it can let us know what kinds of mammals are in an area, it cannot tell us how many individuals of a particular
species are present. While you can find hair of a particular animal, you can’t tell how many of these animals are
around, either living in or just passing through a certain area. And that’s an important aspect of wild life
management. So you’d still have to use a different technique to determine the number of certain animals in an
area.

2-GM9-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an Art class

(male professor) So, we’ve looked at techniques used by artists, how they use wire or wooden frames to build
sculptures, or how they work with materials like clay or marble. But if you want to make a realistic sculpture,
well, why not make a casting from real life? Well, prior to 1961, an artist generally wouldn’t do this. It was
something that just wasn’t done.

So, now, let me tell you how the artist George Segal. That’s S E G A L. Starting in 1961, Segal’s sculptural
technique was, he took plastic bandages and wrapped them around a living person, a living model. The model
would stay still for twenty minutes while Segal manipulated the still wet plaster. The plaster would harden and
it would end up with a replica of the person.

(female student) You mean he used the white medical plaster that doctors use when you break a leg or
something?

(professor) Right, except he typically covered everything on the person, hair, face, clothing, shoes.

(female student) Cloth, too?

(professor) Correct. His plaster sculptures were of people and, typically, he focused on life’s everyday
moments, its everyday situations: someone eating a meal, crossing a street, sitting at a gas station. As part of his
process he’d create the plaster sculpture. He’d also incorporate some suggestive environmental fragment to help
create a context for that plaster person.
(female student) What do you mean exactly?

(professor) Well, you see to invoke a real-life environment, he’d place a few real-life objects close to each
sculpture.

(female student) So these real-life objects were not plaster, right?

(professor) Right, such as an actual traffic light in one or an actual table and chair from the restaurant in
another. And in this way the viewer’s mind could fill in the rest of the scene from personal experience. I mean,
everyone’s crossed the street, right? So when you see a traffic light, you’ll immediately think of all the
associations that come with that: sidewalks, other pedestrians, cars, shops, noise, et cetera.

And, you know, there was an interesting irony to the sculptures he created. The sculptures, well, his models
were primarily people he knew very well, friends, families, acquaintances. However, for the viewer, there was
always a very anonymous quality to each sculpture, because, you see, the faces, well, you can’t read anything
off of the faces, because of the plaster they don’t really convey emotion and the eyes appear blank empty. So,
Segal focused a lot on the bodies, their posture, their position, what each person was doing. For example, a
person slumped in a chair can evoke very distinct feelings like sadness or defeat.

Another thing about these pieces is that use of space was always at the forefront of Segal’s thoughts. He thought
it was important for the viewer to engage with that space, walk in and around and among the sculptures. Now, if
you do go to the local exhibition, you won’t be able to do that. Unfortunately museums sometimes fence things
off to protect their exhibits. Nevertheless, be aware that in his own studio, Segal arranged his work to maximize
a viewer’s interaction with the sculptures. He paid a lot of attention to the significance of empty space.

(male student) Um, I happened to see a Segal sculpture at a museum years ago. Since plaster’s naturally white,
each of the figures was completely white, hair, clothing, skin, shoes, everything. It was quite striking.

(professor) Yes, that’s his trademark, what he’s most well known for. But, you know, he also occasionally
painted some of his sculpted human figures.

(male student) Oh, I wasn’t aware of that.

(professor) And here’s the thing. When he did paint, he’d typically make each figure he sculpted a single solid
color. Consider The Costume Party, for instance. It contains several human figures, one blue, one red, one
yellow, why? Well, just as with his solid white plaster figures, Segal used solid color figures so that they would
stand out distinctly. Everything else in the viewer’s environment is composed of a more natural range of colors,
right? So the figures in The Costume Party create a certain emotional response in the viewer.

OK, now, in the 1970s as his career progressed, outdoor public sculpture became all the rage, in part because of
government mandates requiring new government buildings to purchase and display artist’s work on their
property. Most artists created sculpture of a gigantic size to fit with the architecture nearby. Segal, however,
wanted his art to remain life-size, accessible. His unique solution? To increase the number of individuals in the
art piece. In this way, his sculptures became larger.

2-GM9-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an Economics class
(female professor) No doubt you’ve been hearing a lot about how the United States has trade deficits with this
country or that country and in the news they make it seem like such a terrible thing. Well, today, we’re going to
set the record straight by looking at the big picture. OK?

So, trade activities between countries are divided into two categories: one, the exchange of goods and services
and, two, the exchange of capital. OK? goods and services and capital. Now, one of the statistics used to
measure international trade activities is net exports.

Net exports is the difference in values between how much businesses in the country exports and how much they
imports. We say that a country’s net exports are positive when it exports more goods and services than it
imports. And a country’s net exports are negative when its businesses import more goods and services than they
export. OK? Now, another word for a negative net export is trade deficit. So, a country with a trade deficit
imports more than it exports. It buys more than it sells.

Typically, people view positive net exports are favorable and trade deficits, negative net exports, as unfavorable
to a country. However, the idea that a trade surplus benefits a country more than a trade deficit is a fallacy. It’s
simply not consistent with sound economic ideas and principles. That erroneous idea started in the 17th and
18th centuries with the mercantilists.

Mercantilists believed in prompting exports but restricting and regulating imports. So, they treated a trade
surplus as a good thing and a trade deficit as a bad thing. This fallacy still lingers in the minds of many people
today. The fallacy arises from focusing on only one part of the trade activity, namely goods and services, rather
than on the country’s total international trade including capital flows.

And the keep things simple, when I refer to capital, I’m talking about money. To understand why we shouldn’t
conclude that trade deficits are, by themselves, the source of concern, we need to examine how a country’s total
international transactions are calculated. OK? If a country runs a trade deficit, its exports of goods and services
are not paying for its imports. What we are saying here is that when you run a trade deficit that deficit must be
financed. It has to be paid for. To finance this trade deficit, a country must be a net importer of capital, of
money.

So, money, in the form of investments, comes into the country and makes up the difference in value between the
exports and imports of goods and services. Uh, for example, when the United States finances other countries
trade deficits, it buys, for example, bonds and stocks in those countries. That would be a capital outflow, also
referred to as a capital export, because the money is going out from the United States and going into another
country.

Now, I mentioned stocks and bonds. Quickly, stocks are issued by companies in order to raise money. Buying a
stock’s like buying a very small piece of a company. You actually become a part owner. And, when the
company’s successful, then generally the value of the stock rises. Conversely, if the company does poorly, then
the value of its stock can fall. When you purchase a bond, you’re actually lending a company or even a
government, you’re lending them money. And the bond is the company, or government’s, promise to pay you
back the money you lent them, plus interest, at a specific time in the future.

So, for example, if you purchased a government bond that matures in five years and has an interest rate of five
percent that means in five years you would get back your initial investment plus additional money in
accumulated interest. So, when the United States runs a trade deficit, we would expect that other countries
would buy stocks, bonds or other financial assets in the United States and then there would be a capital inflow
or capital import that makes up for the United States trade deficit. So, any good international economist would
tell you, “Do not view a trade deficit as a bad thing. Instead, look at the total transactions of capital as well as
goods and services when you evaluate any country’s international trade position.”
2-GM11-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and his Physics professor

(man) Excuse me, Dr. Taylor

(woman) Hi, Jonathan, do we have an appointment?

(man) No, I just want to drop off my lab report. I know it’s due this afternoon in class, but, I have a dentist
appointment, so,

(woman) That’s fine. Thanks for turning it in on time.

(man) You’re welcome.

(woman) Oh, say, before you go, let me ask you something.

(man) Uh, sure,

(woman) It’s just, I’ve been noticing, and this isn’t really important, but, the work book assignments you’ve
been handing in don’t look like they’ve been pulled out of the book. It looks like you’re giving me photocopied
pages. Actually, you not the only one, but I figure since you’re here. Anyway, you know you could save
yourself some trouble by just using the original pages. They’re meant to be ripped out.

(man) Oh, I know. Uh, the thing is, I don’t actually have a work book.

(woman) What do you mean?

(man) Well, the bookstore ran out of copies before I got there, but they sent in another order to the publishing
company. The book should be here in a week or two.
(woman) But, the work book comes in a package with the textbook, you do have the textbook, don’t you?
(man) Um,
(woman) So what have you been doing for books?

(man) Uh, a bunch of us have been

(woman) A bunch of you? How many other students don’t have books?

(man) Uh, I don’t know. When I put my name on the waiting list at the bookstore, I was like the seventh or
eighth on the list.

(woman) So, what have you been doing?

(man) Well, um, I’ve been borrowing other people’s stuff and making copies of the pages I need or working
from that copy that’s on reserve in the library.

(woman) Why didn’t anyone tell me?

(man) Um, well, it wasn’t just your section. Actually, Linda and I are the only one in your section without the
books. I guess we all thought it wasn’t a big deal. I mean, this class is a requirement for all science majors so we
just figured that someone didn’t realize how many students would have to enroll. And they didn’t order enough
books. Anyway, it’s not like the bookstore wouldn’t place another order. We will get the books.

(woman) Yeah, but I always tell the department secretary to order a few extra copies for my section. And I
thought the other professors did the same for their sections.

(man) It’s OK, really.

(woman) Oh, wait, that’s right. There was another whole section added at the last minute. That’s at least twenty
more students and the books for that section would have been ordered late. Look, I’m really sorry. Anyway, let
me call the bookstore right now. The staff there is very conscientious, but, I want to make sure that they know
they need to follow up on this.
Listen to a conversation between a student and the administrator in the Biology department

(woman) Hi, can I help you?

(man) Hope so. I was supposed to meet with Professor Simmons, but she’s not in her office. Do you know?

(woman) Uh, I was just about to post a sign on her door. She was unexpectedly called into a meeting. She’ll
have regular office hours tomorrow, though.

(man) Oh, OK. It’s just that she was gonna give me information on some new internship that the Biology
department’s planning to offer.

(woman) You mean for our golden eagle project?

(man) Yeah, that’s the one.

(woman) I’m doing the administrative work for that project. I’m preparing a page about it right now for our
Web site, in fact.

(man) Cool! Well, Professor Simmons mentioned that in class yesterday. It seemed like a great opportunity. I
mean, I’ve been a bird watcher for years. I especially like raptors. And I actually saw a golden eagle at a tree
near the river last winter. I’ve lived here in Minnesota all my life and had never seen a golden eagle in the wild
before.

(woman) I know. Golden eagles didn’t use to visit our area on any regular basis. But according to winter
wildlife surveys done over the past few years, around sixty had begun hanging out around the cliffs overlooking
the upper Mississippi river during the month of January.

(man) Wow! So, like, what’s the golden eagle project? I mean, what will the interns be doing?
(woman) Assisting field researches mainly, uh, helping them capture some of the eagles and placing radio
tracking devices on them.

(man) Oh, I thought it was about, like, conserving their various seasonal habitats and breeding grounds.

(woman) We don’t know where this particular population of birds breeds or anything about their migration
route for that matter.

(man) Hmm, wow, so how did the Bio department get involved?
(woman) When the winter survey showed a pattern, Professor Simmons and some other faculty thought the first
step of understanding these birds would be to track their movements. So they applied for a research grant and
got it. The grant’s from a consortium of agencies interested in protecting wildlife and in case you’re interested
about thirty thousand dollars.
(man) So the interns will get paid.

(woman) Most of the money is allocated for the radio tracking technology. Whatever’s left over will go toward
the researchers’ salaries. However, interns can earn one course credit for every 70 hours they volunteer.

(man) That’s a lot of time, but the experience will look amazing on my resume.

(woman) Absolutely! Uh, say, given your interest in raptors, were you planning to attend the Speaking of
Science lecture next Monday? It’s on energy reserves in birds of prey. It’s scheduled for 7 p.m. in the Biology
department lounge.

(man) That lecture series, uh, I’ve heard that mostly graduate students and faculty go.

(woman) Mostly, yes,

(man) But wouldn’t everything go right over my head?

(woman) Somethings maybe but it would hurt to go anyway, if this is a field you’re interested in.

(man) OK, I’ll think about it.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Archaeology class

(female professor) So, one thing archeologists had pretty much agreed on, for a while now, is that the first
migration, humans out of Africa to Europe, began about 42,000 years ago. We believe they first settled in
southern and Western Europe and we knew this from evidence found at sites in those areas, artifacts that this
culture left behind. These sites and these artifacts are referred to as Aurignacian.

Now, during the Aurignacian era there was a surge of, well, creativity, uh, ingenuity in human behavior and
skills and one of the defining characteristics of the era is representational art, art created to resemble something,
sculptures of human figures, things like that. And, well, a few years ago some archeologists made an interesting
discovery in Russia, in Kostenki.

As you can see, Kostenki is south of Moscow, about 400 kilometers south. It’s on what is called the central East
European Plain. Near this village is a prehistoric site or group of sites, actually. And these archeologists at
Kostenki uncovered some artifacts that are clearly Aurignacian in origin. For instance, they found a carved head
of an unfinished human figurine made of ivory, representational art, right? There were also personal ornaments
and tools for digging, drilling, and cutting, all of them indicative of the Aurignacian era. And they were all
found buried well below the level of previous discoveries of the same site. So we can be reasonably sure they
are older.

Not only that but there are reasons to believe that these artifacts are a good deal older than any that had
previously been found much further west in what we have thought were the first Aurignacian settlements. You
can see why this is important, no, because if these artifacts are indeed that old, then theories of a direct
migration into western and southern Europe are called into question. Humans must have settled in the central
East European Plain first, several thousands of years before ways of migration went west and south. That’s why
it’s crucial to get the dating right. And our archeologists at Kostenki are convinced that the ivory head and other
artifacts are over 42,000 years old, maybe as old as 45,000 years.

Now, unfortunately that far back it gets harder to date things. We can’t expect to get an accurate reading from
radiocarbon dating. The technology just isn’t that reliable at dating things over 40,000 years old. So how did
they manage to date the Kostenki artifacts then? Well, right around that time, 40,000 years ago, there was a
large volcanic eruption in what is now Italy. This volcano spewed out a layer of ash that settled onto the ground
all across central and eastern Europe. And that layer serves as a pretty reliable time marker.

The date of the eruption has been quite well established by means that I’m not going to get into right now. And
guess what? The Kostenki artifacts, the ivory head and all, they were found well beneath this layer. All of this
points to an Aurignacian settlement several thousand years older than any we found elsewhere in Europe. But it
is somewhat perplexing in a way, I mean, climate at Kostenki, we’re talking significantly colder at that time
than areas to the west and south.

Now I’m not saying these people couldn’t have handled such conditions. I mean, among the artifacts found
were needles made from ivory and bone that were likely used for sawing. So, they were probably able to keep
warm wearing animal hides. But we’d still like to be able to explain why a group of people would migrate to
such a cold climate directly from the warm climate of Africa. Did they somehow prefer the cold weather? Well,
we’ll leave that discussion for next time.

2-GM11-2
Listen to part of a discussion in a Paleontology class. The class has been discussing dinosaurs.

(female professor) OK, so how many species of dinosaur have been named so far? Does anyone know? Would
anyone like to take a guess? Richard

(male student) A hundred and fifty?

(professor) Well, actually, since we started naming dinosaur species back in the 1800s, well over a thousand
species have been named based on the fossil record.

(male student) Wow!

(professor) OK, but can you think of any reasons why we might have overestimated the number of species that
we found?

(male student) Hmm, maybe some species were given more than one name.

(professor) That’s right. You see, nothing would please a paleontologist more than being credited with
discovering a new dinosaur species. So, what often happened is if a paleontologist found a dinosaur fossil that
was a little different in some way, Eureka! They claim to have discovered a new species, especially back in the
late 1800s. If a paleontologist found, say, a dinosaur tooth that looked a little different, based on that tooth
alone, they proclaimed that they discovered a new species. And then another paleontologist would find, say, a
dinosaur leg bone that looked a little different, and again, another new species would be named, amid great
fanfare.
But later, upon closer examination, it’d turn out that that tooth and the leg bone were actually from the same
species. These days, naming protocols are far more rigorous. If you want to claim you discovered a new
dinosaur species now, you’d better produce a pretty complete specimen. Ah, but even if you are very careful,
you can still get fooled. Take for example, Triceratops and Torosaurus.

Triceratops and Torosaurus are similar in many ways but there’re also some clear differences. So they were
thought to be separate species. But not too long ago, a team of researchers found some pretty compelling
evidence suggesting that Triceratops and Torosaurus were individuals of the same species that the former was
actually a juvenile version of the latter. After studying skulls from these two types of dinosaurs, researchers
concluded that Triceratops underwent some striking anatomical changes as it became a fully mature adult.
Specifically, the angles of its three facial horns shifted and the structure at the back of its skull thinned out.

Now, this research finding isn’t universally accepted. But you can see that you’ll have to be careful about
making assumptions. OK, now, imagine that at some point in the future, all the existing dinosaur fossils have
been discovered, carefully analyzed and properly named. Would we then know how many species of dinosaur
existed? OK, let’s review the fossilization process. What conditions are necessary for fossilization to occur?
Carol?

(female student) Based on our reading assignment, it’s pretty rare actually. Most of the time when animals die,
they’re either eaten by other animals or they just decay.

(professor) That’s right, so conditions have to be just right for fossils to form. How does this affect the fossil
record?

(female student) There must have been some dinosaur species that never got fossilized.

(professor) Probably

(female student) So I guess we’ll never know for sure just how many kinds of dinosaur there were.

(professor) Exactly! But, back to identifying dinosaurs that we do have fossil evidence of, one question that
often comes up is can we determine the species by analyzing its DNA? And that’s a good question because a lot
of times if we have just a bit of tissue from some unidentified animal, we can analyze its DNA and determine
what species that tissue came from.

The problem with dinosaurs is DNA degrades over time. Now, if you’re looking at the remains of an organism
that died even a few thousand years ago, that’s not a problem. But, say you’re looking at a fossil from
something that existed hundreds of millions of years ago, during the time dinosaurs roamed Earth, it’s
extremely unlikely that you’re going to get any intact DNA from fossils that old, despite some recent claims to
the contrary.

2-GM11-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an Earth Science class.

(male professor) Uh, getting back to climate patterns, let me point out that weather doesn’t always follow the
usual pattern. One of the classic cases of abnormal weather was the summer of 1816 in the northern hemisphere.
Actually, in the northeastern United States, 1816 is sometimes referred to as “the year there was no summer.”
And the unusual cold was also felt that year in many other parts of the globe.
The funny thing is, in January and February, the temperatures in northeastern US weren’t all that much below
the normal, no hint of what was to come. That wasn’t seen until May when strong waves of cold are hit the
region and covered it with ice and frost. That’s pretty rare for some of those areas in May. And unfortunately,
the cold snaps kept on coming. There was widespread snowfall in June, followed by more cold spells in July
and August. Historians can point to a number of contemporary diaries from the northeast and beyond, including
Jefferson’s, that’s Thomas Jefferson of course, a former president who had retired to his home down in
Virginia, diaries that recorded and remarked on the extraordinarily cold temperatures that year.

To put it in perspective, the summer of 1816 was the coldest on record for some areas in nearly two hundred
years of record keeping. As a result, the corn crop finally harvested in some parts was less than ten percent of
the usual yield, an economic disaster for many farmers. So the summer of 1816, the summer that wasn’t, that’s
more than just an interesting entry in the weather almanacs. In fact, it led to a dramatic shift in agriculture with
many farmers abandoning northeast US for the Midwest.

But what was the cause of all this? Just a variation in normal weather patterns, or was there something else
going on here? Well, there are a number of theories and several of them involved the Sun. For example, in
1816, it happened that the Sun was in the middle of a period of low magnetic activity. And it turns out that at
this point in the cycle, when its magnetic activity is below normal, the Sun is slightly dimmer and the Earth gets
less sunlight. So, it’s no surprise that periods of low magnetic activity on the Sun have been associated with low
temperatures here on Earth. That’s a pattern observed over and over again and put forward by most authorities
of the time to explain the extreme weather of 1816.

But the most widely held view among those of us in the field today is that the year with no summer was caused
by several large volcanic eruptions just prior to 1816, particularly a volcano in Indonesia that erupted just a year
before and by all the dust and gases thrown into the atmosphere as a result. We’re talking huge amounts of dust
and gases here, especially in the case of Tambora. That’s the volcano in Indonesia.

Tambora is estimated to have thrown two hundred million tons of material into the atmosphere. The idea is that
a lot of the gas and dust that shot up from that volcano went clear up into an atmosphere layer called the
stratosphere, about ten kilometers up. Then winds in the stratosphere moved this enormous cloud of particles
around the Earth. And unlike the so-called greenhouse gases we’re producing so much of today, the particles in
this enormous volcanic cloud up in the stratosphere primarily reflected sunlight back into space. And that
reduced the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface down below. And less sunlight means a drop off in
temperatures. And even though a volcanic eruption may only last a few days, if it’s big enough, it can
apparently impact the weather around the world for up to five years.

Incidentally, another way we can study the effects of volcanic eruptions besides reading contemporary reports is
to use information from tree rings that grew over the last several centuries. Remember, there’s a growth ring in
a tree’s trunk for each year it’s alive. And when the wood in the growth ring is very dense, for example, we’ve
discovered this corresponds to a year that was particularly warm. So a recent study was done where the growth
rings of exceptionally old trees all over the northern hemisphere were analyzed. Sure enough, the highest
concentrations of low-density tree rings, which mean cold temperatures, they almost always follow major
volcanic eruptions, including the eruption of Tambora.

2-NT1-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and her geology professor.

Um, you know, the santa reny eruption we were talking about in class, the big one in ancient Greece, um, one of
the biggest volcanic eruptions in the last few thousand years.
Well, have you heard this story is linking the eruption to the Legend of the lost city of atlantis book? Did you
have Michelle? You know that's an unsubstantiated story, right? We don't know if it's planet ever existed. I
know. But I'm taking great history this semester and we were reading ancient texts that talk about the Legend of
atlantis. And it sounds a lot like santa reny. It was an ancient island society of mostly wealthy people. And it
disappeared into the sea when a volcano erupted. Some people think atlantis and center rainier are the same
place. It's a popular conjecture. But even if atlantis was real, its location would be hard to ascertain from ancient
text. There's just not a lot out there to go on, I'm afraid.

That's the point I was hoping to write my final paper in defense of the idea that atlantis was real, except it was
really santa reny is your paper for my class. But that isn't really a geology topic. What you're describing sounds
more like a history paper. Oh, so the centre in eruption is out then. Well, no, not if you're willing to focus on the
geology of the eruption. For example, what the geology tells us about the date of the eruption, that's still a
contested point. I thought we said in class, uh, the late bronze age, yes, but it'd be nice to be a little more
specific than that.

It's interesting because archaeologists originally came up with the date 1500 de ce. But there's a conflict
between the archaeological evidence and the geologic evidence. When do geologists think it occurred? At least
a hundred years earlier?

That's based mainly on radio, carbon dating, and other physical evidence. Volcanoes cause atmosphere cooling.
Um, and we see evidence of atmosphere cooling closer to 1600 BC e like why? Um, the typical signs of
unsuccessful harvests also narrowing of growth rings and trees. Trees grow more slowly when temperatures
cool down. Okay. Uh, also, I don't know if you remember me announcing it in class, but there's an expert
coming to campus tomorrow to give a special presentation about radio carbon dating.

She's not an expert on volcanoes. Her area of focus involves prehistoric artifacts. But the same concept applies
to geologic formations.

Okay, i'll go to the presentation. But I'm not I'm not a science major. Yes, radio carbon dating is a complicated
process. But that's exactly why it would be useful for you to go before you start writing, before you start
researching even i've heard her speak before. And I can assure you that she's good at breaking down complex
issues.

And of course, i'd be happy to talk to you about the presentation afterward. If you have any questions about.
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the registrars office.
My, uh, I was having trouble registering for next term. And the person I spoke to on the phone told me to stop
by. Okay. Um, it's pretty straightforward. The registration process, it's all done online and the directions for
choosing your courses around the registrars office website, which you can access from the university home
page.

I know, uh, I mean, I know how to choose courses online. It's just that you can't get into all the courses I wanna
take. One in particular, is filled up already. And the spring term doesn't start for four more weeks. Well, there's
lots of students selecting their courses for next term right now. Yeah, but it's a course that I that I really need for
my nature. Economics 409.

It's a seminar course in public finance. You have to take it even if you're planning to work in the private sector.
But, uh, your web site says it's, uh, that the seminar closed, that all the seats are filled. Yeah, it doesn't help.
That seminar courses typically have fewer students than regular courses. You might have to wait until next fall
to take it then, but I'm planning to graduate in a so I can't wait till fall.
Did you try contacting the professor? Most professors are willing to work with students in your situation,
professor Bentley. Yeah. But he's still on sabbatical doing research in Canada. I think it's much experience. The
professors on sabbatical don't make it a practice to communicate with students here. His voice mail said he'd be
back a couple days before spring term starts. But I really can't wait till then. Why not? Professors can let you
into a closed class up to a week after its stars. I know. But I'm gonna do an internship at inner loan finance
partners next term helping with analytical research. 20 hours a week, they keep asking which days I'm gonna
come in and I keep putting them off, which they're not thrilled about.

But I have no choice until I know for sure if I can take this course. Have you tried contacting anyone in the
economics department, aside from professor Bentley? No. Then why don't you go over there and ask for a
waiver form? All you do is put the course number on the form and write down why you need special
consideration. I can't promise anything, but it seems to me that you'd qualify. I have this friend. He also needed
to take a seminar course in his final year in history, I believe. And the head of the history department got him in,
even though the registration system said the course was closed and someone else was taking it.

Listen To part of a discussion in an English literature class

professor, before we get into today's topic, could I ask a question? Absolutely. Okay. Well, after class last week,
some of us were talking and we got on the topic of William Shakespeare. Okay? And I was saying how amazed
I was that he could have written so many great plays. And his plays are still so popular today, like 400 years
after he'd written them. But then John said he didn't believe Shakespeare had actually written all those plays. He
thought that someone else actually wrote him. Go on. And I said that I didn't believe him, but he insisted that he
was right. And finally, someone in the group suggested we let you settle the issue. Ok. Uh, well, there have
been some very well educated, very intelligent people who agree with John. Really? Why would anyone think
that Shakespeare didn't write those plays?

Well, for one thing, of all the surviving manuscripts of Shakespeare's plays, not a 1. Not even a fragment of one
was written in his own handwriting. We know what his handwriting looks like. Yes, we have a few samples
from some other sorts of documents. Okay? And we don't know a lot about Shakespeare's life, but we do know
that he wasn't from an aristocratic family. But whoever wrote the plays attributed to him seemed very familiar
with the aristocracy, life at a royal court, life in other countries, the inner workings of the legal system, and so
on. And that's LED some people to believe that the plays had to have been written by someone with a lot more
education and with a lot more experience with the aristocratic way of life than Shakespeare would have had.

For example, some people think the plays were written by a man named Edward de vere. Divya was a well
educated aristocrat. And unlike Shakespeare, he'd actually been to a lot of the places mentioned in the place.
And especially interesting, I think he was once kidnapped by pirates in the English Channel and left on the
shore and Denmark. And in one of Shakespeare's most famous plays, and that the protagonist suddenly finds
himself taken from England to Denmark. Uh, and divya would have been very familiar with life at a royal court.
He was a very popular person at queen Elizabeth. And then later it came Phillips court. And he may have had a
good reason for publishing under the name of William Shakespeare. There was apparently a social convention
at that time that aristocrats would share their work only with other aristocrats, not with the general public. So if
severe wanted to publish his plays for a mass audience without ruining his reputation at the court, he would
have needed to publish the plays secretly under a false name.

Now that said, I wanna make it clear that the dominant view among established mainstream scholars today is
that Shakespeare did in fact, write the plays that are attributed to it. It's now generally accepted that he did
sometimes elaborate with other runners, especially for some of his later plays. But most mainstream scholars
finally believe him to be the primary author of the plays that are attributed to him. They point out that
Shakespeare wouldn't have had to be an aristocrat who write about things he wrote about. Back in the 16th and
17th centuries, originality wasn't considered especially important. And it's well known that a number of
Shakespeare's plays were actually real rights of older stories written by other people, including stories that take
place in royal courts and in other countries. Yes, John? Okay. But what do you think, professor? Well, I think
it's a fine, fascinating mystery. And I kind of hate to see it solved actually.

2-NT1-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class

in 1931, a manner you know that ancient relative of modern elephants that went extinct thousands of years ago.

In 1931, the skeleton of a mammoth was unearthed in a creek bed near the town of angus, Nebraska. The
skeleton was called the angus mammoth. After the town, the youngest man had created quite a stir among
archaeologists.

Of course, it's always a big deal when a nearly Complete manner skeleton, rather than usual stray bone is
discovered. But in this case, the big excitement was what was found with the skeleton beneath one of the
shoulder blades. They found what looked like a tool, a stone object with a pointed end possibly used for cutting.

But archaeologists were divided over the Discovery. The question was authenticity. Was the association of the
tool and the man of skeleton authentic? Or where the tool and the skeleton connected, um, randomly? Did they
basically have nothing to do with each other and just happen to end up in the same place? Or and this is what
the skeptics suspected was someone trying to fool people full, whoever would eventually find a skeleton by
making something that looked like an ancient tool and planting it near the skeleton. In other words, was it a
hoax?

Well, the researcher who made the Discovery was sure the association was authentic. And if it was, well, that
would really be something.

It'd be the first ever documented Discovery of physical evidence linking prehistoric americans and mammoths,
but does began to surface almost immediately. A geologist from the nearby university visited the site and
studied the layers of sediment where the skeleton was found. He concluded that the sediments in which the
mammoth was buried were at least 300000 years old.

And therefore, the Mamet was 300000 years old.

The problem was no one seriously thought humans had arrived in North America that long ago. As for the stone
experts stated it to about 14000 years ago based on what they knew about similar stone tools made by early
inhabitants of North America. So the mammoth and the tool couldn't be the same age. Then how did they wind
up together? Some thought the creek might have washed the tool down into the site long after the mammoth
died. Others, as I said, thought it was a hoax. But there was no way of knowing because the team of researchers
who came to Complete the excavation did something that today no one would even think of doing. They
removed the tool from the excavation site and sent it to a museum all this before an on site investigation could
be carried out. Ah, yes, Stephen.

Couldn't someone have dated the skeleton itself using carbon dating? Well, radio carbon dating, uh, looking at
the amount of radioactive carbon in ancient organic material to date it, that technique wasn't perfected until the
1960s.
Researchers in the 1980s tried to carbon date a piece of bone they found when they went back to explore the
site. The problem was that because the bone was so old, a protein called collagen, which they would have
needed to use carbon dating, that protein had over time been completely depleted from the bone. So it was
impossible to use carbon dating to date the bone.

So a big question Mark hung over the Discovery until recently when advanced analytical techniques were
applied to the evidence. And we finally got some answers.

So first, the age of the settlements, in 2002, researchers took sediment samples from the site and analyze them
using a new technique that can determine when quartz mineral particles in sediment or wherever were last
exposed to sunlight. Well, apparently the last time those sediments had seen the sun was between 75 and 80000
years ago.

So that's how old the skeleton was. And the tool, when researchers examined it under a high powered
microscope, it showed patterns of wear on its surfaces that indicated that it had been used to cut through both
hard and soft material, which LED the researchers to conclude that it had been put to practical use and was
therefore probably genuine, not a modern forgery.

But the researchers did confirm that the tool was only about 14000 years old, which meant that the skeleton and
the tool were not authentically associated, that someone had indeed probably planted the tool next to the
skeleton.

2-NT1-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an environmental science class.

Ok. In the last class we were talking about BIO fouling. And what did we say? BIO fouling is, Michael. That's
when different kinds of marine life, uh, marine plants like algae and marine animals like barnacles and mussels
attach themselves to the holes of shifts. Good.

Now, that might not seem like that big of a deal, but it actually costs the global shipping industry billions of
dollars per year. And that's because having all that stuff attached to its hole makes it harder for a ship to move
through the water. So the ship uses more fuel.

And so the shipping industry spends a lot of money painting the holes of the ships with special paints to try to
stop plants and animals from attaching themselves to the whole. Ok? And at the very end of class, we said that
the first points that we know for sure were designed specifically to prevent fouling were developed in the mid
18 hundreds. And that's where we'll pick up today. Okay?

So in the mid 18 hundreds, inventors started taking paint and adding various kinds of BIO sides, chemicals that
would either destroy or at least help control BIO fouling organisms. Some of these paints were somewhat
effective at preventing following, but many of them were pretty much useless.

Then in the 1950s, a new BIO side compound was developed, a compound called tributyl tin, or t BT p BT
based paints were so effective that they were seen to be the perfect product for preventing BIO fouling. Any
marine life that tried to settle on these paints would die. But apart from direct contact with the paint, the t v t
was thought to be completely harmless to the environment. And then on Top of that, the paints were made self
polishing. That is, they were designed so that they very slowly wear off the whole of a ship, so that a fresh layer
of paint was always on the surface. Although the self polishing paints introduced significantly more paint into
the marine environment, this was thought not to be a problem because t BT was still thought to be completely
harmless.

But then in the 1980s, researchers began to realize that t BT was having a serious negative impact on the marine
environment. C t BT accumulates in the sediments on the ocean floor. Animals that feed on these settlements
take the t BT into their bodies. And it then makes its way off the food chain as bigger animals prey on smaller
ones.

In the 1990s, the use of t BT began to be phased out. And new laws were put into place to protect the
environment. Essentially, new paints have to undergo vigorous environmental testing before they can be used
commercially.

On Top of that, to be of use to shipping companies, they also have to be inexpensive and work for several years.
And they have to be effective both import and out at sea.

In these two areas, ocean salinity and water cleanliness may vary. And the marine species present also very the
anti foul paint that have been able to meet all those requirements haven't been anywhere near as affected as t BT
based paints. And that's LED to a large increase in shipping costs.

Yes, Michael? So researchers are still stuck on that idea from the 18 hundreds, taking paint and adding a BIO
side. Can't they think of anything else?

Well, there's now also some new research being carried out that's attempting to mimic natural products that are
produced by animals. For example, there are researchers who are trying to understand the natural glues that
animals and plants use to stick to surfaces. The idea is if we can understand these glues, then we may be able to
develop a product that prevents them from working, which might provide us with a more eco friendly way of
preventing, or at least controlling colonization by BIO fouling agents.

2-NT2-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and his geography professor.

Hi, professor Wilson.

I'm glad you're here. Oh, hi, Jane. Yes, I'm always here during my office hours. And actually I was just thinking
about you. Did you know that the university is hosting a geography conference one weekend next term? We are
looking for student volunteers for the conference. I thought you might be interested. And what will the
volunteers do? Things like helping to check people in if they arrive, posting schedules outside conference rooms
and setting up audio visual equipment such as screens and projectors. I am a member of the campus audio visual
club. Great. And of course, you could attend any of the presentations. Oh, I definitely be interested in that.
Okay. I'll bring Information to the next class to see if anyone else would like to help out. But that's not why
you're here. It's the project. I mean, I like it doesn't.

It's always a popular project in my human geography course. The presentation of how a particular food item or
cuisine relates to the area where it's from and how that food changes as it spreads around the world. A lot of
students tend to take the same food, though.

It's not. Pizza, is it? Yes, it is. But that's fine. Everyone loves pizza.

There's enough Information out there that you'd be surprised how different the presentations usually are from
one another. Information.
That's the thing.

I'm not sure where to get Information. I mean, I can see that there are differences in the pizza made in Italy and
in other places, because it changes to accommodate local tastes and preferences. Yes. But where do I find the
data to support this? All the articles I can find are, well, they're not exactly academic. Aha. Well, there are many
studies about the spread of regional cuisine across the globe, um, about the diffusion of different types of foods
across countries and cultures. Okay. So journal articles that focus on more than one type of food might be
helpful, right? The academic sources often do that. And don't forget to start your presentation with a little
history.

You know, it's commonly thought that pizza originated in Italy, but people have been eating some sort of flat
bread with topping since ancient times. It eventually made its way to the Roman empire, but didn't appear with
tomato at the topping in Italy until the 17 hundreds. I didn't know that. So maybe you can decide which ancient
recipe you think is the one that eventually became pizza as we know it today.

Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the university housing office.
Uh. Hello, good afternoon. They help you. Yeah, I'm supposed to be moving on to campus next month. And I
got this residence agreement in the mail. But I'm not sure where on the form we indicate my preferences
references.

Well, I wanted to get a room on the southside of Simmons hall because my friend will be on that side of the
building. But there's no place on the form to request it. Well, housing agreements, not for a particular room, that
first base in university housing. So there's no place here to indicate what room i'd like. No, I'm afraid you can't
request a particular room or even building. If you read the agreement, you'll see that the student is different
thing, some place to live, and specifically agrees to accept the building and room.

And fine, we see. Well, I guess that answers that. But what do you go about deciding, you know, who gets
which room and so forth that table by different office? All I can help you with this general questions about the
residence agreements, regulations, and so forth. Once you've completed the form and signed it, then I can move
it on to the people who make the sorts of decisions you're talking about. Right? Um. One semester, it's the same.
I like it. We're gonna expand students only ever part of the year. Well, if you're enrolled as a regular student,
you're here for the entire year. So it's not possible to die new housing for just one semester.

The agreements clear on that one about, well, the contract obligates the student a favorite for the whole year. It's
still your responsibility to pay for the room who can serve early, ever release for the remnant freeman. Of the
only exception would be if you ended up graduating early, so got two years left. Okay, then are there any more
questions I can help you with? So they do need a place, okay, what they will be moving in.

But they're, uh, okay, um, well, the 5th is the seven days early and we'll have to start you, uh, the world, $20 a
day. So that'll be an extra $140. My student loan really doesn't cover this. Come a week later.

Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.The professor has been discussing archaeological sites in
mesoamerica, a region that includes Central America and part of Mexico.
And when we started talking about artifacts from ancient archaeological sites, I mentioned that pottery shred,
broken pieces of pottery, are the most common artifact that most sites in mesoamerica.

There can be millions of shred at large sites.

That's because, well, for one thing, pottery had so many uses, storing liquids and grains, preparing and serving
food and drinks. And it was also used for holding incense during ritual ceremonies.

And it was easily breakable. So people were always creating more of it.

We're finding these fragments today because hotter reassured, the broken pieces are durable over time. So
making pottery was very common. But we know little about where and how the pottery was produced.

You see the production of pottery left very little residue from one thing to make a pot out of clay basically uses
up all the raw material. But clay, very few hunks of player left behind unused.

It's the opposite of, say, the manufacture of great stone tools like knives, which are made by chipping away
pieces of stone to get a sharp blade.

The more pieces you flake off, the more leftover material you get. And most tools used for making pottery were
made of perishable materials like wood. So we don't find many pottery making tools at archaeological sites.
And then places for pottery was fired, treated until it hardened. They can resemble cooking hearts or roasting
pits. So they're hard to identify as pottery production facilities in pops off and break during the firing process,
don't they?

So that's a way to identify the production sites, right? Look for pots that broke while they were being fired.

It's true that when they're fired heated up to very high temperatures, many vessels do crack and break.

But the question you have to ask is, can you tell when they bro? And the answer to that question is, no, you
can't. Hearts that break during firing don't look any different from pots that break during use. However, there
are some errors that can occur in the production process that do help us identify sites.

Thank like pottery shred that are under fired. And sometimes there are pieces that are severely deformed.

These things are strong evidence of a production site.

To be sure about a location, we need to find things like distinctively shaped mold for shaping parts and tools
with clay residue left condom. But finding and firing facility is a good of evidence of a production site. But like
I said, it can easily be confused with something else.

There's a site called san carlos in present day Mexico, where archaeologists found a set of shallow quits. And
inside there were ash charcoal, Adobe blocks, and lumps of fired play. Nearby, there were stones used for
polishing the pottery, as well as under fired pottery shred.

So this location at san carlos has been interpreted as a production site.

So how old are these production sites? You know, how far back does it go? This pottery making in meso
America.

The earliest pottery traditions date from around 4000 to thirty 500 years ago. It was a time when domesticated
plants began to be cultivated widely. And metal americans were becoming less nomadic, not as mobile as they
previously been in pre agricultural societies. They were starting to live in more permanent settlements. After
that, it didn't take very long, only about 500 years or so, or pottery to become a well established craft tradition.

But we have very few sites that we can identify as production sites from these periods. We do know that some
of what was produced was traded beyond just the local community. It's in our textbook that archaeologists think
most of the potters were women and that men would have been farming you know, working in the fields. But
they based on just, you know how pottery is made today, how do they know it wasn't different back then?

It's true that we do make such inferences from often a graphic accounts today.

Remember what kind of contemporary powders were the researchers looking at? Women in small traditional
societies. Her pottery is being produced in small volumes and in residential household settings. Societies which,
as we've seen in many ways, resemble the mental American cultures we've been studying.

So while that's not solid proof, I think it's a pretty good basis for a conjecture.

2-NT2-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an animal behavior class.

Let's turn to culture whether there's evidence for the existence of culture among animal groups. Now, culture is
a notoriously vague concept, and it's usually associated with humans. Animal behaviorists, who are interested in
culture, are actually debating its definition. So when we ask whether an animal species has culture, the answer
is gonna depend on which definition we use. One useful definition is the existence of socially learned behaviors
or social learning. Under this definition, an animal population has culture if its members learn from one another,
if knowledge or behaviors are transmitted from one individual to another. Ok? So we know not every behavior
is learned. Some behaviors of women eat genetically programmed like a famines instinct to swim up a river to
spawn. That's an inborn instinctive behavior, no learning required. Also there before gears that an animal
figures out on its own independently rather than to observing others. This is a form of learning, but we call it a
social learning, meaning not social. So that maybe is that the inn or a social, um, not socially man. These do not
represent culture.

Okay, so let's say we're trying to decide whether an animal population as culture and we observe a certain
behavior. First, we must eliminate the possibility that the behavior is innate, or the social, not always an easy
task. But if we can confirm that they did socially learn, the next question is proud us that learning table is
because there are three possible modes of transmission, vertical, horizontal, and oblique. Vertical example, open
IQ. Let me explain each using examples for marine biology because that smile feel. But I wish it could have
drawn examples from promise or or build. Okay, so vertical learning occurs when another demonstrates the
behavior to her offspring. So Information flows in a vertical line from mother to child. One example, a vertical
learning with a behavior called sponging, which exploded in some dolphin groups. Please, dolphins feed on fish
that hide among rocks.

So the capture prey, the dolphins must poke around the rocks with their snow suits, which hunts. So adoption
month, black and sea spawned off the seafloor.

A cease wonder as a simple organism made up of soft, flexible tissues, and the dolphin will put it on her snout
before she starts foraging.

We've documented that sponging is transmitted only for mothers to their female calves. In fact, there's DNA
evidence suggesting that all thunders might be descendants of the first dolphins discover independently a
socially that a sponge could be used in this way, and that this Discovery occurred only a few generations ago.
Ok. So in some trust, a parent, a child, vertical learning, just horizontal learning, which runs across a single
generation. An example of this involves, unlike Wales, all meal handbags sings during the breeding season. And
there are different groups of handbags living in different oceans. Each weyl group has its own song. But
something unusual happened in 1995 to handbags, more grated from the pacific ocean to the Indian ocean, and
brought them a song with them. Of course, the hump backs in the Indian ocean, heard this new song on within
through. And all of the male humpback in both oceans were singing that same song.

So here we have a case where a law behavior spread across the population horizontally within a relatively short
time period.

Horizontal learning, which brings us to a bleak learning, oblique learning, similar to vertical learning, in that it
occurs between generations. However, with oblique learning, the older animals are indirectly related to the
younger ones, like an uncle and nephew versus mother and daughter. Or they might not be related at all, just
living in the same group.

So pointing another dolphin example, researchers have observed male and female clouds inspecting fish that the
adults in their group are catching. They basically swim up to an older dolphin and has caught a fish in its mouth,
but hasn't yet followed it. And they take a close look at that fish.

What do young dolphins do this? I'd say it's because certain species of fish are toxic to dolphins, all very
difficult to swallow. So if you're an immature dolphin, you'll wanna learn from your elders what faith and easy
to eat, right? This knowledge would give you a better chance of survival when you're old enough to go out and
establish your own military.

2-NT2-3
Listen to a discussion in the literature class.
All right. So as we continue our study of literary movements, we're up to almost the beginning of the 20th
century, which brings us to the modernist movement. The modernist movement was a hugely important force in
European and American literature from the late 18 hundreds to the early 19 hundreds, over a span of about 40
years. This was a period that ushered in new technologies, new inventions, the profoundly changed the way
people lived.

Um. What were some important inventions from that time? Uh, let's see. The late 18 hundreds, there was the
Telegraph, right? And then the telephone, right? Plus transportation technologies like the automobile and
airplane. And, um, what effect do you think all of this had on people? It must have made their lives easier. But
it's true. New invention can also overwhelm people. Maybe even shock them. When if everything is changing,
you can feel like their life is, I don't know, just moving too fast. Good point. The modernist movement began a
time when many people felt life was aging too fast. And the works of modernist writers reflected this sense.
Traditional familiar literary forms no longer were no longer adequate to reflect this new reality. So riders began
looking for new forms and new subjects to do this. They were interested in the shop affect definitely. They felt
got to the core of their being. And they wanted their works to convey this.

Now when we talk about modernist literature, one thing that comes to mind is its tone. We think people were
moving into the city's life was becoming very urban.

We're working in factories. It was the industrial age. After all. Modernist authors perceived this urban real life
and sort of impersonal the human up, the void of emotional connections with others. And so this was a subject
that preoccupied modernist writers was a tone that that set their work apart. The modernist movement was also
a reaction to the political and historical events of the tongue.
It's fair to say that modernist writers felt a deep sense of betrayal when the who can tell me why they might have
felt this way? Okay. What major world event was going on in the 19 tens? People at first world warmer, right?
So then why would matter? Cause the modernist writers feel, you know, betrayed. Yes. He figured if only to
willing to get it in this week's level of conflict, we transcend to get us out. And how do we know what they're
doing is really in our best interest. Good. And so one of modernist authors respond to this sense of this. They
responded by, um, by emphasizing the individual, Mark this novel, what the individual perceives quickly was it
proved not with the politicians out there were saying money.

So why did the authors show that in their writings? One way they conveyed each character's private reality was
through the fluid presentation of time. Before the modernist movement, lenders generally portrayed time on
lock. It was organized into successive units of hours, weeks, and so on. The moderates, writers chose inspector
emphasize the psychological crime of human month. Honey thoughts is in constant flux moved backward
forward. And this often lead to stories with open endings, endings that left the reader wondering what might
happen next.

Now another point I wanna make was to do with the length of the works specially in poetry for some modernist
poets. As rope round, for instance, a modernist poem had to be brief, focusing on just one or two strong vivid
images, found further thought poetry should be written in language that's used in typical spoken
communications, not the formal rotated language of the poetry written prior the modernism.

Was this successful? I mean, we're modernist, works well received. First, actually know people found modernist
works to be upsetting and disorienting. Many people, critics included, rejected it out. But it did get everyone's
attention, has certainly held the attention of readers. Her sense.

2-NT3-1
Coordinator at the university art museum. I go, do you remember the advertisement for your position here? The
AD we ran in the student newspaper? Uh, yeah, vaguely. But said that in addition to leading public tours of the
museum, volunteer doses might be asked to perform other duties. Oh, I do remember that. Is that what you
wanted to chat with me about? Yes. The museum has partner with a local school district to run a poetry contest
for high school students, a poetry contest. Cool.

But, um, what does poetry have to do with museum tours a lot since it's going to be an extra stick poetry contest
at expressing yes, an acrostic poem is one that's inspired by a piece of artwork, like, um, William carlos
Williams, his poem the hunter in the snow. It was written in the 1960s and was inspired by a painting made by
Peter breugel in the 15 hundreds.

Yeah. I know brave girls work beautiful panoramic scenes. I can see how they'd inspire a poet. Good. So the
students will be submitting poems based on paintings in our museum.

We're calling the contest the art of poetry. We hope to make it an annual thing interesting.

So can the students write about any painting they want? Oh, that might get too unwieldy for the judges, you
know, and for the doses.

There's also time limitations because anyone who registers for the contest must attend a special educational
tours focusing on the art of India exhibit. And that's why we need you.

Ok, when will the tour take place tours? We're setting them up for the 3rd week in March, about one month
from now.
Oh, Monday through Friday from 4:56 pm. May I send you up for one or more of those days? Sure. I guess
Tuesday and Thursday would work since I have all morning classes those days. Did you want me? Should I just
give my regular talk about the Indian art?

Oh, that's the thing micheal you'll have a whole hour. Though instead of spending 10 minutes in that exhibit as
you normally do, you'll spend the entire time talking about as many Indian paintings as possible and answering
questions.

Wait. But i've only been trained to discuss three of those paintings. And there's gotta be at least 30 in that
exhibit.

It's okay. I'll EMAIL all the background you'll need for the rest of them. And you won't have to go into too
much depth.

I'll also be giving you a list of questions and scenarios for students to think about and discuss questions like,
who are the people in the painting? And imagine yourself as one of those people. You can facilitate these
discussions.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor of music. Professor common got a few minutes.

Jenny, i've been meaning to tell you how impressed I was with your descriptive paper on bulgarian folk singing.
Really? Yes. You know our plants introduction to world music is mostly a music appreciation course. We don't
cover much music theory, like analyzing harmonies or rhythmic structures. Most students wouldn't even attempt
to go there in their papers.

I didn't expect any examination of theory. Honestly, I was a little hesitant not being a music major any anything.
But I really loved the music and I did lots of reading. I wanted to try my hand at it.

Well, I applaud your bravery. You actually did a pretty good job.

So, um, was there something else? Actually, yes, I really wanted your take on something I heard recently that if
astonished me, what was that? He stumbled under this video of a woman singing. Um, she was singing two
different notes at the same time, a high one on a long one. It could believe it. Ah, okay. It sounds like you heard
an example of what we call overtone singing constantly one of the world's oldest forms of music. Uh, overtone
singing? Yes, it's actually possible for one person to produce two simultaneous tones to technique very rarely
you used in western music.

It's found primarily in central Asia, Mongolia, parts of rural Russia. But how is it done? Now without getting
too technical, when you sing a note, you usually only hear one tone, right? But in reality, that one note sung by
the human voice contains lots of other tones as well. We just don't perceive them. In overtones. Say singers can
separate out and amplify those other tone by changing the position of the tongue and lips.

So what you get is a steady, low tone and a high pitched whistling melody above that tone. WOW, how hoops
able to do this theoretically? Anybody, we all have the physical equipment. But it takes some intensive training
without someone like me could ever do it.

Well, remember you didn't grow up around it. I mean, suppose I asked you to explain how you need to use your
vocal cords in mouth to produce everyday speech to create the sounds and tones of your language. Yeah, I get
it. But such a sound, though, does it have any special function, uh, cultural expression, entertainment, like any
folk music? Interestingly, in some regions, it's used to imitate sounds of the natural environment.
Fascinating. You know, I wonder if this might be a subject for my next assignment. Um. Our next assignment is
on instrumental music.

Listen to part of a lecture in a botany class.

In yesterday's class, we finished the chapter on outdoor remediation by watching a documentary about how
large plots of mushrooms are being planted, who assist in cleaning up the land at old oil refinery sites. The
mushrooms help clean up the pollution by absorbing the oil out of the soil, and then they are safely discarded.

Now let's switch our focus from the outdoor environment to the indoor environment.

In the United States, the first evidence we had that house plants can alter the quality of indoor air was
documented and provided by the government's space program, NASA. See, NASA researchers were attempting
to design environments for people to live in in outer space. Consequently, they built BIO home in the mid
1980s. BIO home was a small, tightly sealed living space constructed with synthetic materials. There was no
ventilation.

The problem was that it soon became apparent that people living in BIO home were having physical reactions to
those materials, things like wheezing and coughing.

Well, at one point, the NASA researchers decided to place quite a number of plants in BIO home. Sure enough,
the inhabitants complaints cleared up. Could that have just been a coincidence? Not according to the prior
research that NASA had done in their experiment, individual low light plants that they knew didn't require a lot
of sunlight had each been placed in separate sealed glass containers.

Then a single isolated chemical was injected into each container. For example, from aldehyde was one of the
chemicals selected since it's quite a common chemical. Or rather more precisely, I should say that formaldehyde
is present in a lot of things in many un hunts, most noticeably in the first several months when products are
new. Oh, like in what sort of things?

Well, let's see.

Um, just off the Top of my head, plywood paneling, uh, for liquor, kitchen cabinets, insulation over the list goes
on. It's quite extensive. Now, as far as the experiment goes well, in glass containers that contained a plant, the
different airborne chemicals that were used decreased and decreased substantially. However, in the glass
chambers, with no plan, the chemical levels stayed the same. Are they all the same species of plant? Great
question. The answer is no. And because of that, researchers noticed that certain varieties of plants were more
effective than others at removing particular chemicals. And that's clearly supported by even more recent
research.

For instance, one species of fern called the Boston firm has been found to be unusually effective in terms of
target hitting formaldehyde. It's dramatically better at it than most other plants are.

So the leaves of the plants make this happen. Well, that's what you think, right? And the leaves do help to some
extent.

But what most people don't know is that actually the majority of the purification process takes place near the
roots of the plant.
See, it's the microorganisms that live around the roots of the plant at break down the chemicals. They are most
responsible. They turn the chemicals into food for the plant. Each plant species has different kinds of
microorganisms that thrive around its root base. I'm I'm curious, were there any negative effects for the plants in
these situations? Did their effectiveness decrease after the fed sells had taken all this stuff in? Not at all.

Further research research done after that NASA study has revealed to us that plants ability to remove chemicals
from the air actually improves overtime. It turns out the microorganisms actually adapt. They they increase in
number to meet higher concentrations of chemical. So essentially, it's a win win situation for both the plant and
the person.

Now, it's also interesting to note that over the year, the subsequent research, we've come to realize that the soil
itself is actually something that can be taken out of the equation.

As far as the microorganisms are concerned, the air purification process becomes most efficient if we use a
mixture that's made up of only two ingredients, carbon pellets and rocks. Why? Well, the contaminated air can
move more easily down to the root zone through the small gaps between the rocks. And that's really all you
need.

2-NT3-2

Listen to part of a lecture about Walt Whitman in a poetry class.

So continuing today with the 19th century in Walt Whitman, one of the most influential of all United States
poets you you'll notice on your syllabus that i've titled today's class, Whitman is democratic poetics. What do I
mean by that? Well, Whitman was an outspoken champion of democracy, of political equality. And in his work,
we can see how a poets idea, in this case, a political idea is expressed not only through the content of a poem,
but also the way a poet can structure it right into the form of the poetry.

But let's start with content.

So for example, in one of his poems, Whitman says women rights, democracy near at hand to you a throat is
now inflating itself and joyfully singing that theme joyfully singing the praises of democracy that keeps coming
up time after time, very directly and explicitly throughout Whitman poetry, direct references to democracy.

I wanna move, though, to a discussion of another way that the theme emerges, how we can see democratic ideas
being structured in the form of witness poetry. So when things like the the length of a poetic line, the rhythm
were the beats of the poetic line. Rhein is another way, or sometimes even the absence of rhyme.

So in other words, in the technical elements of poetry, now for comparison, first consider Shakespeare's poetry,
not his plays here, but his sonnets, Shakespeare's sonnets.

Uh, stone. It's are very specific kinds of poems. They have. Their lines are of a certain length. They usually
have a particular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. They have a very distinctive rhyme scheme. It's
tough stuff that's very formal and regular.

Whitman, however, steers away from these traditional, very intricately structured forms.
Take the first lines from a Whitman poem from a poem titled a song for occupations. I'll read it aloud. Don't
worry about the meaning. Just pay attention to how it sounds. Here's how it begins. A song for occupation ships
with an exclamation point. And that's the end of the first poetic line.

And then the second line in the labor of engines and trades on the labor of fields, I find the developments.

So the first and second lines are very different. They're right. They don't have a regular kind of rhythm. They
don't rye.

Uh, there are very different lengths in this style of poetry known as Free verse, which proclaims that poets
should feel Free to put language in any form they want.

The loose kniss of the structure itself expresses a poetic sense of liberty. This is the kind of stuff that that
Whitman is recognized for. And this is the kind of verse that will be written more and more as the 19th century
gives way to the 20th century. And poets experiment more with poetic form.

Now something you see a little bit here are Whitman is known for his lists or catalogs, for putting these long
lists of people and occupations and things and objects from the natural world and so forth, right into his poetry.

For instance, here's some elements from a typical Whitman list. It's actually from another poem about jobs. The
clean haired yankee girl works with her sewing machine, or in the factory or mill. The paving man leans on his
two handed rammer. But the sign painter is lettering with blue and gold.

The bookkeeper accounts at his desk etc all the way on to the president holding a cabinet council is surrounded
by the great secretaries. Now it's very similar from one element of the list to the other.

So even the way in which the sentences are structured, you see a kind of equality or equivalence emerging
between the people portrayed. Now, this was just so innovative for its time. But it was challenging for 19th
century sensibilities. A lot of people really well, there was a lot of negative reaction.

So in the face of that, Whitman promoted his work heavily. He initially self published his first book, and he
pushed hard to get individual poems into periodicals. He get single poems into periodicals before each new
book edition of his poetry came out. But then also afterward, uh, he also wrote reviews of his own work,
anonymous reviews that praised the poetry, his own poetry.

Now that might seem kind of vain, pretty shameless, I guess you could say. But given the resistance to his ideas,
you can see where he was coming from.

2-NT3-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a geology class.

Termites. You probably know termites as those little bugs that eat wood and cause damage to structures. Pests,
troublesome causing problem for humans, right? But don't dismiss termites too quickly.

There are things we can learn geologically from studying termites.

First, let me talk a bit about how they construct their homes. Termites are very prone to becoming dry and can
die if they get too dry. To keep themselves and their environment moist, they create a human place to live.
Many species of termites built mounds tall hill like structures made of dirt. They do this by digging
underground, bringing materials up to the surface, and piling those materials up to create them out. A termite
spring underground materials to the surface, they change the composition of soil. This process and organism
changing soil composition is called BIO turbination.

BIO to beixin brings evidence of underground minerals right to the surface.

So studying a term lightly on and off and tell us if there are underground deposits of useful minerals like zinc or
gold.

This is something mineral explorers have known for a long time. And her might mounds have been used to
detect mineral for mining, especially in Africa.

But in the past, mineral explorers primarily focused on large termite. It was believed that smaller mounds were
not as useful. However, recent research in Australia shows that's not true.

Termites can tunnel very deep as deep as 30 meters below the surface.

So logically, we might think that when they build larger mounds, they're bringing up soil from deeper levels.
But the recent study indicates that termites only bring minute amounts of soil all the way up from the lowest
levels they explore, not nearly enough to affect the overall composition of the mount.

They'll go down that deep to find warm water. Again, they need that moisture. But most of the materials used to
build their mound are from three to 4 meters down. So both large and small termite mounds contain minerals
from the same underground levels.

This is an important Discovery because now we know that researchers don't have to study only large amounts.
Samples from any termite now can be sent to a laboratory for analysis. And this is a relatively low cost way to
identify good sites for mineral exploration. And in addition, we can analyze permits themselves to learn about
mineral in the soil under there.

Termites, ants, and some other insects store minerals they ingest within their bodies. There are differences in
how they do it, where in their bodies, different insect store the minimums. While we don't know everything
about this yet, if has helped identify the presence of metals in some areas, it's worth looking into further.

Oh, by the way, termite mounds are useful in other ways as well. For example, the mounds are rich in nutrients
that animals need in their diets and animals use.

It's mineral licks. And because of erosion, the minerals and mounds can spread to surrounding areas, improving
the overall mineral diversity of the soil.

So termites are not all bad. Would you tell that to someone who had them in their house? I might be cautious
about that. But maybe I wouldn't talk too much about all the things termite elite. But they've been around since
the dinosaurs and they're not going anywhere. So we might as well make use of them if we can.

2-NT4-1

Listen to a conversation between a student and a dormitory supervisor. Sorry, I'm late.
I'm on the community lecture committee and had a meeting that ran over planning these lectures is more
complicated than most people realize. Anyway, thanks for waiting. So let's start with the basics. How do you
perceive the role of the resident assistant? Okay. Um, I see the resident assistance, the r as. Um, they help the
students in their dorm get along cause people who go to their r a it's usually with roommate problems, like one
roommate studying till midnight and the other wants to go to sleep early, common scenario. Ok. So how would
you deal with that issue? I guess i'd call a meeting and hear what each person had to say. And then i'd propose
some solutions. Or let them propose their own solutions. Right? Okay. Uh, is there anything that's not on your
resume that you'd like to tell me something that might help inform my decision, sir? Um.

I'm the oldest of four siblings. And when we were growing up, resolving conflicts between my brother and my
sisters was my main job. Do you think you were successful most of the time? Yeah. And now they get along
finally. And the good thing they do since I'm the only one living away from home right now, okay? So you
consider conflict resolution to be one of your strengths. What are some of your weaknesses, weaknesses? Um,
well, i've never had a long term job, but you've always been a student. So yeah, I was a counselor at a day camp
the last two summers. But that's really it. You see I played sports all through high school, both basketball and
softball. And they were practices after school and games practically every weekend. So counselor. But no office
work, huh? Because being an r a has some professional aspects to it, like writing reports, maintaining people's
confidentiality, managing your time. I know. But I'm a fast learner. Good.

Finally, one more question. Did you come up with a proposed activity you'd organize as an r a yeah. This was
something I actually organized as a camp counselor to help the children in my group get to know one another. I
thought it would work in the dorm to at the beginning of the academic year, i'd get everyone together and give
each person a card with a list of things to find out. Like, find someone who has travelled by boat or someone
who likes to ski or someone who has a twin. Everyone would basically have to interview lots of different people
in order to write a name next to each thing on their list.

And how would you organize this event? Um. I print up cards, publicize it in advance, put flyers around the
dorm. Oh, and I schedule it up. Okay. Always been a stricken eyes as an r a yeah. This was something I actually
organized as a camp counselor to help the children in my group get to know one another. I thought it would
work in the dorm to at the beginning of the academic year, i'd get everyone together and give each person a card
with a list of things to find out. Like, find someone who has travelled by boat or someone who likes to ski or
someone who has a twin. Everyone would basically have to interview lots of different people in order to write a
name next to each thing on their list. And how would you organize this event? Um, i'd print up cards, publicize
it in advance, put flyers around the dorm. Oh, and I schedule it on a weekend when everyone's available, of
course.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a housing office employee.
How can I help you? Well, summer school classes just ended.

And the course I took ended last Thursday.

Ok?

And I was planning to finish moving things out of my dorm room the next day, Friday. But something came up
and I couldn't.

So I came today to get the rest of my stuff and turn in my key.

But I just went to my room.

And when I walked in, yes.

So the reason all rooms had to be vacated by end of day Friday was so our maintenance crews could inspect
them on Saturday.

If there was still stuff in a room Saturday, they had it moved out.

All students were informed of this policy and there's fires hanging up everywhere.

Seriously, yes. The flyers tell you which storage company moves it to their facility.

I'll give you the number. WOW, I'm glad I only love some clothes and sheets in there. But still around much of
them, well, they pack everything into boxes. Have they charged by how many boxes you have and how big the
boxes are?

Okay?

But they don't charge anything for packing or transport, or even for bringing stuff back to campus when you're
ready to move in next semester.

That's all Free.

Yeah, right. They just charge you like a small fortune for storing each part. I hear they're very reasonable,
actually.

But the deadline was Friday afternoon.

And I'm here first thing Monday morning.

And there are no students here because regular classes don't start for another three weeks.

But these three weeks are a critical time for our maintenance. They take care of whatever needs to be done
before students move in again.

Well, when I had summer job in the biology lab, Friday was my last day. So I was gonna get off at noon.

But then something came up. And I couldn't leave until five when they had to rush to my cousin's wedding that
night. So I literally had no time. Sorry.

Ah, okay, well, maybe I should just leave my stuff there for three weeks instead of looking at home, then
lugging it back to campus again.

It's probably only a box or two worth.

Um, yeah, i'll check the costs if it's within my budget.

Ok.

And the key for your dorm room, oh, I left it at the front desk of the residence hall. The staff here accepted it.
Yeah. It must be new. Do I need to go back and get it? No. Let me call over there real quick. They can bring it
to me.
Listen to part of a lecture in an animal behavior class.
Yeah.So we've been talking about how animals use sound to attract mates, birds, frogs, whales. They all sing to
capture the attention of a potential mate.

Many insects also do this. And one of the insect world's most accomplished singers is the cicada. Yeah.

I want to focus on Australian cicadas today.

Now there are many species of cicada in Australia, but we'll be talking about some species in which both the
males and females produce sounds in order to locate each other.

The males amid a series of clicks and chirps which serve to alert females to their presence and to identify them
as members of a particular species.

When a female cicada, here's the song of a male of her species. She responds with a click that she makes by
flapping her wings. That sound is her way of alerting the mail that she is of the same species.

Now was very important here is when she responds, see the males songs have brief pauses in them, some of
which the female needs to respond to. And not only does she have to know which pauses to respond to the male
also expects her to click at a very precise time. The accuracy of her clicking helps the male recognize her as a
member of his species.

Now remember that point, because this is where studying Australian cicadas gets very interesting. See, the
songs of the male cicadas keep evolving, keep changing. But why did they want to keep changing the song?
Wouldn't that just confuse the females?

Exactly? Why would a male cicada risk changing his song when the female's ability to follow along is so
important? A team of researchers thinks it has to do with another Australian insect, the spotted predatory
katydid.

The katydid has a talent that researchers only recently discovered. They observed Katy diss, responding to male
cicada songs. The katydid is imitation of the female cicadas. Clicking response was not perfect, but it was
accurate enough to attract some males in close enough to eat, eat it.

We talked about aggressive mimicry a few weeks ago. Would this be an example? Yes, yes, it would. Why
don't you remind the class what aggressive mimicry is? Well, it's when a predator attracts prey to it, by imitating
something harmless or attractive, sometimes even imitating the prey itself. Yes. So as you suggest, the same
kind of thing is happening here.

The katydid subtract their prey with sound. This acoustic aggressive mimicry is, well, there's only one other
instance of it. There's a species of big cat in south America that can imitate some sounds made by the monkey's.
It likes to eat. Okay, back to the cicadas and k digits.

Now a female cicada knows one song, the song of her species. But it turns out Katy diss have generally figured
out cicada songs well enough to be able to click along to the songs of several different species of cicadas.

The researchers played recordings of the songs of 26 different species of cicadas to captive Katy deeds. And
some of those species of cicadas do not live in Australia, so the katydid couldn't possibly have heard them
before. And for most of those songs, Katy dismayed. They're clicking noises during the pauses, in the mail
songs.
So what is going on? Well, as I said, a male cicada song can have several brief pauses in it. Most of these
pauses tell the female when to click her wings. But the katydid is click at all the pauses for just about every
cicada song they hear, regardless of the species, which can be enough to get a male cicada close enough for the
katydid is purposes.

Now remember when I said that the songs of some species of cicadas keep changing, the researchers think it's to
fool the katydid yps. But wait, if the katydid can respond to songs they've never even heard before, does it
matter whether the cicada changes it song?

Well, apparently it does. Because in these new songs are new posits. Some of those ones where female cicadas
don't click that katydid is due. So if a male cicada, here's a click where there shouldn't be one. He knows it's not
a female cicada responding. However, all the female cicadas know not to click at these new pauses. Well, that's
not clear to researchers yet. So it'll be interesting to see what more studies show.

2-NT4-2

Listen to part of a lecture in an aerospace science class.

And one fact about exploring the space environment might surprise most people take off and landing are no
longer the most dangerous parts of space travel.

You see, in the last 50 years of space exploration, quite a bit of artificial debris has been left orbiting earth.
Earth, um, by debris, I mean mostly scraps of metal and other objects that broke off spacecraft and the remnants
of their exploded fuel tanks and batteries.

Collisions between large pieces of space equipment are a major reason for the continued accumulation of
debris. Uh, for example, quite a lot of the debris orbiting earth came from a single collision between two
satellites in 2009.

So where there had been two large objects before, the impact from this one collision created thousands of
fragments.

Now, the United States space surveillance network monitors the paths of all objects in earth's orbit that are
larger than 10 centimetres in diameter. That's about the size of your hand when it's curled into a fist. Currently,
there are about 20000 objects this size orbiting earth. A surveillance network has the role of warning space
shuttles when they're in danger of colliding with one of these objects so that the shuttles can maneuver out of
the way.

The problem is that there are about 20 times as many smaller particles zooming through the orbit. Smaller
pieces of debris might not sound like they'd cause much damage.

But remember, these particles are traveling at speeds of several kilometers per second. The impact can create
holes in space craft. These particles are harder to track, but large enough that even heavy shields may not be
enough to protect the ship if the particle comes into contact with it.

And consequently, there a true concern for space missions.

Unfortunately, it's hard to do anything about the small particles that are already orbiting up there. I mean,
imagine plugging hundreds of thousands of tiny objects from space. What we can do is try to prevent the further
accumulation of this debris. Remember, most of the smaller particles come from larger equipment. So if we
could reduce the number of big things in orbit, it will reduce the number of collisions. And so the number of
additional debris particles, there are two different approaches the international community has come up with so
far in an attempt to remove these larger pieces.

The first approach was to establish a guideline about how long debris can stay in orbit around earth.

Objects in orbit naturally stay there for a long time before falling to earth, potentially thousands of years. But
according to this guideline, all space equipment left behind during a mission should be designed so that it will
drop out of orbit after about two decades. That allows it to then burn up while falling down through earth's
atmosphere.

The thinking behind the guideline had been that if at least 90% of missions adhere to this standard, we'd be able
to avoid a dangerously littered sky.

This sounds great, but realistically we're nowhere near meeting this optimistic goal. Compliance has been weak
at best. This LED to another more recent approach. And that is the idea of active removal.

Researchers have discussed a few ways of pulling objects from orbit.

They've considered doing this with things like nets or robots. However, one idea seems to be gaining traction
using a harpoon a long piece of metal with a pointed tip. In this case, there are metal extensions pointing
backwards from the tip that function like hooks. The idea is the harpoon would be shot towards the space debris
and would puncture it and hook the object. Then the debris could be pulled towards earth where it would
disintegrate or burn up in the atmosphere.

Still, harpoon developers must overcome some challenges before this technique can be used in space. Among
other things, if the harpoon penetrates too deeply into a fuel tank or battery, it could cause the very explosions
that active removal is trying to prevent. But if manufacturers find the design that allows the harpoon is to strike
the debris with just the right amount of force, this method could prove useful strategically.

Removing at least a few large objects each year might be a significant first step in the right direction in order to
keep space navigable for future generations.

2-NT4-3

Psychology class.
Daydreaming is usually considered a waste of time and mental energy. And yet we spend almost half our
waking hours daydreaming.

Now think about this. The human brain wouldn't have evolved such a time consuming behavior unless it was
somehow advantageous, right? Well, new studies show that daydreaming has many benefits, including material
ones, by material benefits, I mean things like greater productivity and financial success.

Now let me clarify that we're talking about one type of daydreaming called autobiographical planning. Yeah.
Autobiographical planning is when we like, visualize possible scenarios for our lives. It's like running mental
simulations. Let's say you visualize yourself achieving an important goal, like graduating from school and
landing a job. It's common sense that that would contribute to your academic success right.

Now of course, there's a time and place for daydreaming. A teacher shouldn't have to stand there going earth to
Johnny in the middle of a lecture. But if you're a heavy day dreamer, or even just someone who finds your mind
wandering, sometimes I have good news for you.
For one thing, future oriented daydreaming may be related to better self control. Let me ask you a question.
Suppose I gave you $10000 on the condition that you either spend it all right now, or else invest all of it for five
years so it could accrue interest and you'd have more money later. Which would you choose? Who here is the
spending type and who would be willing to invest?

To be perfectly honest, i'd spend it immediately. But it's not a choice. I have school bells to pay. Me too. It's
hard to save when you're in college. Well, okay, that's so much for that example. The point I was going to make
was this. When researchers gave subjects a choice of some money now or much more later, it was always the
heavy day dreamers who said they'd wait a behavior that's traditionally associated with a lack of direction or an
idle mind may actually be the key to making financially rewarding decisions. And another study showed that
giving people the opportunity to daydream enhance their ability to generate innovative ideas.

In this study, participants in an experiment were asked to come up with new ways to use common objects, like
toothpicks or clothing hangers. Then they were asked to stop brainstorming for a few minutes. And while they
were stopped, different participants were asked to do different things. Some were given a complicated task to
perform. Others were given a test so boring that it was highly likely that their mind would wander. Then all the
participants were asked to go back to brainstorming about the objects. And in the second round, those who had
done the boring task could had more opportunity to daydream. They came up with 41% more ideas than the
other participants.

I think that could be so useful for companies to consider like that a little regular downtime for employees when
they could put their work aside for a few minutes that that could lead the more productivity, new strategies.
Absolutely.

Now, the explanation for all of these findings may be in how the different parts of the brain communicate with
each other. We know that different regions of the brain interact with one another, forming networks that signals
travel through. And one of these networks is the default mode network. The activity of the default mode
network is responsible for our inner world. Our memory and Information recollection, reasoning, planning,
engaging other people's emotional state.

Now another network is the executive attention network. Yeah. The executive attention network is primarily
responsible for controlling what stimuli we pay attention to. The executive attention network allows us to focus
on a particular task. So if you're driving a prioritizes drunken, related Information, streets on this or a person in
a crosswalk.

Now these two networks used to be thought of as completely independent of one another. We typically
associated the executive attention network just with external stimuli. But more recently, research has shown that
this network also plays a role in protecting and maintaining the activity of the default mode network. In the
same way that it prevents our inner thoughts from destructing us while drunk, then the executive attention
network can also block out Information from the world around us. So we can focus on inner thoughts.

2-NT5-1
Conversation between a student and her professor.
Hi, professor Anderson, can I talk to you for a minute? Sure. Uh, you're in my introduction to anthropology
class, right? Sorry. I don't have all the names yet. You're dear. I'm in the intro class. I'm Kate Miller. See, I'm
really busy this semester busier than I thought i'd be. And well, I just don't think I have time for your course, so
I wanna drop it. Well, I'm sorry to hear that. Kate, are you sure about this? Yeah, I think so.
What's happened is a couple of my other classes look like they're going to be a lot more work than I expected.
So I just, there's no problem with the class itself. No, not really. I mean, i've enjoyed the class so far, your
lectures and all. But something has to give and the class isn't really related to my major. You know what I
wanna do? What is your major computer science Information systems actually not much use for anthropology
there?

Well, a few years ago you'd have been right. But today lots of companies are hiring people with a wider variety
of backgrounds, like in anthropology, especially software and Information technology companies. More and
more businesses doing work all over the globe. It seems companies have discovered that hiring people who kept
notes help them develop a multicultural perspective.

It's a smart business move in. Never thought about it that way. But I'm only taking one course not majoring in
the field. I mean, how can one anthropology class help me? Right. Ok. Think about this. Information technology
is a highly globalized industry. Wherever you end up working large companies, small company doesn't matter.

You'll have colleagues and clients from a variety of cultural backgrounds. An anthropology class will give you
insight into the rules that determine how relationships work. In other cultures. But it doesn't sound like we'll be
covering that in this class, at least not from what we've read so far. No, that would be covered in other courses.

Like of course, I teach called anthropology for international business. In that class, we look at how cultural
assumptions about family or world view impact on business, the way it's organized, how it functions, and we
look at intercultural communications and keep those running smoothly.

Well, that sounds interesting, but I'm made okay. For example, if you're interviewing in a company that has
international clients and offices around the world, isn't it likely that, um, if you've taken an anthropology class
or two, you'd be a more interesting prospect than someone who hasn't everything else being equal.

You're talking about a competitive edge. Reminds me of something my dad said about taking courses in
different fields. In any case, I I think I'm still gonna drop the class. But that anthropology for international
business class does sound interesting.
Between a student and her adviser.
Melissa, how was your spring break? It was great. Thanks.

A lot of my friends were home too. And we played volleyball, went to the movies. It was a lot of fun. And did
you find any time at all to study? I did some studying.

But you know my schedule is pretty light this semester.

So actually, I was thinking of adding another class to my schedule, like a volleyball class. But wait, you were
thinking about taking a physical education class for credit.

We're too far into the semester to make changes to your schedule.

Yeah, I know. Uh, but for next semester, I mean, it looks like my schedule is going to be pretty full.

But I still like to try to make room for some kind of physical education class. That's what I wanted to talk to you
about to get your opinion.

You know before we start talking about next semester, you really should look into the intramural program here.
They organize various students, sports teams to play one another here on campus. In fact, one of my students
was just in here this morning and economics major like you. He was telling me how much he enjoys the
intramural volleyball program. Really. He was saying that everything is organized for you. They schedule the
matches. They have all the equipment storage space. And I think you can still sign up for some of the teams.

You know, some of my friends said they'd be interested in playing volleyball. There's probably enough of us to
form a team or something.

You don't even need to form a team to join, although it's probably more fun with a group of friends. It does
sound good from what I understand. You can register online. Look for the link on the student life website. There
might be a small fee. I'm not sure. Can you let me know what you find out? Okay, I can do that.

Now it's a little early to be choosing courses for next semester, but if you're willing to be flexible, you should be
able to find a physical education class that meets at night or on Saturday. Well, if the intramural volleyball
works out that it certainly makes things easier next semester.

If you did the reading assignment, then you know what an invasive species is, right?

It's a species either a plant or an animal species that's not native to the ecosystem that it's living in. And it's
likely to harm the health of native species. Your book focused on how invasive plants affect native species of
plants. So I thought we could talk a little about a specific invasive species, Canada thistle, Canada thistle,
despite its name, comes from Europe. It has invaded a significant area of land in the northwestern part of the
United States that includes Yellowstone national park. And like all invasive plants, Canada thistle uses up
resources that native plants need to survive. So it squeezes out those plant species. And it's really very difficult
to get rid of because it has such an extensive root system. Its roots are so deep that it's difficult to kill with any
sort of chemical spray. Yes, Stephen?

I'm just wondering is that what makes Canada official unusual, like special somehow? And it's hard to get rid
of. I mean, the book gave examples of lots of weeds that are invasive. And no, no, I mention it because it's
important to remember that all invasive species don't affect all native species in an area in the same way. And
invasive species themselves are affected by different environmental conditions. Oh, okay. Like, um, one of the
things that makes this an interesting example is that very different factors have contributed to helping.

It's spread over such a large area. Like climate change. One researcher, Yellowstone national park, estimated
that the amount of soil hospitable to fizzles doubled in that park over the past 20 or so years. Because of climate
change, areas that were once wet and marshy have dried out, which has made them fertile ground for Canada
thistle. A very different factor is a mutually beneficial relationship the Canada thistle has with the native pocket
gopher, which eats its roots.

Jenny? How is it beneficial for the thistle to get eaten? Well, in the process of getting to the thistle, the gophers
help spread it. They spend a great deal of time tunneling under ground. And when they do that, they churn the
soil. And this makes the soil more suitable for fiscal growth. So you have a cycle. A more churned soil means
more.

Canada thistle and more thistle means more food for gophers, which leads to an increase in the gopher
population. And in fact, the thistle has benefited more than one native animal species. Besides the gopher, it
also provides food for the grizzly bear.

Grizzly bears eat it. Yes, grizzlies are adaptive forages. They can eat just about anything from small insects to
plant roots to large animals. So when one of his staple foods, white pine nuts, began to decline, the grizzlies
didn't suffer because they're adaptive and could start eating more Canada thistles.
Well, of course, not all species are so lucky. For example, another animal in the same ecosystem is the long
tailed weasel, which isn't adaptive. It specializes in one main food source. And it suffers when that food supply
declines. So since it feeds primarily on voles, they're like mice and voles. Populations are also declining. At
Yellowstone, the weasel population is probably going to decline to since it can't easily acquire the nourishment
it needs from another food source.

So you can see from the example of Canada thistle and an invasive species can significantly affect an entire
ecosystem. In fact, you could say that invasive species are the single greatest threat to biological diversity.
Because in addition to their effect on native animals, they can lead to the disappearance of many plant species.

So can anything be done about this fissel? Like I said before, chemicals don't seem promising. There are other
methods, but they're far from perfect. One is to introduce into the environment insects that eat it. Another
possibility is to introduce new species of plants that can compete with it for resources, something that could
limit the thistles growth. But honestly, some of these we just shouldn't try. I don't think why look for trouble by
introducing additional species to an already struggling ecosystem.

2-NT5-2

Listen to part of a lecture in an environmental science class.

Okay. Is everyone clear on what it means for a commercial building, like a store or an office building to be a
sustainable building? It means the buildings energy efficient and produces less waste and pollution than regular
buildings, right? And there are different ways to make buildings sustainable. Like, well, um, well, we know that
light colors reflect heat and dark colors absorb heat.

That applies to a building's walls or roof. Most tall buildings have dark roofs which absorb heat. So in summer
this means more energy is expended on air conditioning.

So reflective roofing, especially white roofs, are becoming popular in cities, which brings me to what I want to
discuss today, heat islands.

Who knows what a heat island is? An area that's hotter than what's around. Right? Is actually an environmental
effect of urbanization be increased concentration of people in cities. Urbanization typically leads to the building
of large apartment houses, expansion of roads and sidewalks, and so on. And so there can be a loss of open
spaces like fields or woods.

Ok. Imagine it's really hot outside and your barefoot. Where would you rather walk on pavement or grants?
Great weight. David would burn your feet because synthetic surfaces absorb, retain, and radiate, uh, give off
more heat than natural services. So imagine a city where acres of vegetation have been replaced with roads,
sidewalks, buildings, plus blots of vehicles, all radiating heat. So do heat islands contribute to global warming?

Heat islands themselves don't risk global temperatures. But the ways people deal with them can or and that
involvement first, let's further define a hume.

It's a region of urban air and surface temperatures that are at least 10 degrees higher than nearby rural areas.
Most cities, or at least sections of most cities, fit this description.

Let me show you this image of the area around Atlanta, Georgia. It's based on a satellite photo taken with a heat
sensitive camera.
The darkest zones, represented by the innermost circles in Gwinnett county, downtown Atlanta, and Hartsfield
international airport. The zones indicate the highest temperatures.

Two of these hot spots are urbanized areas. The islands can occur year, round day or night. In fact, temperature
differences between urban and rural parents are generally largest in nutty, especially when there's no wind to
move on air out of the city. Rural areas have more fields and trees and retain less heat due partly to the cooling
effects of evaporation from soil and leaves. Since rural areas absorb and retain less heat during the day, they
cool down faster in light.

The greatest difference between urban and rural temperatures in an area is what we call the maximum heat
island effect. That maximum effect usually occurs a few hours after sunset. A question?

So in winter, wouldn't heat islands mean less energies needed to keep buildings warm inside? Sure. Especially
in cold climate cities, heat that's absorbed through a building's walls can reduce heating demands in winter. But
this reduction is relatively modest, especially compared to increased energy demands in summer, when air
conditioning on heat islands draws lots of energy from power plants. Those power plants then release more heat
trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. And it's those greenhouse gases that are blamed for global
warming.

So there are many reasons to be concerned about heat islands. Anything you do to reduce their effect, like
reflective roofs. I mean, if every building in a blazing a reflective roof, dark red circle over the downtown area
would probably shrink.

So wouldn't that help reduce global warming if all those buildings had reflect the groups? Cause if heat islands
break, they won't heat up the atmosphere as much. Keep in mind that heat islands affect local scale temperature
differences between urban and rural indians.

Global warming refers to a gradual rise of earth's overall average surface temperature. And as I said, heat
islands contribute to global warming only indirectly by increasing air conditioning demands in summer. The
heat that gets absorbed by city buildings and then radiates from them doesn't directly affect global temperature
in any significant way. In fact, the heat island effect has distorted some of the data in studies of long term
climate trends. That's because official temperature measurements are often taken in weather stations that are in
or near urban areas. So when researching evidence of global warming, you need to adjust for heat island effects.

2-NT5-3
As a history class. We've already covered this string section, violins, cello space is, and the woodwinds, various
types of flutes, clarinet's and so on.

Today i'd like to shed some light on what might be the least visible section of the orchestra, the percussion
section, drums, for starters. I'm no drummer, but i've been lucky enough to try out a wide array of drum sizes
and shapes over the years.

Now what distinguishes drums from other percussion instruments is the presence of a membrane, a skin that
stretched over a hollow object, a cylinder usually when struck by the hand or a drumstick, this tightly stretched
membrane vibrates, producing sound. Drummers are typically situated behind all the other instrumentalists.

The reasons for this place when are steeped in tradition, history, and and the acoustical properties of drums,
they're loud, because they're behind the other players. Drums occupy a seemingly low status position, almost
like an afterthought.
However, in reality, the drum is probably the first musical instrument ever invented. It might also be the world's
most ubiquitous musical instrument. He find drums in almost every country and in virtually every culture. Um,
a question sandra? Yes. Um, when was the first drum invented and why? I mean, what was it originally used
for?

Regarding your first question, there's evidence of drums dating back to at least 6000 BC e a time when
prehistoric humans began transitioning from a hunter gatherer lifestyle to a more sedentary lifestyle, people
were learning to farm.

The oldest drama artifacts have been discovered in places that might have been used for sacred rituals in these
settled communities. In some cases, drums were more than sacred instruments. For instance, throughout Africa,
they also had symbolic value. They were associated with the protection of tribal leaders protecting royalty in
North America. Meanwhile, native American drums were used by shamans.

Now shamans were the medicine men and medicine, women of a tribe. They often played drums and other
percussion instruments at the start of their healing rituals to help create the focused mindset they needed in
order to tend to their patients.

You know, I was reading up on this and there are plenty of interesting articles about sham as on drums. And if
anyone needs inspiration for your next written assignment, which as you know, is due a week from tomorrow,
ah, yes, you kind of think I remember reading somewhere that the drum was used to send messages back in the
day.

Indeed, you might call it the world's first telephone.

Trump sounds can potentially travel over several kilometers. So if one tribe wanted to arrange a meeting with
another tribe or warning of danger, the drummer would use a certain type of term or a particular strength from
this from the appropriate signal.

I play drums in a band and I use a drum kid, you know, a set of several drums, each with a different type of
sound. Well, kids go back to the early days to, um, I believe that drums were first assembled into kits during the
18 hundreds with the invention of a foot pedal to play the bass drum, um, this freed up the hands to play other
percussion instruments, like the snare drum and cymbals. Military bands were the first ensembles to utilize
drum kits. They do wanna get back to awkward for drone sections.

But it's also critical to note that drum kits became more elaborate and versatile in the United States in the late
1920s. Um, you can venture a guess as to what drove this innovation sandra.

Well, the 1920s, the roaring twenties, that's when Jazz music really took hold in the United States. Brass
musicians are famous for improvising, creating original music spontaneously. So I guess it stands to reason that
a larger, more diverse set up would help the Jazz drummer play a more active role in the band. Excellent
deduction sound, right? Drummers like those who performed in places like new Orleans in the southern United
States in the late 1920s, tremors were created the companies to the other instrumentalists and the singers and
Jazz bands.

2-NT6-1
And the manager of the university radio station.
Hi, uh, I wanted to ask about the science program. I hear sometimes you mean science hour? The one we are,
eight to nine on Thursday nights know the program I hear a few times a day. It's a minute or two long. You
mean moment of science? Uh, we broadcast each episode four times daily. I heard that sometimes students
write them. That's true. If we approve their topic. I was hoping to do that. But I noticed that the episodes lately
have all been about astronomy. I mean, you are open to other topics, right?

It's true. We have featured a lot of astronomy lately. Uh, well, for one thing, the astronomy department has
made some major purchase it recently. So we did a series of episodes on what all the new instruments in the
observatory are used for, right? The episode last week about the Schmidt camera that was really interesting.
And also professor Collins in the astronomy department, she offers extra credit to students who write scripts for
the show. She even comes down to do the narration sometimes. Hey, um, what i'd like to do is write a few
moments of science episodes about the experimental conned. The BIO pond, you know, over in your high
school dormitory. Oh. Yeah. But we just did a big piece on that. On science hour, a bloomy trails to the pond
were cut through the woods, right? And the pond itself was enlarged by 25%. More plants were introduced into
the habitat bright. And you interviewed my biology professor about it. But if we just did an hour long program,
I don't think because occupy going back to the same topic again, oh, nothing would be repeated.

It's just that now that the ponds been enlarged, some students have started leading their own research projects.

They're not just assisting the professors. Um, I didn't realize, I I thought the faculty were allowed to initiate
research projects not anymore. Like the project I'm working on involves documenting the territorial behavior of
the green frogs in the pond. Green frogs sounds interesting. And and other students looking at the relationship
between the growth rate of aquatic plants and the hours of direct sunlight they receive, look clearly. But those
stories should be different enough. Um, so, uh, couple things to bear in mind. Then. First, there's a strict word
limit. Remember each episodes just two minutes long. Ok, second, you'll need to get a professor to sign off on
your script before you submitted to us, uh, to verify that the science is accurate. Uh, now let me print out some
topic proposal forms for you.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her biology professor.
Oh, hello, Cathy. Actually, it's good timing that you stop by. I was just crating your classes quizzes and well,
truthfully, it might have been helpful if you had come by before the quiz. Uh. I have to say I'm a little
disappointed in your work. You know, I thought i'd understand biology better than this.

It's one of my favorite subjects. Well, what's your approach to study in? Um, well, i've got a tutor now. Good.
How do you prepare for those tutoring sessions to care? What do you mean? Do you take notes on the reading?
You know, write down things to ask your tutor. Actually, with soccer practice and and the newspaper, I barely
have time to get the assigned reading done. To be successful in this class, you may have to find that I'm I'm
really trying. Like I was hoping I could talk to you about the homework assignment you returned in today's
class. Okay? The homework we did about, um, patterns of dispersion. Yes, the way a plant or animal species is
distributed over an area, there are three main patterns that we see in populations of organisms. Yeah. And I
thought my answers were right. But I didn't get the maximum number of points.

And your answers were in Complete. Uh, you name the different patterns and the more plan that follows each
pattern. But you didn't mention the factors that cause each type of deeper perjury factors, my tutor didn't really
emphasize them. But the textbook chapter did. Okay. So I know the clump pattern refers to populations where
an organism is found in groups and what might cause them um, a group together near a food source. And that's
one possible reason. Or they might be avoiding predators or maybe environmental conditions in one spot, a
favorable, um, take forest insects, for example. Many species of forest insects will clump under logs because
humidity there is high. And the second modern uniform dispersal, where organisms are, uh, sort of evenly
spaced from each other. I remember that one and that some penguins have that pattern because there was this
picture in the book of penguins all evenly spaced apart.
Image what Mike was money. Um, I might need to read that chapter again. Well, you will need to remember
more than the pictures. Does it mean the penguins don't get along with each other? You are on the right track.
Uniform dispersal tends to occur when there is competition among members of the species when their territorial
okay? You see, to fully understand biology, we look at the reasons behind the things we observe. We'll have
more assignments like this, asking you not to just list patterns or species, but to try to explain why things are
happening.

In a geography class,

state and federal regulations play a significant role in balancing transportation needs an environmental
protection in the United States, as we've seen.

But a lot of local governments are trying to reduce the environmental impact of transportation, especially to
decrease the use of fossil fuels. So what's one major way they can do that? Well, they try to find some way to
encourage people to drive less. Exactly. And one way they do that is by making decisions about how to use
land.

One Challenge, though, what data do they base land use decisions on? I mean, we know in principle that if
there's a greater density of land use, more kinds of businesses and residences in a smaller area, well, then people
tend to drive less because the places they want to go to are closer by.

But local governments really need something more concrete than that, preferably pertaining to towns like their
own. Unfortunately, we can't exactly run randomized experiments in an existing town like randomly
constructing office buildings in some neighborhoods and not others to see the impact the development has on
local drivers.

So it's hard to find good research on the impact of local planning policies on driving behaviors. But even with
that limitation, local governments can learn a lot from before and after studies that look at a single location and
compare it to itself before and after a major change.

Take the city in California called Davis Davis. California is interesting because until comparatively recently, it
didn't have any super stores. You know, those giant department stores where you can get everything from
clothing to furniture to pots and pans.

Well, eventually the local government allowed the opening of Davis's first superstore. So some researchers did a
before and after study focusing on the distance that Davis resident strive to do their shopping. What they did
was they survey Davis residence before the store was built and after it was opened to see how far people drove
to go shopping. Now before the super store was opened, Davis had a vibrant downtown shopping area with lots
of local businesses.

And there had been a lot of debate about whether a superstore would be bad for these businesses. But rather
than thinking about it from an economic standpoint, let's just think about it from an environmental one.

What do you think happened? How do you think this new store affected driving patterns? Well, when you think
about it, you can get so many things at a superstore. Maybe people could just go to that store once in awhile and
stock up on a variety of stuff, rather than going out to a different store every time they needed something. I I
mean, they can be so inconvenient to get to.
Super stores are usually located out of the way off some major road instead of close to where people live. Who's
going to walk or ride a bike all the way out there? I don't see them causing a reduction in driving. If anything,
it'd be the opposite because that's really the only way to get there. You both make some good points.

You see, the effect of the super store really depends on what kinds of shopping it replaces. And in the case of
Davis, there was some decrease in shopping downtown after the super store opened. But it wasn't as greater
decrease as many people feared it would be.

Where we really saw change was in how many people were shopping outside of Davis in neighboring cities. It
looks like a lot of Davis residents had already been shopping at superstores farther away in other towns.

So when the super store opened in Davis, people didn't have to drive as far to do their one stop shopping. So
does this mean that building a superstore there was actually better for the environment? Well, I wouldn't go that
far. You see, the average driving distance for shoppers is just one aspect of a store's impact on emissions.

We also have to consider other factors, like where are the items sold in that store manufactured, and how are
they manufactured? What distance are the products shipped, and how.

2-NT6-2

Listen to part of a lecture in a marine biology class.

Uh, now the deep sea is a hostile environment for animals to live in. To chief factors that make it so hazardous
are one very low temperatures.

And to the intensity of hydrostatic pressure, hydrostatic pressure refers to the weight of a liquid pushing down
on something.

The deeper in the ocean an organism is found, the more water there is pushing down, exerting pressure on it.

For example, take the Caribbean sea. Marine animals in its shallow waters live in very mild temperatures, and
the pressure isn't much different from what's experienced on land. In comparison, if an animal dove down into
the deepest part of the Caribbean, thousands of metres deep, temperatures would be extremely frigid.

And the hydrostatic pressure would feel like, well, imagine living beneath the weight of dozens of jumbo jet
airplanes. How does such an environment affect animals? Well, both low temperature and high pressure act on
the body to slow down biological functions.

Low temperatures defense the cells in the body, reducing their movement. But think of, say, meat for cooking.
At room temperature, meat is soft and flexible. But when it's frozen, it's stiff and solid. Now that's an extreme
example. But I think it clearly makes the point. And high pressure has a similar effect.

High water pressure compresses, squeezes every cell. It also stiffens the body, which slows down biological
functions. When an animal is exposed to both high pressure and low temperature as in the deep sea. The two
effects compound each other, making it even more difficult for biological processes, growth, respiration,
metabolism to operate.

Of course, the process critical for species survival is reproduction. Deep sea conditions cause production of eggs
and development of offspring to take much more time and energy than they do with in a warm shallow water
environment. And this calls for special energy saving adaptations.
Now, fortunately for researchers, most deep sea animals have very similar relatives that live in shallow waters.
Different species, but they're still closely related. So this makes things pretty convenient for us. We can see the
adaptations, the changes case in point, the squat lobster.

The squad lobster isn't a true lobster. It looks maybe more like a crab.

There are numerous species living at different ocean depths. We've observed that the size of the eggs produced
by squat lobsters increase in size in proportion to the depth of their habitat. The greater the depth, the larger the
eggs.

You see bigger eggs contain more fat. This provides the larvae, the newly hatched young, with more energy for
growth, increasing their chances of survival.

But note this adaptation does come at a cost. Females have only limited amounts of energy available for
reproduction. So whereas squat lobsters from shallow waters produce lots of small eggs, deep sea females to
vote extra energy to producing each egg and produce only a small number. But these eggs are bigger, more
energy rich, and more resistant to the environmental dangers. So it's really a trade off.

Interestingly, a different method of adaptation, one that does allow production of large numbers of eggs in the
deep sea, is illustrated by the coper pod. Cocoa pods are tiny crustaceans, meaning, um, related to crabs and
lobsters that inhabit virtually all salt water and fresh water environments. Deep sea copepod eggs undergo a
process called vertical migration. That is, the eggs migrate vertically or move upward as a group through the
water.

As we've discussed, larvae development in the deep sea is a slow energy intensive process. Coper pots meet this
Challenge by laying many small eggs that are very buoyant. Um, they float. This buoyancy comes from a kind
of oil contained in these eggs. The eggs which are laid in deep water migrate vertically, perhaps several
kilometers into shallower waters. They're in a warmer environment. With lower pressure, the smaller eggs can
survive.

Once the copepod larvae hatch, they sink back down to where they came from. In this way, deep sea species can
produce similar quantities of eggs as their shallow water cousins. But again, there's always a catch. Because the
eggs of the deep sea coper pod travels so far, there's a good chance that some will be lost in ocean currents,
never returning to the place where they started.

2-NT6-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a film studies class.

When we talk about film as an art form worthy of serious study, we often associate a film with its director. But
what about the screenwriter who wrote the script or came up with the story? Or the cinematographer who
chooses the camera lenses, frames the shots, and chooses a lighting? If I asked you to name some directors, I'm
sure you could come up with a whole list. Absolutely. Okay. Now how about cinematographer as anyone, um, a
cinematographer? Not even one, right? Guess not.

Well, there's no doubt that the director bears most of the responsibility for a movie and its artistic qualities. But
that idea often leads to the view that the director deserves all the credit. This view goes back to the concept of
the filmmaker that arose in France in the mid 19 hundreds. Such a director was called and hotel. And that
concept of filmmaking became known as or tailism.
So when a director is referred to as no tail, it is implied that the directors in total control of all the artistic
elements of the film and that the directors goal is to create a work of art.

Hotel ism is the view that a film's director is the sole creative force behind the film. People who hold this view
claim that artistically successful films bear the personal stamp of the director.

A number of famous and very successful movies were made in the mid 19 hundreds, whose directors were
considered hotels. And these films had a profound impact on the movie business in the United States, the
willingness of some commercial studios to give directors more artistic control over their filmmaking, attracted
new directors to the industry, and allowed them greater freedom in experimenting with innovative techniques.
But this idea that a film's artistic success can be attributed to a single person doesn't truly capture how films are
made.

Just consider a film that's widely considered the masterpiece of a great hotel director, citizen Kane by Orson
Welles. Wells co wrote the screenplay, directed the movie, and start in it.

So when people analyse the film, they talk about it as his. And when they explain why it's so great, one of the
things they point to is it's camera work. The camera angles, the way the actors are framed. That is, it's
cinematography. But the cinematography of the film was largely handled by someone else, Gregg toland.

The cinematography was innovative for a film in the 1940s. And toland experiments with new camera
techniques are part of what makes wells is film so daring.

For example, the most innovative technical aspect, the extensive use of what's called deep focus
cinematography. You know how in some films or photographs, the people right in front of the camera, the
foreground are in sharper focus than the ones in the background. This focusing at one distance at a time was the
only type of focus possible until the 1940s. But in deep focus, everything foreground background in between,
it's all in sharp focus.

In this scene, the young Charles foster Keynes being placed into the care of his guardian, the man on the far left,
ken's mother hopes he will be able to provide a better life for the boy. Keynes father in the back doesn't want his
son to leave. But since the mother controls the family's finances, he can do nothing but watch.

Now in a film made without deep focus, only the characters in the front in the foreground would be in focus.
Everything else would be blurry. But as you can see in this image, everything's in perfect focus.

This point is the drama because we can see Keynes father's reaction to what's happening in the foreground. And
the fact that he's farther from the camera reinforces the sense that he doesn't have a say in making decisions
about the boy's future.

So I guess if toll and was responsible for using the technique on this movie, that means wells shouldn't be
considered the, oh, ted.

But even though toll and used the technique in novel ways, wouldn't it still have been wells who decided how
and when to use it? You know, to put his personal stamp on the film? Well, ultimately you will each have to
decide for yourselves, what do you think about this specific case? Whether you think the term hotel rightly
applies to wells or not?

But as we go forward in this course, please keep in mind these questions about hotel ism, because we'll be
coming back to them again and again as we study more films.
2-NT7-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor.
Hi, professor Gonzalez. Hi, Mary. How can I help you? Well, I went to the library to read the article you
assigned on Francis Bacon, the article in a critical history of western philosophy. Yeah. Well, they had a copy
of the book that was there. But but the article itself was gone missing from the book. Why would anybody and I
can't read either of the photocopies you had on reserve because they've been missing for 2 days? Well, keep
checking at the reserve desk. I'm sure a lot of people have been checking the photocopies out that article is
essential. Really? Why is that one article?

So important well for one, it discusses bacon in the early 1600s, a very important time in beacons life. When he
was pursuing his work in natural philosophy and rejecting much of the traditional ways of doing science in
England, can you say in class that in those days that science was mostly about following? Aristotle sort of logic,
and, um, um, what else? Oh, yeah. And that truth was derived from authority. Aristotle used deductive logic.
Oh, and good memory. Also, that article offers several helpful insights into bacon, mind set, and the challenges
he faced, not only in science, but in politics as well.

Well, anyway, I wanted to make sure you knew about the article, because uh, I also remembered you
mentioning something about a quiz on Friday. Yes, but it shouldn't be a problem. You can still read the article
on the internet. Our library has access to the electronic version of the book. Oh, why? I uh almost forgot about
that? Well, it is noted in the syllabus plus, I reminded everyone about the electronic version in class yesterday.
You know, bacon said a kind of precedent for how we approach science, but advocating the use of inductive
reasoning still used today.

By the way, you did mention the scientist of method in class. Yes, yes, I did. Can you imagine a time when
scientific study wasn't primarily the process of observing data, recognizing patterns, and making generalizations
from the observations? Um, professor. That reminds me of all the reading I still need to do for your quiz on
Friday. Of course, I should let you get to it. No, it's not bad. I think it's really interesting to discuss bacon and
not just read about him. But it's been so difficult to access the article. So many just you'd like me to postpone
the quiz. Am I right? It would be for the greater good. And um, technically, that's why I came over here. Well, I
don't know. I think i've been pretty good about making this article available. Even if it's not in the library book,
there's still no reason you can't get it and read it by Friday. Plus, it wouldn't be fair to the people who have done
it. All right.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her academic adviser.

Hi, professor Hamilton, good morning, Margaret. Okay, I read your EMAIL and I pulled up your Information
on my computer. You chose psychology as your major field of study. Yes. And you already have 24 credits in
psychology. Yes. Now as, you know. In your 4 years as an undergraduate here, you only need 68 credits in your
major area of study for graduation. Okay. Most of the rest of the courses you take are going to be outside your
major, the areas that are, I'm familiar to you. This is what we call the breadth of study requirement. The idea is
that by taking courses in a variety of subjects, your ultimate decision about your major will be well informed.

so most students focus on courses to fulfill the breadth of study requirement in their first 2 years at the
university. And then they go on to focus on the courses needed for their major. But you've concentrated heavily
on your major subject courses in your first year and a half. And that's a problem. Well, you've exceeded the
recommended number of credits in your major for second year students. That may be why the systems that
allow you to sign up for certain courses. It's trying to force you to start fulfilling the breadth of study
requirement.
Okay? But i've given it a lot of thought, and I'm 100% sure about majoring in psychology. And I haven't taken a
neural biology course yet, and I really wanna take the history, of psychoanalysis, course. Those are both being
offered next semester. Let me just check something here. Yes, that's what I thought. First of all, those are both
upper level course, which means you don't have enough credits to register for those courses. You need special
permission from the professors to take the next semester. Plus the neurobiology course requires an introductory
biology course. And it looks like you haven't taken one yet. With that anthropology course count toward the
breath of study requirement. Yes. And it looks like the history of psychoanalysis will count as well. It's listed as
a history course. Wow. So the reason I couldn't register wasn't because of the breath of study requirement. No, it
seems I was mistaken. I'm glad we got to the bottom of this me, too. Well, I guess I have some professors to go
visit.

Listen to part of a lecture in our history class.

Last class, we were discussing the British art scene during the early years of the 20th century. As you recall,
significant changes were taking place at this time, both in, the art world and in society. In general, there was a
growing sense of disillusionment among many artists concerning the lingering influence of Victorian culture.
Although the Victorian era lasted from 1837 to 1901, its shadows still loom large over early 20th century artists.
So what was it about Victorian art that irritated these artists? Jason. Well, they thought it was pretty outdated.
You know, all those paintings of landscapes, old fashioned portraits, AA large focus on decoration.
Industrialization and technological advances were a big part of British life in the early 20th century. And these
changes weren't reflected in the art that was produced. And this Victorian influence can be seen in more than
just paintings. Consider the architecture from this era. The Tower Bridge, which was completed in 1894, was
built in the style. It was popular during medieval times centuries earlier. This bridge really captures the inertia
in the art world in Britain, the creative stagnation and permeated society.

But in 1914, just before the outbreak of World War One, a group of artists based in London created an art
movement known as vortices. Vorism was actually a rather loose collection of artists. But one thing they had in
common was a desire to shake up the arab scene by representing this new, mechanized world. And there aren't.
These artists wanted to interact with the fast changing modern world. Wasn't there some artistic rebellion? I
guess you could call it wasn't this happening in other parts of Europe? It was. But these other movements in
continental Europe had started several years before vortices. So with Buddhism influenced by these earlier
movements. Absolutely. Now the 40s try to distance themselves from these earlier movements, especially from
futurism, which arose in Italy. They didn't want to be seen as just an extension or a copy of futurism.

But if we analyze futurist and vortices are, well, it's hard to argue that the vortices didn't look to Italy for
inspiration. Both vertices and futurists focused on the world of cities and mass transportation of speed, progress.
The vertices may complain about futurist art, though, was that it focused too much on speed. We can see this
preoccupation in many futurist paintings, the contained blurred objects. Cars, for example, the blurred lines
used to represent motion. The vortices taught this over emphasis on speed interfered with, the clarity of the art.
It seemed superficial to them. Like the focus was just on the surface. But contrast, the fortices preferred strong
contours definite outlines of the objects in their works. In keeping with their fascination with the modern world,
they thought that art should reproduce the mechanical precision of machine made artifacts. Some signature
characteristics of vortices. Art include an abundance of straight lines, jagged angles and repetition. Yes, Jason.
You mentioned earlier that this was a loose collection of artists. I was just wondering how the movement
actually emerged then. I mean, were their leaders?

Well, the name most often associated with this movement is wind and, Lewis. Lewis, a painter and author, was
responsible for the publication of blast. A short lived literary and arts journal.
The first issue of blast included the vortices manifesto, which was an unsystematic health, humorous account of
vortices ratings of British society and its institutions. Not surprisingly, the journal was critical of many British
institutions, but the most important element of this journal, at least, if you ask me, is the way it looked. It use
bold pie face, capital letters and innovative layouts to create blocks of language on the page. Within one line of
text, the reader would see words in many different sciences. Uh, today we're used to thinking of typography as a
fundamental design element. But this type of design was novel in Britain when the first issue of blast was
published. Now let's take a look at some fortices artworks. As I like, the elements we've been discussing.

2-NT7-2
Listen to part of a lecture in an environmental science class.

Before finishing our climatology unit, I want to remind you that climatology isn't just about predicting future
climate conditions. Sometimes climate science looks backward. Just one example. A study of rainfall levels in
Mexico's Yucatan peninsula in southern Mexico for more than 1,000 years ago. For this study, climate
researchers extracted samples of lake bed sediments throughout the region in layers of sediments dating from
760 to 950 ce they found high levels of minerals that usually concentrate at the bottom of lakes during years
with very little rainfall. The samples revealed four severe multi year droughts that occurred during that period.

So why were the climatologist? Interested in this particular time period? And in this location? Well, Mexico's
Yucatan peninsula along with adjacent areas in Honduras and Guatemala, is where the ancient Maya people
built what was once possibly the most advanced civilization in the Americas over the course of 700 years during
what's known as the Maya classic period. The Maya built cities with grand architecture and monuments to
honor local kings and nobility. The Maya had a deep understanding of mathematics and astronomy, a reliable
calendar and a fully developed writing system.

But by 950 ce all of that had ended classic Maya civilization had all but disappeared. The mayor remains the
main inhabitants of the region. The population numbers decline steeply as much as 99% in some areas. My
language is continued to be spoken and many traditions survived, but their political structure and cultural
institutions basically disappeared. Monument construction, feast. Cities were abandoned. This was not a sudden
event. However, it took more than 100, 50 years to unfold. How do we know those monuments? I mentioned.
They include inscriptions that give the date of construction. And starting around 800 ce fewer and fewer
monuments seem to have been built.

The last state we see on any monument is 908 ce there are probably several reasons for the civilizations
collapse, over population, environmental degradation, things like deforestation and erosion, warfare among the
various Maya kingdoms.

But according to the climatologist involved in the lake bed sediment study, I mentioned the underlying cause
may have been those four multi year droughts between 760 and 950 ce those dates coincide fairly closely with
the gradual downfall of the Maya classic period, using for pretty sure that the ancient Maya were prone to water
shortages. Corn was their principal food crop and growing corn requires lots of water. Another problem, after
it's harvested corn rocks over time, due to the human climate harvest in the Yucatan area couldn't be stored for
more than a year. Not a long time. By contrast, Native Americans in the southwestern United States could
safely store corn for 3 years. Due to that region consistently dry desert climate. For the Maya two successive
years of drought could be disastrous. Compounding. The problem was the regent.

Most of the Yucatan peninsula consists of cars. It is a very tourist terrain, usually composed of limestone or
other water soluble minerals. In a karst landscape, water cannot collect in pools or form rivers or streams.
Instead as soon as rain hits the ground, most of it's called straight down through the cars and collects and
underground aquifers. The ancient Mile would try to retrieve water from deep singles and caves. They
sometimes dug wealth, but they didn't have the reserves to get them through several successive years of drought
conditions.

So that's the basic argument behind the climatologist hypothesis. Some archaeologists reject the hypothesis,
though. They.out that the fastest population declines were in the southern part of the maya territory, which gets
much more rainfall than the North does. This does seem paradoxical, right? That the area that got the most
rainfall suffered the most, but the paradox is not so hard to explain. Remember, I was saying that rain water that
falls through cars mostly collects and aquifers. Well, the elevation of the drier northern region is close to sea
level. So the aquifers were fairly close to the surface. That means it was relatively easy. He did wells and get
water, but the southern region is at a higher elevation, meaning those aquifers were farther down below the
surface and therefore harder to reach. So even though there was usually more rainfall in the south, agriculture in
the south was more dependent on rain for irrigation. If it didn't rain, crops couldn't grow.

2-NT7-3
Listen to part of a discussion in an engineering class.
Okay, we're going to talk about your group design projects. You should be about halfway done with them, and
I'd like to find out how you're doing. Let's start at the beginning. So what was your first step in the design
process? Can anyone tell me? Well, first, we need a product to design a design problem, right? Right?
Somebody the client wants something designed like, a product, a service or um, system. So then what? Well,
then we have to analyze the context of the design problems. We need to know who wants the product designed
and why. Uh, that's the client, and um, what constraints, what limitations, governance design, and who will be
using it?

And for what very good. In your projects, the client was just theoretical. But I asked you to be realistic about
what they might want. And why? So, who wants to go first and tell us about their project? Well, our group
chose advd player. Our client was an electronics manufacturer, and they um, they wanted a certain kind of DVD
player to Complete their product line. Like they already had a home player and a car player, and now they want
a portable player. Good. So as you read in your textbooks, the idea for the new product might come from the
client but. They might not be entirely sure about what they want or what's possible. They may not be able to tell
you exactly what components to use or what technology is available.

So did you do some research? I assume you found out what technology was available and what's in demand.
Oh, yeah, we also check out similar products in the market to try to find out what their best and worst features
were. Good thinking. You don't want to, repeat the mistakes that other people have made. Okay. So then you
have to identify the constraints imposed on the design project. So somebody from a different group, what kinds
of constraints did you find? Well, our group trusted design a car, so constraints included safety considerations,
and, of course, cost constraints. We found out that the sound system we wanted to install would have made the
car way too expensive. And of course, we had time constraints to, your deadline funny, but you realize that
there are deadlines in business too, right? Yes, yes, we do. But we had another one. We didn't consider it first.
We had to make the car compatible with existing products. We found out that no one made tires in the size that
we needed. So that was a constraint. Our car design required tires of a certain size range. So we modified our
design. That's a very important.There's no sense in trying to find parts for your product don't exist.

Okay? Then you had to determine the needs of the intended users of the product. Anyone? Yeah, our group did
some market research. We gave a survey to a focus group, the other students in this class. They were our
intended users, this way we found out what features they wanted, and we even had them rank them. So we can
find out which ones were most important. And this is key because the answer will affect your design. Yeah,
everybody said they wanted a portable DVD player that was lightweight, durable, so that it wouldn't break if
they dropped it, inexpensive and easy to carry and making it really durable was expensive.

So we had to find out if they wanted the more expensive but durable one or the cheaper but less durable ones,
that really helped us to decide in the final design. Very interesting. Where should they choose? They chose the
cheaper, less, durable one. Well, that's life on a student budget. Okay, well, it sounds like you're all on your way
with your projects. I hope everyone will have them in on time. I'm sure you're enjoying the creative part, the
idea phase of the project where you brainstorm, come up with your design solution, and finally design and
produce a prototype. You know, of course, your prototypes will just be sketches or maybe models, but they'll
still help you see what you did, right? And what you, well, what you could have done better or just differently,
you don't know what you might learn from this step.

2-NT8-1
Listen to a conversation between a student at the university marching band coordinator.

Welcome aboard. Gradually assisting the marching band is a new media. In turn. As you know, the band plays
at all of the university's basketball team games, both at home and away. So you'll be doing lots of traveling
while helping the band get publicity so that the students and community learn more about it. I'm thrilled about
taking photos and video of the band's activities. And there's nothing like a marching band to get the audience
pumped up for the game.

For me, a James just not Complete without hearing music in the background. Actually, i've always wanted to
learn to play the trombone, but no worries. Although it's true that most of our previous media interns had some
previous experience playing a musical instrument. A passion for music is what's most important. Plus, the fact
that you're majoring in photography will be invaluable to us. Could you fill me in on what's next? Sure. You'll
need to be on campus before the upcoming academic year begins. That's when we hold camp for the marching
band members. They'll be learning new music and marching fundamentals. We'd like you to get some good
photos of that. If the week before the rest of the students start to arrive on campus, oh, but where do I stay? I
mean, I paid for off campus housing for the year, but I won't have access to the apartment until August 30th.
The band receives temporary housing in the dormitory next to the stadium where practice takes place. We've
already set aside a room for you. You'll be right in the middle of all activities.

Oh, okay. Our bad uniforms will be arriving over the summer with a brand new look for the new school year.
It'll be good to get lots of shots of those from a close. The uniforms will be new. Same school colors, right?
Yes, but the design is completely different. It was created by a student Maria Williamson. We held a contest
online where all of the university students could submit proposals and vote. And Maria submitted the winning
uniform. I hope the band gets to showcase its uniforms along with all the musical pieces of the national
basketball championship game again this year. It was so awesome when we got to go to that game last year. I
felt the band really got our fans energized. It was amazing being in the audience. Once I was there, well, that
was the turning point for me. I knew I had to get involved. Shortly after that, I saw your notice in the school
newspaper.
Listen to a conversation between a student and the ecology professor.

Hi, professor. If you want to talk about my paper, I didn't get a grade. Oh, yes. I think you might have done the
wrong assignment, but I follow the instructions on the syllabus. Yes, but this week's assignment was to read any
recent article about forest management and then write an opinion paper about it. A short essay. You submitted a
10 page research paper about the current state of logging how and why trees are being cut down in the rain force
of South America. It's a good paper, but the point of this assignment was to show you could give and support
your opinion on a current issue. Looks like you look ahead to next week.

Oh, no. So, can I still write the opinion paper? I think you should. Have you written an opinion paper before?
Oh, sure, in high school. But I'm a little unsure about writing my opinion now that I'm at the university. I
understand sometimes it's difficult to state your opinion when you're surrounded by experts. But keep in mind,
your classmates are in the same situation as you. They also know that it's not an easy task to express an opinion
clearly and confidently. It takes practice. That's why i've given all of you this assignment.

So do you think I should work with what i've already done and change it to an opinion paper or start from
scratch? Well, you mentioned in your paper that logging has damaged the ecosystem of many forests in South
America. However, it also provides a lot of jobs for the people who live there. Do you have an opinion about
that? In your opinion, does the benefit of additional jobs outweigh the negative consequences? The
environmental damage that's been done?

Well, I can see the place of each side of the situation. While doing my research, I came across an article about
selective logging. That's when just a small number of trees in an area are cleared. You know, instead of cutting
down all of them, it's supposed to be the best of both worlds, better for the environment while still providing
jobs. Sounds interesting. Yeah, I mean it's supposed to be better. But cutting down trees even just a few, still has
huge negative consequences for the environment. So it's not really better. Well, it looks like you've picked a
side. Really, an opinion paper is not so different from a research paper. You need to have some familiarity with
the topic. And most importantly, you cannot express your point of view without providing supporting facts
based on actual studies. It's not just reporting what you think.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

We've been talking about museums and the conventions they used to display works of art. You've seen how
they might, for example, organize their collection according to artists, historical period, or medium, such as
18th century oil paintings or sculptures made of marble. It must be done that way. I'd like to talk a bit about an
institution called the Barnes foundation. It's guided by a very different philosophy in presenting viewing. I'm
thinking about art.

The Barnes foundation first opened its doors in the early 1920s. It was located in the suburb of Philadelphia and
a 12 acre property belonging to Albert barons. Its founder. Lawrence was neither an artist nor an altruorium.
Rather, he was an inventor businessman who had a mass, a large and extraordinary art collection. The collection
filled with masterpieces. In addition to being a great lover of art, arms had developed some very interesting
ideas about how art should be taught. He firmly believed I had the power to transform lives, and the
experiencing art should form the core of any individuals education. His life's mission was to make his collection
available to people who are not typically associated with the world of fine art workers in his heart, sales, clips,
students. Lawrence was convinced that it was within everyone's reach to experience art in a personal and
profound way. But for this to happen, people had to be exposed to art. So he created a museum where people
are invited to view art works with the least mediation from the institution as possible. Sorry.

When you walk into the galleries of the Barnes foundation, you quickly notice what's missing. Yes, there's
beautiful art arranged on the walls, but curiously, there are no labels alongside any of the pieces, not even labels
identifying when or where a piece was created or the title of the work. All you see are the works unexplained.
It's more.

The art is not organized by art as historical period or medium. Instead, it's organized into what Barnes called
ensembles. His ensembles are groupings of a dozen or more objects that Barnes put together according to their
formal elements, line, shape, color, or composition. So the objects within each ensemble echo one another, have
something in common. And while the ensembles consist mostly of paintings, they also may include things like
metal hardware, decorative door, hinges and locks, spoons or other household items, or farm implements. These
utilitarian works are interspersed among the paintings, selected because of their visual relationships, the art
works they're paired with. For example, a pattern of dots on a door hinge resembles the dots on a woman's
dress, in the portrait bullet. So in a way, the utilitarian object helps train our eye to notice elements in the
painting that we might have missed. Otherwise, what's more?

The ensembles include items from multiple artists and time periods. European impressionist and African art
together with Pennsylvania, Dutch door hinges. We're encouraged to think about art in a comparative manner,
rather than considering a single piece in isolation. The spatial arrangement is an instructional strategy that helps
us see and remember elements in art that we might not have noticed or remembered. Otherwise. Besides getting
a private art lesson from Barnes himself, about the connections he chose to highlight.

Yeah. Fast forward 90 years and, the Barnes foundation was moved from its original suburban location. A
building that Barnes had constructed for the purpose of displaying his art to a brand new building in central
Philadelphia. The move is very controversial, but the new museum is more reachable by the general public.
Closer to the people Barnes wanted to share his heart with. The new building also includes more classrooms and
lights. In planning the move, the high priority was placed on preserving the exact configuration of each
ensemble. The Barnes had created in the new building. The collection is displayed as it had been in the old one
with the galleries themselves replicas of the originals.

2-NT8-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a history class.

Okay? So we've been talking about the indigenous people's living in the Americas before the arrival of the
Europeans in the last class, we began talking more specifically about indigenous empires. And today, we'll have
a look at the income empire. The political center of the Inca empire was in the city of couscous in modern day,
Peru. The empire stretched for well over 2,000 miles along the western coast of South America, comprising a
few hundred thousand square miles of territory, more than any other empire in the Americas, compared with
other indigenous empires.

The rise of the Inca empire was truly mediocre. The income began building their empire in the early 1400s, and
it expanded very rapidly. Then, after only 100 years or so, in existence, the empire came crashing down.

Now, in most history books, the rise of the inter empire is attributed primarily to the leadership of two men.
Touch your cookie and his son topper in a you bounty. Yeah. Touch a cruelty and topper anchor you, bunky.
Well, almost certainly cunning leaders. And there's not much doubt they were instrumental in the
extraordinarily rapid expansion of the inca empire. But over the two centuries before Portuguese and topper into
you bunk, he rose to power. That is in the twelve hundred and thirteen hundreds. Their ancestors had already
been employing a variety of clever tactics to take control of crucial resources in the region. And they very
skillfully develop those resources. For example, they constructed a system of terraces and irrigation canals that
would eventually enable couscous to produce significant agricultural surpluses. Surpluses that touch your
cookie and topper anchor, you monkey would one day distribute throughout the empire to help persuade
millions of people to accept in the rule. It wasn't just this pre existing, highly developed base in the heartland
around couscous that enable these two leaders to engineer such rapid territorial expansion.

Most of the neighboring societies were in continual conflict with one another. So they weren't in a position to
align with one another to resist the income advances and all this ongoing conflict made less powerful societies
feel insecure. So many of them actually wanted to be incorporated into the Inca empire. So as to enjoy the
protection they receive. So, in the early stages of empire building, the increment is, very little opposition, and
were able to gain a lot of power quickly and easily. So, to what extent was the rapid rise of the great anchor
empire, simply a natural consequence of a highly developed heartland, 1 couple 100 years in the making in
combination with surrounding territories, right for the taking.

And to what extent was it the result of the brilliant leadership of and told it into you monkey? Well, that's hard
to know, because much of our knowledge about the rise of the empire comes from histories told by various
groups of ink that in couscous. Royal king groups that were in competition with one another. And the purpose
of those histories was not, as you might assume, to supply a true record of the past. It was rather to serve the
political aims of those who were telling the histories. Um, but fortunately, we're still finding valuable
archaeological evidence. Um. We're hoping that will eventually help us sort out the truth. Uh, but one
conclusion i've come to after many years of studying history, and that I'd like you to keep in mind as you
continue in your study of history, is that no individual, no matter how brilliant or charismatic can ever bring
about great change, unless the conditions of that place and time are right for them to do so.

2-NT8-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a botany class.
So last week we talked about different relationships between plants. I believe we left off with looking at vines,
right? Were there any questions about that? Um, I have a question. It's not about what we talked about last
week, but it is related to violence. Okay? I've noticed that the vines around my dorm, when they climb trees,
they wrap around the trunks in the same direction, even though they're all different types of ions. You're right.
It's not exactly what we were talking about. But it does show you've been observing the natural world, an
important quality of a botanist. And I do have an answer for you. When a vine starts to grow and it encounters a
host, that could be a tree, a telephone call, whatever. It starts to wrap around that host, and it can wrap around in
a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The question we're dealing with here, is why, a few years ago, a
colleges attempting to answer that question tested three hypotheses.

The first hypothesis dealt with which side of the vine first came into contact with the host. That was the left
right hypothesis. Picture of wine starting to grow right in front of a tree. If the vines started growing to the left
of the tree, it would continue wrapping around the tree in that direction. Likewise, for the right now, because
this is a completely random occurrence. If this hypothesis were correct, we'd expect to see about a 50, 50 split
between left growing and right growing vines. So, um, just to clarify, a left growing vine would result in AA
clockwise twist around the host. That's right. And a right drawing vine would wrap around the host in a counter
clockwise direction.

Now, the second hypothesis had to do with the sun. I call it the tracking hypothesis. What happens when you set
a house plant next to a sunny window? Um, oh, the house plant starts to grow toward the sun, right? And that's
exactly the principle behind the tracking hypothesis. The researchers hypothesized that the wrapping direction
of the vine was the result of vines tracking the sun as it moved across the sky. So the son's position relative to
the plant, we cause it to wrap in one direction or the other. This means that most fines in the southern
hemisphere would wrap around a host in a clockwise direction. And most fines in the northern hemisphere
would wrap around a host in a counterclockwise direction. As it happens, this hypothesis was favored by the
researchers, as well as others myself included.

The third hypothesis attributed the twisting direction to the coriolis effect, the coriolis effect. And I don't wanna
get into too much detail here, but the coriolis effect is caused by the rotation of earth. And it creates an apparent
deflection of moving objects. Uh. For example, if a plane were flying in a straight line from New York to
Florida, the earth's rotation would make it appear that the plane was flying off course to the right. Of course, the
plane is a lot bigger than a vine. But if this hypothesis were true, it would have the same effect on a vine as the
second hypothesis. Clockwise growth in the northern hemisphere, counterclockwise growth in the southern.

But as it turns out, none of hypotheses were correct. First of all, the direction that vines wrapped in was not
random, nor did it matter which hemisphere the fines were growing in. Instead, it appears that over 90% of
vines grow around their hosts in a counter clockwise direction. No matter where they're found. But the
experiment did lead to a new and promising hypothesis. Scientists now believe that what may be causing these
twists is at the molecular level in the vines, amino acids, amino acids can be classified as either left handed or
right handed. As it turns out, most amino acids on earth are left handed. The reasons for this needn't concern us
here, but this left handedness can have some important implications for other organisms as well. Um. For
example, think of the spiral, you see in a snail show, well, 94% of snail shells twist in a counterclockwise
direction. So I think the obvious next step is to start examining the amino acids from vines.

2-NT9-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and the adviser to the student newspaper.

Hi, um, I'm the president of the backpack club, and you want to talk about the article. How did you know? But
we have quite a few calls about it. I imagine I was really surprised you even printed it, because it was just, you
know, really slanted. Well, that was never our intention. But I can understand why you might feel that way. You
have to understand that this is a student paper. I like to let the reporters and editors cover the news as they see
fit. I don't normally tell them who they should or shouldn't interview, for example, that said, in this case,
perhaps I should have gotten more involved. So you're gonna run a retraction then. Well, what was reported
wasn't erroneous, but the reporter definitely should have done more work to present multiple perspectives on the
issue. I pretty much took him to task about it at this morning's editorial meeting. How did he respond? He
basically defended his article on the grounds that the person he interviewed was later universities being of
students.

And the dean's point of view was that non academic clubs should not receive the same level of funding that the
university gives to academic clubs, clubs, like the engineering club and the physics society. The Laker
university just and was mentioned as an academic club, too. Well, a lot of the members are music majors. Well,
a lot of backpacking club members are environmental science majors, and I can't believe the Jazz band members
just sit around talking about music theory all the time. They probably jam and perform, mostly for fun. I'd
imagine. I see your.And there's nothing wrong with that. They're using what they're learning in the classroom
and adding to it. And it's the same with us. Backpacking and environmental education go hand in hand. Like
one of our members is a graduate student, and he teaches an intro to environmental science class. And on our
hikes, he identifies interesting plants and points out watershed and things like that.

Okay. Well, the reporter who wrote Monday's peace is already working on a follow up story. He's out there
right now getting responses to the deans remarks. But that doesn't preclude us from also running an opinion
piece on the editorial page, an opinion piece written by someone like you, someone with strong feelings in a
good argument, interested. Um. I don't know about that. I've never done anything like that. All you need to do is
reiterate, but you've told me and be sure to back up your opinions with anecdotes and facts, like the number of
backpack and club members who major in environmental science, and how the graduate student you mentioned
takes the lead on your heights. The editor can always polish your pros and necessary. How about if I talk to the
reporter instead? Okay, that should work too. Why did you give me your contact Info? And i'll pass it along
when he comes in?
Listen to a conversation between a student and the professor of his musical theater course.
So Peter, how's that outline coming? That's not due till Friday, right? That's right. As I recall, you are doing
research on the music of George Gershwin. You need to narrow your topic down, give it more focus. I'm getting
to that later this week, uh, but well, what I wanted to ask about was, well, remember, I told you I'd be visiting
my hometown to see my sister perform in a community theater production. You mentioned that last week. I'm
delighted to see so many theater goers in class. I mean, it's fine to take a course on musical theater, learn its
history. But I hope it also enhances your appreciation. When you see no musicals, it does. And whenever I talk
to friends about a musical, they've seen, and I CHiME in with Information about it, they're so impressed. In fact,
some of them told me they'll be signing up for your course next semester. That's great to hear.

Anyway, like I was saying this musical play I just saw, it's called crazy for you. Wow, what a great performance
my sister practically stole the show. Well, I was really confused because the program said the music was by
George kirschwynn, but i've already started my research on Gershwin. This was before you told me, I had to
narrow down my topic. And I don't remember seeing any gershund musicals with that title. Good point. This
actually ties in with something we'll discuss during our unit on contemporary trends. It's called a jukebox
musical, shoe box, musical. Let me write that down. That's Duke box like that old machine we found in the
music department store room. Possibly. The jerk box was popular in the 1940s and 50s. It's a machine that
stores phonograph records and let's users select the songs to be played. Like what I do with my MP replay or
many other electronic devices today. The term jukebox musical was going to refer to musicals where an original
storyline is written to accommodate a set of pre existing songs.

So you mean those songs and crazy for you were composed before the play was written long before in the
1930s. And the storyline of the play, which was written around those songs wasn't written until 1992. Um, 1992
is that when jukebox musical started, you know, being popular, actually, jukebox style musical movies have
been around since the, 1940s, but the real jukebox musicals on stage and with a strong plot, well, developed
characters and so on. Those didn't take off until the early 2000s. Um. So maybe, you know, if I researched this
and how the genre became popular, yes, and define it, its basic elements, perhaps give examples like crazy for
you and include something about Gershwin songs. But remember, I know, keep it focused. I'll have that outline
ready Friday.

Listen to part of a lecture in a modern art class.

As we've been discussing new art movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries broke with the
conventions of the past and in a number of ways. Artists were looking for new approaches to painting and
sculpture and new ways to express themselves. Then around 1915, a type of sculpture emerged that unlike any
traditional sculpture didn't even look like an art object. These sculptures were every day objects that artists
chose to display as art, commonly referred to as found objects, sound, meaning, you know, it's an object
manufactured for everyday use something with the utilitarian function. For example, um, one artist displayed an
iron, an object that you'd find in every home used to iron clothes, except there were nails sticking out at the flat
part of the iron. Now, these artists were experimenters outsiders at the time, but they laid the intellectual
groundwork for a category of works later in the century, called installation art.

It's almost uh counterproductive to define installation art, because the term is just so broad. It really
encompasses a lot of different media and ranges from the very simple to the very complex. The term came into
use in the 1970s to describe a work of art that's installed in a way that trans forms, the viewers perception of a
particular space, often incorporating three dimensional materials. And the space can be indoors or outdoors. In
museums, you might still find a room full of every day objects like lamb shades and bike tires, encouraging the
viewers to make their own stories about the meaning of the work. Some artists paint or sculpt directly on the
walls or floor of a room. And some even use construction to alter the space, to give you an idea of how an
installation can fill a large interior space.

Here's one example. Take a look. This is a piece called embankment by a British artist named Rachel white
read. The installation is made of 14,000 plastic boxes stacked in piles of different sizes and shapes. And you can
see that people are walking through this landscape, made of boxes. The work invites the viewer to experience a
controlled space to join in, an environment. This is what Billy says. Installation are the part in traditional
sculpture. You're not surrounded by the work. You're not inside it in this way. Outdoor installation art can
usually be found in public basis.

One type is also known as land or environmental art, because the installations turn natural environments into
art. Take a work called spiral jetty, an outdoor installation in the western United States. It's constructed in a
lake, actually. The artist used black rock to construct a large, uh, well it, sort of looks like a road that jumps out
into the lake in the shape of the spiral. It's not a road, but I just mean it's big enough for, say, a car to fit on. It's
enormous. And it's site specific, meaning you can't transport it. You have to go there if you want to see it. But
there are installations that can be assembled anywhere and even travel around on touring exhibits. In the 1990s,
interactive installations became popular. That's where the viewer becomes a participant and installation
response to interacting installations 10 years, a lot of technology, like computers, video, and sensors. An
example is this one in this position? It's the the the world. But it's waterfall from the ceiling like when viewers
walk into the room, sensors pick up their movements. And the rain, just the rain above them. Stops. So they can
walk around in the rain without getting wet.

So installation art is different from traditional art in that it has to be actively experienced rather than just merely
looked at and complicated. But there are critics who doubt that installation art can really live up to this goal. For
example, they.out that nowadays much installation or it is displayed in museums. And so you're not always
allowed to touch the work. Plenty of installations is here to the traditional look, but don't touch nothing. So
these critics claim that installation art has been institutionalized, that it has to play by the same rules as other
types of art that it's not cutting edge anymore. But that might be a simplification. I mean, many museums are no
longer just sanctuaries where visitors quietly contemplate artwork. Contemporary art museums display
installation art because it creates an energetic, dynamic atmosphere.

2-NT9-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a physics class.

Okay. Today we're going to continue with Newton's laws of motion by looking at his third law. Newton's third
log motion is fairly simple to explain, but its implications can be difficult to understand. This law is often stated
like this. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. So, for example, if you were to push on a
wall, the wall would push back on you with the exact same amount of force. Wait, the wall would push back.
Well, we know the wall is not choosing to push back. Wall would push back. Well, we know the wall is not
choosing to push back on you, but do you recall the definition I gave of a force? Yeah, a force of the push or, a
pull, right? And the very definition of a force as a push or a pull requires that there be two objects involved, like
to say you push against the wall while sitting in a chair that has wheels. What's gonna happen?

Well, i wrote backwards, exactly. That's the result of the force of the wall pushing back on your hand. Simply
by being in contact with it, the wall has to exert the same force on your head as you exerted on the wall. These
pairs of forces always exist together. They're always equal in strength and opposite in direction. They're often
called action reaction pairs. And these pairs can explain many types of motion, including rocket motion.
Now, in order to move through space, a rocket requires two things, fuel. And what's called an oxidizer? An
oxidizer. Yes. See. Fuel needs oxygen to burn, and in space with no atmosphere to provide oxygen, rockets
need to release oxygen into the fuel so that it burns. That's what an oxidizer does. So the fuel burns creating
exhaust gas, which is forced out of a very small opening at the bottom of the rocket. And as the exhaust goes
out the bottom, the rocket moves up.

Another action reaction there. Space is a vacuum. Doesn't the exhaust gas need something to push against to?
Like move the rocket forward if the third law is going to apply? That'sa, very good question. The development
of rockets, with a view towards space travel, began around the early 1900. But long before that, people had
wondered, could rockets be used to travel into space? There was 1 group that said it wasn't possible. They said
that rocket motion required air. Because as the exhaust came out of the rocket, it would push it against the air to
push the number one. Another group disagreed and said space travel was possible using rockets that it wasn't
exhaust pushing against air that would move it forward. They claimed the action reaction pair, in this case, is
actually the exhaust and the rocket itself. The rocket pushes the exhaust gas out, and the gas pushes the rocket
forward.

Actually, it was back in 1916 that an American physicist Robert Goddard performed an experiment that should
have ended the argument once and for all. Robert Goddard was not the first to experiment with rockets, but he
was the first to demonstrate rocket movement in a vacuum. How do you do that? Well, first, he created a
vacuum by pumping air out of a sealed tank within this tank, he had firing chambers that pushed out exhaust
when the firing chambers were ignited as the exhaust pushed out, the chambers moved upward. So even in the
absence of air, Newton's third law applied, you said it should have put the controversy to rest. You mean it
didn't, unfortunately, no. Perhaps it's because Goddard was a shy person and his results were not well
publicized. Whatever the reason the misconception that air was needed to rocket motion persisted well into the
20th century. But in 1957, with the launch of the former Soviet Union satellite Sputnik, all doubt that rockets
could move in space was put the rest. The rocket had indeed moved in a vacuum and cleared for all time, that
Newton's third law is universal.

2-NT9-3
Listen to part of the lecture in an ecology class.

Since the early 1960s, research on echo systems has come to be dominated by an approach known as the Top
down trophic cascade. A Top down traffic cascade is, well, basically, it's a way of viewing a food chain. Now,
food chains require a minimum of three levels. A predator. It's pray, and also plants. And the Top down
approach assumes that a meeting predator is at the highest level in this chain. It is. Yeah, ha. You see that? And
I talked to you traffic toophic in young AA presence or absence will affect the level beneath it, which is animals
that eat plants. Her before was. The predator will also have an indirect effect on the bottom level. The plants
themselves. So supposedly, the most significant change comes from the predator, which exert the control over
the herboloand, the plants, the predator structures, the food chain, and hence the ecosystem, or does it?

Um let, me explain. Most people who visited the northwest region of the United States are familiar with the
famous Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone covers almost 6,000 square kilometers. Naturally, quite a
variety of animals and plants are found inside this area. One of these species, the gray wolf, a predator, has
received a lot of attention from the news media. That's because since his disappearance from the park in the
1920s, the gray wolf was gone for a period of 70 continuous years until 1995 that is see after a change in public
opinion, along with laws that protected the world, discussion and planning took place.
An agreement was reached between authorities in Canada and the United States to reintroduce the species to
Yellowstone. In 1995~1996, around 30 walls were brought down from Canada and released into Yellowstone.
And you know, this decision provided a rare and unique opportunity. I'd say there may be only five or six
instances in all of scientific literature where animals being reintroduced into an environment. After such a
prolonged absence. Now, over 20 years later, the walls have tripled in numbers.

So what changes have occurred in the ecology of Yellowstone park as a result? Well, you're in 70 years of the
wolf absence. The herbory mainly hunts. The elk substantially increased in numbers. In fact, the elk population
thrived. What did not thrive? However, was the village rub a plant that the algae, naturally, the more elk, there
are, the more willows get eaten. So due to the increase in the elk population, the willow shrub population
throughout Yellowstone was gradually reduced to very low numbers. Make sense? Right? Okay, so once the
wolf returned, then what happened? What's the previous ecosystem balance restored? Well, the wolves came
back and sure enough, the number of else and because the air population decreased, silver willows are being
eaten. So you'd expect the willow shrubs to grow back again, right? The thing is so far at least they have not.
Researchers were puzzled by this and did some further investigation. An ecologist named Christian Marshall
published a study identifying a factor that had been overlooked. An animal known as the beaver. The beavers a
large rodent that lived in rivers and streams. Beavers eat willows for food, but here's the thing. They also have
an amazing ability to reengineer the landscape by chewing through willow trunks and branches, and using these
materials to create dams, dams, block streams, raising the water table and flooding nearby fields and forests.

These dams help create calm mud flats when new willows can safely sprout without water rushing by and
disturbing them. The raised water cables also supply more water to willow roots, which allows them to grow
high enough that elk can't eat the leaves at the Top. So the willow population doesn't completely disappear. So
to survive, turns out willows need not only fewer elk, but also more beavers. Unfortunately, although a lot of
babies used to live in Yellowstone, once the willow declined, the beof population also declined, which meant no
more mud flats with sufficiently high water levels for the willow to repopulate. So we'll re introducing a Top
predator like the wolf into an environment, cause everything to be restored to, the way it was before. The
answer appears to be not necessarily. Other factors affect the delicate balance, too. In this particular instance,
the beaver a herbicide appear to be an important part of the solution. If we're working towards full restoration
and Yellowstone.

2-NT10-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and her academic adviser.

Thanks for taking the time to see me on such short notice. No problem, Michelle, what's on your mind? It's the
architecture courses i've been taking. Um. You see the projects i've done for class? My grades haven't been
exactly stellar. I don't think my professors see much potential in my work. There are aspects of designing
buildings that I just can't. I mean, you see, i've always loved architecture, researching it, reading about how
buildings are designed. I've even visited buildings by famous architects, like Frank Lloyd Wright, but now that I
have to design things myself, having second thoughts about whether I'm really cut out to be an architect.

As I recall, that's not at all how you felt when you were a first year student. Do you know. It's just that. Well, I
thought architecture was my talent, because you know, i've always been artistic and I'm pretty good at math. But
you know, i've also become very interested in the environment and protecting the land. Maybe I'm thinking,
maybe if I switched my concentration to environmental science, keep in mind, though, most of the architecture
courses you've taken thus far would not count for the degree in environmental science, which means you'd
probably need to enroll in a few courses during the summer.

And unless the university summer program includes all the courses you'd need, you might wind up graduating
later than planned. Would would that be okay? Mhm. I'd have to pay summer school tuition as well, which is
more than i've budgeted for. Maybe i'll just take, but actually, there might be an alternative. Have you
considered shifting your focus to landscape architecture? Landscape architecture. Is that like gardening? No
landscape architects are the people who design gardens and parks in the green spaces surrounding buildings.
Whereas an architect would design an office complex or shopping center. A landscape architect would be hired
to design the outdoor spaces adjacent to those buildings, designing outdoor spaces. Yeah, that seems like
something I'd really enjoy and do well at. And according to economic projections, I saw recently landscape
architecture as a profession is growing. As a result, this university and quite a few others, as a matter of fact,
have created degree programs in landscape architecture.

Oh, WOW, why don't you do some research in our library or on the internet? You should also talk to my
colleague, Sandra Hughes here in the architecture department. Professor Hughes heads up the landscape
architecture program. So does that mean, if I switched my major to landscape architecture? I'd still be able to
graduate next year, possibly many of the courses you've already taken, like computer aided design in history of
architecture. These would probably count toward a degree in landscape architecture, but definitely talk to
professors used first before changing any of your plans.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a housing office administrator.
Can I help you? Sorry. Um, yesterday morning, my dormitory room was inspected for fire code violations, and
we got cited. Okay, what's your name? Brian Sanders. Brian Sanders, right? Here you are. Your room was
inspected yesterday, and yes, you had some violations and were issued a warning. So what's the problem? Well,
the thing is, it wasn't me. I have three roommates and we share common room. They're the ones who are. Yeah,
yeah, I know. Um, and you want to know why your name is included on the form, even though you think you
didn't do anything wrong. I don't think I did. I mean, that form II can't even understand it. How can I know what
my violations are? If I can't even read the form? They use a numerical code. Um, looks like multiple violations,
um an, electric cooking appliance of some kind. And there were piles of clothes and papers stacked everywhere.
My roommates are kind of messy, but the place wasn't dangerous. Was it.

Well, believe me, we've seen worse, although in this case, it looks like it was bad enough to be considered
hazardous. That sounds like our room, unfortunately. But it's not fair. It's my roommates who are messy. I'm
always picking up after them as best as I can anyway. Well, it wasn't picked up well enough when the inspectors
came. You know, two of my roommates are first your students. I told them what the fire inspection was all
about. But honestly they didn't seem to care. And I'm sure they're the ones responsible for the violations. And
now. We'll all have to pay. Maybe not. We do give you a chance to correct the problems before issuing a fine.
There will be a reinspection within the next 2 weeks. So here's what you need to prepare.

Okay? First, nothing blocking, the fire escape. Second, no hot plates, microwave ovens, or any other kind of
cooking appliance, because they could trigger the smoke detectors. We're strict on this one, no cooking in the
rooms at any time. Oh. I guess i'll have to get rid of my electric kettle then. Yes, you will. So I guess it's partly
my fault, too. Um. What if we're all in class when they come? Don't worry. We have a pass key. We'll inform
you in advance that we're coming, and we'll stick a pink slip on your door to let you know we've been there. If
there's still a problem, we have this other slip. It's red. It means you're still not in compliance, and you'll all have
to pay a fine. The fine is charged equally between all the roommates. I guess I better have another talk with my
roommates.
Lesbian part of a lecture in the United States literature class.

The professor has been discussing poetry of the mid 19th century. Today we're gonna discuss Henry what's
worth long fellow, a poet whose work expand the course of the mid 1800s. Long fellow was one of the most
successful American poets of his time. And his influence on the country's imagination is still evident today. His
poems were legendary. I that in both senses of the word, they became extremely well known to generations of
readers here in the United States and in Europe. They often presented tales that were themselves. The stuff of
Legend, almost mythological. I even say. This did sometimes cause problems, though, when the story is, he
told, were actually based on centuries old tales.

But rather on fairly recent historical events, to see what I mean, let's consider a poem called paul revere is right.

Paul revere was an ordinary silver Smith, who was living in Boston on the eve of the American revolution. He
was one of many inhabitants of Britain's American colonies who were active in the movement for
independence.

The poem recounts how Ravens set out by night to warn the residents of concord, a village, some distance from
Boston. The British troops were coming to seize their property. He told a friend to find out which route the
British would be taking. The friend would signal revere by hanging lanterns in the bell tower of the church. One
lantern is there a coming by land? Two if by boat? Then he waited on the opposite bank of the river. When
revere saw two lights plays out of the darkness, he mounted his horse, road alone, all the way to concord
sounded the alarm, and became a national hero. The famous midnight bride, every student growing up in the us
knows the story. They probably learned it from long fellows palm.

even though it's based on true events, almost none of the poems details are historically accurate. For example,
that iconic image of a solo rider tearing through the countryside, at least two other men headed out the concord
that night by different routes, but only one actually made it to concord. It wasn't revere. He was caught and
detained by British forces. The arrival in concord is fictionalized. And perhaps the most suspenseful moment in
the palm. When revere waits on the river bank for the lantern signal, that never happened either. Ravi knew the
soldiers route before he left Boston, far from being famous for this exploit.

In the years after his death, revere was barely known outside his home state. His role in the revolution was
known by a few local historians, and that's about it. It wasn't until the publication of long fellows palm in 1860,
nearly 90 years after the right itself that he acquired the heroic reputation he has today. But it hasn't all been
crazed. When the inaccuracies were exposed by historians, both long fellow and revere came in for some
criticism. So in that sense, some people went so far and proclaimed that he was a fake. That is right, never
happened at all. Now, it seems sort of odd to get so worked up over mistakes in a palm, right? I it's not a
textbook, but let's try to see their side.

The critics spent a lot of time talking about william doors. The horse was one of the other messengers who are
riding that night. Those who objected to long fellows created license claimed that doors deserved equal credit,
which he probably did, although he didn't get to concord either, it didn't hurt that the vice president of the
United States at the time was actually a direct ascendant of doors.

Regardless, you can see why people might be upset with an anchor version of events says the figures in question
were real people from not that long ago.

However, long fellow ignored the criticism and research indicates that actually, these inaccuracies weren't really
mistakes. It seems long fellow had access to the facts, but chose to ignore them. Instead creating a more
dramatic story, a legendary story. One that would stick in people's minds. And you know.
As a professor of literature, I don't want you to forget that, although this poem is not historically accurate, it was
never meant to be. Much of poetry is sentiment, symbolism. It doesn't always represent things literally. Of
course, we should make sure students understand this, make sure the palm isn't presented as a factual account. I
don't think inspiring the citizens of his country.

2-NT10-2
What's the part of a lecture in an astronomy class。The temperature of a planets，uh，planets atmosphere at
the surface depends on a lot of factors。It's like the atmospheres chemistry or the planet's distance from the
sun。Now，with Venus，given that it's only the second planet out from the sun，you expected to be hotter
than earth。And indeed，it is much hotter。But for a long time up until the1970s，when we could send space
probes there astronomers who studied the planet，actually expected it to be about as cool as earth。But if it's
closer to the sun，why wouldn't they expect it to be warmer？Because its atmosphere reflects so much
sunlight。Venus is permanently shrouded in clouds of sulfuric acid，which reflect back most of the sunlight
that would otherwise warm the planet with less than half of the sunlight getting to the planet
surface。Astronomers thought there wouldn't be enough to heat up the atmosphere。

But in reality，the temperature everywhere on the planet surface，including the North and south poles，turns
out to be almost500℃。Wow，even at night，yes。And night on Venus is 2 months long。One big reason
for this surprising uniformity in the temperature is that the atmosphere of Venus is97% carbon dioxide。And
carbon dioxide tends not to heat or cool nearly as quickly as the air on earth。And what else can we say about
carbon dioxide dan？Um，carbon dioxide is，a greenhouse gas。So it traps heat energy that comes from the
sun，the sunlight。Right？Now，for earth，the chemical makeup of our atmosphere is less than1%carbon
dioxide or water vapor or any other greenhouse gas。Not a lot，relatively speaking。So in the case of
earth，he's been able to escape out into space，and surface temperatures have remained relatively cool。I
know a lot of our carbon dioxide comes from like pollution，you know，factories and cars。But where does
carbon dioxide on Venus come from？Mostly from volcanic activity。

And in fact，much of the carbon dioxide in our atmosphere comes from volcanoes，too。This is one of the
many things earth has in common with Venus。We often refer to Venus as earth's sister planet，because
they're both what I'd call medium sized planets with about the same diameter in mass。And the two planets also
formed about the same time。And the early histories are very similar。In fact，water，uh，there were
probably large oceans of water on both planets，not too long after they formed，but she said Venus is
like500°。So wouldn't it be too hot tap oceans？Oh，good.，dan。Uh，it was like cooler than even though
Venus is closer to the sun and keep in mind that the sun was probably not as hot and bright，a few billion years
ago，maybe only about 2/3 as hot as it is。

Now，when the atmosphere of Venus was forming，its temperature was probably not much higher than earth
is now。But over time，as the sun burned hotter and more water evaporated into venus atmosphere，what
would that do？Oh，it caused a greenhouse effect，right？I mean，since water vapor is a greenhouse
gas，too，so it would have trapped heat and increase the temperature of the planet surface exactly until it
actually boiled away the oceans。

And what came then was really a runaway greenhouse effect。Seen on earth，carbon dioxide from volcanoes
or factories and cars for that matter，has been kept pretty well in check because it's soaked up by our
oceans。So earth has remained relatively cool。But on Venus，without surface water，more and more carbon
dioxide kept building up until it got to be such a huge part of the atmosphere that。Well，you can see the effect
this had on the planet's temperature。But then what happened to all that water vapor？Even as a vapor？Water
would have helped clear some carbon dioxide from the atmosphere，wouldn't it？Maybe if it had stuck
around，but over hundreds of millions of years，solar radiation caused almost all the water molecules in the
atmosphere to break apart into hydrogen，oxygen atoms。A lot of the hydrogen atoms then escaped off into
space while。The oxygen atoms combined with other elements，like sulfur。In fact，this is what helped
create the thick clouds of sulfuric acid that now enveloped the planet。

2-NT10-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.
Beginning in the 1600s, the Netherlands was home to one of the great golden ages in the history of European
art. The period of intense artistic creativity and productivity experienced by the Netherlands lasted almost 200
years. This artistic success was partly a result of the advanced technical abilities of the Dutch painters. Uh,
remember that when we say Dutch, we're referring to both the people of the Netherlands and their culture. But
economic factors also played a vital role in the art world during this period.

First, who can explain how art in Europe had been produced and sold up until this.Artists depended on a system
of patronage, right? The patron, um, the person buying the art would hire an artist and give them specific
instructions about the kind of work they were interested in purchasing. Exactly. And a contract will be drawn up
detailing the transaction. But in the 1600s, things started to change. More and more artists began to create for
the public at large. Does that mean you didn't have to be practically a queen or a Duke to be able to afford a
painting? Did people suddenly get rich or something? They sure did. But I should mention that the traditional
patronage system remained in place in most of Europe. It's really only in the Netherlands that a thriving open
market materialized. The Netherlands during this period was enjoying the fruits of a hugely successful
international trade. It had become a nation of exceptional global traders and its economic success meant that the
disposable income of the Dutch population rose in an unprecedented way.

And these newly wealthy people were spending their money on art. A high volume of paintings had to be
produced quickly to meet the new demand. This scale of production would have been unthinkable under the old
patronage system.

So, under the pressure of these new economic and social conditions, artists started producing art in a completely
new way. For most works, they created the art first, and then they sold it to anyone who wanted to buy it and
think about what this meant. Instead of pleasing a single individual with whom they had developed a personal
working relationship over the years.

Artists now had to anticipate what type of painting would appeal to a large, anonymous market. But didn't that
also mean artists had a kind of artistic freedom? Oh, certainly. And I don't mean to suggest that this change was
bad for artists. It just meant there was a new set of challenges. So how did that affect prices? Would that make
the art cheaper? Well, the historical record is Incomplete, but we've been able to identify some trends in general
pricing guidelines. Price depended on the size of the work of art. The larger works commanding the fire prices,
also on the prominence of the artists, uh, how famous they were and on whether a painting was original or not.
In other words, not a copy. Some of these criteria still exist today. An original painting is still worth more than a
copy, and a large object usually cost more than a small one. What's really striking, however, is the relationship
between subject, matter and price. As a rule, religious and historical subjects fetched the highest prices while
still life paintings and portraits were more affordable genres.

Now, painters tended to specialize by subject matter. So a portrait painter usually painted only portraits in a
landscape painter, only landscapes. Well, if still like painters wanted to make more money, could they just raise
their prices? That's a good.But you know, they didn't, which is interesting. Instead, they increased production.
And in order to create more paintings faster, they had to make stylistic adjustments. So, for example, landscape
painter started using fewer colors of paint, speed up production. In the process, they created a new style of
painting, what we call total painting today. Painting in which only a handful of colors are used. Um. So much
for the idea of artistic geniuses painting to express themselves, it sounds like these painters were more interested
in money than self expression. Well, that notion of pure art, uh that, true art is all about self expression. That's a
relatively modern idea. We can't fall Dutch painters in the 1600s for not living up to that ideal.

2-NT11-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a biology professor.
So Kevin, I didn't expect to see you here over the summer break. How's the internship of the wildlife center
going? Fantastic. I teach kids about animals, ecosystems, stuff that really excites me. Thanks again for writing
me that letter of recommendation. I wouldn't have gotten this internship without it. Always happy to help. So
what's on your mind? Well, last week I was teaching a group of kids about plant eating animals, and I
mentioned a trip, I took to Kenya a few years ago. I told them how many plant eaters I saw in the grassland and
just one day.

So this one kid asked me why the animals don't run out of plants to eat, and you know, I just didn't have a good
answer. Well, don't feel bad about that. It's actually a fairly complicated question. I mean, when I was in Kenya,
people talked about wild buffalo eating grasses that farmers need for domesticated cattle. There was some
concern about that all these plant eating animals competing for the same food. That's certainly logical. And if
these animals were eating, all the same food they definitely be in competition. But recent research suggests that
they're not eating the same food. Researchers studied herbivores in Kenya actually, and found that different
animals eat different kinds of plants. Take zebras, for example, the two zebra species on the Kenyan grassland,
both the grasses, but many kinds of grass they eat are different. So they're not directly competing with each
other and only about half of the diets of buffalo and cattle overlap.

So it's not really the food war. We had thought. I see, but how can you tell which grasses and animal eats? Well,
researchers have started analyzing plant DNA in herbivore droppings. It's a fairly new technique. They used to
study droppings under a microscope, but it was hard to identify plants that way. Um. Sounds much better than
trying to observe from a distance. Listen, why don't I send you a copy of a journal article that discusses all of
this? Oh, uh, I don't know those articles are written for experts through, but you'll get the gist. And since
biology is your area of concentration, it'll be good for you to see how Information in the field gets shared. At
some point, you'll have to learn to read this kind of article. Yeah, you're right. Well, thanks for meeting with
me. I'm glad you're on campus today. I'm analyzing data from a study I completed recently. It's much easier for
me to get work done here than at home. Fewer distractions. I totally understand. That's why I like to study in the
library.
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee at a university employment office.
Honey. I called a few minutes ago about needing a paper copy of a form. My name is Judy. All right, the
application form. Here you are. Thanks. The computer has been acting up. I couldn't get the form to print, and I
was coming past this building. So no problem. Uh, by the way, if you're going by Livingston home, you should
stop at the international food fair. They're holding today. I just hadn't make someone launch there. Actually, I'm
headed to the campus store to get some textbooks.

Okay, that fruit today, isn't it? Um, and I haven't had anything since breakfast. They've all done themselves this
year. Everyone's a bit pricier than last year, but I'd say it's worth it. And still a lot less than the campus snack
bar. I have to check it out. Before you go, though, about this tour Guide application, you wanna be sure to read
all the Information on the first page before filling in the blanks on page two. It's important that you understand
the schedule. You're not a residence adviser, are you? Not currently. I was thinking about applying for that job
too. He wouldn't be able to do both too many time conflicts that can't be worked around. Campus guides have to
attend weekly meetings and conduct two tours per week.

Okay? Well, this might be more fun than advising anyway. I'd get to use those special vehicles i've seen on
campus, right? The ones like the cards used on golf courses, some tours involve those, but most are done on
foot. We can only fit a few people on those vehicles, and we get a lot of large groups, so i'll probably get my
exercise. It's very likely. And each guy's expected to work at least 2 hours per week in the tour office. What's
that involved? Generally just helping our tour director, answering phones, taking tour reservations that sort of
thing. And what I have to know everything about the university, like the history, the buildings, all the
departments. I took a tour before I enrolled here, and the guy was so knowledgeable. She asked each of us what
we planned on studying and seems familiar with every department. We mentioned biology, history, art, their
training sessions to help with that. The training schedules on the last page of the application with a list of other
important dates. If you foresee any scheduling conflicts, we advise you to think twice about applying. Thanks,
i'll look it over. If it doesn't look doable, then maybe i'll be back to apply for that residence advisor job. But
first, campus store and food fair.

Listen to part of a lecture in an English literature class.

Before we start reading some of the classic English authors of the 19th century like uh, Charles Dickens. I
wanted to talk to you about how people in England access such novels. The novels were made available to
people. And why? So let's talk about what it was generally like to buy some of this literature.

First of all, the novels that are classics today were very expensive. In England, the retail price of one such novel
was equivalent to or even greater than a workers' wages for a week. One of the reasons was the way that novels
were typically published in 3 volumes called triple decker. So if you were going to buy one novel by, say,
chickens, you'd actually have to purchase three separate books. And yet riders had hundreds of thousands, if not
millions of readers, how did that work.

Well, as you might have guessed, most people who read novels didn't actually buy the novels. They would get
them from one of two different sources. First, they were lending libraries. Lending libraries in 19th century,
England were commercial enterprises. You paid the library and annual fee. And that gave you the right to
borrow books. The largest of these lending libraries was called Moody's. Moody's was a national company with
branches in most of the major cities of England. The way it worked was. Moody's would buy hundreds, if not
thousands of copies of books and would loan them out to their customers. And because Moody's had so many
libraries, if Moody's bought a book, it was more or less guaranteed to make money for the publisher. And you
can see how it would have been a good thing for Moody's to have the books broken up into three separate
volumes. Because Moody's could you know, lend one volume to someone and another to someone else. And so
they had 33 times as much stock to distribute among their customers.

Then if it was all bound up in one volume, and Moody's influenced the content of the novels. Moody was a real
person, ce moody, and he was extremely conservative. So if there was any content in a novel that offended him,
but he didn't like he wouldn't put the book in his libraries. And this obviously affected how publishers chose,
which books to publish.

All right, the other way that people had access to novels was through cereals. Most of the books we consider
famous works of the 19th century were first published in what we call serial publication form. That means they
were published in magazines or newspapers over the course of about a year. Every week you'd buy a magazine
or a newspaper, and there'd be another chapter from the book. This was a much less expensive way to buy
literature. A version of this serial publication was actually invented by Dickens and his publishers. Instead of
buying a magazine or newspaper with a lot of varied content in it. You'd buy just that month's installment of the
book bound in a soft cover. So it looked just like a magazine, but all it had was a few chapters of the book. And
a couple of illustrations and advertisements. Now um for a long time.

There have been people who have dismissed serial novels in general, saying the reason there are so many cliff
hangers, suspenseful chapter endings and melodramatic moments in these novels is because a lot of authors
started trying to build up their readership by leaving the audience hanging at the end of each installment. You
know, so the people would rush out and buy the next month installment to find out what happened next. But for
Dickens, at least, well, when you look more carefully at where the actual plot twists were in his works, really
suspenseful sensational ones, these are not really at the ends of chapters. Instead, you'll see that he often uses
something that we would today recognize as a cinematic effect. The installment might end with someone
walking down the street, like in the movie, just walking off into the distance. So really, Dickens wasn't being at
all crude or manipulative. He was much more subtle than that. He was clever enough to know how to keep his
readers coming back, to see what happened next without the need for gross over dramatization.

2-NT11-2

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

All right, any questions before we move on? Harry, I saw this down at the beach and. You know, sometimes
hundreds of birds fly together in a large flock, and as they fly, all of these birds twist and turn and seem to move
at the exact same time. It looks like the flock is one giant organism. Spectacular, isn't it? We call that behavior
coordinated group, flight, and it takes many forms. Sometimes it has a basis in aerodynamics. Um, for example,
some bird species fly single file, one following the other, other species, fly in, v formations. We think this has to
do with aerodynamics, birds that fly single file create slip streams, you know, areas of decreased air resistance
for the individuals behind them. While birds flying in AV formation, take advantage of the rising currents of air
from the wing tips of their neighbors, but not all birds fly in AV formation or in single file.

Right? Like the birds you saw at the beach. That's why researchers have traditionally accepted what's called the
safety hypothesis. You see with all the twist and turns you observed in their flight pattern. Birds can confuse
predators quite a bit. So predators won't attack. One researcher observed that birds were most likely to be
attacked when flying alone or in very small flocks. Actually, surprisingly, she also found that they were likely
to be attacked when in very large flocks. When you save large flocks, do you mean like 100? I'm talking flocks
with more than 500 birds. When in very large flocks, the birds might actually confuse each other instead of
confusing the predator.
Anyway, this still supports the safety theory, because if the flocks contain an optimum number of birds, let's
say, below 500, but more than just a few predators are less successful in their attacks. So the safety hypothesis
seems to make sense. Well, yes. But the safety hypothesis can't explain everything. Take star links, for example,
it's common to see large flocks of these birds flying around above their rusting sites at night. Often for more
than half an hour before landing. Wow, that's like telling their predators here we are when they could have just
landed and been safe. Exactly. One proposed explanation for this is that maybe there are what we call bird
leaders. And maybe these other birds are just mindlessly following or imitating the leaders. Not for any
particular reason as in the aerodynamic hypothesis, but maybe for no reason at all. But remember, the birds at
the front of the flock at one point, those that might be considered leaders can easily be at the back of the flock at
another.So you're saying that there really aren't any leaders of any kind, not during coordinated group flight.
Well, what if maybe birds are just programmed for coordinate a group flight? You know, maybe it's all
instinctual. That's actually been suggested as a hypothesis. It's an interesting one. Several computer programs
have been designed to mimic flocks of flying birds with each individual computerized bird program to follow a
few simple behavioral rules. For example, maintaining enough distance to avoid colliding with other birds and
attempting to fly the same speed in direction of other birds. And the results. Well, one of these computer
programs produce something so close to actual coordinated group flight. It was used in a Hollywood movie to
create digital flocks. But keep in mind that just because these computer simulations look like coordinated group
flight, we can't say that real birds follow the rules that computerized birds do. We can't even say whether they
follow any rules for sure.

Anyway, research continues. And what's so exciting is that we've now got people from different fields, not just
biology, studying coordinated group flight. This is important because it's such a complex phenomenon that we
need researchers with different kinds of expertise to approach things from different angles. Um. For example, a
group of physicists have been looking at bird flight as a statistical problem. Using special equipment, they film
star links in Rome and then statistically analyzed each bird's movements. They found that when a bird changes
direction, that affects the six or seven birds closest to it, these six or seven birds change direction, which affects
more birds and so on.

2-NT11-3

Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

I'd like to go over some points from the reading you did about solar wind. Can someone tell me what solar wind
is? Uh, it's sides of electrically charged particles that are constantly being emitted by the sun and a spiral?
Because of the sun's rotation. That's right. Streams of particles emanate from the sun's upper atmosphere as a
result of reactions that take place within the sun. Professor why, is it called solar wind? In many ways, it
behaves like wind. On earth, wind movement is caused by differences in air pressure between one region and
another. With his solar wind. There is a difference in pressure between these clouds of particles and other points
in space. Because of that difference, solar wind travels out from the sun toward the regions of less pressure. And
although it travels more slowly than light, it travels far. We know, for example, that the solar wind reaches
beyond the orbit of the dwarf planet, Pluto in the outer regions of the solar system.

In fact, research suggests solar wind could be used to propel spacecraft in much the same way we harness wind
to propel boats on earth. Designs have been proposed for spacecraft with sales to catch and ride the solar wind.
I'll post some readings about that at the class website. And that sounds really cool. Does solar wind affect us in
any way now? Well, generally, solar wind is deflected away by the magnetic field that surrounds earth. When
the charged particles of solar wind reach that magnetic field, it tends to deflect them toward either earth's North
Pole or its South Pole. Solar wind can enter our atmosphere at the polls, though, because the magnetic field is
weaker there. And that creates the northern lights, right? Yes, it does. All those solar wind particles near the
poles. They collide with gaseous particles in earth's atmosphere, creating light that we can see in the night sky.
The color of the light varies with the type of gas involved. We call this phenomenon, the northern lights when it
occurs near earth's North Pole and the southern lights when it occurs near the South Pole.

In the past, it was believed that the polls were the only place where solar wind enters our atmosphere, or at least
that it was very rare for solar wind to enter at other points.

But new evidence suggests it's more common than we thought. And that can have a lot of effects, especially
when sunspots occur. Do you remember what sunspots are? Magnetic storms on the surface of the sun, right?
And those storms create additional charged particles that solar wind can carry toward earth. Any ideas? What
impact this added influx of particles can have? It can disrupt radio broadcasts and satellite transmissions. It can
also have an effect on electric power grids, right? Charged particles from the sun entering our atmosphere can
have a big impact on communications and power systems. That should be happening all the time, though, if
solar wind in the atmosphere is common, it's a question of degree. We do get protection from earth's magnetic
field. So when there are no magnetic storms on the sun, the effects are minimal. Instead of acting as a barrier, as
we thought, the magnetic field acts more like a sieve. It LED small amounts of solar winds see through in some
locations other than the poles. The results are catastrophic, though.

Now, solar wind can also affect our climate and weather. We've seen solar phenomena that coincide with
weather phenomena on earth. For example, sun spots occur in cycles. And in the period, when sunspot activity
is that it's lowest, when there's less solar wind, that period is known as a solar minimum. Research indicates that
many solar minimum events have coincided with drought in some areas on earth. Do the changes in solar wind
play a role in that? We don't know for sure. If we found out, could we do anything to prevent droughts? We still
couldn't avoid the drought itself. But perhaps just paying attention to cycles of sunspot activity would allow us
to better prepare for those drought periods by conserving water in advance, for example.

2-NT12-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and her ethno musicprofessor.
Hi, professor John, give a second. Sure, Katie, what's on your mind? Uh, the assignment for class that's do next
week, the short essay, I was wondering how long it's supposed to be. Um. Well, the essay is your review of the
documentary on traditional Irish music we watched yesterday in class. It should be about 3 to 5 pages long. That
makes sense. Just wanted to check. Okay, thanks, i'll see you in class second. As long as you're here, I wanted to
talk about that research paper. You and Sarah wrote together a few weeks back. Oh, the one we submitted
before spring break, right? Well, I finished reading it. You didn't like the paper. Actually, I thought it was quite
sophisticated, very well written and interesting. Oh. When Sarah and I decided to write about the internet and
the spread of popular Japanese music, we weren't sure how you'd react. We haven't discussed the cultural
influence of the internet in Asia in class.

At first, we were going to write about something more traditional like, the Arabic influences on Spanish music,
but we figured we were experts on the internet. Well, the influence of the internet is certainly something that
ethanol musicologists study. Your point about the internet effect on youth culture in Japan was especially good.
You and Sarah should consider presenting the paper at the undergraduate conference next semester. Really? But
this is only my second year at the university. I don't know. Am I really far enough into my studies to present a
conference? You don't have to be an expert in the field to present at the undergraduate conference. All you need
is something interesting to share. And you've certainly got that. You'll have to submit a proposal, a short
description of your paper. The committee reviews, the entries and accepts only a few of the submissions. You
should also make some revisions to your original paper to clarify a few of your ideas. I can help with that. It
shouldn't be too much work. Thanks, that would be great. Just remember, it's very important that you submit a
proposal right away, especially before you get busy with exams.
Last year, one of my students wrote an incredible paper on folk songs from the upper lakes, mountains of North
America. And I told him to apply for the conference too, but he was so busy with schoolwork that he didn't
submit his proposal on time. Trust me, professor John, I'm gonna get started right away, right? After I check
with Sarah.
Listen to a conversation between a student and the campus store manager.
Deborah, it's a surprise to see you on the weekend. I usually see you when you're working here during the week.
Well, I'm here to see someone at the campus souvenir counter. Maybe I can help. Okay? You know, those
campus mugs. We just started selling. Sure. They're really popular, can't keep them on the shelves. Well, I'm
getting a new roommate next term transferring from another school, and I thought I'd get her a gift. Nice idea,
our official mug with that picture of university hall on the front. It's a great way to make a new car feel part of
the place. Actually, I was thinking of the one with the school motto. Right? I'd forgotten that one sales of the
picture mug have been great, but not so many customers choose the one with the motto.

Well, since housing said she'll be in the teacher training program, I think you should appreciate the saying,
living to learn, learning to live. Uh, lots of students are attracted by our strong teacher training program. And
our model is very suitable.

So anyway, I saw you can have them up personalized, you know, add your own text on the back. So I tried
doing that online, but I kept getting an error message. Um. Let's try it here. Okay. Mamog. Got it. So what do
you want to add. Welcome to pine Forest University, Poma Susanna. Um, I got an error message, too. Ah. I see
the problem. A personalized message can only contain a maximum of 40 characters. Yours has 42, I guess. I
didn't notice the character limit. I'm not surprised. It's a tiny type at the bottom of the page. I'll have to talk to
our tech people about fixing that. So I guess i'll have to cut something. How about shortening the name to sue?
Maybe? I don't know. I haven't met Suzanne yet. I'm not sure she'd like being called sue, like, I don't care if
people call me Deborah Debbie dead, whatever. But some people have strong feelings about that sort of thing.

Then how about instead of welcome to pine Forest University? Just welcome. That would save characters, but I
like including the school's name in the message. I wanna make Suzanna feel she belongs here. Then why not
choose the picture Mark instead? It's clearly identifiable as pine Forest University and you can still add the
message. Welcome Susanna on the back. Yeah, that's a good idea. The picture does show the campus with the
pine trees next to university hall. That's pretty distinctive.

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

We know that different species of plants and animals have evolutionary advantages which help them survive in
their surroundings. Today, I'd like to look at a possible evolutionary advantage in an urban environment
involving pigeons. Researchers have noticed an unusually high proportion of dark birds living in cities and
urban areas compared to lighter birds. Why is this? A recent study suggests that a specific trait displayed by
dark birds may allow them to better deal with pollution in cities.

First, a little background Information for birds, one Challenge of urban environment is that things often have
high concentrations of trace metals. Things like zinc and lead, especially because of human activity. And
previous studies have shown that exposure to trace metals can be harmful to birds. It may cause them to lay
fewer eggs and experience reduced fertility.

What does this have to do with a bird's color? It's related to a pigment called melanin. Melanin is a pigment that
contributes to coloration in many animals. In the case of birds, it gives dark color to their feathers. But melanin
also binds tiny metal particles like particles that have made their way into a bird's bloodstream through the food
or water. It consumes. Trace metals attach chemically to the melanin. As a bird's feathers grow, the melanin
transfers some of these metal particles out of the bloodstream and into the feathers which the birds eventually
shed. Basically, the hypothesis is that melanin may help birds detoxify their bodies of trace metals. As a result,
these darker birds may reproduce more successfully than light birds in polluted environments.

Back to the study, I mentioned, the researchers collected approximately 100 pigeons ranging from light to dark
in colour, from urban areas in France, on the outskirts of Paris. And around Paris to the most widespread metal
contaminants are zinc and lead. When the pigeons were first collected, the researchers removed two large
feathers from each bird and took two measurements. The amount of zinc in the feathers and the amount of lead.
Now it turned out that feathers from all the pigeons contain similar concentrations of metal, regardless of their
color. But if dark feathers are supposed to like capture metal particles, why do they all have the same amount?
Were related in dark pigeons taken from really different areas or something? Actually, the birds are all taken
from the same general area but.

The researchers pointed out that their exposure to metal contaminants could still have been significantly
different. Pollution levels can differ even in adjacent areas of a city. So it's possible that local environmental
factors disguise the evidence of greater metal uptake in the feathers of dark birds. For example, if lighter
pigeons tended to live in more polluted areas, next, the birds were kept in outdoor cages and fed the same diet
for one year. The birds were definitely exposed to the same metal levels during this time.

After 1 year, the feathers were removed from the same part of the body as before, and again, measured for zinc
and lead concentrations. Here's what the researchers found. The darker birds had more zinc in their feathers than
the pale ones did. This was consistent with the prediction that dark birds stole more metal in their feathers and
lighter birds. Now the researchers didn't find a relationship between lead concentration and coloration, but they
haven't excluded the possibility that darker feathers can detoxify the blood of lead. Since on the whole, the
bird's feathers were storing a lot of lead at the time of capture.

While these findings are intriguing, more questions need to be answered before we can be sure that melanin is
really important. Remember, birds remove metal from their blood streams when their feathers are growing, but
most birds including pigeons only shed their feathers about once a year, so this detoxification process doesn't
happen very often. It's difficult to imagine that birds living in really polluted areas can actually remove enough
metal to make a big difference for reproductive success. I think the researchers argument could be strengthened
if they conducted a follow up study, but in this new study, it would be helpful to measure metal levels in the
bird's bloodstream. Metal in the blood is a more direct measurement, so it could help the researchers present
more concrete evidence to support their claim.

2-NT12-2

Listen to part of a lecture in a philosophy class.

In the third century, bce there were several schools of philosophy flourishing in Greece. Now by school, I'm
referring to a set of philosophical teachings that gained a group of followers. I'd like to talk a little bit about one
of the most popular of these schools, epicureanism, which was founded by the philosopher and precarious.
Epicurus conducted most of his teachings in the garden outside of, his house, this space where his followers
came to learn from him was simply called the garden. It's interesting because most philosophers around that
time taught out in the open in, very public places, where they attracted the best students of the day, but not at
the curious. The garden was much more secluded tucked away from public life.

And as you'll see, that's in keeping with epicurean philosophy. Professor, so is this where we get the term
epicurean today? I've heard it used to mean like someone who really enjoys indulging in good food or eating
expensive restaurants. Ha ha, good question. The term does originate from a peculiar philosophy. But eating at
an expensive restaurant is a good example of something ambiguous would have considered unnecessary. For
example, people in the garden had a relatively modest diet. They drank water and a bread made from barley. It
was pretty plain. Water and barley bread. Not exactly what we think of when we use the term Epicurus today.
Epicurus and his followers lived a rather simple life, and they believed that this simple life would help them
obtain anorexia. Anorexia refers to tranquility or peace of mind, and many different schools of philosophy
around this time were very interested in this concept.

They have different ideas about how to achieve it. But they all started with the same question. If anorexia is so
desirable, because clearly we all want to have peace of mind, then why don't more people already have it?
Epicurus believed that the answer to this question was that people were pursuing the wrong kinds of desires.
The key to peace of mind was in pursuing the right kinds of desires. Epicurus argued that it was okay to pursue
desires that are necessary so like the desire to eat and drink. But when we pursue desires that are unnecessary,
like, say, if you wanted to become famous or live a public life in any way, even by running for public office,
those kinds of desires prevent us from obtaining peace of mind. But doesn't somebody have to hold public
office? Otherwise, you'd have no government, was Epicurus against government, or but he watched it against
government. But he considered it best for your peace of mind if you could minimize the extent to which your
life is public.

A life in politics was an ideal. In his view. It's interesting, though, Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the
United States, so clearly, a politician actually considered himself an epicurean. In fact, many political thinkers
in the 17th and 18th century ce echoed some of Epicurus ideas in their own writing. For example, Epicurus said
that a truly just society should ensure that all its members have the opportunity to pursue their own happiness.
Jefferson and others were still discussing these ideas centuries later, which shows how influential epicureanism
was. You said that there were other schools of philosophy that were interested in this anorexia, right? What do
they think? Okay. One example is skepticism. The founder was the philosopher Piero. The skeptics essentially
say that people don't have peace of mind because they hold on to, opinions or beliefs. People would suspend
their judgment, essentially just get rid of their opinions. They would have no worries.

But how do you even do that? Get rid of your opinions? It's not easy. And I think it might account for my
epicurean philosophy has always been more popular than the skeptic philosophy. Giving up an opinion like I
prefer coffee to tea maybe isn't so difficult. But skeptics believe you have to give up all opinions, even opinions
like it's better to be healthy than sick. There's actually an interesting story about Piero, some consider it a bit far
fetched. But the story says that he would walk into busy streets without even looking first, seems dangerous, but
that's the.A true skeptic would have no opinion about whether walking into a busy street was dangerous or not.
Imagine what it would be like if you really followed that philosophy.

2-NT12-3
Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.
Archaeologists generally agree that humans originated on the continent of Africa. And what followed was a
long series of migrations of humans, out of Africa, two other parts of the world. The month that enjoys broad
acceptance today has modern humans, humans like you and me first migrating out of Africa around 120,000
years ago. According to this model, this first migration failed. These humans were able to reach the land around
the eastern and the Mediterranean Sea, not very far from Africa, but that's as far as they got. And after living
there a while, they all died off. According to this model, it was a second migration much later around 50,000
years ago that LED to the spread of modern humans around the world.

Okay, now, as I said, this is the commonly accepted model, but its credibility could possibly be undermined as a
result of some recent discoveries by a team of archaeologists working in India, LED by Michael Pretoria says
he's found evidence that the first migration of modern humans out of Africa, 120,000 years ago did not fail, that
those humans in that first migration did not just settle near the Mediterranean Sea and die off. Rather says
petroleum, they continued on into India arriving their thousands of years earlier than would have been predicted
by the model that's currently in vogue.

The evidence patriotic sites is a number of stone tools. His team found that he says closely resemble tools used
by early modern humans in southern Africa. One way patriarchy dated the tools was by their location relative to
a layer of white volcanic ash. Some of the artifacts were found below this layer of ash. Others were found above
it and this isn't just any volcanic ash. This is ash from one of the most spectacular volcanic eruptions ever the
toga eruption. A volcano called over in Indonesia is believed to have erupted around 75,000 years ago. It's
thought to have objected hundreds of cubic miles of volcanic ash high into the atmosphere, which then came
down and blanketed a vast area, including much of the Indian subcontinent with a heavy layer of ash. So this
layer of volcanic ash provides a clear time marker. Any artifact below this geologic layer would have created
the Toby eruption. And any artifacts above this layer would have posted it. Come after the eruption.

So if patriarchy is right about the artifacts, found below the if these artifacts were created by modern humans,
that would mean that at the time of the eruption, 5,000 years ago, modern humans were already living in India.
And if patriarchy is right about, the artifacts found just above the Toby ash that they were also created by
modern humans, that would suggest that humans at this site actually managed to ride out the turbo eruption and
its aftermath.

Now, a lot of the experts think that's highly unlikely. But could these humans possibly have managed to do that?
Could they have possibly managed to survive in this bleak ash covered landscape following that enormous
eruption? Well, maybe since the walls of the valley where the artifacts were found are really steep, it's possible
that very little of the ash would have accumulated on them and plants growing on the walls could have survived
and provided food. And the surrounding mountains have a number of springs. So there would have been sources
of fresh water too.

Okay, now that's an intriguing theory, but I don't envision a lot of archaeologists spying into it. For one thing,
some archaeologists argue that patriarchy a stone tools aren't distinctive enough to be clearly related to tools
made by modern humans in southern Africa. I haven't seen the artifacts firsthand, so I can't comment on that,
but I don't think we can accept petroleum claims about modern humans in India till we see some direct
evidence. Perhaps some skeletal remains with DNA that we could test. So far, he hasn't found any, but of
course, it would be almost a miracle if he ever did since volcanic ash is so acidic, that any ancient bones in
direct contact with it would have disintegrated long ago.

2-NT13-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a media studies professor.
So I just wanted to meet with you to see how you're progressing in class and on your class project. Well, um,
actually, i've got an idea for a topic that I wanted to talk to you about. Great, tell me about it. Well, last spring I
took a 2 week course uh offered by 1 of the environmental science professor investors. We went to Alaska, and
and we got to observe the research. She's doing there on arctic birds with professor Larson, right? And uh I did
a lot of filming there, and I thought I could use some of that for my short documentary film, the one i'll make
for class. Anyway, they're looking at how um how changes in the climate are affecting the birds. There. Sounds
promising what are they looking for specifically? Well, these birds some migrate like all the way from southeast
Asia every year to breed.

Anyway, with climate change. I guess spring is coming earlier. So they want to know how different bird species
will respond to that. And the arctic weather has always been pretty inconsistent. So they're looking at how stress
different kinds of birds get, because of the variability to see if they can figure out which ones will adapt well
and which ones won't. Well, it's interesting research. You sound excited about it. That's great. And I guess you'd
have a lot of material to work with. So it'll be important to find a focus, both with the topic and and with the
structure of the film.

Oh, yeah, we talked about the different structures in class, right? I thought I'd use the linear one show where
they started and their progress, what they've learned right, or at least during your time there. Uh, remember, the
film's only 5 minutes and this kind of research can stretch over years oh. Yeah, well, from my time there. So,
uh, as we discussed in class, this format works best when you have a central character. One person who story
you follow throughout the film. Uh, were you thinking of working with professor Larson? Yeah. Um, I already
talked to her, and she said she's interested. If you approve the topic, I wanna start filming some interviews with
her right away. Great. Well, look over the notes from class on how to conduct an interview. Remember that it's
good to bring your camera for a test interview beforehand to let her get used to it before the real interviews,
right? And also to see how i'll position the camera, what the lighting is like in the room, you know, set up the
shots.
Listen to a conversation between a student and the manager of the university theaters.
Hi, mister Anderson, I'm Alice Parker. I have an appointment here with miss Cruz um about the production of
hamlet. I'm directing. Hello Alice, I'm glad to meet you. This is Cruz called and said she prefer to meet you next
door in the theater. I do want to talk to you first though. Okay, I saw the tickets have already gone on sale, and I
understand you've cast both students and some of our theater department faculty. That's great, but about your
rehearsal schedule, you know that the university's dance troop is performing the weekend after hamlet, right? I
saw that you're both scheduled to rehearse on the main stage at the same time on Wednesday afternoons. How
did that happen? I didn't see them on the schedule when I signed up, well, we discovered a problem with the
scheduling software that somehow allowed the theater to be double booked.

Well, that's not really our fault. I'm sure I signed up for it, right? I know, and I'm sorry about it, but the Jenkins
theater or smaller theater is available at that time. So we were hoping you could rehearse there on those days.
You guys don't need quite as much space as the dance troop. Well, I suppose we could. Great. Thank you. So
back to hamlet. Yeah, rehearsals are starting soon and we're thinking about scenery, special effects lighting
sound, the technical elements. I've written up a list like first, there's a scene where the ghost appears, the ghost
of hamlets, father. So to convey that effect, maybe dress him in hazy filming material or maybe some special
lighting effects. Sure with lighting, you can create a hazy misty effect. Great. And could his voice sort of have
an echo? Yes, but let's hold on a second. I can give you some general ideas, but as the technical director, miss
Cruz, overseas sound, lights, scenery, so she'll have more recommendations. You should also set up time to
meet with Margaret Jackson, our costume designer, she's terrific.

Okay? Then about the scenery, I have an outdoor scene on the fields in the countryside, but there's also the
castle. So stone walls, you know, but all that gets expensive and our budget is limited. Again, that's a question
for miss Cruz, but I'm sure she'll suggest backdrops curtains along the back wall. We have some in storage.
Different scenery is painted on each backdrop to create the backgrounds, so there's no building involved. We
definitely have outdoor scenes and probably a castle wall. And then you add your set pieces furniture and so on.
Okay, I guess most of my questions are for her. I'll go to the theater, then we're really excited to get started. I'm
looking forward to it.

So last class we talked about airplanes about flight. We discussed efficiency, um, you know, efficient designs
uh designs that use the least amount of energy. We talked about the fixed wings, uh, that engineers believe fixed
wings are more efficient, because they don't waste energy on flapping motions on on up and down motions.
And we talked about drag. I remember a drag is the name for a force that acts in a direction that's opposite to the
motion of the object. So uh drag is the force that slows down the plane. In order to keep moving forward, the
plane has to overcome this force. So the bigger the drag force, the more energy the plane has to use. So
engineers, uh, engineers try to create designs that reduce drag like Greenlining, a plane's body. Okay. Well,
what if I told you that drag might actually be a good thing that that is increasing, drag might be more efficient.
That's what research on insects. Specifically dragon flies seems to indicate. So why dragon flies? Well, dragon
flies have a high level of maneuverability, so they're really good at controlling their movements. Ever see one
flying, they can stop and start reverse or or change direction in mid air.

Now, what's really got researchers interested is the way they hover, the way they can just float in the same place
without moving forward. It's pretty amazing. I mean, think about it. Airplanes are able to stay in the air because
of lift, lift if you remember is, the upward force that allows the plane to rise, uh, allows the plane to stay in the
air, and lift is generated by air flowing across the wings uh, as the plane moves forward. So airplanes can't
hover, because uh, because they need to be moving forward is usually pretty high speeds in order to stay in the
air.

So how do dragon flies do it? Well, surprisingly, they do it by using drag. It sounds strange, right? Well,
researchers thought it was pretty strange too at first. Say they've been studying the way dragon flies fly, the way
they move their wings uh, their their wing strokes for a long time. And they used to think that dragon flies used
only 1 type of wing stroke. But recently they've been able to look more closely at the wing strokes using high
speed cameras and computer simulations. They discovered the dragon flies actually use different strokes, uh,
use a combination of different strokes.

Now, dragon flies use these different wing strokes to create air patterns, uh, to control the way the air around
the moves. And what dragon flies do is uh, they use the error of, the patterns that they create to help them fly.
So think about a helicopter. Helicopters have wings that rotate horizontally as a helicopter wing blade rotates
around, air flows across it. And that creates a lift, just like a wing that's moving forward. And the lift is the
upward force that allows the helicopter to fly. So the helicopter um, only creates a force in an upward direction,
but dragon flies. Uh, they use specific wing strokes to create circular, spiralling patterns, like uh, whirlpools of
air. These patterns create a combination of forces acting in different directions in many different directions. And
these forces help dragon flies balance their weight, uh, help them stay in the air, hover and and maneuver.

So what about the math behind these observations? Uh, researchers calculated the drag using uh, uh, using a
modified version of the classical equations. And they found that it was significantly higher than the drag for
other hovering insects. Like John bees. Turns out they're hovering techniques uh, for bees, I mean, are similar to
helicopters, but the dragon flies technique. It produces more drag as the dragonfly wing beach downward. The
drag, which is always the opposite force, acts upward. And this extra drag actually creates an upward force
about 4 times stronger than the force they get using just lift. So unlike planes, dragon flies don't have to use
more energy, don't have to work harder to overcome drag, um, because the the drag is helping them stay in the
air and. Some researchers are actually rethinking the efficiency of fixed wings. You know, because uh hold, the
dragon flies wing strokes are generating such a large upward force. And it makes sense. I mean, dragon flies
have been flying a lot longer than we have. So they probably have a better system worked out.

2-NT13-2

Listen to part of a lecture in a theater class.

Today we begin talking about realism in western theater, but before we jump right into the shift to realism, let's
take a second to talk about what realism is in the theater, in particular, but also in general, realism was a new
movement in the late 19th century. And it stemmed from a desire to depict the world, both nature and
contemporary life as truthfully accurately and with as much detail as possible. It was stimulated by what was
happening in the social and natural sciences at the time with their emphasis on the objective observation of
society in nature. Anyway, I'm just gonna there were a lot of things happening in theater that combined in such
a way as to inspire this form of theater. We're gonna focus today on just a few of them.

The first is the influence of melodrama. In the 19th century, by far underway, the most popular type of theater
was melodrama. This sort of exaggerated tales of heroes and villains and noble actions. Good, always triumph
thing over evil. Melodramas had all sorts of crazy things happening in them. Maybe a hero had to beat the
villain in a horse race in order to uh, save the day or something. And melodrama developed extremely realistic,
special effects to portray these scenes. Effects that became ever more sophisticated as audiences came to
demand greater and greater excitement and spectacle. And as technology made that possible, for example, you'd
have real horses running that race on moving belts set into the stage floor, or a melodrama might have an
erupting volcano or whatever kind of spectacle it took to keep audiences coming back for more.

Now, that's probably not what you think of when you think realism. You're right. You don't find a lot of truthful
depictions of everyday life going on in melodramas, but it was the authenticity of melodrama, special effects
that later became a central element of realist plays rather than the spectacle.

Other features of melodrama that come into play here included a desire for what we call historical accuracy,
particularly in setting and costuming. Melodramas often took place in exotic locations. A tropical island, say, or
in the distant past, like an ancient Rome, audiences that it come to expect more visual authenticity. They wanted
to see what ancient Rome actually looked like, what the Romans actually wore. They didn't want to see actors
wearing contemporary clothing, which is what actors before the 19th century war. Usually something chosen
right from their own closet. Anyway, authentic costumes and scenery would later show up in realist
productions. And that leads to another thing that deserves mention here.

Early in the 19th century, staging in theater took a step in the direction of realism, with the innovation of a new
style of set. The box said basically three walls that are supposed to represent three walls of a room. A lot of
people use the term 4th wall realism, because you're supposed to imagine that there's a 4th wall there that you're
getting to see through, so that you can observe what's actually happening in this room. And these sets, all kinds
of things were put in. The past sets had just been flat panels with features, with scenery, just painted on them.
But with the box said it was as if the audience was in save the kitchen with the actor. You could see the actor
washing his hands in an actual sink with running water.

Now, these physical visual developments in themselves, they aren't enough to transform an art form, right? As
the 19th century went along, we started to have playwrights who were interested in a truthful depiction of
contemporary social issues. Playwrights wanted to deal with problems related to poverty, money, marriage, the
environment. They didn't wanna just hint at these subjects anymore by setting plays with such themes in the
distant past. For instance. Instead, the playwrights wanted to confront the societal problems, head on as they
were occurring in the here. And now we're looking back to what we said about science. The scientist searches
for the truth through observation, and that's really what playwright started doing. Observing and then writing
about the real circumstances of regular folks, just like the audience members. It was at that time considered
scandalous.

2-NT13-3

Listen to part of a lecture in a zoology class.

So we've been talking about the different actions that animals take when in danger from predators to recap, what
are some of them try to run away or fight back or stay still to remain unnoticed. Right these are typical
strategies. Now, another thing that some prey animals do is play dead, what we call fanatosis. Fantaosis is when
animals lie completely still, so they appear dead. It's usually last resort strategy. This is different from when the
animal is not moving to remain unnoticed. Fantaosis is performed when the predator has already spotted the
prey, and the prey animal has little realistic chance of hiding, fleeing or fighting back successfully.

In addition to not moving some animals in fanatosis like certain types of frogs, also produce awful smelling
fluids or gases. They have special organs glands which secrete these chemicals. Wow, kind of like animals that
have actually been dead for a while smell bad. Kind of um, but this won't fool the predator that it's praise long,
dead and decomposing. Remember, an animal would usually perform sanatose is only after it's been seen. It'd
be hard to convince the predator that what it just saw alive and well is suddenly long, dead, and decomposing.
But the smells bad enough that it does, at least sometimes keep the predator away. But what's the point of
pretending to be dead in the first place? If the predator is interested in eating the prey, wouldn't playing dead,
just make its job easier.

Well, you see, movement tends to trigger the predators, hunting instincts. And a predator in a hunting mode
tends to pay less attention to other signals, ones that the premier wanted to notice. There's this frog, for
example, called the fire belly toad. When a fire belly toad gets attacked, it performs saniosis. It lies down in a
way that its brightly colored bellies clearly visible to the predator. You see, these tones taste terrible, and the
predator may know this from past experience. By displaying its belly colors, the toads reminding the predator of
the unpleasant sensation that comes with eating it. Is this kind of similar to the purpose of the bright colors of
some poisonous snakes? Good comparison. They both want themselves to be recognizable so that predators stay
away. In the today's case, it also performs Santa osis as extra insurance that the predator notices the signal.

So the goal of fantaosis is basically to avoid stimulating the predators, hunting instincts. Researchers did a study
involving cats and quail birds. When the cats had a choice of hunting a moving Quayle or simply taking a
motionless one, the cats hunted the active bird 86% of the time. And then playing dead would only work if
there's other moving prey around. In the case of the Quayle. Yes. And this is similarly the case for fire ants.
They also use damages as effectively because they're in a group, like other kinds of ants, fire, ants live in
colonies, and sometimes one colony may invade and attack a neighboring one resulting in a battle.

We aren't talking about predator and prey species here. It's a case of aggression within the same species. What's
interesting is that young fire ants, ones that are just a few days old, are 4 times more likely to survive such a tax.
Then fire ants that are months old in spite of the fact that young answers are the least able to fight and are the
most vulnerable. Their exoskeleton, their external cover hasn't hardened enough to provide much protection
from older ants. Older ants can easily bite or sting through the soft exoskeleton. But they don't do it because the
young ants play dead. Attacking ants don't have time to double check whether the motionless and lying around
are actually dead. They have to focus on fighting the older ones, the ones that are fighting back. In fact, older
ants fight even if outnumbered, exposing themselves to the risk of getting killed. So the young ones survived by
not helping out. They wouldn't be of much help during the fight anyway except, perhaps for distracting the
attackers. And for the colony as a whole, this strategy makes sense, young answer likely to have longer lives,
still ahead of them. And are thus more important for growing the colony in the future.

2-NT14-1
Listen Into a conversation between a student and the Dean of student activities.

Thanks for meeting with me. I was wondering someone told me they thought there was a bird watching club on
campus bird watching. Mhm, I seem to remember something, but I checked around and I can't find anything
about it listed anywhere. Um. Now that you mentioned it, I vaguely recalled the one I'm thinking of disbanding
a while ago. That's kind of surprising because there is a fair amount of interest. I know a lot of people who want
to join. Of course, you don't really need a club to go bird watching, just a good field Guide and a pair of
binoculars. Sure, but a club people are more likely to get together if there's an official group. And it's more fun.
Well, I imagine that's true. So if I got something together, could we get it going again? Get a web page on the
university site and maybe a meeting room? Well, a web page, yes, that shouldn't be a problem, but we're really
short on meeting space. I think your best bet is to use the website to create a network away for people to
connect and plan activities.

But what if we want to invite a speaker or show a film or something? Oh, we have plenty of lecture halls
available for the occasional function, but a room is a more complicated proposition, believe it or not.

Okay, by the way, do you know professor Pritchard? He's in the biology department, an ornithologist, and he's
involved in a research project. You might like to participate in once you're up and running. He organizes the
annual bird counts in this area, really? Yes, he needs people to spot and count certain species. He sends the
results to a national coordinator. It's a big project that involves thousands of amateur bird watchers from
everywhere in the country. And they tally the results. I've read about that. Apparently last year they observed
that more bird species in the us are flying farther North and even staying there for the winter. It's a possible sign
of adaptation to global warming, but then it could just be a temporary migration escaping a storm in the south or
whatever. We won't know for sure until we have another like 20 years of data. Okay, so professor Pritchard, i'll
send him an EMAIL. Thanks. Sure. And i'll take care of things on my end.
Listen to part of a conversation between a student and his biology professor.
Thanks for coming in jump. I've looked at your paper, and while you're on the right track, there are some
changes that I think you need to consider if you want to hand in a really strong paper next week.

So I'm glad you decided to come by and take advantage of my offer to preview papers before they're do. I think
our discussion should help you with your final version. I the paper is pretty well written, and you have some
interesting examples like the mutualism between ants and acacia plants found in South America, the way the
ants in the occasion rely on each other. It's an interesting case. I think when I read about it, I thought it was
really neat like the way the ants lay their eggs, their larvae inside the plants, thorns, and how they rely on the
plant for food. The plant actually produces food for the ants on the tips of its leaves. Yes, you explain that in
your paper and in exchange, the ants protect the plant by attacking any animal that comes along and tries to eat
the leaves. The thing is there's more than one species of occasion plant and I'm pretty sure they don't all have
this type of materialistic behavior.

I didn't realize it's a point you should be careful about when you're doing your revisions. Name the exact species
of occasion and also the exact species of ant i'll add that good, there were just a couple of, other things. First,
while you have some good examples in here, there's room for more. So I'd like to see you add some other
examples of mutualism between two species other than ants and occasions. Yeah, I was worried that it might be
too short. So I did some more research after I dropped the paper off on Tuesday. I found some more stuff, more
examples to add good and use those other examples, either to support your thesis about the effects of
materialism or to raise issues with it. I like the idea of elaborating on what can happen as a result of mutualism.
It's the paper's greatest strength. It engages the reader and deserves to be the focus, the idea that materialistic
relationships can have an ecological impact. So even if your additional examples aren't consistent with your
thesis, they certainly enrich the discussion.

Listen to part of a lecture in an engineering class.

Okay, so we have salt, water, water that's found in the oceans that has a high salt content and freshwater water
that's not salty, that's found in lakes and rivers and so on. Salt waters abundant, but it would make people sick if
they drank it, and few agricultural crops can tolerate it. So for human consumption and agriculture, salt, water is
no good, we need fresh water. And in some areas or during certain times of the year, fresh water is pretty
scarce. But if we desalinate salt water, take the salt out of it, we can essentially convert it into fresh water.

As of now, the most common desalination method involves constructing a big facility that pumps salt water
through large tubes. Inside each tube are special sheets of material called membranes. These membranes have
tiny holes that allow water molecules to pass through, but not salt molecules. And that's how the salts removed.
Now, for decades, membranes have been made from a material called polyamide. Although polyamide
membranes have been the standard for some time, they're less than ideal. For example, they don't interact well
with chlorine. Chlorine, as you know, is a chemical that's added to our drinking water to kill various disease,
causing organisms. But chlorine can also be found in seawater, and chlorine causes polyamide to weaken and
deteriorate. So if you're using polyamide membranes and your seawater contains a lot of chlorine, you're gonna
have to remove that chlorine before you can desalinate the water. Unless of course, you want to keep replacing
those polyamide membranes.

Now, though, an attractive new alternative is being investigated, membranes made of graphite oxide. Grafting
oxide membranes are not damaged by chlorine. So we don't have to go to the trouble and expense of removing
chlorine from sea water that we're about to decelerate. And these membranes are very thin. So less water
pressure is needed to push water molecules through them. That means we use less energy. So we end up with
lower energy bills. The catch is. The membranes themselves are quite pricey. So you're gonna have to spend a
fair amount of cash when you purchase them.

Okay? And next, there's the idea of using black aluminum disks. This new technology is based on a concept
that's been around since ancient times. Essentially, you heat salt water with sunlight. The water evaporates turns
into vapor and the salts left behind. The vapor then cools. And condenses turns back into a liquid. And now
you've got salt Free water. Unfortunately, in today's modern evaporation systems, just as in ancient times, less
than half of incoming sun lights absorbed and converted into heat energy. But the way these new black
aluminum discs would work is you have a transparent box. And inside that box, you have a container of sea
water. And floating on Top of that seawater. You have one of these disks. The disk has a lot of holes in it that
go completely through the disk. When sunlight hits the disk, nearly all that heat energy is absorbed by the disk.
That energy heats the salt water inside the holes, causing it to evaporate up through the holes. That vapor, then
condenses and collects in the bottom of the box. And you have pure water.

Speaking of pure water, I should point out that aside from salt, sea water also contains other minerals that are
essential to your health minerals that you're missing out on if you're drinking pure water. That's a drawback of
all desalination systems that are based on evaporation and condensation.

Now, finally, I recently read about a new concept that could bring agriculture to arid coastal regions where
farming would otherwise be practically impossible. The idea is to have platforms with rows and rows of
vegetables on them floating in the ocean, just off shore. These floating farms would be irrigated with water from
onboard desalination systems that are powered by solar panels. Pretty attractive idea right. Well, I'm sure these
floating farms are technologically possible, whether they make any economic sense. That's a different story, I
think.

2-NT14-2

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

We've been discussing the evolution of various species of animals, and now I'd like to call your attention to
some new Information concerning the origins of bats. Okay? When biologists talk about the evolution of bats, I
have to point out that there's the assumption that modern bats evolved step by step from a bad ancestor that was
terrestrial land welling. And that couldn't fly. Biologists have been searching for a bad fossil to support this
assumption, not an easy task. You see that fossils are extremely rare. Ancient bats like modern bats were small
with tiny, fragile bones, and they tended to live in tropical habitats where decay occurs rapidly. Practically, the
only way a bat could become fossilized in such environments was if it was covered swiftly with sediment,
which would protect it.

So it hasn't been easy to find just the right bat fossil. In particular, biologists have been searching for the fossil
of a transitional bat with features of an archaic, primitive, terrestrial bat, and the features of a modern bat that
could fly. For years, the closest thing they had to a transitional bat was equal. And Nicholas Icahn, Nicholas
dates to the es scene epic. And until recently, it had been the oldest bat fossil on record.

Now, it's somewhat ironic that for decades, biologists look to this fossil as the basis of their understanding of
early bats. Because if ignorance were alive today, it'd be pretty hard to tell it apart from modern bats. Its fossil
looks essentially like a modern bat. The main feature of its anatomy that distinguishes it from modern bats is,
one tiny claw on its index finger. Most modern bats have a claw only on the thumb. Biologists proposed that
icron necteris claw was a holdover from an earlier terrestrial ancestor that would have had claws on all five
fingers.

Well, not all that much to go on, but recently biologists finished analyzing another bad fossil on a connectors.
Many biologists think that on a connectors is just the transitional creature they've been looking for. Let me
explain. Okay, I'm a connectors and icarin nectarist both date back to the esc epic. They were found in the same
layer of rock. And like Icarus on the connectors has structural features of modern bats. For example, we can tell
from its anatomy that it could fly. But on a connectors also has features of a land dwelling mammal. For
example, it has claws on all five fingers, not just on its index finger. And the presence of five clause isn't the
only feature of on the connectors that recalls terrestrial mammals. Most modern bats have very long forearm
and very tiny hind limbs to help them fly. But on the connectors has proportionally shorter forums and
proportionately longer hind limbs, the proportions of which are similar to climbing mammals like slots and
Gibbons slots and Gibbons hanging from branches much of the time and travel about mainly by swinging from
tree to tree.

So biologists are wondering if on a connectors could have evolved from an ancestor that lived in and swung
about from tree to tree like slots, and Gibbons. But many biologists are especially excited about on a
connectors, because they say its Discovery has put an end to a longstanding debate over weather flight, or echo
location evolved first. In bats. Echolocation is an ability. Most bats have to produce high pitched sounds and
then analyze the returning echoes, allowing them to detect obstacles and hunt for prey much better than by just
using eyesight.

Well, many biologists say that the uncarnivorous fossil provides the strongest evidence so far that it was flight
that came first. Remember, on a connector is could fly. But unlike the other known facts that they back to the
escn epic, including icaronicterus, on a connector as probably could not echo locate. Biologists think this
mainly because of the probable size of its cochlea, a coiled bone located in the ear of mammals, all bats that can
allocate have a large copilot. But on the connectors, this cochlea would have been too small to have supported
at the location. Okay. Certainly, on a connectors is a fascinating fossil, but I mean, can we really know from this
one fossil, whether on connectors evolved from ancestors that swung from tree to tree? And couldn't an even
earlier bath than on a connectors have had the ability to echo locate? I'd say that we need to find a lot more bad
fossils that lie even closer to the beginning of bats than on a connectors. To solve the many mysteries
surrounding the origins of bats.
2-NT14-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a music history class.
My happy chance. It turns out there's going to be a student production of Orpheus and Eurydice taking place
next week. The timing is excellent, because we're about to start our discussion of the composer of that opera.
Kristof vibalt. Look. Kristof Billie balled. Luke was a German composer who wrote in the 18th century. The
opera is called Orpheus and Eurydice. It's based on a story from classical mythology. Paula, I bet you've read it,
right? According to the myth, Orpheus is the greatest musician in the ancient world, and his music has magical
powers. You really see as his wife? She dies, and he goes down to the underworld to bring her back. That's
correct.

The opera based on the story was first performed in Vienna in 1762. It was not a success. It irritated a lot of
people. When you go to see it, and I do want all of you to go see this production, keep in mind that it marks an
important moment, even a revolutionary moment in the development of western opera.

Professor, I saw the rehearsal and I thought it seemed very old fashioned from our perspective. Yes, it would
seem that way. But because of well going back to the earlier, let's back up a minute. When we talked last week
about the origins of opera, what did we give as the definition? Oh, I remember a theatrical performance,
combining vocal music or Castro music and drama, and the operas of the 1700s. What did we say? They were
like just an excuse for the singers to show off. The plots were elaborate and silly. The songs went on forever,
and the singers thought it was all about them. They were kind of like pop stars of today. Yes. The opera was
simply a way of showcasing singers wonderful vocal techniques. Yet, a lot of people enjoy those operas. In fact,
gook started out writing that kind of opera. But somewhere along the way, he decided that traditional opera
needed some drastic improvements. Maybe because of his orthodox background, you see, many composers in
those days grew up in musical families and started their training at a very young age.

But Luke was the son of a forester who worked on a princess of state, not a musician. He became fascinated
with music. And instead of becoming a forester himself, he left home to travel and study. Maybe this
background made him more independent minded than the typical composer. Here's something Luke wrote to
explain what he had in mind. He said, I sought to restrict the music to its true purpose of serving to give
expression to the poetry and to strengthen the dramatic situations. So in other words, he wanted to make the
whole offer important, not just the singing. He composed music that conveyed the character's emotions. He
simplified the plots. He picked singers who could also act and bring the characters to life. Everything had to
come together to achieve the desired effect. Orpheus and eurywas, the first opera to be based on these
principles. But the audience didn't like it. Well, that's true. A lot of people weren't enthusiastic about books
ideas. They like their pop star is just fine. Ultimately, though good ideas were widely accepted and formed the
basis for many later developments in opera. That's why we consider that first production of or if you send see to
be a game changing event.

Um, but despite goods, revolutionary ideas, he wasn't a purist. He did sometimes take audience preferences into
account in 1774, when he staged Orpheus in jersey in Paris, he made a number of modifications to suit the
specific tastes of that city's opera fans. He added more songs and dances for example and. He changed the
instrumentation in the orchestra. And it was much more successful than the first version, the Vienna version.
However, it did lose a certain amount of that fresh natural storytelling that he'd been striving for.

Oh, and speaking of the story, you know, even in the first version, the 1762 version, he made an important
change from the original myth. Paul, please remind us how that myth ends. Orpheus is allowed to lead Eurydice
back to earth as long as he doesn't look at her on the way. But at the last minute, he does look back, and your
odyssey has to stay in the underworld. But that's not the end of the he invented a character named love, the spirit
of love who takes pity on the characters, restores you to see the life and brings the couple back together.

2-NT15-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a member of the engineering faculty.
Thanks for agreeing to see me, professor Weiss. It's nice to finally get the chance to meet you. I was afraid we'd
have to suspend the club's activity since we're losing our adviser that would have been stressful. Most of our
members have already paid for the climbing trip we planned for after final exams this year. It's unfortunate that
professor Peterson is resigning. I believe. He advised your club since it was founded. I know he's an amazing
technical climber, he donated, most of our club's equipment, too. Do you know why he's leaving? Yeah, he
really wanted to live closer to his family in Massachusetts. So when a faculty position at a university in Boston
opened up, he went for it. We begged him to stay, but who could blame him? Oh, I see.

Anyway, I wanted to thank you for stepping in. I was thrilled when professor Peterson suggested it. Actually,
it's my duty, in a sense. Your duty, yes, the university encourages assistant professors to advise student clubs.
And the mountaineering club is a good fit for me. I've been climbing the local mountains since I was a teenager
really, WOW. Um, we try to do a climbing trip every other month, and there's training in practice sessions, too.
Like I said, the club owns climbing equipment. Thanks to professor Peterson. Um. Have you checked out our
website? Yeah, yes. Those photos from last year's trip to Carlsbad caverns are really gorgeous. Oh, and the
website said you do camping and bicycling trips too. I was wondering, have you ever considered calling
yourselves the outdoors club instead of the mountaineering club? It might help you attract more students, you
know, people who aren't into technical climbing with helmets and ropes and everything.

Well, I mean, sure we can certainly discuss it to, see what the other members think. Okay, so when do you
meet? I didn't notice the schedule on the website. The second Tuesday of the month, we used to meet in the
gym, but we're switching to the student center lounge starting this month it's nicer. Sometimes there's a guest
speaker. Later this term, we're gonna show a film about climbing. When do the meeting start? 7:00 pm but
there's a lot of milling around. So it's usually 7:30 or 7:45 before things get rolling. Me and the other officers
were pretty lax with the genders and stuff. We do talk about business, but it's mostly hanging out with friends
um. I'm usually writing lesson plans are grading papers on week nights, but I could pop into your next meeting
around 8 o'clock and introduce myself. That would be great.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her archaeology professor.

I wanted to stop by because um I was out last week and you need a copy of the presentation assignment. I got a
copy for Emily, but I wanted to pick up my research paper. Emily said you handed them back. Oh, sure, here it
is. Nice job, by the way. So you already have the handout about the presentation. Any questions? I did review it,
especially the descriptions of projects students have done before. One sounds really interesting. So I'm
considering doing something along those lines. You know, I provided that handout as a way to get everyone
started, to give you an idea about the appropriate scope of the topic and to provide examples that fit well with
the course work.

Oh, I know, I don't plan on doing the exact same thing, just something related. Okay. So what are you
considering focusing on? I like the one about salt damage. I did some research and I was surprised to learn how
much impact salts can have on all kinds of materials. Oh, yes, archaeologists are engaged in a never ending
battle against salt damage. I recall the student who gave that presentation focused on buildings close to the sea,
when a structure made from a porous material, like rock is in continuous contact with sea water spray. So it will
eventually make its way inside the building material. And then when the salts crystallize inside the rock that
creates pressure and the rock can break exactly. So how will your presentation be different? Well, I wanna focus
on salt damage to artifacts like ceramics and pottery. Okay, artifacts by itself is a bit broad, but maybe artifacts
from one or two particular locations. I read about ceramics um, from the Mediterranean region. What happens is
the soil they're buried in contained salts that penetrate the poorest artifacts and cause different types of damage
to different types of artifacts.

Okay, you want to discuss some preservation methods too. Some of the current thinking about what the best
practices are for restoring artifacts that have sustained damage. Yeah, definitely. When people working at
museums are deciding how to treat a particular case of salt damage, there are a lot of variables they consider.
One of the main questions is exactly how much salt do they have to remove so that the artifact is no longer at
risk of further salt damage. It'd be great if there were some kind of standard rule to follow, but in reality, it can
vary a lot from object to object. It depends on the individual artifact, what it's made of, what kind of salt has
infiltrated it, what kind of conditions it's been exposed to? Um, well, it sounds like I have some reading to do.
Okay, thanks for your help.

Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

The search for planets that orbit stars outside our own solar system is probably one of the most exciting aspects
of astronomy. We call these planets, exo planets. One of the largest xo planets we've detected is wasp 17 b wasp
stands for wide area search for planets. It's a project that focuses on xo planet research. Wasp 17 b is a gas giant,
almost twice the diameter of Jupiter. Unlike most other known axle planets, 17 bees orbit appears to be elliptical
rather than circular. What's more it appears to have a retrograde orbit? Retrograde means the planet orbits in the
opposite direction of its stars, rotation.

Um, as as you recall, stars and planets form from swirling rotating gas clouds. So when stars form from the gas
cloud, they rotate in a specific direction. And planets that form from leftover material of the same cloud usually
orbit in that same direction. How can we know so much about a planet, its orbit and all that for a planet outside
our solar system? Because the planet's gravitational pull causes its host start to move slightly to wobble as the
planet orbits. We can measure that wobble by studying the light emitted from the star. The light shifts toward
blue on the color spectrum as the star warbles closer to earth and toward red as it wobbles away. Alternating
shifts between red and blue indicate that an object is orbiting the star, either a planet or another star.

But what if the stars wobbling left and right or up and down? You know, instead of closer and farther from
earth, you've hit on a drawback of this method. It doesn't allow us to see the entire wobble of the star only, that
portion of its wobble that changes the stars distance from earth. It's from this movement that we infer the
presence of an orbiting object. Also an object must have enough mass to create a wobble that we can detect with
our technology. A wobble caused by a low mass planet wouldn't be detectable. However, in the case of wasp 17
b measurements of its host stars wobble indicate it's a giant planet, and they suggest that the planet has an
elongated retrograde orbit.

So planets start out orbiting in the direction that their star rotates, but this one changed direction. That's right. It
sounds impossible. How could a planet reverse its direction? It's not impossible. In fact, there are computer
models that predict retrograde orbits. Um, okay, imagine a spinning Top, moving around the floor in a circular
pattern. That's probably how 17 b behaved when it formed. It had a circular orbit in a specific direction. But if
you roll a tiny ball into the spinning Top, the impact would change the course of the Top slightly, perhaps
causing its circular path to become elliptical. With enough impacts, the Top might also reverse its course, start
tracing an ellipse in the opposite direction. And we think that's what happened to 17 b one or more collisions
with small planets or debris. When its star system was developing not, the planet out of its regular orbit, causing
the orbit to a long gate and eventually reverse direction to become retrograde. However, unlike the spinning
Top, there's no floor limiting the planet's movement in space, or the direction that any colliding debris could
come from.
So, of course, it's a bit more complicated than what I just described. Anyway, this elliptical orbit might actually
explain why 17 b is so big, because 17 BS orbit is elliptical. It's distance from the host or fluctuates. So the stars
gravitational pull on 17 b also fluctuates. This makes the planet flex like an accordion expanding and
contracting as the gravitational forces change. This flexing generates friction which releases heat causing the
planet to expand. You see when a planet is a gas giant, there's not a clearly defined difference between its
surface and its atmosphere. Gas makes up much of the planet, and as heat causes, the gas to expand, the planet
itself becomes larger. However, I'm with those who believe that friction might not have been the planet's only
source of internal heat. 17 b could have already expanded during formation if its early atmosphere was thick
enough to trap heat from the planet's star, that would have created a greenhouse effect, and the resulting heat
would have caused the planets gas to expand.

2-NT15-2
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.
Here's a question for you. Why are white tailed deer in the northern parts of North America significantly larger
than white tailed deer in the southern parts of the continent? No. Well, it has to do with a pretty well known rule
in biology. Bergman's rule. The rule is named after Carl Bergman, who first proposed it about 150 years ago.

Bergman's rule is pretty straightforward. It relates body size to environmental temperatures. It states that
members of the species tend to be relatively larger and heavier when living in colder climates. So if you have
two animals of the same species living in different areas, the one living in the colder environment will be larger
and heavier. Now, this tendency, the reason why this tendency exists, is usually explained as being due to heat
conservation. Animals with larger, heavier bodies are able to conserve their body heat better. The idea is to be
large, but to have a relatively small surface area, there's a mathematical equation i'll show you later. The
important thing is the relationship between surface area and volume and those deer deer up there in the cooler
regions of North America. Well, it's beneficial for them to retain as much heat as possible in their bodies in
order to stay warm in the cold temperatures. And that's exactly what the larger body does.

On the other hand, dear with smaller bodies living in the southern parts of the continent where the temperature
gets pretty hot, benefit from being able to easily lose heat from their bodies. Heat conservation is the usual
explanation for the trend, but not the only one. One that's encountered less commonly is that animals in colder
climates often have to survive periods where food may be scarce. So the ability to store fat on their bodies to
have larger fat reserves can be a vital adaptation.

Now, since the rule was first proposed, many studies have been done to see if it applies to specific animals.
What we've seen is that with a few exceptions, it seems to apply to warm blooded animals to mammals and
birds. But what about cold blooded animals? Turtles, snakes, lizards of. This is where things start to become
less clear. In 2003, a study claimed that turtles follow bergman's rule, but lizards and snakes reverse it. That is
for lizards and snakes living in colder areas, they'd have smaller bodies. Initially, I found those results
compelling, but there have been more recent studies and they've called this into question, and the matter is
hardly settled. Now, along with birdman's rule, there's also Allen's rule, which is similar.

Allen's rule focuses on body appendages or extremities, like arms, legs, or ears, even the feathers on birds. This
rule, states that animals living in colder climates will have shorter appendages, shorter than animals of the same
species in warmer climates. The theory is that the shorter arms, legs, feathers or what have you make the bodies
more compact and therefore more able to retain heat.
2-NT15-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a marketing class.
All right, everybody. I want you to think of a product that becomes outdated shortly after you buy it. What
comes to mind? Eric? My mobile phone. And why do you say that? Well, it always seems like as soon as I buy
one the next day, they come out with a better, cooler model, right? It's exasperating, isn't it? Which brings us to
today's topic? Planned obsolescence. Planned obsolescence is the term that's used to describe the strategy that
manufacturers have, where they intentionally design products to have a limited, useful life span. And there are,
oh, several ways to achieve this. Okay? One such way is that the product can be designed to wear out to
physically last only so long like clothing, for example. If a manufacturer produces a shirt or a blouse from low
quality materials, cheaper fabric or cloth, let's say, they know it's not going to last very long, right? It's going to
wear out. This is called obsolescence of quality. Um, I don't know, intentionally manufacturing a product so that
it wears out quickly. That sounds kind of unethical.

Well, you've hit on a key issue, a notable concern with planned obsolescence. In fact, back in the 1950s, this
notion was hotly debated by business executives in the manufacturing sector. And some of them frankly,
disagreed with it. Everyone liked the idea of selling more products, of course, but for some executives, planned
obsolescence seemed just plain wasteful. On the other hand, especially as far as obsolescence of quality is
concerned, no product lasts forever. No matter how well it's designed or made. Again, clothing is a perfectly
good example of this. Even a really expensive, high quality shirt will eventually wear out. And no one's to
blame for that. But personally, if a company sells a product that they know could have been made better for
little or no extra costs, well, then I start to question their motives.

Okay, but how about computers? Like when I buy a new one? It's not because the old ones worn out or even
poorly made. Exactly. And now we're looking at something called obsolescence of function, which you find in
many products, especially high tech products. Actually, let's go back to Eric's mobile phone. Eric, what's the
feature of your phone that's important to you? Well, um, I record videos on it and store a lot of music on it. Too
which requires a lot of memory capacity, the more the better, actually. All right. And so if a newer model came
out with, let's say, 10 times the amount of memory as the one you own. Now, would you consider buying it?
Probably if I had the money, so you see obsolescence of function. When the manufacturer comes out with a
feature that makes their new product outperform the old one.

Then as far as you're concerned, the old one is obsolete. Well, I guess I understand that if they offer the best
mobile phone ever as their first and only model, people would never replace their phones. So how would the
manufacturer make money? And what's more when they designed your old phone? The technology might not
have been available at the time to include more memory or whatever other improvements. And that's one
argument from defenders of planned obsolescence. People always want better products, products that can do
things better. In other words, proponents of planned obsolescence say, make a product, but keep working to
improve it, then introduce that new version to the market, then find ways to enhance that version and so on. I
mean, it's hard to argue with that.

But now what about something like um the cabinets in your kitchen? Let's say you've taken very good care of
your kitchen cabinets through the years and they're in great shape. So then how do companies that sell kitchen
cabinets, get you to buy new ones? Well, I knew when my family moved into our house, the kitchen cabinets,
they were like 40 years old. And even though there was nothing wrong with them, they just looked old, you
know, not modern. So my parents decided to replace them. And that brings us to obsolescence of desirability.
Manufacturers try to make you believe that you need something new, because the product you currently have
isn't fashionable anymore. With obsolescence of desirability, a product becomes obsolete because it doesn't
conform to current tastes and trends. And it's this type of obsolescence that will look at next.
2-NT16-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and her biology professor.
Did you read the latest issue of biology letters? The article about the marine guanas and mockingbirds in the
Galapagos Islands? I subscribed to the journal, but haven't gotten to that issue quite yet. Good article up,
definitely. And it's given me an idea for my final project. Fantastic. Enlighten me. The article is about cross
species communication, how Galapagos, marine Aquinas rely on the warning calls of Galapagos mocking birds
to avoid predators. Marine Aquinas and mockingbirds have some of the same predators in common,
presumably, yeah, um, the Galapagos hawk praise on both species seems that the guanas actually eavesdrop on
the mocking birds, and can differentiate between their warning calls and other calls, like mating calls and take
cover accordingly.

What prevents the Aquinas from detecting the hawks themselves? It's because the Galapagos Islands are so
rocky. The Aquinas, well, their lizards and they spend a lot of time among the rocks along the shore. And
because the rocks block their view, they can't always see the hawks as they hunt from the air. But even if
niguana did see a hot coming, it couldn't make a warning noise cause they're mute, intriguing. I'll be sure to read
that article.

So how would you tie this into your research project? By reproducing the experiment here? I mean, in the
article, the researchers described how they played recordings of Mockingbird calls to guana is in the wild, and
then observe their behavior. That's certainly a valid way to investigate cross species communication, which
local species did you have in mind? Squirrels and Blue Jays, because they're both common around here, and
they have the same predator. Cats and blue chaser, noisy birds, right? So I thought I'd record their warning calls
with a handheld recorder. Is um, could work, I suppose. But, uh, how do you know if the call your recording is a
warning? I'm not sure yet, you know, their websites with recorded bird sounds from thousands of species. Uh,
but I'm not sure if any of those sites label the recordings as warnings or whatever, and something else comes
into play here, our squirrels disadvantaged in the same way that eguanas are. You mean, do they have trouble
detecting cats? Um, I guess they'd have a pretty good view if they're up in a tree. For sure. But what I'm really
getting at is squirrels are not a non vocal species. They have their own warning calls. So you wouldn't really be
replicating the experiment. And with just 4 weeks left in the term, it would be hard enough to collect reliable
data, much less right up your results.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a university housing employee.
Hi, my name is Mary Alice Pearson. I'm here to check into my dorm room. I was assigned to North side hall
room 312. Unfortunately, your room is not ready along with a couple of other rooms on the third floor of North
side hall. There's a problem with the electrical wiring and some repairs have to be made. An EMAIL was sent
you last week, uh, notifying you of this, telling you where to go. Didn't you get it? No, I didn't. But I just
changed my EMAIL address. So maybe that EMAIL got lost and didn't get forwarded. So what am I supposed
to do? I have all my stuff with me and no room. Don't worry. We've assigned you to another dorm temporarily.
So your hall room 240, it'll only be a few days. So your hall, WOW, that's pretty far all the way on the other
side of campus. Although with classes starting tomorrow, it'll be nice to be near the classroom buildings. Yes, I
think that's why many students choose to live there. But I have a full schedule this semester and a part time job
at the housing office, believe it or not.

Anyway, I thought I would have all day today to unpack and get my room organized. I'm sorry, but there's
nothing I can do about that. However, you could leave some of your suitcases in the storage room in northside
hall, just take what you'll need for a few days. I guess that'll help a little, but what about parking? Is my parking
permit for north side hall, valid for Sawyer hall too? No, but I can't give you a temporary parking permit for the
soil a lot. It'll be good until the end of the month. And the dining hall on that side of campus and the one near
north side have different meal plans. We have some meal vouchers for you, so you won't have to run back and
forth across campus. Thanks. Well, I guess i'll start moving my stuff into that storage room. It can be locked,
right? I mean, if the door doesn't lock, don't worry. It locks. As from his Harris, she'll help you. I'll call her now
to let her know you're coming. And when you get to show your hall, you'll check in there. Listen to a
conversation between a student and a university housing employee.

Hi, my name is Mary Alice Pearson. I'm here to check into my dorm room. I was assigned to North side hall
room 312. Unfortunately, your room is not ready along with a couple of other rooms on the third floor of North
side hall. There's a problem with the electrical wiring and some repairs have to be made. An EMAIL was sent
you last week, uh, notifying you of this, telling you where to go. Didn't you get it? No, I didn't. But I just
changed my EMAIL address. So maybe that EMAIL got lost, didn't get forwarded. So what am I supposed to
do? I have all my stuff with me and no room. Don't worry. We've assigned you to another dorm temporarily. So
your whole room 240, it'll only be a few days. So your heart, WOW, that's pretty far all the way on the other
side of campus. Although with classes starting tomorrow, it'll be nice to be near the classroom buildings. Yes, I
think that's what many students choose to live there. But I have a full schedule this semester and a part time job
at the housing office, believe it or not.

Anyway, I thought it would have all day to day to unpack and get my room organized. I'm sorry, but there's
nothing I can do about that. However, you could leave some of your suitcases in the storage room in norside
hall, just take what you need for a few days. I guess that'll help a little, but what about parking? Is my parking
permit for North side hall valid for Sawyer hall to? No, but I can't give you a temporary parking permit for the
soil a lot. It'll be good until the end of the month. And the dining hall on that side of campus and the one near
north side have different meal plans. We have some meal vouchers for you, so you wanna have to run back and
forth across campus. Thanks. Well, I guess i'll start moving my stuff into that storage room. It can be locked,
right? I mean, if the door doesn't lock, don't worry. It locks. As from his Harris, she'll help you. I'll call her now
to let her know you're coming. And when you get to saw your hall, you'll check in there.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art class.

So we've been talking about proportion about the relationship of size between different objects in a sketch or or
different parts of a particular object. Now, good proportion is important if you want to achieve balance in the
design of your work, which makes it more appealing to the human eye, one way to figure out size, to figure out,
but to get the proportions in your sketches right, is to use this thing called the golden ratio.

Now I know what you're thinking. Why is he talking about ratios? This isn't math class. But the golden ratio has
been a part of architecture and art since since ancient Greece. And some scholars claim that many famous
paintings and sculptures, and and buildings are designed according to the golden ratio. So what is it? Well, it's a
specific relationship, for instance, of the length to the width of an object. In math terms, the golden ratio is
1.618. Well, let's just say 1.6. That's close enough for our purposes. But it's probably better. If I show you an
example, a rectangle based on the golden ratio, the ratio of the length to the width in the biggest rectangle you
see is about 1.6. It's called a golden rectangle, and it's considered the most visually pleasing rectangle.

Now, look at the squares within the golden rectangle. If we cut off section e what do we get? The remaining
upright rectangle is also a golden rectangle. And we get yet another golden rectangle. If we cut off section d
how about c b and a if we cut them off, one by one, we get smaller and smaller, golden rectangles. Okay. Now
supposedly draw a spiral. See how the line of the spiral increases in each section. Well, does this remind you of
anything? No. No one. All right. Well, how about a shell? A nautilus shell. Pretty cool, huh? As a nautilus shell
grows, it adds on its chambers according to the golden ratio. And we can find these spirals in other natural
objects, too, like sunflowers. Sunflower seeds are arranged in spiral patterns. Starting in the center of the
sunflower head, the seeds form two spirals that fit the golden ratio.
Okay, so nature seems to favor the golden ratio, but how does it help you as art students? Well, it can be helpful
when you're practicing proportions. It's a compositional tool. For the graphic designers in the class. You can use
it if you're designing, say, a poster or website or something like that. The you know, any project that requires
you to organize the space, you can use the golden ratio for the different sections of your design, you know, like
if you can't figure out how to divide the space, or you, uh, you just want your design to be harmonies to feel to
to look balanced.

So, you know, it can be helpful, but I'm not saying you should rely exclusively on the golden ratio. It's not a
substitute for your own sense of proportion for your own, your own creative intuition. The golden ratio isn't
necessarily used in the most beautiful, uh, most aesthetically pleasing works of art. But you've probably heard
about a really famous painting or building that was based on the golden ratio. Well, I have mixed feelings when
scholars make this claim. There's no concrete evidence against it, because scholars who measure the proportions
of these artworks not surprisingly come up with the golden ratio, but they usually lack solid evidence, you
know, like written records of the art is saying I deliberately use the golden ratio. And they might have measured
only certain parts, the parts that support their claim.

And another thing, those examples from nature, these natural objects are structured that way are structured
according to the golden ratio, because it's more efficient, not because it's more visually appealing. Being
structured that way allows them to maximize their growth potential. For example, more seeds grow, more seeds
can fit on the head of the flower of the sunflower. So it's not really about how pretty the sunflower is about
beauty. If you ask your biology or math professors, they'll probably tell you the same thing.

2-NT16-2

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

Okay, now out of the many plants we grow for food, perhaps one of the most significant is corn. In most of the
world, it's called maize. And uh corn to me is probably one of the most fascinating of the food crops that we
grow. Um, and what what is corn? Exactly? Well, corn is a member of the grass family, like rice, wheat, oats,
and um, over half, the world gets its nutrition from some sort of grass. And of course, there are other grasses
that we use, um, primarily as food, such as uh, bamboo and sugar cane. The corn is probably almost
domesticated plant species, and how it became a domestic crop is very vague.

When Europeans first came over to the Americas, um, most of the people living here were growing corn. There
is evidence that it was first developed as a farm crop over 9,000 years ago in Mexico, but this is all still mostly
Legend and theory. What we do know, we found through modern techniques. And by studying a wild relative of
corn, a plant called Tasha taste and take rose wild in Mexico. And so we can compare the two tsnt and corn, um,
and see what in both cases the difference is up. I especially want to talk about how domestication changes, what
you call the natural qualities of plants, qualities they need to have to survive in the wild, because the things that
make home very good as a domestic plant, make it very bad as a wild plant.

If you look at a taste intake kernel, if you look at how the kernels are held onto the plant, you'll find a single
stock, the, um, the stem of the plant. And the kernels are very loosely held to the stock so that they are easily
disturbed. Um. This is desirable for a wild plant, because the seeds need to be distributed. And the kernels are
very hard. And by being hard and very loose, animals may pick them up and carry them. They may eat a lot of
them, but they don't digest them all. Corn kernels. In contrast, if you look on AA domesticated cup of corn, its
kernels are soft. They're in multiple rows, and they're covered by a husk, which holds the whole thing together
very tightly. This husk covered call is great for people, cause we have a nice package that we can either eat or
transport doesn't fall apart easily.
The pollen in corn and tear scented two is spread by the wind. Tessa has a very light pollen, so when the wind
picks it up, it really travels going quite long distances. So one tear syntax plants can pollinate another far away,
but corn pollen is heavier. And it can only travel short distances in the wind. In order to get a successful
pollination, farmers know they need to plant at least 3 rows of corn. This gives enough density for the wind to
carry enough pollen to the adjoining plants.

And of course, if the plant is not pollinated, you do not get a corn seed. So the corn will not grow unless proper
pollination occurs. So it is highly unlikely that even if a corn seed was planted in the wild by itself, that it would
ever encounter the pollen of another corn plant, they don't self pollinate. So it is required that the pollen of
another corn plant be used. Another thing is that corn is highly productive. It grows fast. And you get a lot of
colonel from, each cup. We've isolated the genes that provide these desirable quantities of corn. We know, for
instance, what gene makes the kernel soft and not hard. We know what gene provides us with hundreds of
kernels on one cup, rather than the five or six that you find into a city. In fact, if you were trying to match the
production, the current corn production in the United States using tear sin day, you would have to plant 10 times
the amount of farmland to grow enough taste in tape. Now keep in mind that these genes were selected and
developed by people who did not have our technological skills. Just think that 10,000 years ago, only by using
observation and a few simple tools that these, this marvelous plant this crop was developed.

2-NT16-3
Listen to part of a lecture in a developmental psychology class.
So we've been learning about a group of abilities, we call executive function. Can someone remind us what that
refers to? Abbey? Um, executive function is kind of like the ability to think clearly? It includes things like
Information processing and holding details in your memory. So you can focus on a task while avoiding
distractions. Great. Okay. And today I wanna talk, in particular, about another skill in that group, self control or
our ability to regulate our own behavior.

One of the first studies to suggest the importance of self control and children started in the 1970s. It's become
known as the marshmallow experiment. Basically, children between the ages of three and six were each left
alone in a room with a small treat, like a cookie or a sweet marshmallow. Each child was told that if they waited
until the experimental returned, without eating that treat in front of them, they'd be rewarded with a second treat
of the same kind.

But if they gave in and ate the treat early, they wouldn't receive anything else. Performance varied, some kids
ate their treat immediately, but some were able to control themselves and wait a bit longer about 30% waited
long enough to get the larger reward.

What's interesting, though, is that the researchers did a series of follow up studies on the same children more
than 10 years later.

First, those who had demonstrated more self control as children were now rated by their parents as more
competent, uh, better at tasks that required advanced skills, both cognitive and social. And in addition to that
parental feedback, the researchers noticed something else. Children who had waited longer in the original study
were more successful as adolescents on certain measures of academic performance. Um, if it's that important, is
there any way to help kids develop self control? It's not exactly something you learn in school. Good question.
First, let's consider what those kids actually did to try and resist temptation. Many try to distract themselves
from thinking about eating the marshmallows by singing songs or moving around or covering their eyes, so they
couldn't see it. The researchers also suggested some strategies to the children. One successful approach was to
transform the treat in their mind to think about it, structurally like by imagining the marshmallows as puffy,
white clouds instead of snacks they could eat. In addition, some educators started looking harder at what
strategies might reinforce self control and executive function in school children.

One example is a program called tools of the mind. It's based on the work of a psychologist left the god ski.
Levee godski was a Russian psychologist who had various ideas about learning in childhood, but it was his
ideas about the psychology of play that have influenced education. He focused on children's ability to play
creatively with others. In particular, dramatic play like role, playing, so playing house or pretending to be a
male carrier or a cashier, the grocery store. The idea is that dramatic play develops a child sense of social rules,
and in turn the ability for self regulation. The godsky believed that a young child success at this type of play
was actually the best indicator of future academic success. The tools of the mind program immerse his children
in dramatic play to develop their executive function in a structured way.

At the beginning of each day, children write a play plan with their goals like, I will take the dolls to the beach or
I will build a sand castle and they carry a clipboard with them as they move through the day. They also have
learning conferences with a teacher at the end of each week to reflect on their progress. Learning conferences
that doesn't sound like a program built around play. Some of those things sound like what you do in an office
with your manager. That's true. It's a strange mix of activities, isn't it? But all of them are designed to reinforce
self control.

Actually, that's one Challenge for researchers who want to examine the tools of the mind program, because
there are many different techniques used. It can be hard to tell which of them is really important for its success
or its failure. It might be that only one aspect, the dramatic play or the writing practice or the learning
conferences is truly useful, or maybe they all need to be used together. This is something to look at going
forward. Listen to part of a lecture in a developmental psychology class. So we've been learning about a group
of abilities, we call executive function. Can someone remind us what that refers to? Abby, um, executive
function is kind of like the ability to think clearly? It includes things like Information processing and holding
details in your memory. So you can focus on a task while avoiding distractions. Great. Okay. And today I
wanna talk, in particular, about another skill in that group self control or our ability to regulate our own
behavior.

One of the first studies to suggest the importance of self control and children started in the 1970s. It's become
known as the marshmallow experiment. Basically, children between the ages of three and six were each left
alone in a room with a small treat, like a cookie or a sweet marshmallow. Each child was told that if they waited
until the experimental returned, without eating that treat in front of them, they'd be rewarded with a second treat
of the same kind.

But if they gave in and ate the treat early, they wouldn't receive anything else. Performance varied, some kids
ate their treat immediately, but some were able to control themselves and wait a bit longer. About 30% waited
long enough to get the larger reward. What's interesting, though, is that the researchers did a series of follow up
studies on the same children more than 10 years later. First, those who had demonstrated more self control as
children were now rated by their parents is more competent, uh, better at tasks that required advanced skills,
both cognitive and social. And in addition to that parental feedback, the researchers noticed something else.
Children who had waited longer in the original study were more successful as adolescence on certain measures
of academic performance. Um, if it's that important, is there any way to help kids develop self control? It's not
exactly something you learn in school.

Good question. First, let's consider what those kids actually did to try and resist temptation. Many tried to
distract themselves from thinking about eating the marshmallows by singing songs or moving around or
covering their eyes, so they couldn't see it. The researchers also suggested some strategies to the children. One
successful approach was to transform the treat in their mind to think about it abstracted like by imagining the
marshmallows as puffy, white clouds instead of snacks they could eat. In addition, some educators started
looking harder at what strategies might reinforce self control and executive function in school children.

One example is a program called tools of the mind. It's based on the work of a psychologist left the godski.
Levee godski was a Russian psychologist who had various ideas about learning in childhood, but it was his
ideas about the psychology of play that have influenced education. He focused on children's ability to play
creatively with others. In particular, dramatic play, things like role playing, so playing house or pretending to be
a male carrier or a cashier, the grocery store. The idea is that dramatic play develops a child sense of social
rules, and in turn the ability for self regulation. The godski believed that a young child success at this type of
play was actually the best indicator of future academic success. The tools of the mind program immerse his
children and dramatic play to develop their executive function in a structured way.

At the beginning of each day, children write a play plan with their goals, like I will take the dolls to the beach or
I will build a sand castle and they carry a clipboard with them as they move through the day. They also have
learning conferences with a teacher at the end of each week to reflect on their progress. Learning conferences
that doesn't sound like a program built around, play. Some of those things sound like what you do in an office
with your manager. That's true. It's a strange mix of activities, isn't it? But all of them are designed to reinforce
self control. Actually, that's one Challenge for researchers who want to examine the tools of the mind program,
because there are many different techniques used. It can be hard to tell which of them is really important for its
success or its failure. It might be that only one aspect, the dramatic play or the writing practice or the learning
conferences is truly useful, or maybe they all need to be used together. This is something to look at going
forward.

3-NT-17
Listen to a conversation between a student and a university Dean.
Good morning teacher, good morning, John. So, okay, I'm majoring in business management and administration
and I love biking, I'm in the university biking club and I bike like a hundred and 50 miles a week, okay. Okay,
and the other day I was talking with some other students who bike and the thought occurred to us, why not set
up a bicycle shop here at the university? Run by students, a lot of students ride by, except I'm sure a lot more
would ride them if it were more convenient and affordable. I think the demands there and there's a space in the
student center that would be a perfect location, and it's vacant, it will be in a few months.

Okay, okay, and to start out, one thing we do is very basic repairs, you know, fix flat tires, just seats and handle
bars that kind of thing. And the other thing we do is bicycle rentals. I went to the university police department
and they have 20 some abandoned bikes over there. They said we could have them if we got the universities
approval. So we could read those out at very reasonable rates. You've obviously done your homework, yes, and
we need some basic tools and there would be some other expenses.

But one of my professors said that my department, the business department awards some grants for student run
businesses each year, and she thought it have a good chance of getting one. Did she mention that most of that
money was from a grant? The university received from the federal government a few years ago and that that
grass now ended? Yes, she did mention that actually, so you know that those grants are gonna be, shall we say
considerably more modest going forward? Yes.

Okay, so you start with repairs and rentals and then refurbish bikes. Say students got an old bike, they want to
get rid of. They can sell to us to make a few bucks or maybe donate it to us. Then we'll fix it up and make it
available for students to buy at a very affordable price. Uh, we're not sure how profitable that would be, but we
all agree that part of the shops mission would be to make it easier for students to get into biking. Okay. I like the
idea, but this isn't my decision to make. You'll have to submit a formal business proposal. And you'll wanna
have one of your business professors to advise you on that, because you're gonna have to convince the
committee of six skeptical people that you have the knowledge and skills and passion, you need to make this
happen. Okay, thank you, Dean.

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

In our discussion of microorganisms, let's move along to another process the formation of what we call BIO
films. Mhm. No BIO films are, well, you know how rocks you find in rivers or lakes tend to be coated with a
kind of of slippery substance or like you might find on the bottom of a boat, for instance, or or the plaque that
forms on your teeth for that matter. All of those are bio films. And BIO films were really not well understood
until pretty recently. Oh, well, I say recently, I mean the 1970s, you guys may have a different perspective.
Anyway, before then we just assume that that slippery stuff was like algae or some other form of plant life. It
never occurred to anyone that it was actually bacteria, the most basic oneself organisms that were responsible
for this coating.

A BIO film is basically a colony of bacteria that grows on moist surfaces, and it exists characteristics that an
individual bacterium on its own does not. Bio films are pretty much ubiquitous too. They can form on virtually
any wet surface. You can think of pipes sinks floors, how BIO films develop can be broken down into a few
basic steps. And remember, of course, that this all takes place at the microscopic level, the BIO films no more
than 1/10 of a millimeter thick.

So what happens? First, um, some bacteria, their Free floating just sort of hanging out in the lake or where?
Because that's what one cell organism is usually do. They float or swim independently in a liquid. Then a few of
them attach themselves to some surface, a rock uh about any wet surface. More bacteria follow and attach
themselves to the surface or directly to the first colonists. And they begin to reproduce on that surface. So the
bacteria colony is growing and spreading on that surface. And then the bacteria undergo changes and. They're
sending out, chemical signals to one another. These signals allow the bacteria to sense when their community is
large enough to to function collectively.

At that point, what they do is they start screening a sticky substance called extrasellular, meaning outside of
cell. Extracellular polysaccharide. Holly saccharis really just sugar, a sugar compound. So they collectively
create a big, sugary um, mass, the bio film, which is the last stage in the development. The bacteria are covered
by that mass, and this protected environment allows them to work together in various ways. When there's
enough polysaccharide, the bacteria are able to start forming these really complicated structures. For example,
within this BIO film, they can create channels, water channels, which allow them to both bring nutrients in and
remove waste. Anything they don't need. Also, if the bacteria are still reproducing and get overcrowded, they
can use the chance to move bacteria around to new year parts of the BIO film. So the bacteria can move to
different places within the bio film.

Now, it might happen that their investment has to be protected environment, but they're starting to run out of
room. So they let some bacteria become detached from the others in the BIO film and form a little pocket.
Okay? And then when enough bacteria are in the pocket, it ruptured and the bacteria become Free floating
again. They'll go colonize another rock or another nearby surface and start all over again. Bio films provide an
evolutionary advantage for bacteria. A lone bacterium is vulnerable. But in BIO films, they're incredibly
resistant to just about anything you use to get rid of them. So you can scrub it, and they stick pretty well. Um,
you can try treating it with disinfectant or antibiotics or something, but BIO films can be pretty resistant to these
measures. That's why BIO film research has exploded in recent years.
So we can get a better understanding of surface attached bacteria as opposed to Free floating ones. And
hopefully we'll find more efficient ways to get rid of bio films since they can cause a lot of damage from
equipment damage to infections in the body. And I mentioned a plaque before a BIO film that forms on the
surface of our teeth could lead to tooth decay if we don't brush regularly. But there's also an increased interest in
bio films for another reason. And that might surprise you. They actually can help clean up polluted
environments. So BIO films can be beneficial too.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

The first form of art that we know of is rock, heart art card, directly out of cave walls, or maybe scrolled onto
bits of rock. These rock carvings, they're found on six continents in the stone age, hundreds of thousands of
years ago. The strange thing is the oldest form of rock art we know of is also the least studied and the least
understood.

Now acute fuel is usually a small circular indentation pounded into rock. Most are only a few centimeters across
and pretty shallow, only 10 millimeters or so. Cubes are found just about everywhere, walls, floors, boulders,
even cave ceiling. Sometimes. Archaeologists often find hundreds, even 1,000 of them at a time, arranged in
some sort of pattern. And that leads me to the first qualification for a qq. It must be made by humans.

Now, sometimes their origin isn't as easy to determine, as you might think. Because some of these are 700,000
years old, and make sure, you can do some crazy things in that amount of time. I mean, over time, wind and
water, can you road an impressive looking holes? Ls? But then i've never seen women make hundreds of
circular indentation arranged in a geometric pattern. And we can also tell q fuels are handmade by analyzing the
type of tools people likely used to make them. The people carving these cubicles made them by pounding the
huge hammerstones against the rock surface. So sometimes we find traces of these hammers or under tools.

Now, sometimes it's easy to confuse cubes with other human made invitations, say, grinding, hollow. That's a
circular hole where people would grind, well, stuff like green inside the hole. But grinding hollows look
different from pupils. Grinding hollows are bigger for one thing, much wider and deeper, and they generally
occur on horizontal surfaces. You wouldn't grind grain on the cave ceiling, obviously. But more importantly,
grinding hollows were made for a specific, utilitarian purpose, like to do great great. And that's the second
qualification for pupils. They had to have been made either as decoration or for some sort of ritual, a ceremonial
purpose, not for any practical use, but it's hard to figure out why exactly people make you.

Once in 1940s, an archaeologist in Australia actually had the opportunity to witness people making cute. You
see the local people saw the pink cockatoo, a type of parrot as a valuable source of food. So they would pound
depressions into the rock as part of the type of ceremony, because they believe the dust created by all these
pounding would somehow increase the birds and production.

But the thing is, if the archeologist hadn't been there, we would have no idea about why these people made these
cubes. We would have no idea about the connection to the pink cock two and to people's beliefs about its air
production. So it's risky to try and guess people's intentions when we have no idea what people were thinking
thousands of years ago. In fact, I should really add something to what I said earlier. I said that the pupils are the
oldest rock art that we know of, that we know of. Cubes only occur in really hard rock, and this is the type of
rock that's the most durable. But early paintings sketches, even carvings made in soft rock. They don't do as
well as surviving the elements. So even now, we're not sure that q pupils actually are the earliest form of human
art work. It may have just been a matter of endurance.
Another interesting thing is we see a remarkable similarities. Cupeels, another rock carving is made during the
early stone age are remarkably similar across all different cultures. The same patterns, techniques and so forth.
They occur in every part of the world on six continents. It's almost as if there were a shared cultural
understanding, even though there's no way these people could have been directed.

However, after this period, once you get into the end of the place to see the park around 12,000 years ago,
there's a lot of variation in style and technique among rock artists in different regions. This applies not only to
rock carvings, but also rock paintings. More recent place to see rock paintings are much more colorful than the
previous paintings. So we can see that there's this sort of universal pattern of moving from uniformity toward
diversity, in rock, art, traditions.

Listen to a conversation between a student and his faculty adviser.

Thanks for stopping by to discuss your application. Sure. I've never applied for a research grant before. So that's
why I'm here. First, let's discuss how you created the budget for your proposal. I just followed the basic format
from that template on the university's website. Like I said, in my introduction, i've been interested in Micro
beats ever. Since I first heard about him. The topic is promise micro beads, uh, those tiny plastic beads that
companies put in household products. Yeah, like in soap, toothpaste. I was really surprised that these tiny
plastic beads could be so damaging to the environment. Yes. But you see, if we funded your project fully, there
wouldn't be enough left for the other student projects. Couldn't you do your research for less than $6,000?

Well, when I ended up the costs, renting time on a research vessel, those boats aren't cheap plus time with
sophisticated lab equipment like an electron microscope. The numbers jumped way over the recommended limit
indeed. Yeah, but well, I guess I just got carried away. There must be alternatives. You just need to think
smaller. I see, first of all, what about focusing on a smaller body of water? Instead of going out on the ocean to
get your water samples? Why not do your research right here in the bay in your campus? Um, I guess I could
work. I know Micro beads end up in lots of bodies of water, maybe concentrate on micro beads in different
parts of the bay. In your proposal, you mentioned these beats are so tiny that waste water treatment plants don't
catch them. They go right through the filters. There's a water treatment plant right near the shore of the bay.
You could collect a sample from there and compare it to a sample from a more distant part of the bay. Probably
the sample near the plant will be full of Micro beads.

Okay? Then now your application says you want to analyze the molecular structure of those beats to trace
where they came from. Yeah, because if I could identify which products those Micro beads came from, I could
publicize my data. People probably expect that these beads get filtered out and don't realize that when they get
into the water, fish and sea birds and jest them.

All right? And if you're collecting fewer samples, you won't need as much time in the lab analyzing them.
Right? See by reconsidering the scope of your project. The research site, in particular, you raise your chances of
getting funded plus you're focusing on my purview pollution here in our local area. Make sense? I'd be happy to
meet with you again after you've thought this over. Okay, I guess I have some work to do.

Listen to part of a lecture in a world literature class.

We've started our discussion on 20th century Latin American literature, talking about new artistic forms that
emerged in the early part of the century. These styles were in opposition to traditional art and literature and
advocated new ways of writing. Now, the first literary genre in Latin America to use these new styles was
poetry. Maybe because poets traditionally had a smaller but more receptive audience than the authors of short
stories and novels. So poets could be more experimental. However, the new style quickly spread to other
literary forms, and that's when the Latin American boom started. Right? Correct. The Latin American boom was
a literary movement of the 1960s and 70s associated with a group of authors from various Latin American
countries. Their novels and short stories became well known, not only throughout Latin America, but also in
Europe and around the world. That's at least partially because for. The first time, major European publishing
houses were publishing Latin American literature, especially those in Barcelona, Spain, where of course the
works didn't have to be translated for readers.

So that really boosted their popularity so. Boom, authors use new writing styles. Does anyone remember
anything about these stylistic features? Well, their books were uh, very complex. The way they use language
and and the character and story lines were complicated challenging for readers. That's right. For example, they
experimented with the concept of time the. Events in their stories didn't always unfold chronologically. Another
Challenge is the lack of distinction between realistic and non realistic events in the stories. One example is the
story you read for today's class the night face up by Julio Qatar. Julio casar, as we mentioned last time, was a
well known Argentine boom author.

Now the night face up is definitely not an easy read, mainly because of the transitions that are taking place in
the story, transitions in time and location. The main character, the protagonist bounced back and forth between
two completely different settings. Yeah, that was a little tricky. He started off in the hospital in a modern
setting. And then he falls asleep or something and he's in a jungle back in ancient times during a battle. And he
kept transitioning between those two settings. And one of them is supposed to be a dream and the other reality,
right? And maybe you noticed the importance of the sense of smell. When the protagonist would switch
between the settings, it was often the different things he smelled from each place that sort of pulled him into
that world. Um, they say that smell is connected to memory in our brains, you know how sometimes if you
smell something, like when I smell bread being baked, it reminds me of being in my grandparents house as a
kid, excellent.Maybe cortez i was suggesting a sort of cultural memory, a link between modern times and the
distant past.

Anyway, in the story, we eventually discover that we shouldn't be too quick to assume what's real and what's
not. Cortes are is playing a game with us, with the readers. For example, remember how the narrator talks about
a traffic light at the beginning of the story in the modern world. Yeah. Well, it's mentioned again toward the
very end of the story when the main character is in the ancient jungle world. It is, I don't remember it's easy to
miss because it's not actually called a traffic light. At that point. Story mentions green and red lights that burned
without a flame, which makes sense because well, hundreds of years ago, they wouldn't have had a name for
traffic lights, because traffic lights didn't exist back then. So this helps suggest maybe which setting is real and
which is the dream. Got it. The protagonist is actually living in the jungle scene and having a dream about the
modern world, right? Good. Now, all of these literary techniques like jumping back and forth in time and
mixing the familiar with the unfamiliar. They were quite innovative originally. But now, well, we know the
boom was a reaction to previous conventional literary traditions. But now, many of the booms innovations have
become well, traditional.

3-NT-18
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the university admissions office.

Hi, can I pick up a copy of the course catalog for my brother? He's just been accepted to start your next
semester? Well, that's terrific. Actually, we now send a copy of the course catalog to all accepted students. He
should be getting in the mail soon as well as a student identification number and temporary password. So he can
log into our website. He'll be able to go online and see the courses listed there as well. Then when it's time, he
can register online for the courses he wants to take. Okay, great. Is your brother going to be roommate? Uh,
unfortunately, no, I'm in my third year and I live off campus.

All right. First year students aren't allowed to live off campus. That brings up another thing. My cousin
Alexander is coming to campus in 2 weeks for the perspective student visit program. Rim. Can he stay with me
then? Because one of the guys in my house will be gone on a field trip. He said my cousin could stay in his
room. Well, Alexandra will be assigned a student host who lives in one of the men's dormitories. He'll stay with
that person. We wanted to get a sense of what dorm life is like. Since he'll be required to live in one. But my
cousin, if he decides to come here, he'd be a transfer student transform here from black forest community
college. So he wouldn't be a first year student. This would be a second year of university, I see. But since it
would be his first year at this university, he'll still be required to live in a dorm.

Oh. And what activities are planned for the perspective students while they're here? Well, we try to get
prospective students a real sense of what it's like here. In here for 2 days, they need faculty sit in on classes, eat
at the dining hall, and as I said, stay in the dormitory overnight. Then the next day they visit more classes and
hopefully attend a sporting event or some other campus activity. Um, and the classes he sits in on can
Alexander pick anyone he wants? Because he wants to become a science teacher. He specifically asked about
sitting in on a couple of education classes. I told him I find out for him if he could. Oh, definitely, he can attend
whatever classes he'd like. So should I go to the classes with him instead of going to my own? Oh, there is no
reason for you to miss your classes. He'll be fine by himself. I mean, the programs designed to get involved,
help meet people. He'll be pretty busy. He might want to just meet up with him for meals.

Science class. One mystery in earth, science is related to a structure known as a stramatic. And here's what a
stramatic light looks like. Stramatylite are rocky structures that form in the ocean in shallow coastal waters.
They have a sort of column like shape, and they can range in height from just a few centimeters up to maybe 2
meters or so. They're constructed of a series of layers of various kinds of material. The world's dramatic comes
from the ancient Greek. Its literal meaning is layered rock.

Now, to me, stramatic lights represent like nothing else can the most valuable concept that you'll take away
from this course, that ever since the moment life first appeared on earth, there's been an intimate relationship
between living organisms and the structure of the earth they live on. Stramatylite are rock like structures, but
they're constructed by bacteria. Essentially, what happens is bacteria form a kind of mat on the ocean floor, and
start producing, start secreting, sticky compounds. Then sediment, such as sand and other materials, settles on to
this mat and get stuck on it. That forms the base layer of the stramatic. Then another layer of bacteria builds up
on Top of that and secrete more sticky compounds, and then more sediment get stuck on that layer and so on.
And over time, you get these nice, neat layers of bacteria sitting in a nice, orderly fashion, one on Top of the
other, forming this sort of living, growing rock.

Okay, so the mystery stramatalite began to appear in the ocean all over the earth about 3.5 billion years ago.
And for more than 2 billion years, they were very abundant. But then about 1 billion years ago, archaeological
evidence shows that their fossil abundance began to decline dramatically to the point where they disappeared
almost completely to paleontology. It was almost as sudden and as completed disappearance as the extinction of
the dinosaurs millions of years later. For many years, it was thought that stramatylite had also become extinct.
But we now know a few locations where we still have living stramatylite, stramatylite in which bacteria are still
forming new layers. One location is shark bay in Australia. The water in shark bay is extremely salty like the
water in the ocean billions of years ago, almost twice as salty as the water in most parts of the ocean today. And
as a result, organisms that would normally consume the bacteria that creates drought lights can't survive there.
So it's one of the few places where stramatylite building can still take place.
Anyway, one possible clue as to the cause of the stramatic decline is another kind of rock light structure that
first appears in the fossil record at around the same time. As the stramatylite declined, a structure called a
thrombalites are similar to stramatic and that they're also formed by bacterial activity on sediment. But whereas
stramatylite are finally layered. Thrombohave, a sort of jumbled clampy appearance without this neat separation
into layers. Some researchers thought it was possible that stramatylite somehow turned into thrombalize. And
that may be organisms called nera were responsible. Ferra are single celled organisms that live in ocean
sediments. They have thin projections, sort of like tails that enable them to move around and trap prey through
known for their ability to disturb sediments. And they appear in the fossil record at about the same time that
strammatylite started to decline. So these researchers thought there might be some connection there.

Okay, so to test their idea, the researchers tried to replicate what they thought might have taken place 1 billion
years ago. They took some chunks of living stramatylite and seated them with. After 6 months, the stramatylite,
finally, layered structure had started to look more like the jumbled arrangement. You'd normally see in a that by
itself was some pretty strong evidence to support the theory. Then the researchers did a second version of the
same experiment. In this version, as in the first version, they seated stramatylite with fera. But this time they
treated the parameter for a with a drug that limited their ability to move around and guess what. After 6 months,
the stramatic structure hadn't changed. It was still finally layered.

Lecture in a psychology class.

One aspect of how children begin talking how, they acquire language. That's had a lot of research has to do with
how fast children acquire vocabulary, how fast they learn new words. One widely accepted view says that
somewhere near the end of their second year, most children undergo a vocabulary spurt. Oh, so they suddenly
learn a whole bunch of words in a very short time. Well, that's the standard meaning of the word spurt.
Sometime between about 14 and 24 months of age, toddlers go from, like, say, learning 1 to 3 words a month to
10 or 20 a week. So it is a significant gain. But to study this game scientifically, we have to define what we
really mean by vocabulary spurt. While two researchers danger and Brent decided to try to define the
characteristics of a true vocabulary spurt, they decided that a meaningful spurt would have to have an
inflection.An inflection point is a point on a graph. That's an indicator of a fast, dramatic change rather than a
gradual one. Um, the term is used a lot in business, like when say a company sales suddenly skyrocket, like, you
know, some internet companies recently. And that change can be clearly seen on a chart or graph, like on a sales
chart. You have a line showing low sales, and then boom it's up and, it stays up. The inflection point is the
location on the chart. That's right between the two distinct stages. One before the change happened, and one
after. So what do you think ginger and Brent decided to use that to look for a vocabulary spurt? Um. It must
have to do with the two different stages. If a child's rate of word acquisition is just a steady climb, that's not the
same as a spur. A spurt means something changed quickly. Something's changed. Um, a developmental change
like, a cognitive breakthrough. Right? Danger and Brent were looking for evidence of a sudden and
fundamental change in the way children process Information. That's why they're interested in an inflection.Um.
The literature is filled with theories about what kind of cognitive breakthrough would cause a vocabulary spurt.
One is called the naming insight. According to the naming insight, the reason for the spirit is that the child
suddenly understands that words refer to things, and that all things have names. Before that words are used
mainly as a way to communicate a need or desire, like saying milk when thirsty. After children reach the
naming insight, they'd start learning words at a faster rate.

Another theory about why the spurt exists is um, that it's linked to the ability to sort objects into groups. But
ginger and Brent wanted to check whether it exists at all. So rather than collecting all new data, they took a look
at the results of some existing research. They looked at three separate studies, okay? 3 sets of data. And they
found that only about one in five children actually had an identifiable spurt. According to their definition, you
mean, see, they looked at the data in a couple of different ways, and they plotted it all on a graph. And they
found that in most cases, there was no evidence of an inflection.So they're saying everybody was wrong.
Well, some earlier studies didn't look for two discrete stages, a slow rate before the spurt and a faster one after
the spurt. In some studies, um, the researchers were only looking for evidence of crossing a threshold, say, 50
words. Other researchers studied children's vocabulary charts for a job. Well, a sudden jump that comes right
back down doesn't mean it's a true spurt. Ginger and brent conclude that some children do have a vocabulary
spurt, but that it's by no means universal. The non universal nature of the vocabulary spurt leads the authors to
conclude that the spurt doesn't necessarily reflect a cognitive breakthrough. Obviously, children get better and
better at learning new words. It's just that for most children, it's more of a steady climb than a sudden jump.
Quite convincing. I have to say, though, when I first read this study, I couldn't believe it. I'd always assume that
the spirit was a part of most children's development.

Conversation between a student and her biology professor.

So, Susan, what's on your mind? Well, I got back my paper yesterday. You know, the first essay you assigned.
Yes. I noticed that. Well, you lowered my grade. That's because you submitted late. But I turned it in on the due
date. I slipped it under your office door that afternoon. If you read the syllabus closely, you'll see that you're
expected to submit assignments on the due date during class. Oh. I guess we're still early in the semester.
There's plenty of chances to Excel in other assignments, like the oral presentations, the class will be giving next
month. From the outline you submitted, it looks like yours will be quite good. I've really enjoyed class recently
and when we discussed mimicry, well, I thought what a great topic for my oral report, especially the part on.
Here I wrote it down.

So, beand mimicry. We said that's when a non poisonous animal mimics copies a poisonous animal in some
way. Say to trick a predator like how a non poisonous butterfly might have the same color as a poisonous one.
Right? We discussed many examples like the vice butterfly. I'm gonna put that example in my talk about how
the virus butterfly mimics the monarch butterfly. The monarch really is poisonous to keep predators from eating
it. And the orange color of the vice Royce wing looks just like the monarchs. We did discuss that in class. How
predators avoid the monarch? Because it's toxic, and the device Royce color resembles the monarchs. But you
remember how we said the vice Roy is not the best example of Bayesian mimicry.

Um. In the 1990s, researchers show that the vice Roy should be classified as a malaria mimic. Yeah. Here it is
malaria and. Malaria mimicry is when two species each of which is toxic, resemble each other. Yeah, I totally
forgot. The researchers they conducted a study and found that the vice Roy is also toxic. So, monarchs and vice
Royce, they increase each other's protection from predators. Sounds as though you've got the makings for a.
Good talk. Thanks. You know, this stuff is so neat. I'd like to learn more about it. I was thinking for my final
paper, the research paper at the end of the semester. Maybe I could go deeper into all that. Well, that kind of
research is reported mostly in technical journals. It's okay for next month's oral presentation, which can just
summarize the results. But for a 10 page final paper, why don't you hold off on picking a topic until after the
oral presentations? We'll be covering some fascinating material in the meantime.

As we begin discussing the music of 19th century Europe, we should first acknowledge that leading up to that
century. There was a major shift in how music was produced. Now, for most of the history of the arts in europe
musicians and other artists had always worked in the patronage system. Under the patronage system, musicians
and artists were in the direct employee of someone wealthy enough to pay them. What we call a patron. A
patron was generally either someone royal or someone of nobility. All the arts had at one time been tied to the
patronage system, but especially music, because music was so expensive to produce. A musical performance
required a lot of people, a lot of performers. And you had to purchase instruments and copy out sheet music. By
hand, it could really add up.
But by the 19th century, society had a new structure with important implications for music. Because by then,
you really have a more expanded middle class than ever before. People who are not actually, you know, wealthy
enough to single handedly support a musician the way a patron would have. But people who did have some
money to support the arts and wanted to imitate the taste of nobility by seeing performances, or learning to play
music themselves. One sign of this change was that opera houses became widely successful. Anyone who could
afford a ticket could attend. And this was, in contrast to before when the patron, for example, would pay for a
performance, just for themselves and their friends. And it wasn't only opera. Public concerts of instrumental
music increased as well. Because so many people were becoming interested, not only in hearing music, but also
playing it themselves. There started to be widespread purchase of instruments like pianos and guitars. A new,
less expensive printing method meant that cheap sheet music could be produced to meet public demand. And
even music magazines were published, magazines containing things like reviews of musical performances,
advertisements for musical events.

So there were new ways for musicians to make money outside the patronage system. Of course, for musicians,
the downside of these changes had to do with job security. Under patronage musicians had a lot of job security.
I mean, not only did an individual musician have job security, and basically life long since musicians often lived
in their patrons household, but a musicians family would have security, too. You'd often have sort of a legacy
type training situation where musicians would pass their craft from parent to child.

In the 18th century, for example, Mozart was, without a doubt, a musical genius and in, credibly gifted
composer. But he also became a musician thanks to continuation of the family business. Mozart father was a
composer and a musician for a royal court. And that security is nice, of course, but well, if we take a very
contemporary view of what it means to be an artist, it's also nice when someone can become a musician because
they want to because they're following their passion.

And with the decline of both patronage and legacy training, you start seeing more and more musicians who
followed their own less secure paths. There's this great story about the 19th century French composer, Hector
barriers. Bailey family was absolutely set on him becoming a doctor like his father was and barely as did go to
medical school, but the whole time he wanted to be a musician a composer. The story goes that at some.and he
wrote this in his memoirs, right? In the middle of one of his medical classes. He couldn't take it anymore and he
actually jumped out the classroom window and ran off to become a composer.

Another nice thing is that musicians now had more freedom to compose what they wanted instead of just what a
patron wanted them to compose. Patrons often have specific tastes. They wanted the music to fit certain
expectations. But when you take patrons out of the picture, then people like to check composer, antony voyage
can become popular. The borjocks work sometimes incorporate elements of folk music, the music of the people,
folk rhythms and such. Now a wealthy patron might not have welcomed this. So under patronage, these pieces
might never have seen the light of day, and almost certainly would not have been particularly successful or well
received.

3-NT-19
Campus bookstore.

Yeah, I think something like this would work. Thanks. So are you involved with the university's theater
department? No, um, a majoring in art and taking a course in advertising design the semester? But my
roommates, the director of the play, and he asked, if I can make a poster for the student lounge to advertise the
show, I figured it'd be great practice. Maybe I can even use it for a course project. That's great. And that play
our town is one of my absolute favorites. When's the show? Uh, it's at the end of October, um, opening nights
the 22nd. I'll try to get tickets. By the way, I have this friend who's a professional illustrator. There's a website
he really loves. It's set up to help people who are designing book covers posters. You name it. And if you want,
I can give you the web address. It's Free and easy to use thanks but. I've already got some ideas for my design
and I'd rather go with my own instincts then you know work from someone else's pattern.

Oh, it's not really patterns. And of course it's up to you. But this website gives advice on how to incorporate
photos and other images into your own design. Um, photos. You know, that's not a bad idea. For example, since
the player advertising is set in the early 1900s, the site could help you locate images from the period to, you
know, get a feel for what people and places look like.

Then. Um, come to think of it. I've been trying to picture with the real grovers corners might have looked like.
Uh, maybe i'll build the design around that, but you know, there is no grovers corners, um no. Ii thought the
play was set in grovers corners in the state of New Hampshire. It's sort of a made up town. Really? Not a real
town. There is a town that gave the author the idea for it. And that is in New Hampshire, but it's called Peter
borough. See. Thornton wilder. The author. He stayed in an artist colony there, and was really impressed with
Peter bor's friendly, easy going atmosphere. So it became his inspiration for the play. Wow. You know, a lot
about this play and about Thornton wilder. I majored in us literature and actually wrote a paper on our town.
Thanks for the Information. I might take a look at that website. If you could send me the address, i'll give you
my EMAIL. And for the poster paper, I'm thinking now I'd like more of a busy color you to give it that antique.
Look, sure, i'll EMAIL it to you. And we do have beige poster paper, too.

Part of a lecture in an animal behavior class.

Okay? So last week we were looking at leadership in groups of animals. For the purposes of our discussion, we
had defined leadership as the ability of an individual to initiate movement of the whole group, meaning that the
leader is the individual whose movement prompts the other members of the group to move or change the
direction of their travel as well. Now, some animals like gray wolves live in stable groups with strict
organizational hierarchies. Their groups are dominated by a single individual, and this dominant individuals
going to be making most of the decisions about when to move and where to go with the rest of the group
following along.

But what happens in a group that does not have this stability? Well, many diverse species from horses to fish
work under what's called fission fusion grouping. Let's look at this term. Fishing refers to splitting up and fusion
to joining. And that's what happens in fish and fusion. Groups group. Members are always leaving and joining.
So their membership changes quickly from day to day or even hour to hour. These groups usually don't have an
individual member who maintains the dominant role. That means that leadership in these groups can change
from one situation to the next.

So what happens in these groups? What factors are gonna influence? Who's gonna be a leader? One factor that
can play a role is physiological state. Um, something like hunger. All animals are gonna be driven by hunger at
some time in uh, like a large herd of, say, zebras. In this type of species, research has shown that the individuals
who tend to start the movement and then lead direction of travel are simply the hungriest. For example, in large
groups of zebras, nursing, females tend to lead more often, because they have to feed themselves and another
individual. So they tend to be in need of resources sooner than others and. They move off first. But the situation
can be more complicated. You can have several hungry individuals in a group at a given.which individuals are
group members going to choose to follow. In this case. It turns out that this may depend on another factor, the
group's perceptions of an individuals, amount of experience with the location of resources. Group members may
learn that following certain experienced individuals provides important benefits, like success in locating food
resources more often or more quickly.
Say if sue, um, let's just call the animal sue for this example. Um, when sue leads, we always seem to get really
great food. If that happens, there will be a likely tendency for sue to be followed repeatedly. And therefore, sue
will be more likely to be a leader. Uh, this type of leadership has been seen among groups of bottlenecks,
dolphins in the Gulf of Mexico, off of the Florida Keys. The study found that certain dolphins take the
leadership position at the front of the group, more often than other members. When one of these dolphins was
leading, there was a greater likelihood that the group would arrive at a location within abundance of fish. And
there was also a greater likelihood that the group would get there more directly, more efficiently. Then when the
group followed other dolphins. So these dolphins are leaders because other dolphins perceive them to have
more experience or knowledge about how to effectively navigate and make use of the area.

Okay, but there may be yet another factor determining leadership. Intrinsic personality traits might come into
play. One such trait is boldness or the willingness to take risks. Individuals that are intrinsically bolder than
others might be more likely to be leaders. But here's a complication. How do you establish that an animals bold
behavior is solely a result of his personality that it's unrelated to things, like how, hungry it is, or how
experienced it is? It's not easy to design a study that would disentangle boldness from other variables. Still,
several studies have tried to address this question, and the results are interesting. Let's look at a recent study
with a small freshwater fish called the golden shiner.

An air mass has to rise and expand. And as the air mass rises, its temperature falls, which allows the moisture in
the air to condense. With enough condensation, of course, we have precipitation. Now, there are three ways that
an air mass may be forced to rise, and therefore cool and condense. We've talked about convolutional
precipitation already that happens when warm air near land surface rises, and then is displaced by cooler, denser
air. A second way, is frontal precipitation, which is the result of uh two, air masses with different temperatures
and densities. Meeting up and the warmer air being lifted above the colder air. Okay? Now the third way that an
air mass can rise in cool has to do with land barriers, you know, mountain ranges, hills. When a land barrier is
in the path of the wind, which is really just a moving air mass, the wind hits the barrier and is forced upward.
The precipitation that results from this type of rising, expanding, and cooling of an air mass is called orographic
precipitation.

The classic situation for orographic precipitation to occur would be um, uh, a mountain range that runs
perpendicular to the direction that the prevailing winds are blowing. So let's say a wind blowing from the west
smacks into the western side of a mountain range, which runs North and south. Much more precipitation occurs
on the windward side of the mountain range, which, in this case, would be the western side. And a great
example of this is the southern Alps, a mountain range in New Zealand. The southern Alps are hit by prevailing
winds that blow along distance over the open ocean where they pick up lots of moisture. When the wind said
the mountains, the mountains caused significant rainfall up to 12 meters per year. Contrast that with the leeway
side, which gets less than 1 meter a year. Naturally, in situations like this, the side that gets more rainfall will
have more vegetation in animal life.

And practically a whole different climate from the other side of the mountain, the lead, which is in what we
refer to as a rain shadow. The leverage side just doesn't get much rain. Just as someone standing in a shadow of
a building isn't getting much sunlight. And of course, rain and storms affect not just the climates of the two
sides of the mountain, but also the rates and patterns of erosion on the mountain as well. Essentially, over
millions of years, the rock formations, um, and the contour of the whole mountain range really has been
affected by patterns of precipitation.

Now, mountains, can not only cause precipitation. So for example, the sun facing side of the mountain will get
heated throughout the day. If the hot air rising off the mountain side mixes with the cooler winds, the air mass
becomes unstable. In this instability triggers the development of convection cells, which can lead to not just
rain, but to a thunderstorm. We'll we'll come back to this later.

One other point I want to make first, though, is that orographic precipitation is also affected by the size of the
barrier, whether it's a large mountain range like the southern Alps, or a smaller land barrier like hills. It has to
do with the.where the most rainfall and mountains, the maximum precipitation occurs on the windward side, of
course, at some distance down from the crest, the Top of the mountain. But for hills, most of the precipitation
falls very close to or directly over the hills crest. Rainfall over hills was researched pretty thoroughly in the
1950s. And even though the project was completed a long time ago, its results are still interesting. Let's take a
look at that now.

Listen to a conversation between a student and his chemistry professor.

How are you? Ned? Very well. Thanks. Um, last month we were talking and you mentioned doing ceramics.
So, like I told you, I do ceramics, too. And my exhibitors finally been scheduled. It's this weekend at the gallery
by the state park. So if you have time, thank you, Ned. I'd be delighted to come. Great. Also, I was hoping you
could answer a chemistry related question. I noticed that the clay I use in the studio has an unusual fragrance.
They say it's local clay and this might sound strange. But it reminds me of the scent in the air right after a
rainfall. Is this just my imagination? Not at all. Actually, what you're smelling is called Patrick. Patrick. Right?
Patrick is a mixture of plant oils, and a, chemical compound made by bacteria. What happens is that plants
produce certain oils during dry periods. And these oils mix with the soil, especially if it has lots of clay. And as
long as the ground stays dry, the oils keep seeds from sprouting, and make it difficult for nearby plants to grow
and compete for limited water supplies. Until it rains again.

And then, well, first, you mentioned the state park right in forested areas, bacteria in the soil make another
chemical compound during dry weather that mixes with the plant oils. And when it rains, the force of the
raindrops hitting the ground, sort of squirt this fragrant mixture, this petra up into the air. So that good smell
actually comes mostly from the ground. It does. And in one research project, high speed cameras recorded how
the scent moves into the air, really? Yes, when raindrops land on dry soil, that's really sponge like or porous.
Little bubbles form. And when these bubbles rise up and pop, they release tiny droplets with that familiar scent.
The smell is often strongest when it's raining for the first time in a long while. And Ned, it was quite observant
of you to make the connection between this and the fragrance of the clay you work with. Well, that smell is
really it's really noticeable. And in case you're interested, the smell often detected before rain. That comes from
the chemical ozone. Ozone is produced by lightning interacting with gases in the atmosphere. We'll be
discussing that later in class but. An interaction like that. It's the sort of thing you can research. Remember, you
do still need a topic for your next research paper. Great suggestion, thanks, okay, then hope to see you at the
gallery.

Listen to Part of a lecture in an archaeology class.

It's well known among archaeologists that the civilizations in Central America and Mexico about 1,000 years
ago, it's well known that they were accomplished astronomers. And how do we know this? Anyone? Joseph? I
know the Maya had a famous book and it has a chart in it saying when the planet Venus will rise and set. Right?
That's something we now call the Venus tables. So the Maya came up with an incredibly accurate table of the
phases of the planet Venus. But if you're not an astronomer, how are you going to understand it? I know i
couldn't. I'm sure not many archaeologists could either. That's why some archaeologists also study astronomy.
Actually, it's an entire branch of archaeology called argue, astronomy, combining archaeology and astronomy
gives us insight into ancient cultures, because it helps us to understand part of their motivation as a culture. And
the more we learn about ancient civilizations all over the world, the more we begin to see the importance of this
field of research.

There are other clues that.to the importance of astronomy to the Maya, such as the placement of buildings, and
and, how they were built. In fact, there's a building. One of the few round buildings built by the Maya that
archaeologists studied and were puzzled about for years. It looks remarkably like a modern observatory, but it
wasn't until astronomers studied it, that we found that the building was set up to pretty accurately track the
planet Venus.

Now, there's a lesser known site where Archie astronomy played a role right here in the United States. In what
is now, Wyoming. It's called the big horn medicine wheel. The whole structure, it is shaped like a huge wagon
wheel laid out on the ground. It's made of many rocks arranged in a big circle with a pile of rocks in the center
and 28 lines of rocks from the center like spokes. And naturally, we wanted to know why it was built, what
purpose it served. We knew it was built by the people who lived in the plains. But we're not exactly sure when
it's estimated to be anywhere from 300 to 800 years old.

So before archaeology revealed, what's probably the wheels function? What do you think some of the
hypotheses were? Maybe they thought it was built for some sort of ceremony. Okay, good. That was one
hypothesis. Two things, though. It's at a very high elevation. Plus it's covered in snow about 8 months, a year.
So it's not very accessible, but that wouldn't necessarily rule it out. No, you're right. It wouldn't still, oh. Uh, did
they think the rocks were used to hold down the edges of a tent? Well, a tent or a TP was another idea. But
remember, it's high up in the mountains. And the whole thing is pretty large. Almost 25 meters across much
bigger than the base of a tent would have been.

So who finally figured out that it was related to astronomy? While in the early 1970s, an astronomer learned
about a different wheel, 5 or 600 kilometers south of the one in Wyoming. And how parts of that wheel lined up
with the rising and setting sun on certain days of the year. The astronomer was John Eddie. So John Eddie
traveled to Wyoming to study the big horn medicine wheel. He studied the lines of Roxy. He took lots of
measurements. And he found that when looking across the wheel, certain points on the wheel lined up with the
points on the horizon where the sun rose and set. During the summer solstice, in in, June. And there were other
alignments to three very bright stars when they appeared in the sky for the first time each year, 28 days apart
from each other, same as the lunar month.

So what does this tell us? It was used as a calendar. A calendar. I think an astronomical tool, an observatory that
helped make a calendar would be more accurate. But before John Eddie's research, no one ever studied in that
context, they never even considered it. The Discovery prompted archaeologists and astronomers to join forces
more often. Together, we've studied more structures in the Americas, other stone circles, wooden structures,
earth mounds. And we've learned that many were used for astronomical observations. And in examining those
observations, we've really expanded our understanding of the people who lived in the America's hundreds of
years ago.

3-NT-20

Conversation between a student and a building manager.

Excuse me, you're the building manager, right? Is there a problem? I'm directing a play. And if you want a
book, the auditorium and can help you with that, she's in charge of scheduling. Her office is just down the hall.
Actually, I already have the auditorium reserved. Our production of the importance of being earnest goes up in a
week. The thing is we can't get into the storage room, and we need to put our props in there. We've got furniture
costumes, a lot of stuff, really, I the storage room right across from the auditorium. We always use it for storing
props, but it's locked. There's a sign on the door that says no entry, right? We brought in an electrician to help
fix some wiring problems we had on the second floor.

Since the job will take a few weeks, he wanted to store some of his equipment here. We let him use that storage
room, but what can we do with our props? Couldn't you just keep them backstage? There's another student
group using the auditorium right now. They're putting on a dance performance, so they have their own stuff
backstage. There, is in space for our stuff there right now. Do you need to have the props here now? I if your
show doesn't start for a week, but we have to set up beforehand the dance group. They do their final
performance 4 days from now. That only leaves us with a few days to put the set together and get everything
organized.

Right now, we're storing a lot of stuff in my dorm room, but it's not nearly big enough. I can barely walk
through the room, and my bed is covered by a bunch of costumes. They have a lot of space at the administration
building uh. Maybe they have a big closet available or something like that. Even if they had some space that's
on the other side of campus, and we have some heavy furniture tables and other stuff that's a real pain to carry
around. Plus we've got things like tea cups, things that break so easily. I'd like to avoid having to move them
around more than necessary.

I guess I could let you use the basement here. Normally, we only use it for storing university, audio and video
equipment. I guess I can make an exception, just please and try to be careful down there. That equipment is
expensive, and as soon as you can move the props upstairs.

Class to review. Last time we discussed an art movement that started in England in the late 1800s, the arts and
crafts movement, who can summarize for us. Emily. England was becoming industrialized. Many items that
used to be made by hand were now being mass produced in factories by machines. The arts and crafts
movement was a reaction against machine made products. Good, it's favored hand made objects. An example,
anyone? A handmade wall paper? Yes, wallpaper, fabrics, furniture, and this arts and crafts movement inspired
several artistic groups in the United States, including one in the south, in the city of New Orleans.

The new camarenterprise. The new compulsory Enterprise gets its name from new come college in New
Orleans. This women's college was opened in 1886 with the mission of training middle class women to support
themselves financially. One of its programs was an art school that taught classes in pottery making. The school
also ran a factory where the art students produced pottery for sale. They were paid for their labor, though,
admittedly not very much. The term Enterprise refers to this factory. In the lady teen hundreds, it wasn't the
norm for women to earn a living as artists. Was it? Good point? This was a groundbreaking idea. Although even
at Niko, the making of the clay pots was done by men. But it was the women's own designs that defined the
studio and established its reputation. Newton's Guiding philosophy emphasized that the designs be not just
beautiful, but also practical. Pieces were designed for every day use, and like other proponents of the arts and
crafts movement. The Enterprise took pride in the uniqueness of each object. Each piece of pottery was
handmade and no 2 pieces were like.

One thing you might notice about the pottery is that typically it was decorated with the images of local flowers
and plants. Take a look at this vase, for instance. Here we see oak trees and moss. These are a common site in
the southeastern United States. This is an image that would be familiar to people in the region around
newcomer.
But the ability of new compulsory to evoke the regions, beauty also appealed to buyers from far away. Did the
newcomer Enterprise just do pottery? Initially. But in the early 1900s, as its fame spread, it was able to hire
more instructors and expand its offerings to include other handicrafts, such as embroidery and metalwork.
Newcomer embroidery has achieved a remarkably modern style in their needlework. Did you have a chance to
take a good look at the image in your textbook of the piece of embroidery? The one with the horizontal and
vertical stitches. Right? Those dots and bold color at spaced intervals. It's not like your grandmother's
embroidery for sure. Actually, it reminds me one of those paintings made up of tiny dots of color instead of
brush strokes. Exactly. That style of painting was popular and the embroidery piece shows the influence of such
paintings on the designers at newcomer.

In the early 1900s, the art world was undergoing other big changes. On a trip to Paris, one newcomer instructor
encountered the new style known as art deco, which features very angular shapes. Soon, some Newfoundland
decorators started experimenting with these modern designs. They made their patterns of flowers and trees more
linear and geometric, more like the art deco style. But even as newcomers, decorators began experimenting with
modernism, newcomers, buyers continued to favor the naturalistic decorations they were familiar with. Those
were the designs that sold really well. So in terms of business, it made sense to keep the buyers satisfied. From
the artist perspective, though, it's a shame, they weren't able to incorporate even more modern elements and
designs into their work.

This time on record that glaciers had spread out to cover large parts of the planet surface. This week, I'm gonna
talk about another prehistoric culture at around the same time. But on the other side of the globe, these people
live near the southern ice fields as far south as any people lived, then, south of Australia in what we now know
as the island of Tasmania. During the lgm so much water was frozen in glaciers that the sea level was much
lower than it is now. So tasmania wasn't, an island, then it was actually possible to walk from Australia to
Tasmania on a land bridge.

In fact, the archaeological record shows that prehistoric humans did exactly that. This region, so far from the
equator. And at this time, only 1,000 kilometers North of the Antarctic ice sheet was, as you'd expect, very cold.
In the southwestern region of Tasmania, there are high, rocky mountains with many trees, both in the valleys
and on the hilltops. In fact, fossil evidence shows that many species of plants lived at these heights in
prehistoric times. We know the climate Chile, as it was, was at least warm enough to sustain vegetation. And
archaeologists recently made a surprising Discovery in these areas, despite the altitude. There were clear signs
that humans had once made their homes here. Sharp stone cutting tools were found in many caves, also olds,
neither like pointed tools that were probably made from the bones of a wallaby and animals similar to the
kangaroo. Black and walls indicated the use of fires. Charred bone remains indicated that wallaby meat was a
frequent part of the diet. For clothing, they would have sown the wallaby hides with the bone alls.

Now, it's estimated that annual mean temperatures in Tasmania during the lgm were close to the lowest limit
that humans can tolerate, especially in the southwestern mountains. So why did early hunter gatherers choose to
live at these higher elevations? Traditionally, when archaeologists have looked at climate change, an ice age, for
instance, they've tended to make a basic assumption about how it might have affected human habitation
patterns. Namely, they've assumed that any changes in such patterns resulting from the climate change must be
related to food resources. It pre historic Tasmanian migrated up into colder, mountainous regions during the lgm
the assumption would be that they, as hunter gatherers, we're following their most likely sources of food. In this
case, wallabies. That makes some sense, right? But these researchers, they took rather different and seemingly
counterintuitive view of the situation. They wanted to test the hypothesis that the prehistoric has millions might
have moved to higher grounds, not in spite of, but precisely because of the falling temperatures. In other words,
these higher elevations, despite having colder air temperatures than the lowlands, somehow offered people a
chance to keep warm.
How could that be? Well remember that air temperature isn't the only factor affecting how cold it feels. You
also have to take wind into account. And Tasmania at this time was a very windy place, indeed. What might you
find in the mountains that would help protect you from those biting winds? The researchers here proposed a
couple of answers. First there were the trees, which would both act as a natural barrier against the wind and
provide firewood. The low lying coastal areas, during this time, by contrast, were largely treeless and covered
by grasslands, but perhaps of even greater importance was the shelter offered by the caves I mentioned. And
interestingly enough, nearly all the caves where evidence of human habitation was found had openings that
faced away from the direction of the coldest prevailing winds. These two factors, then trees and shelter would
have greatly contributed to the survival of the prehistoric Tasmanian. So to me, what the researchers are
positively seems quite plausible that the Tasmanian choice of where to live was influenced at least as much by
climate, as by considerations regarding the availability of food.

To a conversation between a student and the administrative assistant for the biology department. Thanks for
letting me into the biology lab, but no luck. You're sure you've looked everywhere at home, too. I did. Professor
Webb is going to be furious. She trusted me with managing the lab. These things happen. For now, we can get
in with the other keys we have. And then we can have security replaced the lock as a matter of procedure. It's
not a big deal. Yeah, but professor Webb, my adviser, and I was gonna ask her for a letter of recommendation
for graduate school. There's no way she'll look. You've been her lab assistant for what? 3 years now. She didn't
have to hire you for all those semesters. Did she? I guess not. I know professor Webb pretty well. It's just an
inconvenience. That's all I hope. You're right. Trust me.

As long as i've got you here, I need to know if you'll be attending the hawk watch next month. We're expecting
to see a really impressive migration of the birds at this year's event. The department had asked me to keep a list
of confirmed names of people who are attending. A lot of people told us they'd come to last year's hawk watch,
but not many showed up. I'd love to go, but it's an hour away, and I don't have a car.

So the departments renting a van to take people there. You're really making sure people will be there. In that
case, i'll put your name down great. Do you know what time we leave? Promptly at 6:00? Am? I'd better
reconsider that concert the night before then. Because I now sleep through my alarm the next morning. That's
funny. I'm going to a concert that night, too. My favorite Jazz band is playing downtown at central cafe. I never
figured that band would attract a university crowd. I'm usually one of the youngest people at their shows. I don't
mind though. Did you see them at the concert hall last summer? When the guitar player broke one of his strings,
but kept on playing anyway. Wasn't that amazing sure was? What a professional? If you have to miss this show,
you'll have another chance to see them later in the semester.

We've been discussing how some animals adjust to the presence of humans in their environment. Today we'll
talk about how this might affect the singing habits of songbirds. Birds sing for a variety of reasons. Can anyone
name one defending territory? Attracting mates. Yes, birds also sing to warn each other about predators.
Recordings of birds on can provide Information like the time of day when songs are sung. How loud they are
the pitch, how high or low the song sound. These features of birdsong, loudness, pitch, can be influenced by
urbanization by human cities. With urbanization comes human noise, paved roads, tall buildings, and birds may
adjust to those conditions.

Let's look at two studies. The first study was in Europe. Researchers wondered, would birds living in your
major airports be affected by airplane noise? Some words generally start singing around dawn, but the exact
time depends on the species. A particular species might sing a couple of hours before dawn, just before dawn or
right at dawn. There are usually lots of flights leaving airports in the morning. Exactly. Many airports get busy,
right? When you'd expect birds to start singing. Maybe birds will sing earlier to communicate before the airports
noisy. Good guess.

Researchers did find that birds closest to the airport they were studying in Madrid. Spain started singing earlier
than birds living farther away, although in other respects, their habitats were similar. How can they be sure it's
because of the airport? Maybe those particular birds sang earlier by chance. To rule out coincidence, they
studied birds near five additional European airports at different latitudes. Sunrise would happen at different
times from location to location. Yes. Airports run by a clock, but birds rely on the sun to tell time. Researchers
also chose places with little artificial light. Sunrise was truly when it got light in these locations, in locations
where don arrived closest to the time when airplane noise started. Researchers found a bigger effect, extra early
start times for bird singing. This suggests the birds are singing earlier because of airport noise. They're singing
when it's still dark, which could cost challenges. It might attract predators that the birds can't see. And escaping
in the dark could be difficult. If more species of birds sing at the same time, it might be harder for birds to hear
the songs of their own species.

An interesting question is, do birds near airports alter their behavior individually? Or are birds that sing earlier
being selected for? If early singing is a genetic trait, perhaps birds near airports that sing earlier, survive and
reproduce more successfully, passing the trade to offspring. If this were the case, you'd see populations near
airports evolving rather than birds altering their behavior individually. To investigate, you could transport birds
from airport areas to quiet areas and vice versa, and see whether individuals alter their behavior.

The second study I wanted to discuss looked at two aspects of urban environments that can affect the pitch of
birdsong noise and echoing a lot of other research like the airport study, we just discussed deals with noise.
Instead, let's focus on echoes. The paved streets and tall buildings of urban areas reflect sounds, cause echoes.
Sounds of higher frequency higher pitch sounds are more likely to echo. Then lower pitch sounds. Echoes are
confusing to birds. So researchers hypothesized that birds would tend to lower the pitch of their songs in urban
areas. Birdsong from six species was recorded at multiple sites with different noise and echo levels in the
Washington DC area. Pitch was analyzed statistically. Since some areas were more urbanized than others, it was
possible to compare bird songs of urbanized and non urbanized birds of the same species. The hypothesis
predicting that birds would lower their pitch in echoing areas was correct for two of the six species. Wimbledon,
the American Robin did the opposite of what was predicted. It raised the pitch. Yes, possibly because Robin
saying at the lowest frequency of all the birds in the study, perhaps their songs are already low enough to avoid
echoing. So Robbins could afford to raise pitch to avoid interference from human noise.

Some questions remain unanswered. For example, even noisy environments, there's often time between noises
like a break in heavy traffic. Do birds wait to sing until times when noise decreases? That would be one way of
coping without changing pitch.

3-NT-21
Shouldn't between a student and a psychology professor.
Hi, Johnny, what can I help you with? Well, i've been working on my paper on Sigmund Freud and what he said
about our minds, how there's a part of our minds that's conscious like, our thoughts, and also an unconscious
part that we're not in control of, not even aware of the idea that most of our behavior comes from our
unconscious mind rather than conscious choices. Right? But something's been bothering me oh. What's that?
Well, how can Freud came to know? I mean, for sure, how the unconscious mind works, I mean, how can you
really confirm ideas about the unconscious? Well, those are great questions. And the answer is you can't. You
you can't. Freud is actually quite controversial in the field of psychology for that very reason, not necessarily
among therapists who are trying to help their patients. They often find Freud ideas useful, but more among
people who want psychology to be seen as a science, like who um, people who do psychological research.

Freud work concerning the unconscious was based on case studies, observations he made about his own
patients. Since Freud himself was a therapist, he derived his insights from these observations rather than from
controlled experiments. So his method wasn't really scientific. Wait, II thought Freud was like the father of
modern psychology. I mean, when I think of psychology, I think of Freud, you're not wrong. His ideas have
become part of our everyday life. Just this morning, I was speaking with a colleague, not someone in the
psychology department mind you. We were talking about how close the end of the semester is getting. Uh, I
know I still have so much work to do before it's over. Well, that's what she was saying, too. And the way she
phrased it was that she was in denial about the end of the semester. Basically, she was saying she's not ready to
face reality.

Now, this idea of being in denial originated with Freud. He identified denial as something people do to avoid
having to think about unpleasant things. But but it's not like she was quoting Freud. She was just familiar with
the concept of denial, right? So you're saying that most people rely on for its ideas without realizing it. But
many researchers reject them. That's so weird. Well, think of it this way. Things have changed a lot in the field
of psychology since Freud day. We've learned a great deal about the brain and how it gives rise to thoughts and
feelings. There's a lot of Information we have now that wasn't available to Freud, brain chemistry, brain
structure, Information that's proven useful for therapists as well as researchers.

Part of a lecture in a physics class, as we know, matter can exist in various states. We're all familiar with three
of those states, solid, liquid, and gas. And you'll recall that we can change a substance from one state to another
by adding or taking away heat or pressure or both heat and pressure.

Today we're going to talk about another form of matter. What's called a super critical fluid. We can change the
substance into a super critical fluid by subjecting it to temperatures and pressures at or above that substance is
critical.Critical points vary from substance to substance. Some substances have much higher critical points than
others. Water reaches its critical point at a temperature of about374℃, and a pressure of around
218atmospheres. That is around 218 times the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. So for water to reach
its critical.we need quite extreme conditions. So what exactly is a super critical fluid? Well, super critical fluids
have properties that enable them to behave both like a liquid and like a gas. And these properties make them
ideal for certain important uses.

One very promising application of super critical fluids is what's called super critical, water, oxidation, water
that's been used by homes, businesses, and industries contains various pollutants. Various kinds of waste
particles. So it needs to be treated before it can be released back into the environment. And what super critical
water oxidation is, the say, you have waste water from a factory. At a treatment plant, we can take this water
and heat and pressurize it to change the liquid water to a super critical fluid. So now you have a mixture of
super critical, water, and waste particles. Then we can oxidize the mixture, pump it into a reactor and inject it
with oxygen. This will cause a reaction that continues until almost all of the wastes are broken down and
combined into water, salts and other harmless products of all the super critical water applications.

This one, I think, has the greatest potential to be used widely. My hedge caused super critical water, typically
corrodes the treatment equipment. The reactors. So we need to figure out how to develop reactors with parts that
can withstand the destructive effects of super critical water.

Another important, super critical fluid, the most commonly used super critical fluid actually, is super critical
carbon dioxide. Many large scale food industries use super critical carbon dioxide to extract various
components from food products. For example, a company that produces coffee products might wanna remove
the caffeine from coffee beans in order to make a decaffeinated product. And rather than using a chemical
solvent to dissolve the caffeine, which might leave an undesirable residue on the coffee beans, or super critical
water, which due to its extremely high critical point would destroy the beans. They can use carbon dioxide,
which has a critical temperature and pressure of only about32℃ and 73atmospheres.

And speaking of abstractions, even small changes in temperature and pressure result in significant changes, in
the properties of super critical fluids. So we can manipulate them very precisely, make them very selective in
the kinds of substances they extract. So we can, for example, extract caffeine without extracting other
components that we don't want to extract. And super critical carbon dioxide, also a great cleaning solvent.
That's good news for industries where cleaning is a critical step in their processes. Many cleaning solvents used
in manufacturing contain substances that are destructive to the atmosphere that foul our rivers, streams and
groundwater. But super critical, carbon dioxide, environmentally harmless. And it's very effective at dissolving
contaminants.

Part of a lecture in an English literature class. The class is discussing William Shakespeare. So the Shakespeare
portrait that was found recently, Karen, it sounds like you're not convinced that the painting is really an image
of Shakespeare. I don't think so. And I suppose most Shakespearean scholars would agree with you. But
imagine for a moment, if we found not a portrait, but writings, say, Shakespeare's letters or an early draft of a
play, a poem, uh, something that no one has seen in uh 400 years or so. Well, if I found something like that, I'd
be famous and rich, too. You certainly would. Now it's one thing for a Shakespeare scholar to be fooled by a
portrait to think a painting is of Shakespeare when it isn't. But it's another thing entirely to believe a play is a
work of Shakespeare when it's not, or even more serious when it's the work of an amateur.

But it has happened. Let's look at the case of some shakespeare papers, supposedly found by a young man
named William Ireland. This is back in 1795. William Ireland announced to his father that he had found a
property deed bearing Shakespeare's signature. According to his story as part of his job as a clerk. He was
searching through the papers of a wealthy gentleman in London. When he discovered the documents, his father
was beside himself with excitement. Over the next few months, other papers turned up a love letter to
Shakespeare's wife. Uh, thank you note from the queen, some books, from Shakespeare's personal library, even
some previously unknown place. It was a huge find, perhaps big enough to completely change our view of
Shakespeare. But was it genuine. Remember, this was 1795. If it were to happen today, I guess there would be
scientific tests, and then they'd have a good idea, um, at least about the age of the documents. Yes. Scientists
would analyze the paper, the ink. But none of that in 1795, they'd have to determine the authenticity of the
documents by what was written. There were unfinished plays. Were they good enough to have been written by
Shakespeare?

Anyway, before anyone had a chance to look very closely at the material? Many people had already made up
their minds. On the one hand, you had the doubters because William Ireland refused to name the wealthy
gentleman whose library contained the papers. This raised suspicions and the documents themselves in
Shakespeare's time, spelling wasn't standardized. It was pretty common to see a word, even a name like
Shakespeare's spelled two or three different ways in the same document. But the spellings in Ireland is fine.
Well, words were spelled in ways that experts had never seen before. But then on the other side, Ireland's father
was a respected bookseller. He was well known in literary circles, surely that had to count for something. For a
time, this was big front page news. Along with the public newspapers also had a role in judging the documents.
Some were against Ireland and some supported him. And you've got to understand what was writing on this,
being fooled into mistaking the work of an amateur for the work of the great William Shakespeare.

Well, once you make that mistake, your reputation is ruined.

Now, all of this controversy eventually came to ahead when one of the lost plays was staged in 1796. A little bit
past the place halfway point, the audience started laughing hysterically and completely lost control. Some
newspapers claim the audience couldn't control themselves because the play was so bad. But others said that the
laughter was in response to the bad acting. Now, in fact, all the papers agreed that the lead actor was terrible.
And what's interesting is that the lead actor may have been there's some evidence that is terrible acting was sort
of his own editorial comment. His way of saying that he didn't believe the play was written by Shakespeare. His
bad acting was meant to match the bad play. Anyway, after this, there was no.in Ireland continuing this
fabrication. The public had pronounced their verdict. And at this point, almost no one believed him. Well, a few
years later, he published a book in which he told the truth. Why did he confess? Scholars tend to think he was
trying to impress his father. He wanted to be able to claim that he was the one who had fooled the literary
establishment.

To a conversation between a student and an employee at the campus observatory.

Sorry, I had to ask you to reschedule our appointment. Mister Jackson, I was helping out with a group session in
the solar telescope room. Yes, I know no need to apologize. It happens all the time. When we get bad weather
like last week's schedules get shifted. All part of working at an observatory. Believe me. We really appreciate
all the help you've given us here as a volunteer. It's fun for me. I get experience using telescopes and I enjoy
answering people's questions. But you say there's a new program I can help on. Yes. As I said, you've already
done a lot. I don't want to overtax your schedule. But if, I know you. You're the perfect person to help us launch
this. We want to teach students about astrophotography. I love astrophotography, capturing photos of planets,
stars, galaxies, it's great. I'd love to help get more people involved. And i hear even done a little
astrophotography yourself. Yeah, but I'm definitely an amateur. I the first time I tried it, I wanted to capture an
image of stars. I was using a friend's telescope and an ordinary camera, but instead of stars, there were just these
blurry lines on the picture.

Star trails, we call those lines. Earth is moving and cameras record that movement. Sometimes that's the effect
of photographer wants really, yes. Some find them interesting to look at. They can also be informative. When I
started astrophotography, I knew from the star trails whether my camera support was rigid enough. If the trails
were straight, it meant only earth's movement was being recorded. But if, they were jagged. I knew the camera
was moving to. I see. The star trails weren't what I wanted. I love that the telescopes here have motion tracking,
so you don't get those lines. Since i've been here, i've learned a couple of techniques for Guiding using a
separate telescope to line up a guide star, to compensate for unexpected changes in the atmosphere. I didn't
know about that before. I'm impressed. Guiding can be a little tricky. Those techniques are hard to learn. We're
planning to get some equipment in that will have capabilities for automatic Guiding. Excellent. That'll be so
much easier than the manual Guiding i've been practicing.

Now, as I said, I don't want you to over extend yourself. If you take this on, you'll need to come to some
planning meetings over the next couple of months with me and, professor Smith. We should pull you off of
some of the viewing sessions are scheduled to lead. Just to let you know, my class schedule is pretty heavy
during the day. That's why I usually volunteer here at night. I'll talk to professor Smith about setting up some
evening meetings. I think it should be doable.

In a class, on international relations.

You're all familiar with official government diplomacy between heads of state or ambassadors. But there's also
something called citizen diplomacy. This is based on the idea that private citizens can also contribute to better
understanding across cultures and to a more peaceful world through non governmental interactions, one
example of citizen diplomacy is a sister city relationship.
Sister cities are two local municipalities in two different countries that form a mutually beneficial partnership.
These sister city partnerships, sometimes they're also called twin cities or friendship cities. They've existed in
some form for a very long time. But the modern sister city movement didn't begin until the 1950s. Dwight
Eisenhower, the president of the United States back then, imagine sister cities as a strong component of
widespread citizen diplomacy. Marcy, don't we have a sister city like in Italy or something? Yes. Our city
partner with an Italian city almost 10 years ago. I actually attended some of the original planning meetings back
in the beginning. It was quite interesting. There was a lot of debate about which city to partner with. We finally
chose our sister city because both cities have medium sized universities and significant, food industries. We
thought there would be lots of opportunities for exchange. So even though ordinary citizens plan a sister city
partnership, the local government has to formalize the relationship. The mayor or other Top ranking official
from each city must sign the official agreement. So sister cities are not just about citizen diplomacy.
Government officials are involved too. Yes, but only to a limited extent, it typically just for formalities.

Now, there are several different approaches to these relationships. The first one, which was the original focus of
president Eisenhower is plan, is the associative approach. Associative relationships promote a general
awareness of the other culture, and a sense of international friendship. For example, our local organization
regularly holds cultural events like, Italian movie nights or a Italian opera performances. But today's sister city
relationships don't always look like the ones that president Eisenhower imagined. The reciprocal approach
offers another way to interact with a sister city. A reciprocal relationship focuses on educational exchanges.
Marcy. We have that study abroad program, right? Every year several students from our university and several
from our sister city in Italy, participate in a year long student exchange program. This contributes to cultural
understanding and has additional benefits, like the language skills these students learn during their time abroad.
We're also planning some future research collaborations between professors at the two universities.

Finally, we have the commercial approach. The commercial approach was not part of president Eisenhower is
original plan, but it's becoming a larger part of sister city relationships. Most commercially driven exchanges
between sister cities have focused mainly on tourism. Both cities benefit financially by increasing their numbers
of foreign visitors, but beyond tourism, food importers here and in our sister city are working on a partnership, a
commercial partnership that could increase trade and provide a major economic advantage for both cities.

For example, they make a special type of cheese in our sister city. I tried it when I was in Italy and I thought it
was excellent. Now, if it became available here in our town, I'm sure there'd be a big consumer market for it.
But I sometimes worry about the growing importance of economic exchanges between sister cities. I think
there's a real danger of forgetting about our other goals, like improving cultural understanding. In pursuing
economic opportunities, the main concern must be to balance these economic priorities with the other goals of
citizen diplomacy.

Another Challenge for sister cities is maintaining these relationships long term. Our sister city partnership is
still relatively young, just 10 years old. We don't know if it'll last now that the head of our local sister city
organization who happens to be a friend of mine is planning to retire, which means they'll have to find new
leadership. One way to help ensure that a sister city relationship stay strong is through publicity. Like
advertising. Now how, can they do that? I'm sure they have a website, right? In fact, let's take a look now at our
partnerships website. See what you think.

3-NT-22

Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor in the engineering department.

Your EMAIL said you had some questions about the history of engineering course. Yes, the course description
in the catalog listed in two departments as a history course, and as a regular science course for engineering
majors, I wasn't sure it is a little confusing. We've never done this before. It's a bit of an experiment, but I'm
really hoping it works. You mean, it's a new course. Actually, no. It's always been our standard introduction to
engineering course for engineering students. But after a lot of persuasion, I finally got the administration to
agree to let me open up the course to non engineering students as a history course. That's what I thought. I to
me, it looked interesting is a history topic, because I don't really feel qualified to sign up for something super
technical with labs and things like that. Right? That's why I discussed this course with the head of the history
department to come up with different sets of requirements. Engineering students who take it will be expected to
attend labs and turn in weekly problem sets, but students who take it as a history course will be excused from
those tasks.

Non engineers will focus primarily on the historical component of the course, which is pretty substantial and.
Their assignments will be different. They'll have to write a few essays and give some in class presentations on
topics that have to do with the history of advances in engineering, be it in city planning, transportation, industry.
Sounds perfect for me. I'll definitely register for it. Great. I'm really glad the administration has finally agreed to
let us do this. I've been trying for years to find a way to open the course to students with diverse backgrounds
and interests, and it will fulfill my social science requirement.

So do I just register using the history department codes? Or I'm a first year student? Is that a problem? Not at
all? The course is open to first year students. However, your academic adviser will have to approve all your
courses before you register. That's important because talking to your advisor helps with things like making sure
this course is the best way for you to fulfill your social science requirement. Since I know you're interested, I
can temporarily hold a spot in the class for you. This way, you won't have to worry about the course filling up
while you're in that process.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class. The class is discussing Leonardo da Vinci.
Last class, we discussed the symbolism found in the subject matter of Leonardo da Vinci paintings. Today, I
wanna focus not on the content of his work, but on specific painting techniques that this famous renaissance
painter used.

We'll start with a technique that Leonardo used to produce various predictions of shading. A technique called
spatto. Sumatra is an Italian word, meaning smoky or smoked. Samantha is an attempt Leonardo da Vinci wrote
in his notebooks to suddenly represent the soft smoking, infinite gradation from dark shadow to light by
delicately and gently merging darkness and light.

Source for motto, according to Leonardo is an effect in which there are no lines or borders. In the same way that
smokers, no lines or borders. In other words, he totally avoided the use of sharp, harsh outlines or contours to
show shading, to help him accomplish a subtle smoky merging of darkness and light. He focused on eliminating
signs of the act of painting itself, like visible brush strokes.

This was not a focus of all Italian renaissance painters. For example, the great painting tissues loosen in exact
brush strokes are clearly visible, especially in his later work. He sometimes painted with thick paint, thick
enough to leave impressions of his brush strokes, painting with thick paint. That's the impostor technique.
Impostor, meaning paste. Tissue style of painting wasn't the ideal renaissance style. Ideally, renaissance painters
sought to create a three dimensional illusion, a precise reflection of the world, like a photograph can do these
days. They sought to eliminate any signs that the painter had been there at all. And with tomato, that's what
Leonardo da Vinci was trying to do.
So how did he actually achieve subtle gradation in shading without visible brush strokes? Well, part of it, is
undertaking, he used very thin layers of paint. Each layer was a nearly transparent glaze, a glaze with only a
small amount of a single pigment in it. That is he did not directly mix different pigments together, didn't blend
colors together before applying them to the canvas. Instead he applied a single pigment glaze, let it dry, then
applied another, one on Top of another, and so on and so on. The result is an image with remarkable depth.

So we've known all that general Information about Leonardo is for motto technique for a long time. But
researchers wanted specifics. How many layers of glazes exactly how thin what ingredients did he use in these
lasers? Sometimes researchers take tiny samples right from a painting. Analysis of these samples can provide
Information on the thickness and composition of the layers. But can you imagine taking samples from the face
of the Mona Lisa? From a priceless painting like that? The shadows on the faces of Leonardo subjects are the
most remarkable examples of the use of tomato. But, you know, that's really the last place you'd ever consider
removing a sample from.

So what can be done? Well recently researchers have developed a non invasive technique instead of removing
samples using something called x Ray fluorescence spectroscopy, or xrf xrf involves exposing a painting to x
rays. Without getting too technical, it's a way of seeing beneath the surface without harming the painting.

Researchers used xrf to analyze faces in seven of Leonardo da Vinci paintings, including the Mona Lisa, and
they found some answers to their questions. First of all, they found that Leonardo layers could be almost
unbelievably thin as thin as merely two micro meters, which is microscopically thin. He may have even used his
fingertips to apply layers rather than a brush to help control the thickness. And he'd lay on up to 30 layers to
create the darkest areas. Now, remember that he had to let each of these layers dry before adding the next one.
Several days, weeks or even months for each layer. No wonder Leonardo was a slow painter. The seven
paintings studied were from various stages of Leonardo da Vinci Korea over 40 years. The two earliest work
show evidence that Leonardo was using mixed paints in the faces. I mean, the analysis reveals that the shading
in the faces was accomplished by directly mixing various pigments. But with the later paintings, well, it appears
that as time went on, Leonardo used single pigment glazes more and more. And what's the significance of that?
Well, we can see that he kept experimenting with glazes with this tomato technique.

Listen to part of a lecture in an environmental science class.

We focused on the damage that the current global warming has caused in the world's oceans. But what about
other bodies of water like lakes? A 2015 study indicates that the relationship between lake temperatures and
global temperatures is more complicated than we thought. Who knows how researchers measure lake
temperatures? People basically put a thermometer in the water, right? And oh, yeah, they use satellites. Yes. In
addition to direct measurements in the field, we collect temperature data remotely from heat sensing satellites.
These satellites measure heat variations on earth surface, including the surfaces of lakes. But satellites only pick
up readings for lakes that are more than 100 square kilometers. Temperatures of small, shallow lakes can not be
measured remotely. Past studies using direct measurements of lake water included both surface and deeper
water temperatures for lakes of all sizes. However, those studies have mostly included lakes in northern
latitudes. So given these limitations, each of those previous studies provided an Incomplete understanding of
lake warming trends.

But in 2015, researchers published a huge study that combined existing temperature data from both field studies
and satellites. The data focused on summer surface water temperatures for 235 lakes of all sizes on six
continents over a 24 year period. From 1985 to 2009. The size shape location. And other details of each lake
were also considered. That's a lot of data. What they discovered was that not all lakes follow the same warming
pattern. Older studies had predicted that lakes in the same geographical region were all warming up at about the
same rate, and that lake warming trends were tied to air warming trends.
The twenty 15 study, however, suggested that a multitude of factors play a role in lake warming. One finding
was that each decade, many lakes were warming faster than their surrounding air temperatures. Even more
surprising, the greatest temperature increases are happening in lakes that are covered with ice for part of the
year. The data show that the world's deepest ice covered lakes are warming twice as fast as the local air
temperatures are. Um, but shouldn't ice cover make lakes colder? Historically, ice cover did protect lake water
from seasonal temperature increases by reflecting sunlight. Without ice, the sun's radiation can penetrate and
warm the water.

Now, due to global warming, cold seasons around the world are getting shorter and less cold. So the ice is
forming later and melting earlier than it used to, which means Julia, it means that ice is not reflecting sunlight
for very long. But you said there are other factors that are making lakes warmer. What are they? Okay. Um one
is a reduction in the amount of cloud cover in some lake regions. Another consequence of climate change. Um,
fewer cloudy days means more days when sun lights hitting the lake surface and getting absorbed as heat. And
in deep lakes, the temperature difference between the surface and deeper waters creates a phenomenon called
stratification. Stratification occurs when cold, dense lake water sinks to the bottom, and the lighter warmer
water remains on Top. The temperature difference between the colder and warmer layers is greatest in the
deepest lakes. That's because the wind cannot create enough turbulence or motion to mix the layers together.
The result, heat from both air and solar radiation in the upper layers of the lake.

So what's the big deal if lakes are warming? Well, one concern is that stratification creates the perfect
environment for algae blooms, which are caused by dramatic increases in the growth of noxious algae. The blue
green photosynthetic bacteria that thrive in warm, stable waters. In lakes with stratified waters these, bacteria
can grow out of control. Eventually the algae die and their carbon rich remains decompose, get broken down by
other organisms. By products of this decomposition include carbon dioxide and methane gases. These gases
then enter the atmosphere. And what do they do there? Carbon dioxide and methane. They trap heat near earth's
surface, right? Basically, the algae can cause even more global warming. Right. And according to the 2015
study, many lakes around the world are warming much faster than previous models predicted. That's the kind of
news that keeps scientists like me awake at night.

Listen to a conversation between a student and the director of student activities.

So Lisa, how can i help you? Well, you remember the community garden? I asked you about a few weeks ago,
sure your club wanted a patch of land on campus for local community members to grow their own vegetables.
And I think I remember saying that I thought it was a great idea in theory, but that there were too many
logistical problems to make it possible. Yeah, I know. But II was hoping you change your mind after you saw
this. I talked to my ecology professor about the club's idea, and he was so excited about it that he got faculty
members from different departments to sign a letter of support for the garden.

Look, you're basically asking the university to dig up a part of campus. It might look like there's plenty of room
for your garden, but the university has plans for most of its empty space with space at such a premium. This is
going to be a hard sell. It's just so frustrating. Something like this could strengthen. The university's image is
part of the broader community. And it would be educational. How often do urban kids get to see fruits and
vegetables growing? I agree, Lisa, it's just that. Well, let's think about this. Um. Are you familiar with the
downtown center for literacy? Actually, my roommate volunteers there. She helps teach after school reading
classes for kids. I was thinking of volunteering too. Well. The center is a collaboration between the community
and the university. We provide volunteers in some funding, and the community provides a building for the
program. But it's all done off campus.

So if there's no room for a garden on campus, we should try to find space in the city. Maybe part of a park or a
schoolyard. We could get in touch with members of the city council and see if they'd be willing to help us find a
spot. And I'd be happy to get you in touch with some other community leaders who might be interested. But
remember, there's still the issue of funding. Well, we were still hoping the university would donate some
money, you know, for soil seeds that kind of thing. The university might do that but. You know, I have a garden
at home, not nearly as large as I imagine, yours will be. But still, I had to install a watering system, put up
fences to keep pests out. And I'm out there working nearly every afternoon. There's always something that
needs to be done. Yeah, I know we still have a lot to work out, but at least now the idea seems more feasible.

Listen to part of a lecture in an animal behavior class.

Okay, we've been talking about bird communication, uh, their songs and calls. Can anyone remind us of the
differences between the two? Well, bird songs are usually produced only by males and they're used to attract
mates or to stake out territory. But both males and females produce calls, which are used for things like
warnings or begging for food. Right and, is there anything else? Yeah. Male birds learn their songs when they're
young, but calls are usually instinctive. They're genetically programmed, not learned. Good. Now some birds
that don't even produce songs are great, imitators. Right? Think about members of the citizen family commonly
referred to as parrots. Citizens comprise nearly 400 species, including true parrots, parakeets, mcca's, cockatoo
and so on. In captivity, they mimic human speech, but we don't really understand why what purpose would this
trait, this ability to mimic sound so accurately serve them in the wild.

To answer that we must look at how parrots communicate in the wild. Like I said unlike other bird species,
parrots don't produce songs, they produce only calls. And study suggests that unlike most other birds, the
parrots calls aren't genetically programmed but learned and that they continue to learn new calls throughout
their lives.

Let's look at a recent study about parrot communication. I read it's difficult to study parents because they rose
high up in the trees. And the males and females look really similar. Yes. And many species have big, strong
enough to tear off those bands. Researchers put on birds legs to identify them. But there have been a few studies
of power communication, including the one we'll discuss today.

But first, some background, in the 1980s, a researcher who was studying birds on a cattle ranch in Venezuela
noticed several small citizens called parallels who were nesting inside hollow spaces in the fence posts. He
wondered if he could make artificial nesting boxes that would appeal to these parallels. So he designed some
and eventually ended up with over 100 nests. Researchers have been studying the parallels there ever since.
This research has yielded a wealth of data about parrot behavior and life histories. So the nesting boxes made
this type of pair. It's easier to study, right? Also, unlike most citizens males and females are easily
distinguishable, plus they tolerate being handled by researchers. These parallels even leave their leg bands
alone. The studies followed more than 8,000 parallels throughout their lives, keeping track of all sorts of things,
such as who's related to whom.

So when ornithologist Carl Berg wanted to study communication between parrot parents and their nestlings in
the wild, he had the perfect place to do it. Okay? So here communication means calls, and most birds make a lot
of different calls, right? What kind did burg want to study? He was interested in what we call a contact call, the
most basic call. To us. A contact call sounds like a few simple peeks. But researchers have proposed that these
calls are like the parrots names. And what Berg wanted to do was find out if these contact calls were learned,
behaviors or instinctual. What he did was this. First, he swapped eggs among nine nests so that some sets of
chicks were raised by unrelated parrots like foster parents. He left eight other nests untouched as controls. Then
he made weekly video and audio recordings inside the nests after the chicks hatched. And he made recordings
outside the nest when the parents came and went.

Now the sounds are too fast for us to be able to hear the differences. So burg converted them into spectral grams
or pictures of the sounds. Then he analyzed the spectra grams using computer programs that search for
similarities. Interestingly, he found that the parents provide a basic call template to the chick at about 3 to 4
weeks, which each chick learns and slightly modifies to make its own contact, call its own name. He also found
that cause of nestlings are more similar to the calls of their primary caregivers, the foster parents than to any
other adults, even their biological parents.

And this similarity helps parents recognize their nestlings after they've left the nest. Why do they need to
recognize each other? Because parallel parents continue to feed their fledged for about 3 weeks after they've left
the nest. Since fudge links roost in large groups, parents have to be able to find them. And burg believes that
they do so using those calls. So, but what exactly does this have to do with? Why parents in captivity mimic
human voices? Ah. See, burg discovered that the nestlings not only create and learn their own names, they learn
each other's names as well. Just as the parents have to learn each individual fledged name in order to find them
after they've left the nest. So we have the first verified explanation for why mimicry is so important to citizens
in the wild.

3-NT-23

Listen to a conversation between a student and a residence hall coordinator.

Hi, I'm Brian Sanderson. I emailed you earlier this week. Oh, um, you were um having problems with your
roommate? My roommate, no. He's a fun person, just like all the others where I live. What didn't you say
something about wanting to move to Greenwood hall? Now? It'sa, mister, right? It's just that in my current
dormitory Johnson hall, I'm having so much trouble with things like parking. Eating i mean that small lot is so
crowded. I have to drive around for 15 minutes every time I arrive just searching and searching for a spot. I can
see how that might be frustrating. Yeah and, Greenwood hall. It has its own cafeteria, which means it to be
really convenient to grab a bite to eat. And with my hectic class schedule, this semester, any bit of convenience
is a good thing. And also with all the science classes, I'm taking, the location of Greenwood hall is great,
because it's not too far from the laboratories I see. But you know, this isn't a special case. It's just a matter of
preference of convenience.

Oh, I see, well, maybe for next semester then, well, we just started taking applications for next semester. So yes,
we could get that process started now. Oh, and well this semester you can still eat in Greenwood cafeteria. If
you want. There's no rule against it. Oh, really? I thought you had to be living in the dorm in order to eat there.
Actually the meal plan you had to purchase at the beginning of the semester since you're living in a dorm.

That's good at any university cafeteria. All right, that's good to know, certainly. And so for next year, highland
hall is also on this side of campus near the science buildings, and it has a cafeteria. It shares a parking lot with
one of the science buildings. So it's even closer to where your science classes will be held than Greenwood hall
is. And there's plenty of parking there, too. Yeah, but my roommate kind of like screen would haul too, and we
were playing on sticking together. Okay. That's great. I'll need him to also come in to fill out some forms. I'll let
him know. So then let's get started with the paperwork. Although I can't guarantee placement in Greenwood
hall, applications are considered in the order in which they are received.

listen to a part of a lecture in a zoology class

until recently, our main approach to classifying organisms into groups, their species, genus had been to classify
them according to their similar physical features. These classifications have helped us understand how
organisms are related in terms of their evolution. Of course, recent breakthroughs in DNA analysis have given
us new Information about many organisms, causing us to go back and reclassify them. But here's an interesting
case where DNA analysis actually supported some previous classifications. Okay? Our story starts with
Vladimir Napa. Nabokov, the author from Russia. Yes. Most of us know him for his fiction that made him
famous in the 1950s, right? But little did you know? He also did extensive work as a taxonomy. In particular,
navapspecialized in classifying species of butterflies. Well, in 1945, he wrote an extensive research paper, and
that paper contained a radical hypothesis about a new way to classify a group of South American butterflies and
its evolutionary origins. The group of butterflies is called polyoma, blues, or blues for short.

So, why radical? Well, blues have been studied for centuries, but there are over 400 species classified as blues,
and they can be found in most of the northern regions of the world, but also from central Mexico to most of
South America. So their evolutionary relationships were far from understood. And where did they originate?
Nobody knew. But in his paper, navapod proposed a new classification scheme for blues, and a very specific
hypothesis for the evolution of North and South American blues. That they'd all evolved from Asian ancestors.
This kind of detailed analysis simply was unheard of among experts at that time. How would blues have gotten
to the Americas all the way from Asia? Let's look at a world map. Okay. Nabokov believed that the ancestor of
blues had migrated from Asia into Alaska, crossing what's now the bearing straight, which was a solid landmass
at the time. And this happened in five separate colonies in waves with a very specific timeline. The first wave
took place about 11 million years ago. After reaching Alaska, this first group of blues slowly dispersed in North
America and southwards down into South America, evolving into the South American species, we find there
today. They subsequently died out completely in North America.

After that, between 9 and 1 million years ago for other distinct colonies, originating in asia occurred in
succession. Again, at very specific times, each colonization produced a new and distinct group of blues, each
evolving from the ancestors that made the trip. And each of these distinct groups remained in the northern
regions after crossing the bearing strait, evolving into the species we find throughout much of North America
today. Some hypothesis, but guess what. The scientific community just dismissed navapocris ideas, mainly
because he had no formal scientific training, but fast forward to today.

Recently, another butterfly expert Naomi pierce. That's pie RC e pierce. She read nabokov paper and she
became so intrigued with his hypothesis that she decided to test it out. So she and her team did extensive work
extracting and analyzing the DNA of a wide range of Asian and American blue species to determine their
relationships. And they concluded from their analysis that not only were navacclassifications is, right? But that
American blues could be traced back to a single common Asian ancestor. Wow. Was Nabokov right about the
timing of the migrations he was. And how did they show this? Well, temperatures have fallen in the bearing
strait region over the last 11 million years, right? So they looked at exactly when the temperatures fell and by
how much during this period of time, then they studied the temperature, tolerances and distribution of existing
blues. This allowed them to estimate the temperature tolerances of blues ancestors. And they concluded that as
the temperatures in the area surrounding the bearing straight dropped, each new colonizing species had been
more tolerant to the cold, allowing them to make the trip across the bearing strait. Oh, and the first group that
thrived in warmer climates dispersed southward is temperatures dropped, right? Whereas the subsequent groups
could tolerate the northern climates. So they evolved into the species we find in the northern areas of the
America's today.

Okay. Are there any questions before we begin? Christian? Last time you mentioned some research on the
origins of music, you said that early music was probably melodic, not rhythmic. But i've always thought of
rhythm as um, more basic, I guess, than melody. So I would think the early music would have been based on
rhythm. That's certainly a long standing assumption. And it does seem intuitive, you know that there be a
connection between our bodies, natural rhythms, and music rhythms. Jim, you mean, like the rhythms of
walking, of breathing, the rhythm of our heartbeats? Yes, exactly. In fact, for centuries, people believe that
musical rhythm was based on the timing of the human heartbeat. During the baroque period, 76 to 80 beats per
minute, the average human heart rate was called normal time in music. Um. But it's not like there's really a rule
for that. I mean, different people's hearts have different pulse rates, or like, if I got up and ran around, my heart
rate would get faster.

So right. So it's inconsistent. Not like rhythm in music, which most everyone has a sense of like a group of
musicians and orchestra is able to play together at the same rhythm or tempo. Even if the heart rates and
breathing of the orchestras, members are all slightly different. So in spite of the uh, primacy of rhythm in the
body's functions, the current view is that the earliest music was not based on biological rhythms. In fact, we
now believe that early music was mainly melodic, not rhythmic, and that rhythm in music developed later. And
there are 2 lines of thought supporting this point of view, based on rather different kinds of evidence.

First of all, we can observe babies and young children and see what aspect of music they demonstrate. First, the
underlying assumption is that humans add a very young age will first develop the abilities that are most basic to
human beings, and that early human cultures would have developed those skills in the same order.

So what if child psychologists observed? Well, turns out most children can't accurately tap a simple beat to
music, or do it for a sustained period of time until they're about 6 years old. But they can produce a tune at a
younger age.

Uh, for example, um, I remember my daughter singing a simple melody when she was only 4 years old, but she
couldn't sing with accurate rhythm for a couple more years. So researchers have concluded just like the first
melodies that a child sings effortlessly. The first human melodies were probably without any sense of rhythm.
And then they developed rhythm later. So like the type of melody that we read about in our textbook, the one
called tumbling streams. Does that support this idea? Yes, yes, good. Tumbling strains are one of the oldest
melody patterns, and they're still sung today in some of the world's oldest traditional cultures.

And studies of traditional cultures are the second group of evidence supporting the the melody first theory.
Tumbling strains are a type of falling melody. The voice starts at a high note and then gradually descends to a
low note. Then it repeats this downward cascade of notes. There's no strict, highly organized rhythm involved in
tumbling strains. So that also makes them somewhat like the spontaneous songs. Young children saying, strict
rhythm is actually rare among traditional cultures. The famous musicologist Kurt Sachs had a definite opinion
on the topic. Sax studied the music of traditional cultures all around the world, and he did not often find strict,
organized rhythms in these musical styles, at least not to the extent that they're currently found in western
music. But even within the history of western music, which we tend to see is emphasizing rhythm, we can see
the primary role of melody. Western music evolved from chanting words, put to a melody, with chanting.
There's no rhythm beyond the natural pace of speech. Um, it was only later that rhythm was imposed on
melodies to eventually become the kind of music we think of as western today, where rhythm is often
emphasized.

Listen To a conversation between a woman and her education professor.

I'm glad you decided to stop by to see me, Emily. There's actually something I needed to ask you. Oh. I'm
having trouble locating the paper you turned in last week. I know you submitted it, but I must have accidentally
misplaced it. Oh. Uh, I save all my work on my laptop, just in case, I'm actually really happy with the way my
paper turned out. I think I incorporated a lot of good ideas based on our class discussions and the readings you
assigned. Anyway, I can always EMAIL the document to you. That would be great. Again, sorry, for the
confusion, no problem. And well. So I was actually wondering if we could discuss remember how you taught us
about that. Teaching technique called, um, consensus, yes, that's right consensus.
Well, next semester I'm gonna be doing my practice teaching at an elementary school in Melville. You know, to
fulfill the fieldwork requirement for my teaching certificate. Yes. And well, I was thinking about trying it. Oh,
okay, well, do you remember the procedure? Yeah, I mean, I think so. Okay. I start by appointing one of the
children in the class to assume the role of the teacher, right? Okay. Let's say it's a girl. She'll lead the class and
she'll read an essay written by a classmate. Well, the first paragraph of an essay written by a classmate, right?
Okay? And then she asked the other kids in the class to identify any mistakes or problems. They see in that first
paragraph. Right? Very good. So it's the students who have to find the problems, not you, exactly.

And then if one student says that something is a mistake, and then another student disagrees, each student has to
like explain their rationale, and they have to like go back and forth until they reach an agreement. My job is just
a facility precisely. And after they finished the first paragraph, uh, then i'll have them break up into small
groups, and each group will go through the rest of the essay the same way. And i'll walk around the room and
monitor their progress. Okay, you definitely seem to grasp the main tenets. Of course, there's always the child
who keeps asking questions, the unexpected fire drill that sort of thing. Okay gotcha. Okay, and you might also
wanna talk to the full time teacher at the school, the one who's class you'll be in. As you begin your field work,
go through three different phases, the orientation period, the participation period, and the independent teaching
period. Okay? During the participation period, you'll be asked to assist the teacher, though somewhat limited in
scope. It's the independent period where you'll get to try out things you were thinking of doing. So before you're
asked to do independent teaching, discuss your plans with the teacher and see if consensus would be appropriate
for one of the lessons you'll be teaching.

Listen to part of a lecture in an art conservation class.

All right continuing our unit on painting conservation. Remember, with conservation, it's preventative. You're
stopping further damage, not restoring the artwork. A lot of times that means coming up with treatments that'll
reinforce the paintings like uh cleaning them and adding protective vanishes. But preventing damage doesn't
always mean physically reinforcing the artwork. It also means monitoring the environment. Like in museums,
you can control the temperature and humidity in each room. Of course, that's much harder with paintings that
are outdoors like on the front of a building or in caves.

So I showed you a few examples last week, but today let me tell you about a conservation project in China. Um,
the mcgowo. The caves are on the eastern edge of the Gobi desert. That's the largest desert in Asia. And they're
a pretty impressive sight. There's about 500 caves and they're not natural. People called them into the side of an
enormous sandstone cliff. When you go, inside the case, there are kilometers and kilometers of painted murals.
The first cave was made in the 4th century. And from then on, powerful families continued to have their own
caves created and decorated until the 14th century. The images in these caves mostly contain Buddhist subjects,
but in addition to the religious aspect, the paintings also give us Information on daily life like clothing, music,
even sports. And of course, there are portraits of those who commissioned the caves and of their family
members. So just think from the 4th to the 14th century, that's 1,000 years of Chinese history represented in
those caves.

And it's also important to note that these caves were along the silk road. The silk road was the main trade route
connecting the Mediterranean Sea to China. Because of that, some of the art in the Mugabe shows influence
from cultures outside China, like an intersection of styles from many different cultures.

Now, just briefly about the techniques used for the mural paintings, artists made paint out of things like mineral
pigments, but they didn't paint directly on to the cave walls. Instead, they cover the walls with a type of plaster,
a soft mix of clay, sand and plant fiber. Then they applied the paint of that. But over the years, floods have left
behind moisture plus, you know, tourists. It's great that the caves are attracting more and more visitors. I mean,
everyone should visit the Mugabe if they get the chance. But the huge influx of tourists, people increase the
humidity in the caves just by breathing. Humidity causes the paint to flake the, colors to turn black. And the
layer of plaster, the oysters caused large chunks of it to detach from the walls that leaves huge gaps between the
paintings and the walls. So if you remember other case, we've discussed like the let's go cave. That theme is
pretty a star cave in southern France with the hunting scenes. Okay? Similar problem. The influx of visitors
caused damage to the paintings. But the Alaska cave is much older and the images were painted directly on to
the walls.

The plaster in the mcgado caves that's made things a bit more complicated. On the technical side, the
conservation team resorted to a cement based substance and injected it into the gaps between the paintings and
the walls, where the plaster would have been to fill them in and reinforce the paintings.

The other huge part of the conservation effort was monitoring the climate inside the caves and minimizing the
tourist issue. The lasco cave has been completely closed to the public, but the conservation team for the Mugabe
caves didn't want to do that. Instead, they calculated how many people could enter the caves each day without
bringing in too much moisture. Tourists are limited to about eight or ten caves per visit, and they can spend only
like5 minutes in each cave. That's a short time, but from a conservation point of view, it's necessary. Since
people's visits are limited, a visitor center was created to show films about the history of the caves, including
detailed images projected onto a dome to recreate the experience of being in the caves. These measures will
make a significant difference in preventing future damage.

3-NT-24

Listen to a conversation between a student and the education director at the university art gallery.
So thanks for offering to help next month. Rihanna sure when I saw the flyer advertising family art day and that
you needed volunteers, it looked like fun. Plus I'm an education major so perfect. We need lots of volunteers,
we're expecting hundreds more children and parents than last year. The posters said there's no pre registration.
Why not? We want to increase community participation in family art day. So we're experimenting this year by
making it a drop in event. We also get rid of the $10 per family admission fee.

Okay, but well, how can you know how many people will show up if there's no pre registration? We can't know
exactly, but we're guessing it'll be twice as big as previous years based on what our public relations office is
doing. Normally, they send out a press release and put flyers around the gallery. This year, in addition to that,
they're promoting the event through social media. They also persuaded a local radio station to interview me.
Another first, they want to focus on the different activity stations and the grant money week of this year. Grant.
Yes, we got $7,000 from the Augusta community art council. That'll cover all our costs. The council funds,
local projects that provide art, education, and our event qualifies. So we applied. So what's my job gonna be?
You have a choice actually. You can work at any of the visual art stations, painting or making more collage, or
wait, wait. Ii can't even draw a stick figure. That's hard to believe everyone has some artistic ability. Yeah, but
you won't want me anywhere near a paintbrush.

Ok. Then uh, what are you comfortable with creatively? I've taken some creative writing courses. My professors
think I'm pretty good, perhaps you could run a poetry station. Uh, poetry is not my strength. I'm more into short
stories. Okay. I know. Each year we have a scavenger hunt where kids are given a list of questions about
various objects in our gallery. And they have to search to find the answers. Want to, write the questions. Right?
Questions for a scavenger hunt? Sure how, do I get started? Um, I could introduce you to our curator Sean
Wiseman. Shana could take you around the gallery and you could both select objects that kids could hunt for.
Then you'd create questions that serve to educate, that get kids to look closely at the object or the artists
biographies, which painting has a sailboat or a farm animal in it, which two sculptures came from Japan? Get
the idea. Mhm. Could you give me the curators miss Wiseman EMAIL address? Uh. Let me speak with her
first. I don't want you to catch her by surprise.

Listen to part of a lecture in a business management class.

So let's talk about project management and the job of the project manager. What is project management? Well,
first we should ask what a project is. A project is a planned set of interrelated tasks that are carried out over a
fixed period of time in order to achieve a specific goal. I'll repeat that a project is a planned set of interrelated
tasks, carried out over a fixed period of time to achieve a specific goal. A key part of that description is a fixed
period of time. Projects are, by definition, temporary when the goals achieved over. This stands, in contrast,
with the company's ongoing day to day activities. Here's what I mean. Say you're a regional bus company, you
own and operate a fleet of buses and bus terminals in a number of cities.

Now a lot of what the company does falls under the category of day to day operations, like hiring and paying
employees, maintaining the buses, operating the terminals. Those activities aren't projects. They're routine and
ongoing. But what if the company wants to upgrade its ticketing system to give passengers the option of
purchasing tickets using their smartphones and scanning the ticket as they board the bus? That upgrade would
be a project. It's not part of the company's normal operations once the upgrades completed, that's the end of the
project. Okay. So what kinds of projects lend themselves to project management? Let's go back to our bus
company. The ticketing system upgrade will involve many interrelated tasks, researching and selecting a
software system, developing the smartphone APP, installing electronic ticket scanners on the buses, training
drivers to use them, publicizing the upgrade.

So your customers know about it. Your team, the people who will carry out these tasks will be people from
various departments, accounting, advertising, operations, et cetera. The tasks must happen at the right time in
the right sequence. That's basically the job of the project manager, planning the execution of these interrelated
tasks across departments and making sure that everyone sticks to the schedule and the budget.

Now, the project managers role has its challenges for reasons that might not occur to you. For example,
company employees who were assigned to the project team usually have their regular jobs to do. In addition to
the project work. And because they're still responsible for their regular work, they might not want to devote the
necessary time and attention to the project work. Why not? Because they wanna keep their regular supervisors
happy. Cause you know, once the projects completed, the project manager is out of the picture, but the
supervisor will still be there. Plus the supervisor, unlike the project manager, has direct influence over certain
decisions that affect employees in real and significant ways, like whether they'll get a promotion or a salary
increase.

So the question is, how can a project manager motivate team members and get them to give the project the
attention it needs? One way is by giving praise and verbal recognition, by letting team members know that the
work they're doing is valuable to the company. A good project manager is someone who knows how to talk to
people and, make them feel valuable and important. But here's a scenario to consider. If you're thinking about
going into project management, you're working at a company. And one day your boss says, hey, sue, i've got a
project for you. The accounting department is gonna change computer software systems. You did such a great
job managing the ticketing system, upgrade that we want you to manage this project. Now, if I were you, I'd
wanna know before saying, yes, I'd find out whether the project could be handled entirely within the accounting
department, without involving other departments. Because if it's completely accounting department work, the
head of accounting might feel like his or her authorities being challenged by an outsider. And I guarantee you,
you don't want to be that outsider.
Listen to part of a lecture, in an, art history class. The professor has been discussing the French artist, at garda.

So far, we focused on the God's paintings. As you've seen, he's considered one of the great painters of 19th
century France, and was best known for his depictions of dancers. But dugout wasn't only a painter. He was also
a sculptor. The girl liked to use soft materials like wax and clay to create his sculptures after his death. His
family selected 74 wax sculptures from his home and studio, and commissioned a foundry, which is a business
where metal working is done to make bronze copies of them. These reproductions are known as the abra
bronzes. They're named after the foundry that produced them. The technique they used is pretty common. It's
called casting. First, you apply wet plaster to the sculpture. Once it drives. You take the hardened plaster off and
you have a mold in the shape of the original. At that point, you can use the mold to cast copies in bronze or
some other material. So the a bra foundry made over 500 reproductions of these 74 sculptures. And these
reproductions were acquired by museums and art collectors around the world.

the a bra foundry closed in 1937. And with the authorization of the family, the manufacturer of descartes is then
shifted to a different foundry, called the valsuani foundry in Paris by 1981, valsuani was under new ownership.
And then something happened that took the art world by surprise. The new owner revealed an entirely different
set of 74 plaster sculptures, claimed to be based on wax sculptures by Duggar. These plasters and the bronze is
made from them, are called the vsculptures, named once again, after the foundry that produced them. In many
ways, they looked very similar to the a bra copies, but the two sets were not identical. There were actually some
noticeable differences between them. So of course, art experts wondered how that could be. Now we know that
the abra bronzes were cast from wax sculptures found in the Gaza, home and studio. We had no reason to think
that the valsuani bronzes were authentic. But then one art historian made a remarkable claim. He said, the guy
used to go back to his wax sculptures from time to time and change them, reshape them. And he claimed that
the Val said was made from the older versions of those wax sculptures.

Well, you can imagine what a debate that claims created. Let's consider one of the most famous of the 74
sculptures at age. 14. Little dancer is the figure of a girl, not quite life size, but fairly tall. In a standing pose
with her hands clasped behind her. In the arab version, the dancer stands with her weight on her left leg, with
her right leg out in front of her slightly bent the knee. In the vversion, she stands with her weight evenly
distributed on both legs and with both knees bent a much more solid stance. And her body type is different, too.
In the abra version, her legs are slim. In the botswana version. More muscular. Little dancer is the only one of
the God's wax sculptures shown in public during his lifetime. It was displayed in Paris in 1881. And this art
historian insisted that the sculpture exhibited there was the one the velswan is made from.

Now, unfortunately, we have no photographs of the sculpture from the exhibition. So it's hard to know what the
viewers saw. A girl with her weight on one leg, or a girl with her weight on both. We do have written accounts,
but they're inconsistent and unreliable. That's probably because people were shocked by how realistic the
sculpture appeared. They got even put a little cotton skirt on the wax figure and a wig made out of real hair. But
there are other ways to investigate the wax sculpture of little dancer with her weight on her back leg is now in a
museum in Washington, DC and researchers have examined its structure using x rays and scanning technology.
They found that the dancers legs contain metal pipes that provide structural support. But I mean, there's no sign
that the pipes were ever moved. And Frida got to change the position of the legs and hips so drastically. They
would have had to have been moved. Revisions would have been extremely difficult. If not downright
impossible to make.

Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor.

Hi, Jeff. I haven't seen you for a while. How are you? I'm fine. Thanks and pretty busy. I'm working part time as
a journalist. That's great. Have you written any articles lately? Yeah, because of my knowledge of coastal
processes, last month I wrote an article for the school newspaper about coastal erosion and the beach
replenishment project at brinkbeach. They're spending a lot of money to rebuild the beach there. I'm gonna try
to get some pictures of the work they're doing, although I sometimes wonder if their plan is such a good idea.

Yeah, talk about fighting a losing battle. You know. Maybe you could help me with a project. One of my
research areas is erosion of rock formations and well, I'm writing an article about the rate of erosion of the cliffs
at britney ley beach. Maybe you could help me by letting me use a few of your photographs, you know, for my
article. I have some, but wouldn't mind having a few more. I'd mentioned in the article that you took the
pictures, sure, that would be great.

But I have a favor to ask you, you're still the faculty adviser for the rock climbing club, right? I know it's a little
late, but I was wondering if I could sign up for the trip to the rocky mountains next month. I'm doing a story for
a local travel magazine about the rock formations there. It's a great opportunity for me, you know, to to get my
work out there.

And going with the club will allow me to do some on site investigating. It'll be cheaper than going on my own,
because the magazine won't pay for the trip. You know, I'm a certified Guide. I know my way around the cliff
there, so I could even help sure you can sign up. You are still a member of the club. Aren't you? Uh, you didn't
go on our last trip to Vermont? I think I'm still a member. Did you pay your dues? No. The membership fee isn't
covered by your student activities fee anymore. Students have to pay it at the beginning of the semester, really?
Isn't there anything you can do? Well, the rules are clearly stated in the student handbook. I really can't make an
exception, but a wait, I have an idea. Maybe you could go on the trip and work for the club in some capacity.
And as an employee, we had a Guide, but he cancelled last week. And since you're a Guide, it's too late for you
to get the group rate for the hotel and airfare. But you'd be paid. If that's okay, we'd be happy to have you.
Okay, yeah, that works for me.

Listen to part of a lecture in an environmental science class.

Any questions on biodiversity? Yes, dan. Well, there's this assumption out there that that preserving
biodiversity is so is really critical. And I believe that on the whole. But for arguments sake, couldn't you say that
not every type of organism is essential? I mean, the dinosaurs went extinct, but life on earth still goes on. Well,
yes. But ecosystems are so intricate that that as a result, there's a general sense that biodiversity is crucial. It's all
important. We often, I'd go so far as to say, usually can't anticipate what will happen if we lose part of the
intricacy, part of the diversity.

At the same time, the public as well as policy makers often want and really need more specific Information
about the impact the loss of a particular species might cause.

After all, protecting the environment comes with tradeoffs, right? You mean like how the decision to protect a
swamp might mean a shopping center can't be built there, exactly. Or the decision to protect an organism that
lives in a river gorge might mean a hydro electric dam can't be built there. A dam that could have provided
electricity to citizens who need it. There are tons of examples that highlight the difficulties involved in
managing ecosystems. But getting back to your question. For the sake of argument, as you say, let's consider a
large group that's perceived as under threat that we hear about in the news that's discussed in, government and
in scientific bodies. Amphibians. So what would happen if amphibians totally disappeared? If all the toads that
lived in the Rocky Mountain national park say disappear? Will the surrounding ecosystem be able to function?
If the frogs that live in the rice paddies of southeast Asia go extinct, with a population of disease carrying
mosquitoes increase.

Now, too often, statements on issues like this aren't backed up with quantitative data. On the one hand, some
amphibians are commonly cited in the public debate as being important for controlling pests, for instance,
mosquitoes, crop eating insects. And in fact, increases in such pests have been attributed to frog population
declines on the other hand here in the United States. There are government officials who have declared that
there are no amphibians that can control mosquitoes effectively. So do they control pass? Or don't they? Well,
in truth, we don't have enough evidence yet to say definitively which argument is correct. And this uncertainty
underlies discussions about all kinds of plant and animal species. But back to our amphibians, aside from
controlling pass, what else is there that they're good for? Amy, can you think of something? Well, they don't
pollinate crops, don't air the soil. They probably don't help decompose anything. They must be an important
source of food for some animals like snakes, right?

Okay. Yes. Evidence from a number of studies does suggest they have a role as a major food source for many
animals. For most predators, though, we're not sure if they depend on amphibians for survival, because most of
the predators eat other things, too. But snakes, though snakes are interesting, many have diets that are mostly or
even exclusively made up of amphibians. So they indeed would be affected by decline in those populations. We
do have from several locations, evidence of snake populations declining sharply when frog populations also
declined. Amy, what about if there's a really large population of amphibians in an ecosystem? Then the
amphibians must have a larger impact just because of how much they're eating right. That's true. They do have
an important role as consumers. Frog tadpoles eat algae, for instance, dense populations of them can
substantially reduce the amount of certain types of algae from ponds and streams. But in other cases, different
types of algae are stimulated to grow more when tadpoles graze. So you can see that the role of just one single
kind of amphibian can affect an ecosystem in different ways. And in certain streams where tadpoles have only
recently disappeared, we've already seen an impact. So there's certainly the potential for the larger ecosystem to
become permanently altered.

3-NT-25
Listen to a conversation between a student and his history professor.
Hi, professor Clark. Um, is this a good time? You'd mentioned that you had a book that you thought might be
helpful for my oral report, the Osbourne book on athenian democracy? Hi, Peter. Yes, i'll get it for you. Keep it
for as long as you need. Um, but while I have you here, did you get my EMAIL about the Tuesday seminar?
Oh, uh, I'm I'm sorry, yes. You're going to be out of town, so you're scheduling the class that's in 2 weeks. Yes.
Albeit a conference on ancient societies, out on the west coast. I don't want to just cancel class because we have
a packed syllabus. And I don't want things to start snowballing and readings to pile up this early in the semester.

So I'm offering two replacement evening sessions next week. You can attend either one of the two. Right?
Yeah. And I meant to get back to you, but I needed to check my schedule. Then I forgot, sorry. But I can come
to the second session on Thursday. I have a biology lab on Wednesday. Good. The Thursday evening session is
also at 7:00 pm I wanted us to have a couple of options because many people have other commitments in the
evenings.

Okay. Oh, but my oral report it, it's scheduled for that week on the week you'll be away. Somehow this didn't
occur to me when I saw your EMAIL. Should I plan on presenting during the replacement class? Well, part of
the point of the oral report is to present them to the entire class. And since the students will be split between the
two replacement sessions, it's best to wait until the following week. I hope you don't mind. I'm sure I could use
the extra time. You said the Osbourne book isn't the easiest read? Yes, it'll take time to work through uh, but the
good news is that it's a collection of articles. And they won't all be directly related to your topic. He has several
articles that discuss the athenian economy and its relation to athenian democracy. So you would probably skip
those unless you're interested, of course. Oh, okay, good to know. Thanks.
So we've been talking about how different areas of the brain are activated when we process Information, right?
So let's think about all the things you're doing right now. Really, you should only be focusing on my lecture, but
I'm sure a few of you are also engaged in some other activity. Maybe you're checking EMAIL or sending a text
message to a friend. Almost all of us do this type of media multitasking to some extent. It's really become the
norm. And yet, as you already know, from your reading, the brain isn't suited to processing very many demands
at once. If you'll recall, we read about an experiment that tested people's abilities to Complete up to three mental
tasks simultaneously. The study showed that there was brain activity in both frontal lobes. When a person was
focused on only one task, when a person took on a second task, the frontal lobes divided their responsibilities.
Each lobe could process one task. But when a third task was added, one of the original tasks disappeared from
the brain. So that indicates that the brain can really only focus on two activities at a time at most.

Well, now I wanna talk about some research by a psychologist named clifford Nass that compares the cognitive
performance of heavy and light, medium multitasking. Nass looked at the way these 2 groups of people
performed on a series of tasks. And he found several cognitive differences between the groups. The first
difference had to do with the cognitive function called filtering, which for our purposes today means, well, it
refers to the ability to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant Information. Someone who's good at filtering
should be able to focus on the task at hand. What the study found was that people who regularly engage in
heavy multitasking are pretty easily distracted, and the greater the quantity of irrelevant Information that's
presented, the more likely they'll become sidetracked from what they're supposed to be doing.

In addition to filtering, the study also measured the ability to manage working memory. Working memory is
what allows you to remember and use Information for a short period of time. Um. For instance, working
memory is what allows you to hold a phone number in your head and dial it at the same time. The way NASA
described it, he um compared working memory to a filing cabinet. Only, you'll have to think of it as a cabinet of
temporary files. Just like organized office workers can quickly find what they need in their filing cabinet.
People with good working memory can retrieve the Information they need pretty easily. Heavy multitasks were
found to be really bad at this. All of their files are in disarray, so to speak.

And finally, um, NASA was also looking at the 2 groups ability to switch over from working on one task, to
working on another. We're heavy multitask or skilful at this. No, it appears. They turned out to be much slower
at switching tasks than light multitasking.

So in summary, Nast basically found that heavy multitask as were the weakest in all three of the skills that were
being studied. In fact, they seem to be worse at multitasking than the light multitasking are. And I have to say
the finding I consider astonishing was that heavy multitasks had no idea that they were so bad at multitasking.
Anyhow, that set of three skills is what we call cognitive control. So there appears to be some correlation
between heavy multitasking and lower cognitive control.

One question that's been asked since the study is which causes which is heavy multitasking responsible for
lowering cognitive control, or are people with low cognitive control, just especially attracted to multitasking?
Frankly, it might not really matter which way the causation goes. I mean if it's heavy multitasking, that's the
cause then obviously cutting back on that behavior would be beneficial. Likewise, if instead it's low cognitive
control that attracts people to heavy multitasking, it's probably still beneficial to cut back. Because in that
scenario, those with the least ability to deal with multiple sources of Information are exposing themselves to the
highest levels of input. Well, I don't know. Cutting back sounds good in theory, doesn't it? But how many
people are willing to cut back on our television, computers, cell phones once we've gotten used to them? I'm
afraid it's hard. Even for those of us who know better.

Listen to Part of a lecture in Information technology class. So as you know, one of the major challenges of
working with computers is that they produce a lot of heat. And if there's too much heat, computer systems,
crash. So for data, centers the, large facilities that power internet services like EMAIL, keeping computers cool
is a Challenge. The large amounts of computer equipment in these data centers make air conditioning very
expensive. So how do you think we can reduce these bills? Okay, think about places in the walls, maybe where
pipes or cables into the room. Oh, well, there could be holes, right? Little spaces around the pipes that let cold
air leak out. Good. So you could seal the holes, close them up to keep the cold air in the room, right? That's one
way to make sure the money and energy used air condition. The room are put to good use.

Any other ideas on how to reduce cooling costs? I heard that some data centers are using air from outside the
building to cool computers. And I know it's more complicated than this, but it's basically like. Instead of turning
on the air conditioning, they just open up the windows, turn on some fans and let the fresh air circulate. So that
strategy is called free cooling.

Now, there are different types of Free cooling, but what they all have in common is that they use the natural
environment to cool the data center. Of course, Free cooling cannot be the only strategy used. An active cooling
system is still needed as a backup on really hot days. Still, the obvious advantage to Free cooling is that when
outdoor temperatures are not too warm, it greatly reduces the energy needed to cool the data center. And that
means lower energy costs. One thing you need to pay attention to, though, is that Free cooling only works
within a particular humidity range. If the air is too damp or too dry, it could damage the equipment. But the
solution I really want to talk about, uh, the people who came up with this were really thinking outside the box.
The idea is to place the computers under water far below the surface of the ocean. Wait. Seriously. Put
computers, under water, I mean, electricity and water together.

Now, I know it might sound crazy at first, but here's what's exciting. Once the equipment and connecting cables
are properly sealed and waterproof, the cold ocean water can provide an efficient way to cool a data center. And
ocean currents or tides could actually generate electricity to power the data center, too.

One reason these underwater data centers are so appealing is that it's always been a Challenge to figure out
where to locate data centers. Ideally, we'd want to place them as close to computer users as possible. That would
limit the delays that uses experience when they check their EMAIL or use other services. However, data centers
require a lot of space, so they tend to be located far from urban population centers. But so many major cities are
located near the coastline. And well, underwater data centers could provide an unexpected solution to this
problem. But if these data centers are underwater, wouldn't they cause environmental damage there? That's a
great question. Researchers were concerned about this, so they did some studies. The machinery that cools
computers can be noisy. Would this disturb nearby marine animals?

Well, near one site for an underwater data center, there were a lot of shrimp. And researchers found that any
computer noise was so low. It was totally drowned out by the clicking sounds of the shrimp. Researchers also
focused on heat output, and they detected a small increase in temperature very close to the outer walls. But just
a few inches away, there was no measurable effect on water temperature. So environmentally, everything seems
okay. Of course, there's more work to be done, but you've got to admire the people who thought of these
underwater data centers. They didn't simply stick with established ways of designing data centers or just come
up with a slight variation. They looked at this old problem in an entirely new way.

Between a student and an employee at the box office of the university theater.

Can I help you? I hope so. The usher told me to talk to someone at the box office, okay? Well, I have a comp, a
complimentary ticket for this performance, or at least I thought I did, but someone else is sitting in my seat. Um,
it could be the ticket was validated and the seat was reissued to someone else. Huh. Well, did you call to
confirm you were coming? Well, I told Sarah, my roommate, I'd be coming. She's the one who gave it to me.
She said cast members get two Free tickets each. Yes, but it's the theaters policy that comp tickets must be
confirmed by phone, EMAIL or at the box office. No, later than 48 hours before performance time. Otherwise
we were Free to sell the ticket and I suspect you didn't do that. Um, no, I didn't realize. You see many of those
comp tickets don't get used without this policy?

Well, why lose out on the chance to sell more seats? Make sense? I guess. It's printed clearly on the back. I
guess I should have read the back of the ticket. Well, your roommate should have told you that cast members
should be aware of the policy. Yeah, but they only called her for the part last week when the other actor got
sick. I see. Well, there are a few empty seats up in the rear balcony. We can offer you a ticket there, Free of
charge. At least it's not totally sold out. But I was hoping to sit up front, the seat she gave me is in the first row.
I wouldn't mind paying for it. I'm afraid those are sold out. Oh. The view from the back isn't bad at all i've sat
there myself and you can see everything just fine. But I promise, Sarah, I'd be there for opening night. She'll be
looking for me in that front row seat. Um. It's her first time on stage and she's been so worried about messing
up. I've been rehearsing with her every night.

How about this? Take this balcony seat for now and at intermission, if there have been any no shows on the
lower level, we can switch you then. No shows. You know, sometimes people decide at the last minute not to
come for whatever reason. Some even leave it intermission if something unexpected comes up, or maybe they
just don't like the show. I'll ask the usher to check for empty seats when his first act ends. And if there's
anything Free up front, it's yours. That's really nice of you. And Sarah doesn't even come on stage until the
second act. Of course, I'm not promising anything. I understand. See you at intermission.

We've been talking about various mechanisms of seed dispersal. And before we finish, I'd like to talk about
some new findings concerning maple seed dispersal. Now, most of you have probably seen a maple tree and it
seeds before. There are about 125 species of them in Asia, Europe, North Africa, and North America. And they
have what are called winged seeds. Because, well, take a look at this picture. You can see that this maple seed
has what looks like a wing with a nut at one end of it. Now, when the maple seeds fall off the tree, they pick up
downward speed and start to spin around the nut, which is their center of gravity. The seed looks kind of like a
helicopter when it spins. In fact, maple seeds and other spinning seeds are often called helicopter seeds.

Now, this spinning is actually very important, because it helps the seed by slowing down its descent. This has
been official to the seed, because a decrease in velocity means it can be carried farther from its tree of origin by
the wind. This gives the seed a better chance of landing in a suitable place for sprouting, which increases its
chances for survival. But how exactly does spinning slow the sea down by creating lift? Lift is a force that's
generated when an object moves through the air. Now, don't worry. I'm not going to go into great detail here
about the physics of lift, but simply speaking, a moving object both and redirect the flow of air. When this flow
is redirected in a certain way the, object, achieves lift. Um. Think of an airplane wing. You might not have
noticed this, but airplane wings are positioned at an angle to produce it upward force on the wing that upward
force is left.

There are, of course, other ways to produce lift. Flying animals flap their wings, for example. And maple seeds
spin through the air. But regardless of the object, physics tells us that larger objects need to move at a higher
velocity in order to produce sufficient air flow for lift. This is why, for example, large jets need to build up a lot
of speed on the runway before they can take off. Now, maple seeds and other spinning seeds have puzzled
scientists, because although they move through the air relatively slowly, they are able to generate unexpectedly
high lift forces. Um. The relationship between velocity and lift doesn't seem to apply here. What's interesting is
that the wings of certain animals, such as bats and insects, also generate high lift forces, even at low velocities.
Recently, experts in animal flight came up with an explanation for this. The extra lift is generated by vortices.
Vertices are spinning flows of air, like tiny tornados. Thanks to their special structure and movement, insect,
and bat wings create these small spinning air flows, usually above the wings. Each individual vortex creates an
area of low air pressure that sucks the wing upward, so to speak, and creates the extra lift.
Now, a group of researchers wondered if this same phenomenon could be filed in spinning seeds. They
conducted an experiment in a device called a wind tunnel, which is used to study the effects of movement
through air or resistance to moving air. The researchers use smoke in the wind tunnel to make the air flow
visible, and watched as a maple seed rotated in the air flow. And they found that the smoke pattern showed a
vortex that was similar to the vortices made by the wings of insects and bats. So maple seeds generate vortices
that provide the extra lift that slows down their descent.

This Discovery was interesting for a number of reasons. First, here's a case of animals and plants evolving
incredibly similar adaptations to the problems of flight performance. We tend to think of plants and animals as
very different organisms following very different evolutionary paths. Now, here's evidence that these organisms
can actually evolve similar characteristics. And then there's the possible application of these findings.
Aerospace engineers are interested in using what we've learned about vortices to design new forms of
parachutes, to slow down spacecraft, landing on other planets.

3-NT-26
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the student activities office.
I was on your student activities website this morning looking for an environmental club to join, but I didn't see
anything. Um. We used to have something like that on campus, but not any more. We do have a community
service club. They might do some environmental activities. Yeah. But their activities seem more related to
education, like tutoring, children and stuff like that. And I'm Blake, the club I belong to in high school did
things like recycling and raising money for a local nature preserve. I mean, I'm not saying tutoring isn't
important. It's just that, you know, you could start your own environmental club. Sounds like you've got
experience. Me. But I'm only a first year student. It's not like you have to wait till your second year to be the
founder of a club.

And if you don't feel like, you know, enough people to join your club, there's lots of ways to advertise. There's
the campus newspaper. You can make flyers to put up on the bulletin boards. Um. I guess I could start looking
into the process of starting a club. Even if I didn't do it right away, maybe down the line, I think you'll find the
process to be fairly straightforward. But there are several steps involved. For starters, the founder needs to find
at least four other students who will commit to join the group to form its core membership.

Okay? With the bulletin boards and all it shouldn't be too hard to recruit people. And I'm taking an
environmental studies class, so I could probably ask some of my friends from there. Sure. So once you have
your core group of five, you'll need to draft your constitution, you know, a document, stating your mission and
basic goals, telling why the clubworth while. Then if the constitutions approved by my office, will make the
club official. Okay? Does it cost anything? I mean, is there a fee for starting a club? Actually, the university
funds you each approved club gets startup funding of $400. It can be used for recruiting members, printing
flyers, buying office supplies, and for your first meeting. Maybe some refreshments that kind of thing. But
you're not given the money automatically. You have to get a faculty member to sign up as your advisor first.
And you have to submit a budget specifying what you like to spend your $400 on. This is where your faculty
adviser will be most helpful. It seems like a lot of work. But it would be worthwhile for me. I think. I mean, I
really hope to make a career out of environmental studies one day, so to really be doing some hands on work.
Great. Let me get you a handbook. It has all the steps and requirements for getting started.

Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

We've been discussing the search for Excel planets. Planets located outside our solar system. Studying
exoplanates really helps us put our solar system into context. For example, our features of the planets in our
solar system relatively common or uncommon compared to planets and other solar systems. Now, most of the
xo planets found so far are large gas giants, planets that resemble Jupiter because of their size. They're relatively
easy to detect from earth. But we also want to learn about smaller rocky xo planets that resemble earth,
especially because we're interested in ex planets that could theoretically support life.

One rocky xo planet we actually have a lot of Information about is 55 can create. 55 can create is about twice
the size of earth and 8 times the mass. This xo planet is located very close to the sun like star at orbits. That is to
say its star is about the same size and temperature is. The sun. And being that close has some interesting effects.
First of all, 1year on55, can create is very short, just18 hours long. From a research perspective, that's pretty
convenient. You see, one way astronomers gather Information about xo planets is by observing distant stars
using telescopes in orbit around earth. These telescopes gather light emitted by stars, including any changes in
the intensity of that light. So when an xo planet passes between its star and the earth, the stars light dims
temporarily. And our telescopes can detect this slight change in intensity. Now, this happens once in each xo
planets yearly orbit around its star. As a researcher, you'd rather that happened once every 18 hours than once
every 500days, right?

Now, a recent study provided enough Information about 55 concrete to create a detailed temperature map of the
planet. One interesting feature of this planet is that the same half of 55 can create always faces the star and the
other half faces away from the star.

Now, researchers believe the entire planet is almost completely covered with lava. If true, this could help
explain the surprising temperature conditions on the planet. You see, we'd expect the sunny side of the planet to
be hotter than the other side, because it's directly exposed to the radiation of the star. But a lot of that heat
should circulate around to, the cooler side of the planet through the lava. However, on 55 can create the sunny
side is much hotter by about1,000℃. We think this extreme temperature differential is due in part to the planet's
thin atmosphere. The heat doesn't circulate around the planet through the atmosphere, nor does it circulate
through the lava. Much of the lava on the cooler side has solidified or is very thick or viscous. But the lack of a
heavy atmosphere doesn't entirely explain. The temperatures found on 55 can create. The planet is still hotter
than we'd expect it to be based on the amount of radiation it receives from its star. So there must be an
alternative source of heat.

Another possibility is a process known as tidal dissipation. Title refers to the gravitational force, one planetary
body has on another. Dissipation refers to the spreading out of this force. In this case, tidal dissipation is the
effect the gravity of its star has on the distribution of heat on 55 can create. Since 55 can create e is so close to
its star, the stars gravitational pole is very strong. This gravitational pull could put enough pressure, create
enough friction within the planet to generate a significant amount of additional heat. Basically, the planet might
be boiling from the inside out, but this still can't completely account for the temperature. There is something
going on inside the planet something that is producing the heat that we still don't understand.

Now, when you think about it, it's pretty amazing how different this planet is from earth. It's a good reminder
that just because an x planet is relatively similar in size to earth, that doesn't mean it will be like earth. Learning
about the extreme conditions on a place like 55 can create really makes you think. After all, these years of
studying ex planets, I'm always amazed by the rarity of the life supporting conditions on earth. Of course, that
doesn't mean we shouldn't keep looking for rocky xo planets that might be more habitable than 55 can create.
We've seen what large hot stars can do to an xo planets temperature, but if a star is small and cool, planets could
have a close orbit without being subject to tidal dissipation.

Listen to part of a lecture in a history class. The professor has been discussing ancient Egypt.
So after five days class, someone asked me about a word that they'd come across in their reading. The word is
my art, mawas, the name of an Egyptian goddess, but it's also a concept, uh, a Guiding principle of ancient
Egyptian society. The words been translated various ways, truth, justice, order, harmony. And for the ancient
Egyptians, not meant, all those things. What's important for us is that matt was this Guiding principle for
society, as I mentioned, but also for the individual.

To be a good person, one had to follow my heart and for society as a whole to function. Everyone from the king
to the poorest farmer had to obey the tenets of my art. There's a wonderful, ancient Egyptian story from all
about 4,000 years ago. That'll give you a better idea of what I'm talking about. It's called the tail of the eloquent
peasant. It tells the story of a poor man from the countryside named conan up. One day conan uploads, his
donkeys with goods to be sold at market and heads off to town. Along the way, he encounters a wealthy
landowner who really wants what Conan upstunk is are carrying. Now, the landowner can't just take the goods.
So he tricks coming up into leading his donkeys through his barley field, where one of the donkeys eats an ear
of grain, just what the landowner was waiting for. Your donkey stole my brain, says the landowner. Now you
owe me. I'm going to take everything you've got. And with that, the landowner complicates couldnook donkeys
and all the goods they carried.

Now, Conan, oops, got a strong sense of right and wrong. Ma is very important to him, and he knows what the
landowner just did to him is a violation of my heart. So he cries out for justice, but the landowner tells them that
no one will listen to a poor man from the countryside. Conan a pleads with the landowner for 10 days, but
nothing happens. He then decides to take his case to the local magistrate, a powerful official of the king who
arbitrates disputes.

The magistrate is initially unmoved, but then Conan nook makes a powerful, poetic appeal, invoking the
principle of my art. The magistrate is so taken by the eloquence of Conan up speech that he goes and tells the
king about it. The king decides that Conan up words should be recorded for posterity. Since everyone could
benefit from hearing about my art. He tells the magistrate not to answer Conan UPS appeals, but to stay silent in
the hopes of eliciting more eloquent speeches. The king is not disappointed. Colonel makes a total of nine
petitions to the magistrate. His first petitions lavish praise upon the magistrate and urged him to uphold my odd.
But as he realizes that his words have no effect on the magistrate, Conan obittions become angrier. He tells the
magistrate that by failing to act, he is violating the odd and violating mod has serious repercussions. It
encourages evil, it brings chaos into the land. It causes suffering.

Well, finally, the magistrate sends transcripts of speeches to the king, who decides that it's now time to allow
the magistrate to dispense justice. The landowner is not only ordered to return the goods. He also has to give all
his property to Conan up. Conan lips really brave to be challenging someone of the magistrates social status.
Yes, his bravery is one thing that makes him extraordinary. The other is his gift for rhetoric, for a poor,
uneducated man like him to speak in such poetic language. It was unheard of. So his willingness to stand up to a
powerful man and his ability to use language. So skillfully. Is it any wonder this story was so popular with
every day, Egyptians? Kathleen, you look puzzled. It's just that if this story is supposed to be about how
important that is, why doesn't the king follow its principles? What do you mean? Well, if one of the definitions
of my art is justice, how come the king keeps coming up talking instead of giving him what he deserves right
away? Oh, that's a great question. Remember that mod is also about the greater good for society as a whole.
Think about all the good cunning UPS words could do now that they were transcribed for everyone to hear. The
king knew what he was doing.

Listen to a conversation between a student and her economics professor.

Say, Annie, have you read that article that I recommended? Yeah, it's so interesting. I even checked out the
references, and one article LED me to another. I followed that trail all the way to behavioral economics, which
really intrigued me. My major is psychology. Yes, behavioral economics combines aspects of economics and
psychology. It focuses mainly on individual decision making. It's kind of new, right? Comparatively, as a
subspecialty within economics that is, since the 1970s, as you know, traditional economists study wealth, how
people produce, distribute and consume things.

In traditional economics, it's assumed that people make rational decisions about money based on all available
Information. But this doesn't always happen in real life. People are quirky. Their decisions are always
consistent, or even logical, no matter how experienced or educated they are.

While most economists recognize this, behavioral economists study why and how people make seemingly
irrational or illogical decisions with their money, how and when they spend save or borrow, yeah one article, I
found focused on how people save money for the future. People know they should save, that it's smart. But they
don't always do it. One reason is it's inconvenient to open a bank account. You have to fill out all this
paperwork, so some people don't bother psychological complexities like that, fascinate me. Anyhow, I'm
registering for courses for the fall term, and there's one that you teach. Economics three. It's got a whole unit on
behavioral economics. But since I haven't taken economics to the system, wouldn't let me register for it. Could I
take economics two and three at the same time? Here's the thing to succeed in economics. Three. You first need
to master the fundamentals fully understand those traditional models of economics, shortcomings and all
traditional models while imperfect are covered in our intro course and in economics two.

But why not take economics to this summer? After that, the system should allow you to enroll in economics
three for the fall. Oh, i've got a summer job near home. I won't have time to commute to campus. It's almost an
hour's drive each way. I see. Is it possible? Maybe economics, too, is offered online? Not here, but probably
other universities, as long as the institutions are credited, and the course content is equivalent, that could be
your solution. Great looking for an online course, then. But remember, summer courses are shorter, so the
material is more condense than usual. It'll take a concerted effort on your part to get a passing grade. Also, once
you identify the course, you'll be taking, you'll need to show the syllabus to our credit transfer office before in
rolling. There are several requirements for accepting academic credits earned elsewhere. So it's good to confirm
everything beforehand.
Listen to part of a lecture in a studio art class. The class has been discussing the painting medium called water
color.
We've been painting with water colors for a few weeks now, and we've seen that with water color, you create
variation in brightness by mixing different amounts of water and paint. Now, we're going to try a type of water
color called squash. Squash is, well, you know how the regular water color we get that transparent effect. Well,
quash is an opaque paint. You usually can't see through it to the paper underneath. That's because squash has a
higher percentage of pigment than regular water color, which is much thinner.

Now, one big difference between painting with squash versus, regular water color is the way that lighter colors
and whites are worked into a painting. So far, if we want something white in our water color paintings, some
clouds say, what have we been doing? Katie? Mainly, I just don't paint those areas, like for white clouds in a
blue sky. I paint blue for the sky part and just leave blank spaces for the clouds. Or I paint clouds with a really
thin, extra, transparent layer of paint. So the white of the paper still shows through. Good. Now, you can use
those methods with squash, too. Same as with regular water colors. But one big advantage of squash is that
since you're dealing with opaque paint, it's possible to apply white or light highlights on Top of darker colors,
which you haven't been able to do so far. There's a variety of different ways you can work with light colors and
quash.

Take the work of Hank Compton. Hank Compton didn't start out as an artist. He was a marine biologist. He
worked on research vessels, collecting specimens of marine life. And during these expeditions, Compton taught
himself how to paint many of the sea creatures he encountered. And even though he'd had no formal artistic
instruction, his illustrations are so accurate that they're often published in guides and books. And most
significant, especially considering his lack of training, was his compelling depictions of bioluminescence fish.
Are you familiar with bioluminescence? Oh, yeah, bioluminescence. Kevin and i are in the same biology class.
And we learned about that earlier this semester. Certain marine animals like fish give off light in all kinds of
different ways. Yeah, uh, like some fish produced light through small organs, along their sides, or even in their
mouths or on their jaws. And there are these other fish where like colonies of bioluminescence bacteria on them.
So the fish have these bio luminescent dots. By luminescence is particularly common in deep sea animals where
sunlight doesn't really penetrate the water. Excellent. Thank you both.

Now, Compton use multiple techniques for painting the light the bioluminescence fish give off. He was adapted
using squash to add bright highlights to his paintings, like bioluminescence dots. And he used extra, thin,
transparent paint to transition from darkly shaded areas to brighter ones. He also used a third technique called
masking. Masking is when you paint a rubber based material onto the paper temporarily to preserve lighter
colors. The masking material repels wet paint. So to paint by a luminous and fish, Compton would start by
masking off areas that had been painted light colors. The light colors had been allowed to dry, and then they
were masked off with the rubber material. Then once the masking material was dry, Compton would apply a
dark color on Top of the painting. The dark color would become the dark of the deep ocean. When the dark
layer dried and he scratched the rubber off, the bright layer below was revealed. The part represented and
animals bioluminescence.

So actually masking is a little bit like what we've been doing already. I like that comparison. You've been
working on preserving light parts of the background of your paintings. So in a way, yes. Um, can I ask a
question? Maybe this is off topic, but our contents paintings considered art, or just scientific illustrations. Um.
Hard to say. They're kind of in between. Interestingly, while Compton had firsthand experience with specimens
of a fishy painted, he wouldn't have seen them in their natural habitat. Some of the fish he studied were from as
far as 800 meters beneath the surface. He just had to invent the backgrounds for his paintings. His paintings are
this interesting combination of precise, scientific depiction of the fish themselves, and creative imaginations
about the settings they appear in.

3-TL-1
Listen to a conversation between a student and a library employee.
Can I help you? Yeah, uh, my name is Jonathan bitler. I'm hear about the job for next semester, the tech helper
position. Oh, tech helper is film. You can always go to the student employment office and see what are their
own campus jobs and tech supporter available. Sorry, but there was a you see, II got a phone call yesterday and
they said I got the job. I'm sure i've met every candidate. There are other libraries on campus, maybe. Well, I
interviewed here last week, last week. Well, that explains it. I was on vacation. Jonathan Miller, of course, you
were the last candidate hired. Sorry, no, that's okay. So this job starts in September right yeah.

Okay, II just wanted to get some advice about, well, you'll have a few days of training before the semester starts
that should prepare you pretty well. Oh, yeah, I was told about the training last week. I mean, I'm confident
about technology in general, but i've never really taught anyone before that. Plus i've used most of the
equipment and programs in the library, but I guess there's always more to discover.

Uh, I'm sure I don't know everything about them. That's fine. I remember when I first started was the same for
me, but the library definitely makes use of new technologies. You'll pick it up easily, but other people will need
some help.
Yeah. So, um, any advice for a new comer on the best ways to help people understand all the technology at the
library? Um, tech helpers teach small groups, other students plus faculty and staff members. You'll generally
use computers to do electronic presentations. That's usually not a problem, but you know how it is. I'd say,
always bring paper copies of whatever Information you're presenting and. Computers often let you down when
you need the most. Okay, that makes sense. Even the best computers don't always cooperate. Oh, and here's
something they don't tell you in training, but it works for me. When you're teaching people, some of them might
be a little intimidated by computers and technology. Sure. So you can really show them that they're capable of
using the technology by having a lot of hands on activities. And that'll prepare them for when they have to do
things on their own when you're not there. Okay? Ii can do that. Definitely. And another thing you can do, you
should do. You're usually only gonna be with these people for one session just a couple of hours, given your
EMAIL address and get theirs. So if they have questions later, they can contact you. Hey, great ideas. Thanks.
No problem. See you in September.

Listen to a lecture in an artistic class. As we know, the market value of the painting depends to a great extent on
the artist to pay the more famous, the artist, the more expensive the day. Now, suppose someday you become
curator of a major art museum, and you're getting ready to spend millions of dollars on the painting that's
attributed to a particular famous artist. Well, before you buy the painting for your museum, you're gonna wanna
affinity. That is, you can wanna be sure the painting was, in fact, painted by that artist, right? You don't want to
pay all that money for a piece painted by a forger, a person skilled in imitating the work of the famous artist.
Right? Okay, let me break some bad news to you. If you need being 100% certain that a painting is authentic
before buying it, you're never gonna buy any paintings by a famous artist. But there are ways that you might be
able to tell is the paintings of fake.

The first step is always going to be to research the provenance of the painting. Progress is a French word for the
record that tells the history of, the ownership of the painting. If someone has documents, photographs, and so
forth, that clearly trace how the painting asked from one owner to the next. These would go a long way for
establishing the authenticity of the painting.

One source of Information for researching the pronouns of painting is what's called a catalog resume. The
catalog reason is a reference work with all kinds of Information about every Mark known to have been created
by one particular artist. You can see finals of all those works tend to provide some prominence of each work
along with a detailed description of it, including Asians about the materials the artist used to create. It may even
closely works by the artists that have been lost or destroyed. The downside of catalog is a is that they can
provide forgers with details they have to match in order to fool experts into thinking to say is authentic.

We have a great example with one of the most infamous forgers of all time. Wolfgang del trump, unlike most
forgers, though, Turkey didn't make copies of shameless gadgets. Instead, he studied at logs of various artists
were dating from the early 1900s. And he looks for titles of the things that were thought to have been lost
forever, paintings for which no descriptions were copies or photographs exist. So now we ensure exactly what
the painting is not right. Contracting then in the, original paintings in the style of these well known figures,
engaged the paintings, the titles of the real paintings that the catalogue is lost. Next, he created false provenance
documentation for them and sold them from lots of money. How convincing were both tracks? One artist he
imagined was max and al Chucky and the fake airs landscape that he entitled the forest. The painting was
eventually sold to a, private collector for several million dollars. And even after the painting was exposed as a
forgery to, the lecture and 8 millions for it still loved it and wanted to keep it. He said he thought it was one of
the masters and he said everything.

Fortunately, modern technologies providing us with more and more ways of impacting facts.
For example, electronic was finally caught by forgery experts using what's called a scanning electron
microscope or sem sem enabled experts to view the various layers of paint on a painting and identify the types
of materials used to paint. When forgery experts became suspicious of one of bell chopsticks, forgeries, they
decided to examine, he did it within the CM they determined that one of the things, the extent of the big and
gained on that, Italian dioxide which was not yet available in case at the time the painting was supposed to have
been created, don't talking and run out of the white pigment he normally used. So he is the pigment he never
used for. The label on the tune failed to mention that this white pigment contained a small quantity of the
telltale substance, a real stroke of luck for the art world. If not for that faulty label, well.

Listen to part of a lecture in a chemistry class.

You've been outside working on your car, your hands are covered with grease and oil. You've come inside to
wash them and guess what? There's no. So you're trying to wash off the grease and oil with plain hot water, but
it's not working. Why not? Well, oil and water don't mix. Why not? It has to do with intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that hold the molecules of a substance together. Now, two substances
will mix with each other if their molecules have similar types of intermolecular forces. But water molecules and
oil molecules have different types of intermolecular force. So they aren't really attracted to each other. As a
result, the water and the oil tend to exist as separate layers with the water molecules attracted to other water
molecules, and the oil molecules attracted to other oil molecules.

How does soap solve this problem? The molecules of soap have a special property. They are what we call
amphiphilic. When we say a molecules and affiliate, we mean that one end of the molecules strongly attracted
to water molecules, and the other ends attracted to oil molecules. So when you wash your greasy hands with
soap and water, the ends of the soap molecules that are attracted to oil arrange themselves, so they can be close
to the grease while the ends of the soap molecules that are attracted to water, arrange themselves near the water
molecules. The result is that the water molecules in one layer and the oil molecules in the other layer shift
around, you end up with a large number of very tiny spheres with oil on the inside of the sphere, soap on the
outside. And each sphere suspended in water. The oily chemicals that are encapsulated in this way can then be
washed away with the water.

Note, however, it's often thought that the soaps dissolving the oil, dissolving the grease and dirt, but technically,
this is not true. Strictly speaking, when a substance dissolves in water, it disperses completely spreads out
uniformly in the water and thus creates what chemists refer to as a solution. But with oil and soap and water, the
oil exists only as tiny spears surrounded by soap. So it's not uniformly spread out throughout the water. This
being the case, it's not really a solution, a very easy way that we can see this is that soapy water is somewhat
cloudy, whereas a true chemical solution should be transparent.

Nowadays, soap has been replaced in lots of applications by products known as detergents. Detergent is
commonly used in the form of a powder for washing clothes and in liquid form in many dish washing products.
It's quite similar to soap. Again, if we look at the urgent molecules, they have one end that's attracted to water.
And another end that's attracted to oily chemicals. But detergent, unlike soap, isn't made from oils or fats, it's
made from a large variety of different chemicals. It has one key advantage over and that it works much better
than soap in what we call hard water. Water that contains large amounts of natural minerals see. So tends to
react with the minerals which stops it from working effectively as a cleaning agent. Detergents, on the other
hand, incorporate chemicals that soften hard water. Most consumers know these chemicals as water, softeners,
but in the detergent industry, they're called builders. For many years, chemicals known as phosphates were the
most commonly used builders and detergents in the United States. They've now been phased out in favor of
other builders that are a lot friendlier to the environment. The first time I used phosphate Free detergent in our
dishwasher, though, I thought something was wrong with the machine. And now I sometimes have to run the
dishwasher a second time to get the dishes clean.
Listen to an conversation between a student and a professor in an art conservation program.
Hi, professor Mary, I do. So that was my star be very funny thing, but just for me. Now, what can I do so?
About my application for the summer internship in art mysteration, the one in Italy that the department
sponsors, when do you think the decision will be made about who's accepted into the program you applied for
one of the volunteer internships of modern problems in the way, can be someone to get. You should know by
Thursday. Great, because if I don't get accepted, I'm going to register for summer classes. And the deadline for
registering is the end of this week. You should say what we should see. You finished in summer courses to
graduate on time, i'm on schedule to graduate on time. I just thought if I took a summer course, I could take one
less next semester when i'll be busy preparing graduate school applications. No, since.

So the market funds nation, I thought you were more into restoring aging, see any ancient sound stage sketches.
I haven't really decided what I want to do long term yet. I i've really enjoyed studying about painting
restoration. But I thought I should try as many types of art conservation work as I can while I'm an
undergraduate. The market promise the issue is fascinating, even though many of these statues have been
restored, thousands of fragments have also been able only to be pleased and to resemble.

If you don't get the internship and you're taking classes here this summer, maybe you can see the working on
another project. It only be a few hours a week and you became small stop. I'm sure what kind of project? I'm
creating a survey to send our gratitude to find out where they're working with and, our program prohibited for
the work, which courses when they still fall without over our supervision programs, that's we already have a
high job placement read after graduation, but we'd like to be given better. We'd like to be seen as the best
program for art conservation country. But what would I be doing? The job would entail compiling a list of
graduates of tracking down the contract, take the machine. We're planning to sort of learn to do what we can to
ask the participation. Sure, if it turns out in your idea for that.

Listen to part of a lecture in a psychology class.

And when the last class ended, we were talking about how we evaluate other people, how we look at other
people and determine which people are likely to be helpful to us, and which people are likely to hinder us as we
go through life. And we noted that the ability to distinguish between these 2 kinds of people to perform what we
call social evaluations is critical to our survival. Yes, Karen. Is that a learned ability or something we're born
with? Well, there have been studies that suggest that we are born with a certain capacity for socially valuation,
that infants as young as 6 months are able to make social evaluations. David, I don't doubt that that's possible,
but at 6 months, babies are still pre verbal. So that's a good question.

One of the studies I'm referring to consisted of two experiments done by researchers at Yale University. In both
experiments, the researchers looked at a group of 6 month olds to prepare for the first experiment. The
researchers constructed a little stage. And on that stage, they constructed a little hill, okay? And then they got
three wooden blocks, one in the shape of a circle, one of the shape of a square, and one of the shape of a
triangle. Okay? And on each of these blocks, they glued a pair of eyes, little circles with black dots in them that
looked like eyes. Okay? So in the first phase of the experiment, the researchers showed the infants a series of
brief scenarios. In every scenario, one of the blocks, let's say the circle block played the role of a climber trying
to get to the Top of the hill. Okay? So the circle block was the climber. At first, the climber block would appear
by itself and start climbing up the hill, but it would be struggling. Then in some of the other scenarios, one of
the other blocks, let's say the square would appear and would always help the climber block get to the Top of
the hill, gently nudge it up the hill.

Okay? So you had the square block, always helping the climber block. And in the rest of the scenarios, the other
block, let's say the triangle would appear and would always hinder the climber block. It would always block the
climbers path and force it back down the hill. So the triangle block was always hindering the climber block.
Okay? So that was the first phase. Then in the second phase of the experiment, the researchers placed the helper
and hinderer blocks in front of each infant. And they noted which block each infant reached for. And the idea
was that they'd reached for the helper block. That's right. And that's exactly what happened. In most every case.
Karen, I'm wondering how you could be sure that they're choosing based on social evaluation. I mean, maybe
they just like circles better than squares, or maybe they just like to see things going up the hill more than they
like to see things coming down the hill or something. Excellent question, which is what the researchers were
obviously wondering as well. Because as I mentioned earlier, they did a second experiment. They took another
group of 6 month olds and showed them scenarios very similar to the ones in the first experiment.

Okay? Only this time, the climber block didn't have eyes, and it never moved by itself. It only got pushed up the
hill by one block, very, gently, very smoothly, and down the hill by the other block, very, gently, very
smoothly.

So in the second experiment, the idea was that the babies wouldn't perceive the climber block as a living thing,
and it wasn't trying to do anything, so it couldn't really be helped or hindered. Exactly. So then there wouldn't
be any social evaluation involved. Exactly. And this time, when the researchers offered the infants, the wooden
blocks, they didn't have a clear preference. That's very interesting. Yes. And what's considered most significant
about these studies is not so much that the infants were able to make social evaluations, but that they were able
to evaluate interactions between unknown individuals interactions that had nothing to do with themselves.
That's pretty sophisticated, especially for a, 6 month old. Yes.

3-TL-2
Listen to a conversation between a student and an astronomy professor.
I think I understand why you got confused when I was discussing what happens when two galaxies collide in
space. Ii should have made it very clear that there are two different types of collisions between galaxies, minor
collisions, and major collisions. And what's the difference between the two minor collisions involve one large
Galaxy crashing into a small one? Uh, in which case the small Galaxy becomes a, part of the larger Galaxy and
major collisions involved galaxies of roughly the same size crashing into one another, in which case they often
just pass through one another? Thanks. I think I get it now.

But also, well, I was wondering about what your expectations were for the midterm paper in terms of how, um,
what exactly did you want us to focus on?

Well, there are so many interesting phenomena that we have observed out in space that we don't fully
understand. So I'm looking for a report on a particular subject. Where there is ongoing research. Oh, so I guess I
should cancel the time I reserve to use the telescope in the observatory. Well, yeah, II mean, I want you to
consider ongoing research. You don't need to do any firsthand research yourself for this assignment. So for a
topic, maybe I could write about what happens to the stars during a galactic collision. I don't think you talked
about that in class. And, oh, the class textbook. Um, I was looking and I didn't see anything in the textbook
about what happens to the hundreds of stars that make up a Galaxy when two galaxies collide. Well, you're
right. It's not in the textbook, but that's because nothing much does happen to the stars. Well, you have two
galaxies filled with stars, and these galaxies are crashing into each other, and nothing happens to the stars. That
doesn't make any sense.

Actually, it does. If if you think about the density of a Galaxy, the density, yes, a Galaxy is filled with stars, but
the stars themselves are spread apart by huge distances. The textbook is pretty clear on that. The stars are so far
apart that there's no direct contact between any two stars from the different galaxies. Huh? Well, do you have a
list like of possible topics? No, but you could try looking at one of the journals on astronomy research at the
library that should give you an idea. Just be sure to run whatever you choose, buy me, send me an EMAIL, or or
we could just chat right after class. I want to make sure everyone chooses something appropriate.

Listen to part of a lecture in a history class.

So we've been discussing two different types of Information sources used by historians. First, there are primary
sources, things that are created during the actual time period being studied by people who are directly involved
in or witnessed an event. These can be official documents, but they can also be more personal, something like a
diary, perhaps. Then we also have secondary sources in which outsiders analyze and interpret key Information.
Your textbooks are a great example of a secondary source. Now the main advantage of primary sources usually
is their reliability. But how about in the case of picture postcards? Maybe someone was away on vacation and
sent you a postcard, perhaps with a message written on the back saying having a great time wish you were here,
postcards became very popular in the early 1900s. They even turned into a collector's item much in the same
way people would collect stamps or coins. The question is, though, are these postcards a valid primary source?
Let's talk about the picture, component first, the photographs.

Now, from our discussions, we know that basically any form of historical documentation takes some time to uh,
catch on to be accepted by researchers. And remember what we said about research in the sciences in the late
1800s, how objective and methodical scientific research had become, and how this desire to be objectives
spilled over into other fields, including history.

Now, since photography was still a relatively new invention, even into the early 1900s, historians just weren't
sure what to make of it of, how to interpret photographs. They considered the entire medium of film to be, well,
not serious, not academic enough. So you can imagine their opinion of the images to be found on mass
produced postcards, because postcards really were mass produced. Due to their popularity, a lot of them were
printed. Just to sit through so many images would be a daunting task for anyone. And of course, there's no real
record of when exactly the photographs were taken, who they were taken by, or in what context they were
taken. These are key pieces of Information that we would need in order to reconstruct the story of a particular
event.

Furthermore, postcards were originally designed to have a, commercial appeal, to peel primarily to collectors
and traders, not to be an accurate depiction of peoples and places. In order to sell their product, some companies
blatantly altered the images on their postcards, edited them to make them more attractive. Others used pictures
that were staged. For example, they might show people wearing outfits. They normally wouldn't wear to try to
create an image that buyers of postcards might have, let's say, expected based on the region, the postcard
represented. Also, the captions that accompanied the images were often inaccurate. They might have been
reused, taken from other postcards with different images. Finally, because postcards were collectors items, they
switched hands sometimes quite frequently.

The problem here is that all of these transfers from one owner to another distance, the postcards from the places
where they originated, finding something in its original location provides for better documentation of a
Discovery.

Let's say, I don't know, say we under the statue, during an excavation, if we can determine that it hasn't been
transferred from one location to another, in other words, taken out of its original context, then we can also
examine the surrounding environment to better understand the history of the statue itself.

However, as years go by academic interests and expectations often change, so that by the 1960s and 70s, we see
an increased interest in understanding a wider array of societal issues. Historians and others began to view
culture as being embodied in people's daily lives, in their personal experiences. So now there's this interest in
things like, well, ordinary people, popular culture, the full scope of ways people communicate. And from this
new academic disciplines, such as mass communications and media studies emerged. Now I'm not saying that
right there and then everything suddenly changed. But this new focus enabled historians to make a case for
using postcards as a primary source. For instance, they argued that the stage scenes I mentioned earlier, could
be a window into people's perceptions of the time. And the personal messages written on the postcards could be
interpreted as being similar to diary excerpts, recounting the author's day to day experiences. I think, um, if we
look at postcards in this light, we'll certainly get a better insight into the personal aspect. We're striving to
understand.

Listen to part of a lecture in an ecology class.

So to get us started, just what is ecology? Jenny? Well, it's about all the relationships between animals and
plants, right? Yes. Mike. Also, everything else that makes up an ecosystem like the climate or the soil. So it can
get pretty complex and it does. In fact, that helps explain why up till the 20th century ecology as a science didn't
even exist. But having people always studied nature, certainly the ancient Greeks, for example, and remember
Linnaeus. It was Linnaeus who devised the first system for classifying plants and animals. Well, he was also
one of the first scientists to take an ecological view of nature to see it as a complex system, not just individual
plants and animals. And that was back in the 1700s. But most scientists thought leninist theory was too
descriptive to be scientific. Remember, science is based, not just on observing things, but on measuring them,
and then finding out how different measurements, different numbers are related to each other, and maybe even
expressing these relationships in mathematical formulas.

One problem with nature, with the environment is how do you quantify it? Exactly. What do you measure and
how. But there's also this complexity. Mike mentioned. So many different variables you have to deal with if you
want to approach the subject scientifically. So as I said, ecology wasn't recognized as a science until well into
the 20th century. Before that, a lot of the people who studied the environment will take, for example, Henry
David Thoreau, Henry David Thoreau. We just read a book of his in my American literature class, but Thoreau
was a philosopher, not a scientist, exactly. So his writings, some of them have proven valuable to scientists
today, see along with his philosophical writing about nature. Well, he made these notes for a book. He never
finished. Thoreau wrote down his detailed observations of when particular plant species would begin to bloom
in the spring in his part of the United States.

Uh, this was about 150 years ago, and recently, researchers looked at the same species of flowers in that area,
and compared their observations with his and what they found was evidence of a major environmental change
there over the last one hundred and 50 years. It turns out that spring temperatures there have risen enough so
that those flowers bloom about a week earlier now than they did in thoreau's time.

So to measure ecological change, scientists got help from the notes of a philosopher. That's right. And I think
Thoreau and some late 19th century writers helped push scientists into looking at the environment as a system.
But there was still that problem of quantifying the environment.

Then in the early 1900s, an American researcher Frederick Clements finally came up with a way to do it.
Clemens was studying plant life on farmland in the central United States, huge expanses of land. And to do this,
he used the scientific method of sampling. He would Mark off small sections of land and count every individual
plant within each one. These sections are called quadratics, and they become a cornerstone of ecological
research. A quadrant is used to isolate a small sample of the environment for study. They're often just 1 meter
square, though, the exact area of a quadratic may vary, depending on the study. The idea is to set up a square or
rectangular border around an area and make very careful observations there. For instance, recording the
different plant species and counting the number of each one. A standardized approach like this allows colleges
to objectively measure changes within the quadratic over time, or compare one quadrate with others of the same
size in other locations.
So that's what made ecology more of a science. Well, it was a start. Since then, we've made lots of progress in
measurement and analysis, but the huge number of different variables involved has continued to be a Challenge.
Today, a big part of the answer is technology. Satellite images help track how the different variables in an
ecosystem change over time. And computers run massive amounts of data through complex mathematical
calculations. So, yes, ecology can now be considered a science, but it's still not like, say, chemistry. A chemist
can describe with solid scientific formulas. What will happen when you combine certain chemicals? I don't
think ecology will ever be that precise.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a library employee.
Can I help you? Yeah, uh, my name is Jonathan bizler. I'm hear about the job for next semester. The tech helper
position, oh, tech helper. It's been filled. You can always go to the student employment office and see what
other on campus jobs and tech support are available. Sorry, but there was a you see, II got a phone call
yesterday and they said I got the job. I'm sure i've met every candidate. There are other libraries on campus,
maybe. Well, I interviewed here last week, last week. Well, that explains it. I was on vacation. Jonathan Miller,
of course, you were the last candidate hired. Sorry, no, that's okay. So this job starts in September, right? Yep.
Okay. Ii just wanted to get some advice about, well, you'll have a few days of training before the semester starts.
That should prepare you pretty well.

Oh, yeah, I was told about the training last week. I mean, I'm confident about technology in general, but i've
never really taught anyone before. That plus i've used most of the equipment and programs in the library, but I
guess there's always more to discover. I I'm sure I don't know everything about them. That's fine. I remember
when I first started was the same for me, but the library definitely makes use of new technologies. You'll pick it
up easily, but other people will need some help.

Yeah, so, um, any advice for a newcomer on the best ways to help people understand all the technology at the
library? Um, the tech helpers teach small groups, other students plus faculty and staff members. You'll generally
use computers to do electronic presentations. That's usually not a problem, but you know how it is. I'd say,
always bring paper copies of whatever Information you're presenting and. Computers often let you down when
you need the most. Okay, that makes sense. Even the best computers don't always cooperate. Oh, and here's
something they don't tell you in training, but it works for me. When you're teaching people, some of them might
be a little intimidated by computers and technology. Sure. So you can really show them that they're capable of
using the technology by having a lot of hands on activities. And that'll prepare him for when they have to do
things on their own when you're not there. Okay? Ii can do that. Definitely. And another thing you can do you
should do. You're usually only gonna be with these people for one session, just a couple of hours, give them,
your EMAIL address and get theirs. So if they have questions later, they can contact you. Hey, great ideas.
Thanks. No problem. See you in September.
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.
We've talked about camouflage how an animal's coloring can make it blend in with the background. But to
continue, um, predator prey relationships, of course, sometimes avoiding predators is just a matter of running
away. Now, you might think that the best escape is a quiet, stealthy one to avoid being noticed, but lizards, not
all lizards, but some uh, they often escape with a lot of noise. They seem to intentionally run on dry leaves,
making as much noise as possible. Why would they do that? Any ideas? If there are a lot of dry leaves in their
habitat? Well, I imagine it's pretty hard to run quietly across dry leaves. You think so. But they can, lizards can
run quietly even on dry leaves.

In fact, sometimes lizards do escape quietly with a short run. Instead of with a noisy, long run. We talked about
white tailed deer. I know researchers thought they flashed their white tails when they run away from a predator
in order to warn others.
So maybe the lizard is also warning others. Uh, maybe they have young, nearby, reasonable possibility. But do
you remember what researchers concluded about the white tailed deer and their tail flash? Oh, that's right. They
even flashed their tails when they're alone. So you're saying lizards make noisy escapes, even when there are no
other lizards around to warn. Right? So any other ideas? Why do lizards make noise when they try to escape?
Well, again, thinking of the white tailed deer, maybe the noise is a signal to the predator, something like, um,
I'm strong and fast. Listen to all the noise I make. You'll never be able to catch me. Good. Researchers have
investigated this. They call it the signal hypothesis, though they hypothesized that the noise was not just a signal
of strength and speed, but also a signal of alertness. Making noise was thought to say something like I'm awake
here and paying attention. So you won't be able to surprise me and catch me. And when they investigated the
signal hypothesis, they discovered two things that seemed to support it.

First, they discovered that lizards make noise even when they're hidden from an approaching predator. When
the predator knows a lizard is there, but doesn't know exactly where. So that seems to suggest they are indeed
sending a message like, yep, I'm here, but I'm alert. Oh, or maybe I can see you, even though you can't see me.
Maybe. And the other thing they discovered was that the noisy lizards were the ones more likely to make a
successful escape. They escape sooner, they ran faster, they ran farther, and they ran for a longer time. They
were more successful than the lizards that didn't make noise. So that would support the noise being a signal of
strength and speed. If the noisy ones are the strong runners, more likely to escape, the predators would learn that
that the noisy ones are the good runners, and they wouldn't bother trying to chase them. They look for
something else.

3-TL-3
Listen to a conversation between a student and her paleontology professor.
So your EMAIL said there's a problem with your research paper. Yeah, I was gonna investigate if there were
gender differences within species of dinosaurs. Differences in size, for example. But all dinosaur species I
looked at, there aren't enough fossils to analyze in a meaningful way. Um, have you considered any address?
Had your SARS were a group of plant eating dinosaurs. We've discovered tremendous numbers of had to solar
fossils. Many of them Complete three dimensional specimens. Most of the species are only known from a single
partial skeleton, wire, hydrous or fossils so much more common. This has a lot to do with the conditions needed
for fossil formation and with the hydrothermal habitat.

In class, you said that for an animal to fossilize the organism must be covered by sediments fairly quickly after
death. Hajj swords must have lived where lots of sediments got deposited, right? Hadra czars inhabited
lowlands like coastal plains where their food was plentiful. Sediments typically accumulate fast in coastal
planes. Why? Well, upland areas like mountains and hillsides shed lots of material from processes such as
weathering wind and rain, breaking down rock into soil, then moving the soil down slope, and eventually to
lowlands and coastlines where I can cover that animals, right?

And this affects our fossil record. For example, there's hardly any evidence of dinosaurs that lived in
mountainous areas. Probably not because dinosaurs didn't live on mountains, they almost certainly did. It's just
that mountainous conditions aren't great for fossil formation or preservation of footprints. Interesting,
hazardous. On the other hand, um, just in denial in, national park in Alaska, for example, thousands of hydrous
or tracks footprints were found denial in national park where the tallest mountain in North America is. But you
said there were no mountains there during the dinosaur era. Back then it was a coastal plane. Oh, yeah, I forgot
those mountains are geologically young. Um, since hatchets or fossils are so plentiful, why aren't hydrous or
better known? Most people are familiar with sorrow, pods and thorough pods, but had resource AD resource
like charisma. They weren't huge like sorrow pies and didn't have barred scary claws like the thermopods. Did
what you see in dinosaur movies? Hm. So hydro stars aren't moving material, but there's enough known about
their fossils and footprints for me to make my gender analysis probably. I'd say so one thing that seems relevant
to your topic is their hurting behavior. They lived in large groups that had a social structure, kind of like the
herds of some modern plant eaters.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Earth Science class

(male professor) The last major Ice Age ended about 16,000 years ago, after a brief warming period, average
temperature in the northern hemisphere began to fall again. There was another cold spell that lasted for about
twelve hundred years. We call this cold period the Younger Dryas.

Dryas is the name of a flower that grows well that thrives in cold weather. In fact, the presence of the Dryas is
an indicator of glacial or near-glacial conditions. The Younger Dryas is named after this flower, because we
find Dryas pollen in samples from lake and pond sediment, the stuff that settles to the bottoms of these bodies
of water from that time period. But the Antarctic cold reversal started about a thousand years before the
Younger Dryas. As its name suggests, the cold reversal was a time when average temperature on Earth was
rising. So, why when things were getting warmer did they suddenly get cold again?

The coming and going of an Ice Age is usually a gradual event, occurring over thousands of years. But the
Younger Dryas happened quickly in geological terms, average temperature dropped drastically in less than a
hundred years. This is an abrupt climate change and it ended even more abruptly. In fact, it’s estimated, based
on the study of ice core samples, that the average mean temperature increased ten degrees Celsius in just ten
years. These climatic shifts go against most theories that claimed that climate change requires thousands of
years to occur.

So, the most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Younger Dryas occurred because the ocean current known
as the North Atlantic Conveyor Belt shut down for a while. The Conveyor Belt is a current that moves warm
water northward from the Indian Ocean around Africa and then up to the North Atlantic. If this current stopped
flowing temporarily, it would get pretty cold up in the north Atlantic region.

(female student) What would cause the Conveyor Belt to stop?

(professor) Well, the most likely candidate is the introduction of a lot of freshwater. So then the next question
is, “What would cause an increase of freshwater in the ocean?” Well, there have been several suggestions, like,
glacial melting. In particular, it’s been hypothesized that an ice dam holding back water from a gigantic lake in
North America melted, sending huge amounts of freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean. This is commonly referred
to as the ice dam theory, and some geophysicists have proposed what they call the meteor impact theory that a
meteorite hit the northeastern part of North America.

Uh, remember, most meteors burn up when they enter Earth’s atmosphere, but if they made it through and hit
Earth’s surface, they’re called meteorites. Anyway, the heat from such a meteorite impact would have melted a
huge chunk of the North American ice sheet, the glacier sending freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean. And there
is some evidence of the meteorite impact: elevated levels of the element iridium, an element associated with
meteors and asteroids.

Iridium is spread in a layer throughout Earth’s crust dating from near the onset of the Younger Dryas. Its
presence could be explained by a dust cloud that would have formed after a meteorite impact and later settled in
a layer on the crust. Either way, it seems that the movement of freshwater into the North Atlantic did happen.

(female student) So, which is it? What do you think caused a freshwater input that stopped the Conveyor Belt?
(professor) Tell you the truth, we really don’t know. For the ice dam scenario, the land around the lake where it
might have occurred doesn’t appear to have experienced the changes associated with the type of flooding we’re
talking about. Plus, the nearby ocean does not show decrease in the salinity, a decrease in salt content from that
time period. Uh, there’s yet another problem with this hypothesis: it was found that a second wave of melt
water, although smaller than the first one, occurred at the end of the Younger Dryas. So, why didn’t it also
trigger a similar chain of consequences in the climate system?

For the meteor impact theory, some scientists believe they found evidence of an impact in core samples from
that period in the form of iridium and other metals. But, there are a lot of unanswered questions associated with
that theory. Uh, for one thing, where’s the impact crater, a crater created when the meteorite hit? However, the
presence of iridium in the crust indicates that there was probably a dust cloud, a dust cloud that would have
blocked sunlight contributing to the temperature decrease.
Listen to part of a lecture in an Earth Science class

(male professor) The last major Ice Age ended about 16,000 years ago, after a brief warming period, average
temperature in the northern hemisphere began to fall again. There was another cold spell that lasted for about
twelve hundred years. We call this cold period the Younger Dryas.

Dryas is the name of a flower that grows well that thrives in cold weather. In fact, the presence of the Dryas is
an indicator of glacial or near-glacial conditions. The Younger Dryas is named after this flower, because we
find Dryas pollen in samples from lake and pond sediment, the stuff that settles to the bottoms of these bodies
of water from that time period. But the Antarctic cold reversal started about a thousand years before the
Younger Dryas. As its name suggests, the cold reversal was a time when average temperature on Earth was
rising. So, why when things were getting warmer did they suddenly get cold again?

The coming and going of an Ice Age is usually a gradual event, occurring over thousands of years. But the
Younger Dryas happened quickly in geological terms, average temperature dropped drastically in less than a
hundred years. This is an abrupt climate change and it ended even more abruptly. In fact, it’s estimated, based
on the study of ice core samples, that the average mean temperature increased ten degrees Celsius in just ten
years. These climatic shifts go against most theories that claimed that climate change requires thousands of
years to occur.

So, the most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Younger Dryas occurred because the ocean current known
as the North Atlantic Conveyor Belt shut down for a while. The Conveyor Belt is a current that moves warm
water northward from the Indian Ocean around Africa and then up to the North Atlantic. If this current stopped
flowing temporarily, it would get pretty cold up in the north Atlantic region.

(female student) What would cause the Conveyor Belt to stop?

(professor) Well, the most likely candidate is the introduction of a lot of freshwater. So then the next question
is, “What would cause an increase of freshwater in the ocean?” Well, there have been several suggestions, like,
glacial melting. In particular, it’s been hypothesized that an ice dam holding back water from a gigantic lake in
North America melted, sending huge amounts of freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean. This is commonly referred
to as the ice dam theory, and some geophysicists have proposed what they call the meteor impact theory that a
meteorite hit the northeastern part of North America.

Uh, remember, most meteors burn up when they enter Earth’s atmosphere, but if they made it through and hit
Earth’s surface, they’re called meteorites. Anyway, the heat from such a meteorite impact would have melted a
huge chunk of the North American ice sheet, the glacier sending freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean. And there
is some evidence of the meteorite impact: elevated levels of the element iridium, an element associated with
meteors and asteroids.
Iridium is spread in a layer throughout Earth’s crust dating from near the onset of the Younger Dryas. Its
presence could be explained by a dust cloud that would have formed after a meteorite impact and later settled in
a layer on the crust. Either way, it seems that the movement of freshwater into the North Atlantic did happen.

(female student) So, which is it? What do you think caused a freshwater input that stopped the Conveyor Belt?

(professor) Tell you the truth, we really don’t know. For the ice dam scenario, the land around the lake where it
might have occurred doesn’t appear to have experienced the changes associated with the type of flooding we’re
talking about. Plus, the nearby ocean does not show decrease in the salinity, a decrease in salt content from that
time period. Uh, there’s yet another problem with this hypothesis: it was found that a second wave of melt
water, although smaller than the first one, occurred at the end of the Younger Dryas. So, why didn’t it also
trigger a similar chain of consequences in the climate system?

For the meteor impact theory, some scientists believe they found evidence of an impact in core samples from
that period in the form of iridium and other metals. But, there are a lot of unanswered questions associated with
that theory. Uh, for one thing, where’s the impact crater, a crater created when the meteorite hit? However, the
presence of iridium in the crust indicates that there was probably a dust cloud, a dust cloud that would have
blocked sunlight contributing to the temperature decrease.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a resident assistant in his dormitory.
Hi. Um, you're the new resident assistant, right? That's right. I wanted to ask, you know, how there's no
recycling in our building. Is there any way to get that set up? You mean, get recycling bins inside the dorm?
Yeah, I mean, there's recycling on campus, but it's a pain to go outside every time you want to recycle
something. I just end up with like bottles and scrap paper, piling up my dorm room. You know, i've actually
never seen recycling bins in any dorm. Right? As far as I know, there's no recycling in any of the dorms right
now. But the university did expand the contract, you know, about that right. Campus recycling accepts all
plastics.

Now all types of plastic, I think only a couple of them were recyclable before. Yeah, I know about that and
that's great and all. But easy access to recycling is important too. Like I usually save my stuff until I can take it
outside. But most of the kids here don't even do that. If they have bottles or paper in their room, it goes straight
to the trash. Yes, i've noticed that. So maybe having recycling bins inside would make the difference. You
know, my friend said at her university, they have been in their dorms, and they held a contest to see which dorm
could recycle the most in a month. And apparently everyone there got really into it.

Anyway, do you think we could get some bins in our dorm? Why don't I call the housing office? See if they
have something suitable for indoor use? Awesome. Thanks. I guess i'll see you later then. You know, yeah, if
this is something you feel strongly about, why don't you try to get a recycling program set up a residential
program for all the dorms? You could write up a proposal for the administration. Oh, good idea. We could even
have a contest to promote the program. I have some great ideas for the prize. Oh, the contest you mentioned had
a prize. Yeah, whichever dorm one they gave everyone who lived there.

Uh, I forget, I think it was vouchers for a local pizza place or something. I see and who paid for the prize at
your friends school, who paid, actually, I have no idea, right? You'd probably need to find a sponsor to provide
the funding. Sounds difficult. Well, at least fill out a proposal form for the recycling program itself that much
you can do now and really go all out. What do you mean? Well, the process is almost like forming a new
student organization. You know, when you form a student group, you need a statement of purpose signatures.
From what i've seen successfully proposing a new program is similar. The administration will take you more
seriously if you clearly state your goals and explain how it would benefit the university and getting the support
of the other students will help, too. Okay, got it. I actually have a couple of people in mind.
Listen to part of a lecture in a botany class. One of the most challenging conditions, plants face is extreme
variation in soil moisture. Let's talk about flooding. There's been a lot of research into how flooding affects
plants. Okay, so we all know that if an area of floods, land animals can move, they can go to a drier habitat. The
plants can't move. They're usually rooted to the ground. So some plant species have developed traits in order to
tolerate flooding.

Now, the primary concern for a plant during flooding is the reduced availability of oxygen in the soil, but don't
plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis? Oh, but that wouldn't really add oxygen to the soil, would it? No,
it wouldn't. And yes, plants do make oxygen, but only the green parts. The leaves produce oxygen this way
during daylight hours. However, a plant's roots also need oxygen. Why? Well, remember, along with
photosynthesis, there's also the process of respiration. So like animals, plants burn oxygen and sugars, um,
carbohydrates for energy. And typically, the roots would get oxygen from pockets of air in the soil. You'd be
surprised how much empty space there is in the soil, mainly due to earthworm activity. But in the case of
flooding, those air pockets aren't there, and respiration may be a problem. So some plants have adaptations.
They've adapted to flood conditions, either in their regular cell structure or by altering their cell structure when
there's a flood.

Okay, first of all, there are two categories of response to the stress caused by flooding. And remember, stress
means the pressure that's put on the plant by an environmental factor such as flooding. So anyone remember
how plants respond to stress? Um, stress avoidance and stress tolerance? Exactly. Stress avoidance is when the
plant has adapted in one or more of the ways I just described to prevent damage to its tissues.

So in areas that are prone to flooding, some plants have evolved to have internal air spaces in the root system.
These spaces are formed either by gaps in between plant cells, or by the actual disintegration of cells to create a
gap. Plants like rice grow well in wet areas, because they have lots of space between their cells for the oxygen
to travel to the roots. Plus there are plants that develop. Airspace is only when they need them. Corn. For
example, this is something corn can resort to when it floods. So even if there's no air in the ground, the roots can
get air. Well, yes, the roots are flooded, but some part of the plant is still above the water where photosynthesis
takes place. The airspace is extend up from the roots all the way to the leaves of the plant. So the oxygen in the
leaves can travel through to the roots. It's as if the roots are breathing. And many times the roots will extend out
and discharge some of this oxygen to the soil, which, in turn, might help nearby plants.

And this air flow, it can be passive, just air defusing down to the roots. It can also be active. Water lilies, for
example, in their young leaves, there are pressurized gases that push the air to the roots. What about, um, aren't
there some trees that have roots above ground? Yes. The roots are called pneumatophores. Pneumatophore are
roots that reach above the ground and get direct access to the air. So they're not using internal air spaces like
some other plants do when the ground is flooded. This adaptation of exposed roots has allowed them to survive
in flooded conditions. Mangrove trees are a great example. The bald Cyprus is another good example. It grows
alongside streams or in wetlands. The bald cypress roots put out coon shaped extensions that protrude from the
water. And we think that's how the tree gets oxygen to the roots in flooded conditions. So that's stress
avoidance.

Now, stress tolerance, stress tolerance is different from stress avoidance. Instead of finding some way to keep
the stress out, with stress tolerance, the stress is allowed into the internal tissues, but the plant has adapted to
decrease, and in some cases, actually prevent damage. Now, stress avoidance, we know a lot about stress
tolerance, on the other hand, where there's a lack of oxygen. Well, a few cases have been documented where
plants have evolved to temporarily survive and even grow without oxygen. But research is still wide open on
the subject.

Pneumathtophores
3-TL-4
The student and her English literature professor.
Sorry, I missed last week's meeting with you. No problem. I'm glad to hear you're feeling better after that cold.
And from this latest draft, it looks like your senior thesis is still well on track for the due date. Good. Senior
years been rough. I'll be glad to have the thesis behind me. But I thought you were enjoying your research on
Hester polter. Oh, yeah, I love early modern women's literature definitely looking forward to delving into it
further in graduate school. It's just with so much course work. It's been a lot of juggling deadlines you know.
I'm afraid that won't change in graduate school or in teaching. I think you mentioned you like to become a
literature professor. That's the plan. Well, that often means struggling research and writing along with teaching.

So that's pretty intense, too. I recently published an analysis of some of Shakespeare's plays, and, of course, i've
been teaching a full class schedule worth it. Yes, but still an immense amount of work. Oh, I love Shakespeare.
Which of his place did you write about? One of them was the merry wives of Windsor? Oh, I read that once.
Some of my analysis was about why it was written, there's disagreement. Some say it was to preserve a
character, the English queen liked, or to poke fun that a man Shakespeare didn't get along with. But an argument
has also been made that the play reveals what small town life was, like at. The time. The play setting is a small
town similar to where Shakespeare spent his youth. So he was making observations about the world around
him. Maybe in the place, some middle class country, women defeat an aristocrat who's been giving them
trouble.

Around that time, the middle class was beginning to have more influence in England that idea in the play that
ordinary country, folk could triumph over wealthy aristocrats reflects the changing social reality. You know,
that's one of the things I love about literature, the way it reflects society, not just history, but people's values.
Even the writers personality can be captured in a literary work. Like this thesis, I'm doing on the poetry of
Hester polter. By reading her poems, I feel like I really got to know her as a person. That's great. But this brings
us to my latest comments on your thesis. Your readers might not be at all familiar with Hester polter and her
work. So in your next draft, when you refer to a specific poem, it's important to include more context and
background material than you have so far.
Listen to part of a lecture in an ecology class.
If I ask you to picture a squirrel or a pigeon in its natural habitat, what might come to mind is a city, right? But
think about that for a second, pigeons have been around for much longer than the modern city, so it can't be
their original habitat. Before big cities even existed, they lived in the natural environment for thousands of
years. Then why do they seem so comfortable, so natural living in an urban environment? Well, many animals
have actually changed in order to live in these kinds of habitats. And it's a process known as synerbation. Now,
cinnabarization basically refers to the adjustments that animals make to survive in urban environments. And
many birds and mammals, like the pigeon and squirrel have synamic properties that allow them to make the city
their home.

As you can, imagine living in, the city requires some major changes in an animal's behavior from its diet to the
way it makes it home to uh, to go off on a quick tangent here.

There's actually still a question about exactly how this works. It's possible that we might not be talking about
simple behavior or changes. For example, we've actually found some pretty significant anatomical differences
between rural and urban populations of the same species of mouse. And some researchers believe those
differences in the mice are actually genetic. So it's possible that in some cases, senator populations are in the
process of becoming a different species or sub species. But those anatomical differences could also just reflect a
natural range of variation in a species. Like there's a natural range in height among humans. To get back to what
we do know, there are a couple of characteristic changes you see in syna bit, animals. So for example, animals
in cities get comfortable living much closer to each other, because you know, there's not as much open space.
So each animal sort of has to give up its private territory and share with other members of the species. Also, you
see a big decrease in migration, winters in the city are generally milder. There are warm places all around. So
often animals that would normally migrate can just stay put. There's no reason to travel long distances to find
warmer climates, not only that, but there's also a lot of food in the city that you couldn't find in the wild during a
winter.

So nutrition is easier to come by. This makes migration even less important. There are also behavioral changes
when it comes to animals, attitudes toward people. If you've ever seen somebody feeding bread crumbs to
pigeons in the park, you've witnessed synapse Asian at work. Pigeons and other animals as well, have become
much more comfortable around humans because they know that's where the food comes from. So for some
animals, the city can actually be a really hospitable place, maybe even crucial for the survival of the species.

For instance, take the paradigm falcon, an absolutely beautiful bird, a few decades ago. It was nearly extinct.
But researchers thought it might survive well in the city. And they started pushing conservation efforts to bring
Falcons into urban areas. And now, peregrine Falcons are absolutely thriving in those cities. They're totally
synerbic. And it's thanks to the modern city that they are not a threatened species anymore. The paradigm falcon
is living proof that it's possible for cities to coexist with nature in some ways. But that certainly doesn't mean
there's no ecological downside to urban expansion. Uh, when we see successful examples of symbolization,
there's a very real danger that people might misinterpret them. People might look at those examples and think
animals, in general can simply adjust to the growth of cities. But as far as species diversity, the expansion of
urban areas poses a serious problem. Overall, you end up with a big decrease in the variety of species in an area
that has become urban. One study found that 47 bird species either decreased in population or vanished
completely from a particular city. So clearly, not every species is equally good at adapting to the city. I think it's
fair to say that most species are definitely threatened by urban growth.
Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.
The professor has been discussing decorative arts in the decorative arts as with other art forms, like painting,
sculpture, the tradition of one culture often influences another. And that adopted a tradition then develops in its
own way. A great example of this is the use of lacquer. Blacker is a white or light gray, sap that comes from lac
trees. Lac trees are indigenous to China, but they're found today throughout east Asia.

An important feature of lacquer is that when exposed to air and heated, it hardens. It changes from a liquid like
substance to a plastic, like substance. Hardened lacquer is resistant to water, and certain asset almost like a
plastic, which makes it a great, protective covering, especially for small decorative objects. When lacquer is
used in the making of an object that object is referred to as lacquerware.

Chinese lacquerware is considered the first use of lacquer. There's evidence lacquer was used in China as far
back as prehistoric times. It's hard to pinpoint exactly when it first appeared, though, creating lacquerware was
labor intensive that kept the scale of production small, which is one reason its archaeological records
Incomplete. It's not nearly as abundant as something like Jade for which many samples make it easier to create a
historical record.

The use of lacquer in Chinese decorative art followed two paths. The carving of lacquer and the use of lacquer
in uncovered surface decoration.

First card lager to prepare an object for lacquer carving, whether a wooden bowl, a middle cup, whatever you
need to apply layer upon layer of lacquer to the surface. For example, here is a circular box with a carved
lacquer design on Top. The artist had to build up the height, the thickness of the lacquer covering the Top, make
it thick enough to carve a design into it. That's weird that Top looks like wood. Well, the Top surface originally
was wood, but the carved part that's actually the lacquer coating on the wood. I want to emphasize here how
thick the lacquer is. A carving like this requires about 200 to 300 layers of lacquer, which may take years to do
since each layer takes about 5 days to harden before the next layer can be applied.

Chinese artists also used lacquer for surface decoration, decoration on a smooth uncouraged surface. This is
something that had a far reaching impact on other cultures in the Middle East as well as east Asia.

One surface technique is the inlay technique. Artist would apply a code of lacquer, cut out a piece of it, and then
place another material such as gold or silver foil inside that cut out space. This inlay technique, although it
involved cutting, is not considered carved lacquerware. Probably the best known Chinese inlay works were
made with nacker. Anyone know what nacker is? Isn't that the inside of certain shells from sea creatures?

Right? Nike refers to the interior of mollusk shelves. Certain snails, the inside is very shiny. Artists used it to
decorate lacquer pieces. They cut shell fragments into different shapes and placed them into small spaces on the
lacquered object.

Carved lacquer works may be the purest form of lacquer, but to my eye, these lacquer, knicker objects are
definitely the most beautiful. The detail achieved is remarkable. For example, this black tray in this object, tiny
pieces of knacker have been cut and laid into the lacquer on the surface to create a scene. The artist achieved an
incredible amount of detail with tiny pieces of delicate shell interior. Gorgeous. I think i've seen art like this
before, but in a Japanese art exhibit that actually brings us to what I wanted to discuss today, the effect Chinese
artists had on other Asian traditions.

Lacquer, knacker works have been made in Japan, but there are more striking examples that show the powerful
influence Chinese lacquer were had on Japanese artists.

Along with nacker. Chinese artists were in laying lacquerware with gold and silver foil. Well, that technique
was borrowed by Japanese artists and became quite popular in Japan. And the Japanese took it in entirely new
directions. For one thing, they began using other metals to make inlay works. They also develop new ways to
use metals in lacquerware. For example, they developed a technique that used golden silver powder to make the
lacquer itself appear gold or silver. Sometimes for special effect, they sprinkle the powder onto a lacquered
surface. These uses of gold or silver powder in Japanese lacquerware achieved something very different from
traditional Chinese like aware techniques.
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the financial aid office.
Good morning. Can I help you? Oh, you look familiar. Didn't you play in the concert last Thursday? Yeah. I
took my daughter to that concert. She's just started learning the saxophone, and we both loved your
performance. Well, thanks. That's nice to hear. In fact, I just decided to switch my major from English to music.
So now I'm eligible for the Atwood music scholarship. Uh, if there's still time to apply well the deadlines next
Friday for that one. Oh, that's what I was afraid of. I'm not going to have time to get everything together. Am I
well, you would need a Complete transcript, of your course, work in grades, and that alone could take um
depending on how busy the office is. They usually say to expect it to take 2 weeks. You'd also need two letters
of recommendation. Could the letters be from anyone like from the director of the Springfield community
orchestra? She's known me for years. And and would I bring everything into you?

Yes, to the first question, but no to the second. The Atwood scholarship isn't sponsored by the university, so
you'd have to mail all your materials directly to the selection committee. So you'll need to get your letters of
recommendation pretty fast, plus. And this might be even trickier for you to obtain in time. Um, you'll need to
send in an audition recording of your playing. Oh, actually, that parts no problem. I can just send in recordings
of the works I played in the concert. Uh, by the way, do you happen to know who will be judging it? This
election committee is made up of five people, three members of the Atwood family, they're all musicians and
two members of the Greenwood symphony.
But as for the audition recording, they're pretty specific about what they want to hear you play. There's a list in
the informational flyer they provide, but someone took the last flyer this morning, so I need to print out some
more. If you can give me about 10 minutes to do that, sure, no problem. You know, um, have you thought about
applying for anything else? Because we just got some Information about something called the Gorman music
fund. There's still over a month to Complete the application for that, and the amount significant enough to cover
a year's tuition. Oh, WOW. Yeah. Check their website for more Information. But everything you send in for the
outward can probably be used for the gourmet, too. And there will be more opportunities coming up soon. So I
check back here if I were you. Thanks.
Listen to part of a lecture in a business class.
So we were talking the other day about finance and communication and speed. And coincidentally, I was just
reading about a new fiber optics cable being installed between Canada and England, helping, among other
things, to connect the financial markets of London and New York at an even faster speed. And that got me
thinking this need for speed is not just a twenty first century thing.

After all, the first transatlantic cable was installed back in the mid 19th century. At that time, the United States
was still cut off in essence from London, the world's largest financial center. And the only way for messages to
get from the us to England was by boat, which took up to 2 weeks. That all changed, though, when an
entrepreneur named Cyrus field joined forces with some business associates to form a group called the cable
cabinet.

In the 1850s, Cyrus field spearheaded a project that would lay a cable across the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean,
connecting Europe and North America by Telegraph for the first time. He began by convincing his wealthy
business partners to back his project. Together, they formed the cable cabinet and provided the initial funding
for the project. With support from the private sector feel believed he'd have an easier time convincing British
and American governments to finance his project. The project after all, required a lot of money, and his instincts
proved to be correct. The transatlantic cable became operational in 1866.

Okay, so once the cable was working, it had a huge impact on the global economy. For example, financial
brokers in the New York Stock Exchange found out in a matter of minutes what was going on in the London
exchange. These two stock markets were now virtually connected by the transatlantic cable. The buying and
selling of stocks between traders on both sides of the Atlantic could take place more or less in real time. For the
first time ever helping create a true international financial market and think of international trade before the
transatlantic Telegraph cable. How did merchants in the us get Information from the ships? They sent out with
their cargo on them? Right? They had to wait for those ships to return home. With a new undersea cable though,
messages could be sent upon a ship's arrival at a specific destination, transmitting Information back to the
merchant in the us this real time knowledge helped merchants in many ways. Let's see.

Uh, for instance, the Telegraph allowed funds to be wired that's transferred electronically from one place to
another. Instead of the merchant sending out a ship, only to find out that the buyer on the receiving end can't
pay. The merchant can have the buyer pay ahead of time. Of course, this required a certain degree of confidence
in the seller on the part of the buyer, but the system worked, and it still does, by the way, to everyone's
advantage. Also, merchants wouldn't have to send a ship out, wait for it to return with payment, send the ship
out again, wait for it to return and so on.

Now, they were able to plan cost effective routes, roots that included multiple ports in a single voyage, more
readily knowing the needs of international clients. Thanks to the transatlantic Telegraph. This allowed these
multi stop excursions to take place. Here think of it in today's terms, a package delivery company, okay? You
know, when you order something online and it shows up at your front door, right? Well, the driver of the truck
has packages not only for you, but for lots of other people in the delivery area. The driver doesn't make a single
trip to your house and then go back to the warehouse to get the next package to be delivered somewhere else,
obviously.

Oh, here another thing. People were even speculating at the time that the cable would impact American business
relations with continents other than Europe, Africa, or Asia, perhaps ensure those business relationships did
expand in subsequent years, but not really due to the transatlantic cable. However, this kind of thinking thinking
in a more global way was significant, because it sparked people's curiosity. It made them start wondering about
the effect technology could have on day to day activities. And it's that spark that surely helped fuel future
research and inventions that would down the line, impact America's business relations with the whole world.

3-TL-5
Professor Gilmore, my dancer style is coming up next week. Yes. Uh, i've been hearing great things. A few of
my colleagues in the dance department is in your heart. Oh, thank you. Yeah, the rehearsal. See, there are a lot
of student dancers during recital this year. And we all need to reserve the stage for our rehearsals. But when I
went to do that, they were hardly any time slots left. And that's why you are in class last Wednesday. It was the
only time I could get the only one.

Okay. Well, uh, first, i'll have to speak with the head of the department. We've had discussions and department
meetings about students having a miss class for rehearsals. This isn't supposed to happen. And it's not just
dancers. Now the faster auditoriums being renovated. The orchestra is holding their reversals here as well, and
they have a concert coming up. I wish you to come to see me beforehand. I might have been able to help you
out talk to the department head. Like I said, this issue has been raised in the past. Oh, II didn't think of that. And
I'm really upset about what I missed. I knew there was gonna be a guest speaker. Why did it have to be Eleanor
Barlow? Oh, you uh, no offer. Sure, she runs the African dance festival. It's always been one of my dreams to
dance in it someday.

So can I get the recording of the talk? I'm sorry to disappoint you the recording equipment malfunction, so we
have video, but not on them. Well, uh, she is going to be giving a talk at the museum of the arts next week. It's
not open to the public. It's a members only effect, but I can probably swing something given your enthusiasm
for really that the topic won't be quite the same as what was covered on Wednesday, but there should be some
overall, oh, I go even if there weren't. But, yeah, I know you said the speakers talk would be covered in the
exam. So if I go to that, and i'll also message the rest of the class to see if anyone took notes, but be aware that
it's the night before our exam, which is at 8:00 in the morning the next day. That's okay. I mean, i'll do what I
have to do. Thank you so much. Now, what's the date and time of your recital? I want to make sure I get it in,
my schedule.
Listen to part of a lecture in a microbiology class.
Last week, we discussed how the Discovery of penicillin in 1928, they rise to the age of antibiotics. Antibiotics
became the medication of choice for treating bacterial infections. Bacteria, as you recall, are single celled
organisms. How does penicillin stop a bacterium from growing? It prevents the bacterium from building a cell
wall, uh, the thin barrier that protects the organism. Good. We also talked about other antibiotics that work by
targeting the proteins that bacteria rely on to reproduce by Turing generally have a short lifespan. So if we can
prevent their reproduction, the bacteria in an area are soon gone. But increasingly, we're finding bacteria that are
resistant to antibiotics that don't respond to antibiotic treatment.

Now, this is a natural phenomenon and not altogether unexpected. And that's because organisms mutate, that is
their genetic structure changes randomly. Sometimes those random changes create traits that help the organisms
survive. When that happens, the traits tend to get passed on to future generations. So, say, a random change in
the bacterium allows it to overcome an antibiotic. This new form of the bacteria will reproduce in the presence
of the antibiotic. While other bacteria die off. Soon, the new resistant form becomes the dominant strain of
bacteria in that area. This natural process has been aided to some extent by the overuse of antibiotics. The more
we use antibiotics, the more opportunity there is for resistance strains of bacteria to emerge, which is why many
doctors are now cautious when prescribing antibiotics.

So how is the resistance to antibiotics work? One of the most successful forms of resistance has to do with
enzymes. Enzymes are special proteins that speed up chemical reactions. Bacteria produce enzymes, and
sometimes genetic mutations cause them to produce new enzymes, including enzymes that attack antibiotic
molecules and break them down. Another form of resistance has to do with bacteria structure. For example, we
saw that penicillin destroys bacteria by destroying their cell walls. But if the chemical structure of the cell wall
has changed, then the penicillin may no longer be effective.

A third form of resistance involves something called molecular pumps. A molecular pump is a special structure
that can transport molecules out of the cell. If an antibiotic enters a bacterium, a mutated pump could send it
back outside the cell, preventing the antibiotic from reaching its target.

So what can be done to overcome these mechanisms of antibiotic resistance? Well, since we know the
resistance comes about through genetic changes, we can counteract it through genetically designed antibiotic
solutions. For example, researchers have identified the gene and bacteria that prevents penicillin from damaging
bacterial cell walls. Most importantly, they found that the gene can be chemically deactivated. In other words,
there are chemicals that will stop this new gene from functioning properly. This opens up an interesting
possibility. First, remove the penicillin resistance by turning off the new gene, then follows that up with
penicillin to destroy the bacteria. We might call this combination therapy. One of the benefits of this
combination therapy is that we don't have to develop a whole new range of antibiotics. After the new gene has
been disabled, we can use the same penicillin. We've always used.

Some researchers have taken a different approach to finding ways to fight resistant bacteria. They decided to
look for an answer in nature. And that's not a bad idea, because nature, sometimes comes up with solutions that
are far superior to anything we can think of ourselves. For example, the naturally occurring viruses that are
called phases in nature, pages are a type of virus that target and destroy specific bacteria. And because pages
already exist, we don't need to spend time and expense to develop them. Features are also highly adaptable as
bacteria evolves. So defages, in theory, this means it should be impossible for bacteria to become totally
resistant to phases. But the great Challenge with phases is that they're highly specific about which bacteria they
target. This means we need to find a catalog, a different stage for every different type of bacteria, which is no
easy task.
Listen to part of a lecture in the meteorology class. The professor has been discussing weather systems.
A monsoon is a seasonal wind system that brings moist air from oceans, overland and is responsible for a
significant amount of rainfall. We generally associate concerns with Asia, so there are also monsoons in Africa,
Australia, and Europe. Since many regions depend on monsoon rainfall for agriculture, it's important to
understand monsoon failure, which can result in drought. We know that various factors affect monsters like sea
surface temperatures, solar output, soil moisture, and position and strength of winds.

But to really understand how these factors work together and the fact on soon variability from year to year and
region to region, we need to build a complex computer model and to build a good model saying of the ancient
modern system, winning robust historical data about monsoon patterns.

So where can we get the circle data about on soon patterns in Asia? Measurements made with meteorological
instruments go back more than 100 years, but that's not really enough to build a model that's reasonably
accurate. We need data to go back much earlier. Uh, for example, we could use data from k formations, mineral
deposits in line, so case formed over thousands of years, and their growth reflected weather changes outside the
case, such as the changing amount of rainfall. So the formations can provide reliable climate records that go all
the way back to the pale olympic. But this method is an ideal for large regions because of the inconsistent
distribution of case. Blindstone caves are missing in many places. So the Information obtained from cape
deposits would be useful to build a model that's Complete, both temporarily and spatial.

Okay? But there's still another way to create climate records. You know, the trees can get very old. And when
you cut a tree down, you can see concentric circles, right? Where you cut. Well, these trees contain very useful
Information, a wide tree ring and hit a web growing season and a narrow tree ring, a dry season. So we can use
tree rings to infer what the climate was like from 1 year to the next to the particular location. And trees are
distributed, pretty white. So we can build a more Complete model of weather patterns. For example, three rings
helped us create something called the North American droughts, also called not not as a comprehensive record
of rainfall patterns in North America. And it is even the lead to discoveries of previously unknown droughts in
North America is just the past.

But let's get back to monsoons. Uh a research team adopted this principle using tree rings to track past climate
changes and sample the wood of ancient trees at more than 300 sites across Asia. And they assembled an atlas
that contains reconstructions of dryness and wetness for the region. The research is called the monsoon, Asia,
drought, atlas, or ma. The motto is a tree ring record that covers most of the area that's affected by the Asia
monsoon system. The day that allowed us to reconstruct regional patterns of drought and rainfall over a period
of 700 years. Starting on the 1300s. At this atlas of past months in patterns is now helping us develop a more
powerful model for explaining how the Asian monsoon system works.

Now the model is not as Complete as we'd ideally want it to be, because tree species suitable for tree ring dating
aren't available everywhere. It's better than those cave records, but it's not perfect. So we're confident that the
model is reasonably accurate, because it matches historical records that are available for some of the times and
places. Uh, for example, in the 17th century, the modest shows dry conditions in northeast China with weather
conditions through the southeast and historical records. From 17th century, China described pretty much the
same time.

Now the question is this, uh, thanks to the model will soon have a better model explaining the variability of
monsters in the past. But can we use it to forecast monsoon rainfall and monsoon time? Well, and there's a ring.
Some skeptics think we can't predict the future using a model based on past data, because of the global climate
change that's taking place these days. But I don't think that's necessarily a problem. The bottle will incorporate
all the important climate variables, and including the ones that are involved in the climate change, main
temperatures, greenhouse gas concentrations, and so on. So such a comprehensive model that's based on robust
historical data should give us good Information about the future.
Listen to a conversation between a student at its marine biology professor.
Hi, John, something the matter. Well, see. It's my sister. Your sister. Yes, she just announced she's gonna get
married next month. On the 27. The 12 day, our class leads on the field for the Costa Rica. So, you're saying
you can't go. Not go. No, I mean, these are rather facts group of the others. Log populations are declining best.
What better topic could I choose for that major research paper? We all have to do to graduate. And here's the
test to observe the clever backs, right in their nesting site. No, my plan is to fly down by myself after the
wedding and just leap from Boston. My hometown rather than go from here with the club. Uh, the university
would still reimburse me up to $300 for my ticket, right? Yeah. Unfortunately, though, the cheapest fair I can
get from Boston is 550. I guess that shouldn't have surprised me because I wouldn't be getting the group that's
about the class.

Anyway, I was wondering if you could help me apply for a short term loan. However, the difference, a short
term loan, uh, yeah, II heard the university have this program set up to help students in a financial emergency ah
that program. That's for true emergencies like not having money to pay rent or electric bill. Oh, I'm afraid it's
only available for graduate students. Of course. See, it is a loan of sorts, but the way it work is grad. Student can
ask their department for a possible advance on what they eventually be receiving anyway. The money they get
each month in financial aid. We don't really have anything like that for undergrads like you. Oh, I'm really sorry
about that, but there will be another trip next year. Yeah. But I need deal notes from the observations we make.
So I can get started on that research paper as soon as possible. Well, since you live in Boston, you're right near
the ocean. And I know a researcher who studies leather bats just offshore there. I'm sure he'd let you go along to
see them. That's our North. I mean, I know the distances they migrate are huge, but it won't be too cold up there
then for weather backs.

No, actually, since they're so big, and because of some other adaptations, they can withstand pretty low
temperatures in the ocean. You know, our trip to Costa Rica is to observe their nesting habits. But you should at
least be able to see some of these turtles swimming and feeding in your area. And I appreciate your enthusiasm
about the research project, but that's not due till the end of next year. So you have plenty of time, and there's
another trip. Well, before then.
All right. Let's get started. So I want to pick up where we left off last class. Remember, we were discussing an
ancient set of wall carvings found in an Egyptian temple who can tell me what was depicted there. Kate, um,
weren't the drawings of ships? They like told the story of a voyage? Yes, they appear to depict a sea voyage
undertaken by ancient Egyptians. Scientists estimate that these carvings are about 3,500 years old.

Now we knew the Egyptians had been using the Nile river for a long time for commerce. But opinions vary on
when they started conducting sea voyages like the one shown in the carvings. So what should we make of these
carvings? Do they describe actually events or are they exaggerations? Um, done to make the ruling pharaoh at
the time? Look good? Well, for the past several years, archaeologists have been uncovering evidence that
suggests they may be accurate. It's at a place called gauss gaussis, is an archaeological site in Egypt on the Red
Sea, where researchers have found the remains of an ancient seaport that's roughly 4,000 years old. And it
appears that Gaza was used as the starting point for sea voyages like the one depicted in the carvings.

So what's the evidence for this? Well, they found a lot of wood that seems to have been used in several
capacities, for example, as oars or for the actual structure of a boat. And they also discovered other items
necessary for shipbuilding such as anchors and rope. And the rope they found is made from papyrus, which is
um AA material manufactured from the papyrus plant. And during this time, these plants were very common in
the Nile river valley. So, you know, it seems very likely that part of this whole shipbuilding process took place
near the Nile away from gaussis. But you may be asking yourself, well, how do we know this? Would these
ships were used in oceans or seas and not just rivers? Anyone have a gas? Mark? Uh, well, the sites located
right by the Red Sea. So okay, it's logical to think that these ships were used there. I mean since it's so close, but
there's something else, planks of the woods showed signs of being infested by a small marine animal species,
known as a shipworm.

Now, shipworms are only found in salt water. So obviously, these were ocean going ships. And judging by how
much damage the shipworms had done to the planks, it's estimated that these ships spent several months in the
water. That's enough time to make a long journey. So like, why did it take so long for people to find this stuff,
all these ship parts? I mean, it sounds like we're talking about a lot of remains not just 1 or 2 pieces of wood.
Good question. At any archaeological site, there are certain obstacles that we have to deal with, like rough
terrain or even commercial development. In this case, archaeologists had to dig through more than 6 meters of
sand in some places to find this ancient maritime equipment. But it was definitely worth the effort, because they
uncovered a complex of multiple caves where um, these ancient Egyptian workers had stored all this equipment,
like the wood anchors and the rope from the Nile region that I mentioned earlier.

Speaking of the wood, another interesting aspect of this Discovery involves recycling. From the evidence we
found, we know the workers at this site spent a considerable amount of time cleaning and preparing planks of
wood that had been used in boats. Now, this fact alone doesn't mean that we can say without any doubt that this
wood was reused to build new boats, but, you know, seems like an awful waste of time to strip away the rotten
wood from planks if they didn't want to use them again.

3-GM-12
Listen to a conversation between a student and an employee in the office of campus transportation and parking.

(man) Good morning, how can I help you? Wait, let me guess. You’re a prospective student and you’re here for
the visitation day. Let me give you a visitor’s parking pass.
(woman) Uh, I’m already a student.
(man) Oh, sorry, with this visitation day today, we’ve had prospective students in here all morning long.
(woman) What I wanted to ask, I received a parking ticket earlier this week. I was parked along the curb outside
the Jeffrey’s Hall when I got it, underneath the street light.
(man) Um, that curb seems to be a problem spot for a lot of students. We’ve given quite a few tickets for cars
parked there recently. Didn’t you see the “No Parking” sign?
(woman) Yeah, but people have been parking along that curb lately, I figured it was OK to park there. I mean, if
there’s no spaces nearby.
(man) No, you always have to park in a designated parking lot.
(woman) Yeah, but the thing is there just aren’t enough parking spaces in the designated lot behind Jeffrey’s
Hall. That lot’s really crowded.
(man) I know. It’s been that way ever since that art exhibit opened in the building next to Jeffrey’s Hall.
Unfortunately, people who visit the exhibit are using that parking lot, too. But, you’ve got to understand that for
traffic flow reasons, we can’t have people parking on either side of campus roads.
(woman) But I have class in Jeffrey’s Hall three days a week. Huh, I can’t even get there on time now. I just
keep driving around and around the lot looking for a spot to open up.
(man) You could get an earlier start and go to class on foot.
(woman) That’d be quite a hike for me. This campus is so spread out.
(man) Or you could use our shuttle bus, which stops at all the residence halls. That’s what it’s for. It goes right
to Jeffrey’s Hall and it’s free.
(woman) Do I need tickets or?
(man) No, no, just show your school ID.
(woman) But I paid for this parking pass.
(man) Right, right, hum, well, let’s see. If you can get by on a shuttle, it’s just about the middle of spring term
now. We could refund you half of what you paid for your pass if you return it.
(woman) Oh, a refund, huh, I have never taken a shuttle before. How often does it run?
(man) On weekdays, every twenty minutes between seven in the morning and ten at night.
(woman) And I could get back half and I wouldn’t have to park, wait, would I still be able to keep my car in the
lot at my residence hall? I need it cause a lot of times I drive home on Friday after my last class and come back
on Sunday.
(man) No, unfortunately, a university parking pass is just, it’s just one pass for everything, dorm parking, gym
parking, the whole campus. So, once you’ve turned it in,
(woman) Oh, that won’t work then. I’ll have to keep my parking pass.
(man) I don’t know how long the exhibit is supposed to run. Maybe you’ll get lucky and it’ll close soon.
(woman) I guess it can’t last forever. I suppose I could take the shuttle until then.
Listen to part of a lecture in an Art History class.

(male professor) OK, we’ve been discussing art of nineteenth century France. Today, I’ll continue with the
discussion of a sculpture that was quite innovative for its time. In 1814, the town council of Calais, a city on the
northern coast of France, wanted to have a monument made. They commissioned the sculptor, Auguste Rodin
to create this monument, which became known as the Burghers of Calais.
Now, there’s story behind this monument, the tale of the burghers of Calais, which dates back to fourteenth
century France, when France was at war with England. King Edward the third of England set up a blockade
around the town of Calais. The town’s citizens soon grew desperate for food and water. Eventually, according
to one version of the story, six wealthy citizens, called burghers, declared they would offer themselves to the
king as hostages, provided that in exchange he would set the town free. The King agreed, but ordered the six
men to dress in plain clothes for the walk to his camp so that the town’s people would be unable to recognize
their status.

Well, Rodin chose to portray the burghers at the point in the story when they were beginning their march to
King Edward’s camp, dressed in plain clothes. But this wasn’t what the town council of Calais had in mind
when they commissioned Rodin to commemorate the event. They wanted Rodin to portray the burghers at an
earlier stage of the narrative while they still wore fine garments. They expected the men to look determined and
brave like proud heroes, which was the traditional approach to commemorative sculptures.

Rodin, however, wanted the sculpture to be more realistic. I mean, I think Rodin was trying to make a valid
point: shouldn’t the men look weak and vulnerable like any ordinary human being would look in such
circumstances? By showing their vulnerability, the monument would give the citizens of Calais a better idea of
how these men must have felt in the face of an uncertain fate.

So, OK, Rodin wanted to depict the emotions involved with offering oneself to an uncertain fate. And to do
that, he used methods that were very different from those of other artists in France at the time. And many of
these methods simply added to the town council members’ initial displeasure. First of all, the hands and feet of
the figures are disproportionately large compared to the rest of their bodies. Rodin literally weighted the men
down to show that they’re burdened by their decision that they’re questioning whether they’ll have the strength
to go through with it.

And the facial expressions of the individual figures are different from one another, expressing a range of
emotions. One man even had his head buried in his hands. Rodin wanted to show the psychological complexity
that each man had his own personal reaction to the decision. But this wasn’t the only way Rodin departed from
convention. It was typical in Rodin’s time to portray a group of people in a hierarchical arrangement, with the
most prominent figure in the highest position. Rodin didn’t do that for the burghers of Calais, choosing instead
to have all six figures stand on the same level. Actually, it’s difficult to distinguish who the most important
person is or even if there is one.

This lets viewers concentrate on the individual figures. In fact, Rodin forces viewers to look at the individual
figures. Aside from having them all in the same level, he made each figure face a different direction. So you
can’t look at the sculpture just from one side and see the entire piece, because there isn’t one point of reference.
This was not the norm for his time. Usually people are able to see an entire sculpture from one angle, from one
perspective, because sculptures had a clear front and back.

But, Rodin’s work wasn’t entirely unconventional. I think, in a sense, it connected the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. The depiction of historical subject matter in sculpture was certainly typical of his time. And
regardless of whether the tale was factual, it was certainly historically real to the citizens of Calais. However,
Rodin’s work definitely points in a new direction for sculpture. The Burghers of Calais is a clear departure from
the cold, impersonal smoothness of the classical tradition. It had a strong influence on other sculptors of
Rodin’s time. And I think it’s fair to say that it helped determine the trend of modern sculpture.
Listen to part of a lecture in a Biology class

(female professor) OK, now, we’ve looked at some interesting examples of the five senses that humans have,
but, might there be some other sense that some animals have but we don’t?
(male student) What? Like the ability to predict the future or something?

(professor) Predicting the future, uh, let’s not go there. Well, here’s a hint: beyond those five senses, how else
can some animals find their way?

(male student) Well, bats use something like radar.

(female student) More like sonar, but that’s really just an example of hearing. Bats can hear high-pitch sounds
that humans can’t. Just like some animals can smell something we can’t or maybe see some sort of, like, maybe
ultraviolet light, uh, that’s invisible to us. Examples like that don’t really count because they’re still about forms
of hearing and sight.

(professor) Right, Cathy, though by coincidence, that last example is somewhat related to what I was thinking
about. But, OK, no more guessing games. In addition to the usual five senses, the ones humans have, it’s
claimed that some animals possess the ability to sense magnetism. How would we test that claim?

(male student) Well, we’d need to find animals that tend to be attracted to magnets or maybe that tend to avoid
them.

(professor) That’d be a good start. And fortunately there’s an animal we can use: an insect we become familiar
with in thousands of experiments over the years. If you remember the last chapter you read

(female student) You mean the fruit fly?

(professor) Exactly!

(male student) So, you can test these fruit flies with an experiment, right? You could set up a strong hidden
magnet to see if they can detect it and fly toward it, whichever direction that may be.

(professor) Sure, and experiments like that have shown that some varieties of fruit flies tend to do just that. And
we pretty well eliminated all explanations but one, namely?

(male student) That fruit flies are naturally attracted by magnetism?

(professor) Some varieties, yes

(female student) But other varieties didn’t demonstrate that sensitivity?

(professor) Not naturally

(female student) Oh, but, maybe they could be trained to.

(professor) How?

(female student) Uh, well, maybe you could set up a strong magnet near some food and see if you can get the
fruit flies to learn to find food there and then if you take away the food and move the magnet, you can see if
they keep on flying toward that magnet even when there’s no food.

(professor) Right! And they do! Even one variety researchers tested that wouldn’t do that naturally tended to
exhibit this behavior after a bit of training. But here’s where it gets really interesting: none of these fruit flies,
regardless of which variety, could sense where the magnet was unless they have the right kind of light.
(male student) Light? I thought we were talking about magnetism.

(professor) We are! But it turns out if you block out all lights none of these flies can find their way to the hidden
magnet. In fact, it you block out just the light at the blue end of the range, plus the invisible ultraviolet light,
same thing. They just cannot detect the magnetism.

(male student) Are you saying there’s some connection between blue or ultraviolet light and magnetism?

(professor) In a way, the connection has to do with a type of molecule that’s found in fruit flies. It’s called
cryptochrome.

(students) cryptochrome?

(professor) Right, fruit flies have a certain gene that produces this molecule. And biologists found that they can
breed these fruit flies without this gene, that is, fruit flies that do not produce cryptochrome. And they found
that without cryptochrome a fruit fly just cannot detect magnetism at all, no better than you or I can. So, it’s
pretty clear that their ability to sense magnetism is dependent on cryptochrome.

And what’s more, the version of cryptochrome we find in fruit flies, in the eyes of a fruit fly, would be called a
photo-receptor, meaning what?

(male student) It’s sensitive to light?

(professor) And in this case, what kind?

(male student) What kind of light?

(professor) Well, what wavelength? What color do you think?

(female student) Oh! Blue! Blue and ultraviolet!

(professor) All right, there’s your connection. When blue or ultraviolet light enters the eye of a fruit fly, it
strikes this photo-receptor molecule called cryptochrome. That molecule gets activated, energized. And one of
the effects of that is to turn on the magnetic sensory system. We don’t understand the system completely but
what we do know now is that without both cryptochrome and the proper light, this system just does not work.
Listen to a conversation between a student and her Literature professor.

(woman) Hi, Professor Mills, I just have to tell you how much I’m enjoying your class. Who knew fairy tales
could be so, so complex. I always thought of them as just children stories.
(man) That’s certainly a common view, but if you understand that that’s not necessarily true, then I have
accomplished one of my goals for the class. And I guess you now know that fairy tales have hidden meanings
and aren’t just for children.
(woman) Uh, yeah, there’s more than what appears on the surface. It’s interesting the way they teach a lesson or
reflect cultural values. And, yet, even though they’re so complex, their structure’s so simple, formulaic even,
which brings me to a question about our next assignment.
(man) Uh, the fairy tale I’ve asked you to write. Well, the important thing is that it contains the elements we
discussed in class: a hero or heroine, a task, a bit of magic, and, of course, a happy ending.
(woman) Yeah, and that’s my problem cause it seems so restrictive. In my Creative Writing class, we’re always
told to avoid using some kind of formula.
(man) Um, I see your issue. But you can still be creative. I just want you to demonstrate that you’re familiar
with this form of literature. So, your story should contain recognizable features of a fairy tale, like the plot
structure or typical functions of the characters. They help us identify stories as fairy tales. I want you to be able
to separate them from fantasy stories, a whole different genre.
(woman) OK, so, how do I keep my fairy tale from sounding like everyone else’s?
(man) Actually, I expect them all to sound kind of similar as far as the plot elements are concerned. But you can
choose the characters.
(woman) Ah, the elements are the same, but the details are different, right?
(man) Exactly! Uh, so for example, your hero or heroine goes on a quest to complete a task that seems
impossible to complete. But along comes a magical helper, who helps your hero or heroine do the impossible.
Now, a magical helper and an impossible task are plot elements that are the same in so many fairy tales. But the
details change: the magical helper might be a person, an animal, or object, or an impossible task might be to
find berries in winter, for example, or anything else you can come up with.
(woman) OK, I get it. What about the setting, the time and place? Fairy tale seemed timeless. You never really
know where or when they take place, though they usually seem to be set in the past.
(man) But that doesn’t mean that they have to take place in some unspecified past. Your tale could be set in the
present or in the future as long as you capture that timeless quality. Remember, we’ve talked about this in class.
(woman) Well, I can see this is going to be a challenge.

Listen to part of a lecture in an Ancient History class

(female professor) So before we move on, any last questions about ancient calendars?

(male student) Uh, yeah, I heard about an ancient disc some treasure hunters found in Germany.

(professor) Oh, yes, near Nebra, Germany. It was made in the middle Bronze Age, about 3,600 years ago. And
it’s called the Nebra Disc. It looked something like this.

Well, that’s the general idea. The Nebra Disc is bronze with gold and silver overlay and weighs a couple of
kilograms. Some claim it’s like a sky map.

(male student) Well, that big circle looks like the Sun and there’s a Moon and some little round spots probably
stars. But what’s that arc at the bottom?

(professor) Oh, some scholars say it maybe a rainbow. In European mythology of the Bronze Age, rainbows are
recurrent symbols and often represented bridge that connects Earth and sky. Others see this as a mythical boat
bringing the Sun across the sky though it hardly resembles ancient boats of central Europe. And besides, cave
art in this region shows the Sun as a wagon or chariot moving with wheels not like a boat. Regardless, the arc
seems to have been added only as a symbolic device emphasizing the fact that the Sun moves across the sky.

And as for this Disc, being used to represent the ancient sky, well, most of those little circles don’t match any
stars actually seen in the sky, most of them. And then there’s the Moon. If we view a crescent Moon from Earth,
the tips of the crescent always point away from the Sun. But that’s not what the Nebra Disc shows. Even so,
none of this should be taken to mean this Disc is not an important astronomical instrument.

(male student) Really? Why would anyone claim it is?

(professor) Well, you see those seven small circles clustered together? Some scholars argue these do represent a
particular group of stars: a cluster called the Pleiades. The Pleiades actually includes hundreds of stars though
only a handful about seven of them, are visible without a telescope. But these are easy to identify in the night
sky. And some scholars argue that the image of the Pleiades on the Nebra Disc, together with the Moon, helped
ancient people make better use of the lunar calendar.
Remember, unlike our solar calendar, a lunar calendar’s based on the phases of the Moon. And a twelve-month
lunar calendar is shorter, about eleven days shorter, than a solar calendar. So it quickly gets out of alignment of
the annual seasons. Well, one way to fix this, more or less, is to add a thirteenth month from time to time. And
scholars speculate that the Nebra Disc was used to determine when the lunar calendar should get this extra
month.

(female student) Bronze Age people could figure that out just by looking at the Disc?

(professor) Well, we think they’d hold the Nebra Disc up against the sky and when what they saw in the sky,
the Pleiades and the crescent Moon, not what we call a new Moon but judging from the apparent thickness of
the crescent on the Disc a Moon four or five days old, when these celestial features corresponded to the
configuration on the Disc they were holding, they’d add a month to their calendar. This would have happened
about every two to three years. And if this is true, that the Bronze Age astronomers managed to harmonize the
lunar and solar calendars, it’s pretty amazing. I mean, we have a collection of ancient documents from the
Middle East, Babylonian documents, written a thousand years after the Bronze Age, and they mentioned adding
a thirteenth month. But this Nebra Disc seems to prove that these Bronze Age people already understood this
way of aligning their calendars, a thousand years before those ancient Babylonians.

(female student) So it was used as an astronomical device?

(professor) Well, very likely, though some scholars who think so believe that probably just a few people knew
how to use it. And they even speculate that the knowledge about the lunar calendar’s shortage of days, how to
fix it, et cetera, was lost along the way, and that in the end, the Disc became a completely symbolic object
purely for use in rituals and ceremonies. And all of this is supported, it seems to me quite convincingly, by
some symbols and perforations that were apparently added later on.

3-GM-13
Listen to a conversation between a student and his Journalism professor.

(man) Excuse me, Professor Hawk?

(woman) Hi, James, what do you need? I hope you’re not here to ask for an extension on the final paper. I’ve
had three of those requests already this morning and I did make it clear several weeks ago that this assignment
really should be in on time.
(man) Oh, uh, I just have to finish my bibliography. I’ll definitely have it done by Monday.
(woman) Great! Just a reminder, did you get the worksheet I handed out last time, showing how to format the
references in your bibliography? After all the effort of planning and research, doing all the reading and, of
course, writing and editing the paper, I don’t want to see anyone losing points on the references, since, you
know, a properly organized bibliography’s worth fifteen percent of your overall grade.
(man) Yeah, I have it. I’ll make sure to double check, thanks. Uh, I actually came to see you about something
else.
(woman) Oh?
(man) You’re my academic adviser, so,
(woman) Ah, an advising question, go ahead.
(man) Well, a while back, I applied for this internship with a newspaper in town, as an editorial intern. So, I get
to work on real articles and everything. I wasn’t really expecting to get it, since I still have another year of
college to go. But I was surprised, I got the internship.
(woman) That’s great, James, for this summer?
(man) Actually, it’s for next fall and it’s full-time, too. So, if I accept it, and I really what to accept it, well, I
need to take a semester off. Do you think that’s possible?
(woman) Uh, it’s possible, but that’s a big decision, James.
(man) I know. The thing is, it’s a great opportunity. My friend always says, uh, my friend Jenny is a reporter
now, and she says that her internship was one of the best experiences she has as an undergrad, since it let her
apply what she learned in school to the context of her future career. Plus, it gave her an edge when she started
applying for jobs. I’d love to secure a job right after I graduate.
(woman) Well, an internship doesn’t necessarily guarantee you a job offer. Plus, taking time off can cause some
students to lose focus on their studies. Don’t forget that when you come back in the spring, it’s to academics, no
matter how exciting the lure of working and making money seems now.
(man) Actually, that’s why I want to do it. I’ve been feeling kind of burnt out lately, with all the schoolwork, so
I think a real job experience would be energizing, especially since it’s related to my classes. It might just be the
break I need to come back to my final year of school with, like, renewed energy, you know?
(woman) Well, if you’re sure about your decision
(man) I am.
(woman) OK, uh, could you request or get the paperwork for time off from the registrar? We can set up an
appointment to fill it out together.
(man) Thanks, Professor Hawk. I really appreciate it.
Listen to part of a lecture in an Astronomy class

(male professor) Many astronomical conclusions have been based on the assumption that the planets in our solar
system formed in the exact orbits that they’re currently in. So, it’s significant that over recent decades an idea
has been gaining momentum that the orbits of planets have changed since the solar system first formed, either
gotten slightly larger or slightly smaller, what’s called planetary migration.

The hypothesis of planetary migration might seem far-fetched at first but it’s not implausible. We’re pretty
certain that the orbits of smaller celestial bodies like asteroids and planetesimals, even Earth’s Moon, have
changed since the solar system formed. The Moon, in particular, is ten times farther from Earth now than it was
when it formed. So if the Moon’s orbit could change, why couldn’t planets’ orbits do the same?

Let’s consider the four gas-giants, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. According to the migration hypothesis,
when these gas planets were forming, millions of planetesimals, small bodies of rock and ice, remained in their
midst. The planets and planetesimals exerted gravitational forces on one another and, as a result of these
gravitational interactions, well, some planetesimals got pulled into the cores of gas-giants but the majority of
planetesimals got scattered, ejected from the solar system.

These gravitational interactions also nudged the gas-giants into new orbits. Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all
gained orbital energy through this process. Their orbits expanded. They migrated a bit farther away from the
Sun. Jupiter, on the other hand, probably due to its massive size, lost orbital energy, so it migrated slightly
closer to the Sun. So, that’s the theory. But what’s the evidence that it actually happened?

To answer this question, let’s focus on Jupiter and Saturn and on the asteroid belt. Now, the asteroid belt is that
small region between Mars and Jupiter that’s filled with asteroids and the asteroids are spread fairly evenly
throughout the belt, except in a few regions where there are gaps, where there aren’t any asteroids. These gaps
could be the result of asteroids having been ejected as a result of the gravitational influence of Jupiter and
Saturn. But this could happen only if those two planets had moved; migrated from one orbit into another.

Now, this idea was tested by means of a computer simulation. A computer model was created of the solar
system, with the hypothetical missing asteroids filled in, with Jupiter and Saturn in their presumed old orbits,
and with gravitational interactions between the planets and the asteroids factored in. Calculation showed that
when the orbits of the asteroids brought them close to Jupiter and Saturn in their old orbits, some asteroids
would have been hurled out of the asteroid belt. And the resulting asteroid belt from the simulation looked quite
similar to the actual asteroid belt now with gaps in the same places. And Jupiter and Saturn ended up in the
orbits they’re in now.

More concrete support for planetary migration comes from the discovery of other solar systems with large
Jupiter-like planets that are not what we think they should be. You see, a planet as large as Jupiter cannot
develop close to its sun, because when gas-giants are still forming, they pick up mass by pulling in dust and gas
as they orbit their sun. That’s how they grow. Well, if a planet were to form very close to its sun, its orbit would
be small and it passes through a small volume of space. So it would pick up only a relatively small amount of
dust and gas, which means its mass would be small.

For a planet to grow to Jupiter’s size, it has to start out far from the sun, because only in a large orbit could it
encounter enough gas and dust to grow to a massive size. And, in fact, our Jupiter has always been far from our
Sun. But, we’ve discovered what are called hot Jupiters in other solar systems. These are planets that are similar
in size and makeup to our own Jupiter but are very close to their suns, closer than the planet Mercury is to our
Sun. So, they are very hot. They’re far too close to their suns to have formed in these positions. But, one way to
explain the current positions of these hot Jupiters is to say they formed farther out and then migrated to their
current Mercury-like positions.
Listen to part of a lecture in a Music Appreciation class

(male professor) For today, I asked you to read the introductory chapter about opera in the European tradition.
So, who can tell us what opera is? Roger?

(male student) Well, except for being sung, it’s a lot like theater; tells a story.

(professor) That’s a very important point. Opera tells a story. And, yes, Jenny?

(female student) But how do you get the story if you can’t understand what they’re saying?

(professor) Ah, you mean because so many classic operas were written in other languages?

(female student) I can’t even understand the ones in English. I just can’t make out the words.

(professor) You know, you’re not the first person to complain about this. In fact, there’s a recent study that
sheds some light on what you’ve experienced. You see there’s a way of setting text to music so the words are
easier to understand. According to the study, it has to do with vowel pitch matching.

Vowel pitch matching means pitches, musical notes, are assigned to vowels in words. Higher notes work better
with certain kinds of vowels, lower notes with others. And the study examined whether or not four different
composers took this into account when they wrote their operas. Did they write texts so their listeners could
easily understand the sung words? The researchers looked at passages from the soprano parts in these
composers’ operas, sopranos sing the highest notes so vowel pitch matching would be most beneficial in these
parts.

Uh, before we get to the results, we need to talk a bit about the physics of speech. How do human voice works?
Now, any time you speak or sing, for that matter, you’re basically expelling air. This air starts in your lungs and
eventually passes out through your mouth or nose. But in between it passes through two important regions, the
vocal cords and the vocal tract.

The vocal cords, two folds of muscle in your throat, vibrate creating a sound wave and this sound wave then
passes through your vocal tract, which is the entire air passage lined between vocal cords and the mouth or
nose. Now, as it passes through, it kind of bounces around inside the vocal tract, off of your tongue, you jaw,
the roof of your mouth. And depending on how these are shaped at the time, that’s gonna affect which vowel
sound you hear. Some vowel sounds depend largely on how open your jaw is. An open jaw produces an “ah”
sound, for instance, like in “father”; while a closed jaw produces for, say, the “oo” sound in “food.”

Now, for singers, changing the shape of vocal tract also allows for greater volume of sound, essentially high
notes sound louder with an open jaw and if a vowel requires a singer to sing a high note with a closed jaw,
she’ll usually adjust by opening her mouth a little bit more to increase the volume of the note. But that changes
the characteristic vowel sound and makes it harder to understand the word. That means a singer sacrifices
meaning for the sake of volume.

(female student) So composers actually try to avoid this problem using vowel pitch matching?

(professor) Well, that’s what the researchers wanted to know. They documented every vowel in those soprano
passages and the pitch that was assigned to it. The question being, “How many times did each composer pair
high notes with open-jawed vowels?” And statistically speaking, only one of them clearly used vowel pitch
matching, Richard Wagner.

Wagner was a German composer who was active between the 1840s and the 1870s. He has a reputation as a
composer of difficult music for singers especially sopranos singing in the highest ranges. So vowel pitch
matching would make these parts somewhat easier to sing and understand.

(male student) But why didn’t the other composers do it?

(professor) Well, for Wagner, the plot was extremely important. Wagner’s singers are called upon to constantly
advanced stories that are quite complex with long explanatory passages, while other composers wrote repetitive
passages to rehash the plot. Also, Wagner’s music calls for larger orchestras. So if the singer needs to be heard
in the back row of the theater, she’s really going to need consistently high volume.

Now, does this make Wagner a better composer than the rest? Well, his operas are different but all four
composers in the study produced masterpieces of western music. I suppose it depends on what you’re looking
for, considering the different music styles and stories the operas present.
Listen to a conversation between a student and a residence hall director

(man) Hi, Tina, sorry I had to give you more hours in the office than you asked for, but, so many of the other
resident assistants need time off to study for midterm exams.
(woman) No, that’s fine. I don’t mind. I’ve only got one midterm.
(man) Great! I’m glad to hear that.
(woman) I, uh, about that summer camp job I’m applying for, the one I told you about last week.
(man) Oh, right, that letter of recommendation, sorry, I haven’t finished it yet.
(woman) No worries, the application deadline is not until next month. I was just wondering if you had
everything you need.
(man) Yeah, I was gonna email you. I would like some more details about the camp and your motivation.
(woman) Sure, um, the summer camp’s run by the education department and I’m an education major, so,
(man) It’ll give you some good experience then.
(woman) Right
(man) I know the engineering department runs a summer program for high school students. My daughter
participated last year, but I didn’t realize there was a regular day camp here for younger kids.
(woman) Yeah, they come to campus Monday through Friday for different educational activities. And,
hopefully, it’ll get them thinking about enrolling here someday.
(man) I see. So, besides your work here as a resident assistant, I’ll mention your major. Anything else you think
I should include?
(woman) Um, do you know about the community garden near the library?
(man) Yeah, I just read about it in the campus newspaper actually. What’s that got to do with?
(woman) I helped to get it started and now I’m in charge of recruiting the volunteers.
(man) Really?
(woman) Yeah, I’ve already signed up a lot of students like me who love gardening. Um, I grew tomatoes and
other veges, you know, at home. We’ve got some agriculture and biology majors involved, too, and even some
professors from those departments.
(man) Seems like a lot of work, though, coordinating so many people?
(woman) Yeah, in the beginning, it was a ton of work, finding a site, tilling and planting, and keeping
everybody on schedule. But now that the plants are sprouting, I’m hoping it’ll attract more people to keep it
going. Anyway, since I helped organize that project, I think it could help my application if you wrote about that.
I’d love the campers to spend a couple of hours a week there, you know, to learn about gardening.
(man) Great idea! You know with your experience helping students in the residence hall, and you involvement
in the gardening project, it sounds like you’ll be a top pick to work in that camp.
(woman) I wish I had that much confidence. I know I’d be great at this, but tons of students are applying to be
camp counselors.
(man) Well, good luck then
Listen to a conversation between a student and a residence hall director

(man) Hi, Tina, sorry I had to give you more hours in the office than you asked for, but, so many of the other
resident assistants need time off to study for midterm exams.
(woman) No, that’s fine. I don’t mind. I’ve only got one midterm.
(man) Great! I’m glad to hear that.
(woman) I, uh, about that summer camp job I’m applying for, the one I told you about last week.
(man) Oh, right, that letter of recommendation, sorry, I haven’t finished it yet.
(woman) No worries, the application deadline is not until next month. I was just wondering if you had
everything you need.
(man) Yeah, I was gonna email you. I would like some more details about the camp and your motivation.
(woman) Sure, um, the summer camp’s run by the education department and I’m an education major, so,
(man) It’ll give you some good experience then.
(woman) Right
(man) I know the engineering department runs a summer program for high school students. My daughter
participated last year, but I didn’t realize there was a regular day camp here for younger kids.
(woman) Yeah, they come to campus Monday through Friday for different educational activities. And,
hopefully, it’ll get them thinking about enrolling here someday.
(man) I see. So, besides your work here as a resident assistant, I’ll mention your major. Anything else you think
I should include?
(woman) Um, do you know about the community garden near the library?
(man) Yeah, I just read about it in the campus newspaper actually. What’s that got to do with?
(woman) I helped to get it started and now I’m in charge of recruiting the volunteers.
(man) Really?
(woman) Yeah, I’ve already signed up a lot of students like me who love gardening. Um, I grew tomatoes and
other veges, you know, at home. We’ve got some agriculture and biology majors involved, too, and even some
professors from those departments.
(man) Seems like a lot of work, though, coordinating so many people?
(woman) Yeah, in the beginning, it was a ton of work, finding a site, tilling and planting, and keeping
everybody on schedule. But now that the plants are sprouting, I’m hoping it’ll attract more people to keep it
going. Anyway, since I helped organize that project, I think it could help my application if you wrote about that.
I’d love the campers to spend a couple of hours a week there, you know, to learn about gardening.
(man) Great idea! You know with your experience helping students in the residence hall, and you involvement
in the gardening project, it sounds like you’ll be a top pick to work in that camp.
(woman) I wish I had that much confidence. I know I’d be great at this, but tons of students are applying to be
camp counselors.
(man) Well, good luck then

3-jh-001
Listen to a conversation between a student and his marketing professor.
Hello, professor Johnson. Hi, Robert, how's it going? Good. Here's my assignment. The one about market
segmentation. Thanks again for the extension. Okay, just try not to make a habit of it. Okay, I won't. So was my
advice helpful to focus on one way that people can be divided into consumer markets? Sometimes students try
covering too many bases. They separate markets based on geography and education and occupation. And you
know, this is a 2 page paper, right? I ended up examining just geographic segmentation, specifically how
companies market products to people living in rural areas. Good, I look forward to reading it.

Okay, so how is, your group project going to put together a marketing plan, remind me what product it's for.
We're developing a plan for a new line of running shoes. It's going okay, but it seems like I'm doing a lot of
work. Um, are some people not doing their fair share? You know, working in groups is a funny thing. There's
actually been a lot of research about it. Maybe there's something called the ring woman effect that's taking place
in your group. The wrinkle men effect. Yes, it describes the phenomenon of people expanding less effort when
they work in groups than when they work on their own. The name comes from a study conducted in the 1880s, I
believe, by an engineer named max ringoman. Ringoman had people pull on a rope and measured the force of
their pulling, and he discovered that people pulled harder when they pulled by themselves than when they were
in groups.

So, you know, it's possible that when people are in groups, they don't try as hard, because they think maybe
other members will pick up the slack or, or maybe they think their decreased effort wouldn't be noticed. But
don't you think it could also be true that having people in a group counting on you might make you work
harder? Yes, II think a lot of it just depends on the circumstances. You know, there's another old, famous study
that showed that bicycle riders were motivated to ride faster when they were in groups than when they wrote
alone. And studies are still being conducted today on individual and group performance more than 100 years
later.

So clearly, people are still looking for answers. Well, I don't think anyone in my group is slagging off. It's just
we each took different parts. And the one I took, I'm working on the promotion strategy. I guess there's more to
it than I thought. But the person who's researching the competitor strategies she's already done. Um, well,
maybe you could break the promotional strategy part into smaller pieces and get her to help with that. That's an
idea. I bet she'd agree.

Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.

Uh, I'm sure you've all been amazed by spider webs um, by the fact that they're made of silk that the spiders
produce and by how strong they are. But did you know that some spiders really decorative designs into their
webs like zigzag lines? And the bright white silk of the, zigzag lines reflects ultraviolet light. Now, this kind of
decoration would seem to draw attention to the web. And that's puzzling because spider webs are intended to
trap prey, right? So why do spiders make the web the trap more obvious?

Okay, uh, one hypothesis is that these decorations attract certain bees. This is known as the prey attraction
hypothesis. The prey attraction hypothesis is the idea that bees are attracted to the ultraviolet light in the spider
web designs. You see, the interesting connection is that these usually take nectar from flowers that also reflect
ultraviolet light. Are these bees that kind of insects the spiders want to trap? Yes. In fact, these these are the
major prey of spiders that have these decorated webs. That's one thing that strongly supports this hypothesis.
Another is the finding that even if a web has only one zigzag line of silk, the bee will usually get trapped, which
should show us that this really works that the zigzag of silk reflects ultraviolet light like the flowers, too. And
here's even more support. Researchers found that webs decorated with more zigzag lines, captured more bees
than website have fewer lines. It seems pretty convincing considering all that.

But think about it. If webs that have more decorations capture more prey than less decorated webs, does that
prove the hypothesis? Do we know that the decorations actually serve the function of attracting prey? Wait, are
you saying it's just a coincidence that maybe there's no connection? Well, maybe these webs were just in a good
spot for catching prey, or maybe spiders that catch a lot of prey tend to decorate their webs. If that's true, the
prey attraction hypothesis wouldn't be so convincing anymore, exactly. Having more food could lead to the
creation of more decorations rather than the other way around. What would, we have to do to establish that,
compare the webs of well fed spiders with those of hungry spiders, right? A study involving 2 species of
fighters did just that. And the finding show that spiders given a lot of food, do invest more in web decorations
than spiders deprived of food, and they make larger decorations. So the extra energy goes into the decorations.
Seems an inefficient way to use it. Well, not necessarily. There might be some other benefit. There's evidence of
one that has to do with birds, birds. I don't know what the benefit of attracting men would be consider the
opposite.

Oh, okay, so birds like stay away from them for some reason. Yes. A study has shown that decorated webs are
damaged by birds less often than undecorated webs, you know, by birds flying into them by mistake. So in this
case, the benefit of the decorations is to keep birds away. But another study show that some of the spiders
predators go after, uh, they they target the more conspicuous spider webs. Well, I don't know the decorations
attract bees, but also predators. And spider webs are protected from birds by decorating their webs. How could
all this be true at the same time? Good question. All in all these studies show the lack of agreement among
researchers about the function of spider web decorations. What the adaptive advantage is. They might have
observed different species of spiders, different spider prey or predators. And so these experiments don't
necessarily match up, but that doesn't mean the studies aren't valid.

Listen to Part of a lecture in a history class.

When we study the history of technology of inventions and technical innovations, the question always emerges
whether the course of history is determined by technology. In other words, does technology itself have the
power to affect change to to make a difference? Today, I want to talk about two theories that address this
question to. You might say competing theories. One of these theories is called horde, logical determinism. Hard
technological determinism is a description coined by the philosopher William James, just before the turn of the
20th century. In this theory, in animate objects themselves, drive events, history, and the development of social
structure and cultural values. And that's how we're often taught about historical events in the classroom. It is
often said, for example, that Europe knew very little about the western hemisphere until the development of the
compass, and the asteroid of two important tools used to Guide chips. And it was only with the development of
those technologies and and others that Europeans explored across the Atlantic. I'm sure you can think of other
examples of how history is taught in school based on hard technological determinism.

Okay. In more recent history, we're often told that the automobile created suburbia or that robots and factories
put people out of work.
Now, notice here how it's actually the technologies, uh the things themselves that are assumed to have the
power to act. The automobile created suburbia. The robots put people out of work, whether they know it or not,
the people who say these kinds of things who say that technology is the cause of change. They're speaking as
hard technological determinists. And in each of these cases, there is a technological innovation that leads to a
future that's somehow inescapable. Humans are no longer in control and and, the social consequences of the
inventions. And in fact, our destiny is something that can't be reversed. It's out of our hands.

Now, some hard technological determinists are, I suppose we could say, optimistic. They foresee a future where
technology while inevitable is equal to progress. Here, technology will solve the world's problems and lead to a
future where um, where we have solutions to some of the things that have played history. Other hard
determinants are pessimistic and and. These people think of technology determining history, and they don't
think that's something to look forward to. They think of technology is uh not having regard for human interests.
So they envision a bad future if technology has its way. But I think we have to ask ourselves to can a car really
creates a Burberry? Can robots really put people out of work without having had humans designed and
conceived and programmed them? Okay. I'd also like to spend some time talking about a different point of
view, thought, logical determinism, soft technological determinists, see the history of technology as the history
of human action.

So to understand technology, one must understand the human actors created it. And they would say there are
many factors involved. Why did these people create a particular technology and not other people? Why is this
technology being created now? And not another time? Why was this particular technology developed here? And
and, not some other place? Soft determinants, uh, describe the relationship between technology and history as
something very complex. Technological revolutions, for example, can be attributed to a very wide variety of
social and cultural and economic and even graphical factors and not solely to this thing, we call technology.
Okay. Let's go back to our original question. Is history determined by technology? Well, there's been some
pretty loud criticism of hard technological determinism, but if hard technological determinism cannot be
supported as a theory, what have we arrived at? Well, humans create technologies that drive history. The origin
of technology and its power is ultimately dooming.

Conversation between a student and an astronomy professor.

I really appreciate you taking the time to talk to me, professor, no problem. So the message I got from my
assistant said you have some questions, something related to an article you're writing for a journalism course,
something related to astronomy, I assume.

Well, kind of, when I talk to your assistant, I thought I explained to her that I'm writing a biographical piece.
Oh, yes, that's right. So you're writing about an astronomer. Yes, you actually provided you agree, of course.
I'm in a feature writing course and our assignments to write a biographical feature. And I was hoping to write
about you, your background, your research. Uh, I'm sorry, I should have made that more clear to your assistant.

Well, I was in a hurry when she called, perhaps I misunderstood her. So that's what you wanted to do today.
Interview me for the article I was hoping to, you do know that we have some world famous astronomers on the
faculty. Yeah, and everyone, including me, already knows everything about them. I see. Okay, sure why not?
But I have to leave in 15 minutes for an appointment. How about Friday morning? Would that work for you? I
could walk out a nice chunk of time, say, from 10 to 11. The thing is, I have to turn in the first draft of the
article on Thursday.

Um. Were you planning to record the interview? If you don't mind, oh, sure, that'll be fine. Well, in that case,
after we meet on Friday morning, you'll have a recording of the interview. Could you just make a transcript
from that and submitted as your first draft? Yeah, I think I could, and that would save a lot of time. It still be a
day late though, which professor is this for professor Burgess? Oh, well, I know him. If you'd like, I could give
him a call. Would you sure?

In an engineering class, there's a reason why many highways and bridges are made with concrete, concrete,
durable. Last a long time under the right conditions. Look at the concrete structures built during the Roman
empire. Some of those Roman bridges are still standing after 2,000 years, but even though concrete structures
can stand the test of time, they may not survive it entirely intact. See, concrete is brittle. It cracks relatively
easily when stress is applied to it. Giant trucks traveling on highways night and day, the way the vibrations the
friction from the tires, they all take their toll. Now, modern, concrete has the advantage of being reinforced with
steel bars, but even reinforced concrete will develop cracks. What happens then? Water gets inside the cracks,
and the steel bars rushed out. Um, and also the steel gigs corroded by chemicals like the stuff that's used to the
ice roads and winter. Right? So then we have a threat to the integrity of the structure. This is why concrete
roadways have to be regularly maintained and repaired. That's very costly. However, and you often find
governments putting off maintenance for financial reasons, and the cracks just keep getting worse.

And another thing is, we now have these super long bridges that cross large bodies of water. They're so long
that it's not easy to check these bridges for deterioration.

So what we need is a type of concrete that doesn't need to be repaired. You mean concrete like doesn't crack or
concrete that does crack, but is self preparing, self healing, or at the very least as a self healing coding, scientists
have been experimenting for a while with coatings that can be sprayed onto a concrete surface. These coatings
contain tiny Micro capsules. If the concrete cracks, the Micro capsules burst open, and let out two substances
that react together, form a hard material that fills in the crime. It's a little bit like how your skin heals itself when
you get a paper cut on your finger.

However, these Micro capsules, there has to be a catalyst to make the reaction work. A catalyst being what?
Um, a chemical agent that makes a reaction take place. Yes? And what are the potential problems there? Well,
the catalyst could be toxic, right? And it also adds to the cost of the coding. So that's not a perfect solution. The
good news is that a chemist in South Korea has created a coding with a different kind of Micro capsule. These
Micro capsules react with a natural catalyst that's found everywhere. It costs absolutely nothing. Would anyone
like to guess what it is? Rainwater? No. These coatings have to be waterproof. Oh, sunlight. Correct? Exposure
to sunlight is what causes the two substances in the Micro capsules to combine and hard. But even though that
is a breakthrough, it's just another way of hatching things up really. Why can't we just make concrete, less
brittle? Then it wouldn't crack.

So easily you said something about self healing, concrete before ah, very good. Uh, did you all hear what she
said? Lower wants to know we can modify the concrete to make it less likely to crack under heavy loans. This is
exactly what's being developed right now, by an engineering professor at the University of Michigan, this type
of concrete incorporates a composite material he invented that contains soft threads known as Micro fibers. A
section of roadway made with this composite actually becomes flexible. So it's less likely to break a weight of
heavy truck traffic. That's advantage. Number one, the other advantage is that this concrete has self healing
properties. Even a small cracks do occur. No problem. When the dry concrete is exposed to air and water over
time, it forms a calcium compound that hardness and seals up the crack. Do these new technologies really save
money? They both sound like they did a lot to the cost of a highway construction project. Uh, the total cost of
the highway isn't justice construction. You have to consider the maintenance costs as well. Over the years, the
savings and maintenance costs should offset the additional expense.
3-jh-002
Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor.
Um, excuse me, professor Adams. Are your office hours now? Actually, my office hours are in the morning
from 10 o'clock. Oh, sorry. But could I speak with you for just a couple minutes about the rough draft of our
English essays he handed back? Well, II have an appointment coming in a few minutes. I don't think this will
take long. Okay, what what can I do for you? Thanks. About my essay. You said something about how I need to
improve my citations, but I didn't quite follow. Can you show me what you? Mean um? Let me have a look.
Okay. Here, take a look at this. Here you use a Chicago style citation to reference where you got your
Information. And here you use an mla style citation. Do you remember the class? I think it was last Tuesday
where I went over Chicago style and ml a style citation. Kind of mla stands for modern language association,
right? Right? Yeah, I have it in my class notes.

Well, Chicago and mla are two fundamentally different styles of citing your sources. Chicago style relies on
inserting footnotes at the end of sentences or paragraphs, you know, the little raised numbers, and then putting
the full bibliographical Information at the bottom of the page or at the end of the essay.

Mla style is essentially parenthetical citations, putting the citation in parentheses at the end of the paragraph
sentence. When you mix up footnotes and parenthetical citations like you did, it's it's inconsistent and it's
distracting. See. Okay. But can't they do the same thing? Reference the same Information? Yes, but the
convention for English, the preference in English classes is to use just a parenthetical citation. Oh, okay. On the
syllabus, I listed where to find out more about using mla citations, I suggest you take some time to review it. I
also suggest you find a way to make stronger connections between all the points you want to make in your
paper, oh oh. And there are a few mechanical problems with your writing, the punctuation, for instance, and uh,
well, some of your sentences are simply too long and a bit convoluted. This kind of thing can really hurt you in
your final draft.

Okay. And when is the final draft do? That's also in your syllabus. It's due in about 3 weeks, which gives you
plenty of time to work on your paper. Oh, one more thing. Maybe you can take your paper to the writing center,
and a tutor can go over it with you. You know, give you advice on how to clear up some of these issues. Or if
you want, you can bring in another draft before the final is due. And i'll be happy to look it over. Oh, that'd be
great. I'll plan to get a draft to you a week from tomorrow. And next time i'll be sure to show up during your
real office hours. That would be great. See you in class.

Today I'm going to talk about a subject. We're all familiar with sleep. Now, the current accepted medical
standard for humans is 7 to 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep per night in order to be fully rested. Mike? Yeah, i've
heard that, but I only sleep 6 hours a night and I do just fine. And then there's my roommate who says he needs
like 9 or 10 hours. So you're absolutely right, Mike. There are plenty of exceptions to the rule. In fact, there are
biologists and anthropologists who are examining the possibility that this rule about the need for uninterrupted
sleep should be reconsidered. Let's take this idea that humans need uninterrupted sleep. When we look at other
mammals, we find this isn't universally true um. Cats are great examples of mammals with sleep patterns
completely different from our own. If you want a cat or have observed a cat, it can seem as though it spends its
whole day sleeping, a cat gets a lot of sleep per day, um, 15 hours or more, but not all at once. It sleeps for a
while, gets up and is active, then sleeps again, then is active.

So it doesn't sleep for long, uninterrupted stretches as we do. Rather, I should say, as modern industrialized
humans do, there's historical evidence from Europe that until, um, roughly just before the 19th century, people
didn't sleep in one long stretch.
Um, diaries, health books, um, even poems and stories speak of something called first sleep and second sleep.
First sleep seems to have occurred perhaps, uh, an hour or so. After the sun went down, you went to sleep for a
few hours and then you were awake for a few hours. Maybe you sat and read by candlelight or maybe you went
for a stroll, or maybe the family gathered by the fire to chat for a little while. Then you went back to bed for
your second sleep and woke when the sun rose.

So what happened? I mean, why don't we still do this now? Well, why don't you tell me what are some major
differences between life in, say, 17th century, England and life here now? Um, well, there's a lot. Where do you
begin? Okay, think about the sleep patterns of those Europeans. I just described besides the first and second
sleep split. What else do you notice is different? Well, I certainly don't go to sleep as early as they did. I'm up
till midnight at least studying on the computer. But don't you ever start to feel tired around dusk? Darkness is
one of the biological triggers of sleep which will get into a little later. Yeah, but it's not dark inside. Oh, that's it.
They didn't have electric lights back then. So they're, I guess you'd say internal clocks were set to the sun. If it
got dark at six, your body told you to go to sleep at 6:00, and you had no bright lights or television to reset your
internal clock.

Exactly. When the technology for bright artificial light was developed, people were able to stay awake longer.
Now, in places where bright artificial light is scarce, um, in regions that are not highly industrialized and where
people live much as they've traditionally lived for centuries, we see a first sleep, second sleep pattern as well. At
sunset, people go to sleep for a few hours and then wake up. Some, um, some anthropological studies have
found a surprising amount of activity in the middle of the night in these communities. And then there would be
a second period of sleep and people would wake at dawn. There's experimental evidence, too, that shows that
the uninterrupted sleep we think of is necessary, might not. The National Institute of Mental Health did several
experiments depriving human volunteers of artificial light over a period of several weeks. Eventually, the
volunteers began to experience a first sleep followed by a period of wakefulness and then a second sleep. So
does all of this evidence suggests that our modern industrialized sleep pattern is not normal? Well, it certainly
provides evidence that it hasn't always been the way we've slept. And is it healthy? Well, the jury's still out on
that one.

Listen to part of a lecture in an earth science class.

So we've been discussing different weather patterns, and today we'll talk about thunderstorms. As you probably
remember, these storms are produced by a rapid, upward movement of warm, moist air. As the warm air rises, it
cools. And the water vapor in it, condenses into water droplets. And at higher elevations, ice crystals that form a
cloud, thunderstorm clouds can extend up to 15 kilometers in height. There's a buildup of opposing electrical
charges in the cloud as the droplets pass each other, which is eventually released as lightning. But the important
thing for today is that thunderstorm clouds initially formed from an uplift of warm, humid air. Got it. Now,
evidence has actually suggested that thunderstorms can occur in cities in urban areas more frequently than in
rural areas. And of course, urban areas have dense populations. So it's important to understand this connection
between cities and thunderstorms. Okay? So then how might a city enhance thunderstorm formation? A 10year
study investigated this question, looking at the city of Atlanta, Georgia, in the southeastern United States.
Atlanta makes a good case study, because although it occupies only a small area in the state of Georgia, there
has been increasingly more thunderstorm activity over the Atlanta metropolitan area than in the rest of the state,
especially in the summer months.

So researchers tried to figure out what factors might be increasing thunderstorm activity. In other words, what
factors are causing increased heat and uplift in the atmosphere over the city? First, they looked at a well known
phenomenon called the urban heat island effect. We say that a city creates a heat island when its temperature is
higher than the temperature in surrounding areas. Cars and buses are just a few things that heat up cities from
the inside and many square kilometers of roofing and paving absorb heat from the sun. Tall buildings not only
absorb heat, they also trap it. Since closely, spaced buildings make it difficult for heat to escape into the
atmosphere. This means that this city doesn't cool as much as the surrounding area does when the sun goes
down. There can be a difference in temperature as high as5℃between a city and the non urban areas that
surrounded.

According to the study, wind also plays a major role in forming urban thunderstorms. Let me explain as the
warmer air over the city rises, cooler air flows in from the surrounding area. You can compare this to the
process that creates a sea breeze on the beach. The hot sand causes the air on the shorter heat up. As this warmer
air rises, it draws in cooler air from the sea, creating a pleasant breeze, the presence of tall buildings and the
narrow pathways between them causes this cool, moist wind from the surrounding areas to slow down when it
reaches the city.

This moist air essentially gets stuck in the city streets between all these tall buildings. And because it can't
continue circulating, it starts to warm up and you know what warm air does. It rises. So this means that warm,
humid air continually rises over the city center, which can lead to the formation of clouds that eventually
develop into thunderstorms. And guess what? Pollution plays a role here, too, and it isn't helpful. Pollution
apparently increases lightning activity. As you know, pollution contributes to the haze, you see, over cities on
hot, humid summer days, that haze occurs when water, vapor, condenses under particles of pollution and dust in
the air. This creates more water droplets than usual, resulting in denser weather clouds. These smaller drop
would stay suspended in the air. They are not heavy enough to fall as rain. And this higher concentration of
cloud droplets in a thunderstorm cloud can increase the buildup of opposing electrical charges in the cloud. So a
polluted cloud, so to speak, is likely to produce stronger lightning during a thunderstorm. But well, the effects
of pollution on thunderstorms aren't yet fully understood. There's a lot more to study. And since we can't count
on reducing air pollution in urban areas anytime soon, it's even more important to figure this out.

To part of a conversation between a student and her mathematics professor.

So our department is launching a new program in the community this year. What we're basically doing is
helping local schools host math nights for kids and their parents. Math night, like when kids and their parents
get together at the school to play math based games and do math related activities, right? Exactly. I used to go
to those when I was younger. And did they help demystify mathematics for you? Make the discipline as a whole
seem less intimidating? I loved math nights, but actually, I was already one of those kids who didn't have a
problem with math, which is why I ended up being a math major. I guess. I think the more relevant question is,
did my parents enjoy it? But they were good sports? Well, the reason I asked you to come by is to find out if
you're interested in a job with the program, you had mentioned to me that you would like to improve your
teaching skills.

This program would give you an opportunity to tutor math, and at the same time support our goal to serve the
community. Sounds intriguing, but wouldn't that be like helping the kids with the math puzzles? I I used to love
figuring those out, but actually, you'd be mostly explaining math concepts to the kids as well as their parents
parents. Mathematics has changed so much in recent years that many parents complain about not being able to
help their kids with their homework. But what level math are we talking about? Nothing higher than 7th grade?
But you'd be surprised. There's some pretty sophisticated stuff going on, even in 7th grade these days. Kids are
studying statistics, for example, learning about probability, learning how to create complex graphs. You mean
that wasn't part of the curriculum when their parents went to school? No, in many cases it wasn't. And there will
be more attendees than teachers there at math night. So we'll need as many people with math training as
possible to help.
Okay, so what exactly would I be doing? Well, the teachers will take care of the group activities which are
based on different math concepts. You'd be expected to review these concepts with the group you're assigned to
and answer the students and parents questions that arise from the activities. I'm definitely interested. But how
much time does this involve? You'd be guaranteed 20 hours of work per semester. It may turn out to be more
hours, but you can count on 20 for sure. So you want my answer by well. The sooner we can draw up a list of
participating students the better, but we're still a few months away from the actual launch. Our official start date
is until February. So we're still ironing out some of the logistics, like how often math night should be held and
whether or not it should be held at the university or at the schools themselves. Things of that nature.

Listen to part of a lecture in a psychology class.

Okay. I'm going to ask you a question. You wouldn't expect me to ask in class. How high do you think the
ceiling? Is anyone uh, about 2 meters? Are you sure, uh, not really. Okay, I actually asked you two questions.
The first was to make a judgment about the outside world. How high is the ceiling of this classroom? The
second question was also a judgment. Wasn't it about my own, uh, ability to judge height? Right? In
psychological terms, you first made a cognitive judgment, then you made a meta cognitive judgment. Simply
put meta cognition means thinking about thinking. In our example, it means the ability to judge your own
perception. Now, this ceiling is actually 3 meters high, so you weren't very accurate in your perception, but you
knew that you were probably wrong.

So your meta cognitive judgment was accurate. Meta cognitive ability is the ability to discriminate correct
decisions from incorrect ones to make judgments about your decisions. It's been getting a lot of attention
recently, because, well, let me ask, why do you think it's important? Well, if you aren't sure about a decision,
you'd maybe go back and think about it a bit more, like maybe you'd be less likely to make a wrong decision.
Right?

Now, according to behavioral studies, there's actually significant variation in meta cognitive ability among
people. But is this reflected in the brain? And if so how, we know that there are differences in the structure of
the brain between, say, musicians and non musicians. Could the same be true for meta cognition? We know
from earlier studies that there's a specific area of the brain that's associated with skills that we think are linked to
meta cognition. It's located near the front of your head in the anterior prefrontal cortex, using technology that
allows them to scan and get images of the brain.

Researchers can look for differences in the amount of brain tissue in the anterior prefrontal cortex. And that
brings us to a recent experiment. It was designed to look at the relationship between meta cognitive ability and
the amount of brain tissue in the anterior prefrontal cortex. Subjects had to perform a series of visual perception
tasks followed by meta cognitive tasks. After all, this, their brains were scanned in one of the visual perception
tasks. The subjects were presented with a screen showing a group of six circular patches. All of these patches
had the same pattern on them. After a short interval, the subjects were, again, presented with the six circular
patches on a screen. Now, the thing is, in one of these two screens, one of the patches was different. It was a
little brighter than the others. And the subjects were asked to judge which of the two screens showed the
brighter patch, screen one or screen two. After that, they were presented with a meta cognitive task. They had to
decide on a scale from 1 to 6 how confident they were about their judgments.

But what if someone had really great visual perception? I mean, wouldn't that affect their confidence in their
abilities? Excellent question. The only way this experiment works is if you can separate meta cognitive ability
from perceptual ability, so the perceptual task was designed to automatically adjust to the subjects, individual
perceptual abilities. The researchers used a method called the staircase procedure. The staircase procedure made
the perceptual task equally challenging for all subjects, regardless of ability by lowering or raising the intensity
of the stimulus. In this case, the brightness of the patch that way, everyone scored about 70% on the perceptual
task.

So now, the variation in performance between the subjects was only based on their meta cognitive ability. The
ones who scored higher in meta cognition were the ones who helped me out here, who uh, had the most accurate
sense of how they performed, right? So then the researchers scanned the brains of all the subjects and compared
the images. And it turned out that the images that showed more gray matter, more brain tissue in a particular
area of the prefrontal cortex were from subjects who tended to have a higher meta cognitive ability who were
better at evaluating their own performance on the visual tasks. This finding raises more questions like whether
meta cognitive ability can be trained.

3-jh-003
So Lydia, I'm glad you asked see me. I always look forward to meeting new students one on one. And how have
things been going so far? Well, a bit crazy. At first I kept getting lost. And there have been so many activities,
but now I'm beginning to feel like I know what I'm doing or at least where I'm going. And what about the
Information sessions you went through? During the, student orientation? Maybe useful. Well, i've certainly
gotten a lot of Information, but I don't know how I'm going to remember it all. I mean, some of it's really useful
for right now like playing for on campus jobs. I have a scholarship that's helping me pay for this year's tuition,
but you know, a part time job. And I understand a job is always a good thing.

Anyway, I'm glad you found some of the orientation Information, is for and remember the freshman coordinator
in residence all can also be a great help. Definitely. She already gave me my roommate some good ideas for
getting on campus yesterday. The bus system seemed complicated, and I was really worried. I wouldn't figure it
out, but it all made sense after she explained it to us, the buses can be treated.

All right. Now I'm not gonna help you. Well, i've been thinking ahead about next semester. I want to have a
plan. You know. I'm having a tough time choosing classes. Do you have a specific area of study in mind? You
have you chosen major? I think I wanna do something with animals, but I'm not sure what veterinary school is a
possibility in the future.

But I really don't want to take a basic biology class. I already took an advanced one in high school. If you don't
want a basic course, then you might be interested in biology one or three. It's an introduction to annual behavior.
Oh, and does it have a lot? No, but the course you take the following semester does, it'll definitely give you
some hands on experience working with animals. And I can't just start with that class instead. Sorry. Okay. Now
have you thought about taking a freshman summer? Um, what's that? Well, in a university as big as ours, new
students can sometimes feel lost in the crowd. A freshman senior gives you a chance to participate in a small
group learning experience. You can choose from a lot of topics and the courses are taught using an
interdisciplinary approach. They pull from all different subjects. For instance, uh, last year, a colleague and I
LED a seminar that examined how laws to protect the environment, affect businesses. So I could take a seminar
related to animal behavior. Let's say you could. But I always suggest using the seminar to explore something
else. An area you may be curious about or even something completely new.
Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.
The professor is discussing the history of the planet Mars, except for earth. Mars is the most studied planet in
the solar system. We've collected many images of Mars through telescopes, satellites and probes. These images
allow us to see the present conditions on Mars, but how can we study the history of Mars? Well, Mars and earth
are close neighbors. They're both rocky planets that were formed at the same time during the development of
the solar system. And they share many of the same landforms surface features like valleys, flood plains, and
volcanic cones.

So we can gain some understanding of the geological history of Mars by comparing it to that of earth. Professor,
can we safely assume that similar features on Mars and earth formed in the same way? Yes, we can. Because
the forces that shape the surface of planets, things like gravitational forces, the properties of chemical elements
and liquid flow, they're the same everywhere.

Now, we can also get a better understanding of earth's geological history by looking at Mars who can tell me
what was happening on earth during its earliest history. This would be more than 4 billion years ago, surely
after earth's formation, Paul earth was being hit by media rights, right? There was heavy bombardment by
media rights, some very large. And the same thing was happening on Mars. Now, when media rights strike a
planet, they leave circular depressions known as impact craters on earth. These craters have largely been raised
by subsequent changes that have reshaped the surface. But thousands of them can still be seen on Mars, those
processes that erased the impact craters from earth. They don't exist on Mars. They do, but not to the same
extent.

First of all, there's been much less erosion of the surface of Mars by water. Mars had a wet climate for a long
time with flowing rivers and streams, but when the climate dried up that put an end to the water erosion, Mars
also lacks two important factors that have obscured the craters on earth, plant growth and human activity.

So what happened to these planets in the past is much more visible on the surface of Mars. But to explain what
we're seeing on Mars, to explain what we're seeing and understand how it happened. We have to look for
analogies with earth. Here's an example.

One of the biggest landforms on Mars is a giant system of canyons, called the casivalis. The casi vals covers a
huge area, and it bears a remarkable resemblance to a region in the northwestern part of the United States,
called the channeled scab lands. The chattel scab lands were formed by a series of massive floods that occurred
toward the end of earth's most recent glacial period. When ice covered much of the planet. Basically, there was
a large lake surrounded by ice, and the ice acted like a dam for the lake water. When enough of the ice melted,
vast amounts of water suddenly rushed down towards the sea with immense force carving up the landscape. So
although there's no flowing water on Mars today, when we're looking at images of the casivalis, we're seeing
essentially the same thing as the scab lands and created in the same way. Why did Mars lose its liquid water?
That's a subject we'll get to next week. Let's turn now to the Martian volcanoes.

Astronomers typically divide the history of Mars into three parts, the early period of the meteorite
bombardments, a middle period, which was dominated by volcanic activity and the current dry and windy stage.
The surface of Mars shows numerous cones, fishers and lava flows from that middle error. There are no more
active volcanoes on Mars. Well, uh, we don't see any. Mars may no longer have enough internal heat for
volcanic activity, though some lava flows have been dated to only 2 million years ago, which in planetary terms
is relatively recent. But we certainly haven't seen ashes or lava coming out of Martian volcanoes. The main
activity we see on Mars today is dust being blown around by the wind and piling up into large dooms.

Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.

In the study of archaeology, there's often a lot of controversy when it comes to dating and understanding sites. It
can take many years and lots of investigations to understand, well, anything about a Discovery. And even other
archaeologists may make later investigations that throw everything that was previously understood about that
Discovery into doubt.
An excellent example of this situation is serpent mound in the midwestern state of Ohio. Serpent mound is a
Native American effigy mound. An effigy mound is a large mound built in the shape of an animal. In this case,
a snake. When archaeologists first investigated it. This was about 100 years ago, they concluded that serpent
mound was built by the Adina people. And that conclusion was accepted. And it was accepted for quite a while.

The Adina were a Native American people that populated large stretches of the United States from around 800
bce to 100 CEA period known as the early woodland period. There were a number of early woodland peoples,
and the Edina, like some of the others built mounds. Most were conical mounds. And even today, a number of
these cone shaped Adina mounds remained scattered throughout their territory.

When serpent mound was first investigated, the archaeologist concluded that it was a Dina, because they found
a number of things nearby that they also identified as a Dina. They found a smaller mound, a cone shaped
mound, not an effigy mound. They found some ceramic artifacts and also the remnants of a village. And they,
look, they saw these things that the Adina made and decided that serpent mound must also be a Dina. And
maybe that was a bit of a leap, but there was reasoning behind. It. It seemed like an appropriate conclusion at
the time.

And then a couple of decades ago, some archaeologists conducted a new investigation, and they used modern
carbon dating techniques that were unavailable. The first time serpent mount was investigated. In some soil
samples taken from the mound, they found some pieces of charcoal and the charcoal pieces dated to around
1,000 years after the end of the early woodland period. And this suggested that maybe it wasn't the Adina who
built serpent mound, but a much later people, the fort ancient people, the fooled ancient people occupied much
the same territory as the Adina, but about 1,000 years later. And you know, it would make a lot of sense for the
mound to be a Ford, ancient artifact. For one thing, we know they build other effigy mounds in the area. There's
another smaller amount in the shape of an alligator elsewhere in Ohio, which is believed to have been built by
the Ford ancient. It also makes sense because the art of the Ford ancient period, it now, serpents also featured
prominently in pieces of art dating from this period. Whereas in the Adina period, they aren't quite so important.
In fact, they hardly show up at all.

One other reason for thinking that serpent mound is a fooled ancient artifact, is that unlike Adina society, Ford
ancient society was organized around a powerful central authority, which would have been ideal, perhaps even
crucial for large scale construction projects, like serpent mound, which is over 400 meters long. I mean, how
else would you organize the labor and materials for such a big project? So the case for fort ancient looks
promising, except there is one point I want to go back to those charcoal pieces from the Ford ancient era. I think
it's only responsible to acknowledge that just because this evidence was found at servant doesn't, doesn't
necessarily rule out the possibility that the amount was indeed constructed earlier by Adina. I think when this
charcoal turned out to be so much more recent than expected, well, some people automatically assumed that the
date of the charcoal indicated the date of the amounts construction. At any rate, the debate is far from over.

Thanks for being on time, no problem. This is the first course i've taken. That is mandatory office hour visits.
Over the years. I'm found that many students are hesitant to come see. Me scheduling appointments at the
beginning of the term seems to help you're the first of five students scheduled for this afternoon.

Anyway, um, most people want to discuss their first research assignments, right? Our list of sources is do soon.
Would you like some help with that? I've already got a couple of good articles. I just need one or two more
great students who aren't planning to declare engineering as their major concentration often struggle with what
to write about.

But if I'm remembering correctly, I'm interested in botany. I thought that's what you said in class. So how did,
you come up with such an interesting engineering topic so quickly. It was kind of a mistake actually. No, yes, I
was on the university website and happened to come across this article. The title has the word garden in it. So I
thought it had something to do with plants. But as I kept reading, I realized it was about research on concrete
and had nothing to do with gardening. But I figured it would be a good fit for this class. It is a good fit,
concrete, so common construction material, but there's still a lot we don't know about it. Tell me again about
this research paper. So scientists are testing samples of concrete to see what kinds of bacteria are growing on
them. They are looking for a specific type of bacteria that grows only when concrete starts developing a certain
type of internal damage.

So they're looking for a bacterial BIO marker, a bacterial species that could serve as an early warning system.
Something that could alert engineers before the damage to the concrete gets bad enough to be seen. Yeah,
damage from something called asr right? The alkali silica reaction. Yes, it's a common problem in this region.
Water gets absorbed by the concrete, and the alkali silk reaction creates tiny cracks which get bigger over time.
That's the part I didn't really understand. I need to search the internet for a simplified explanation of asr that
shouldn't be a problem. By the way, the concrete being tested, it's part of building structures. No. They're testing
concrete cylinders that they placed in a rooftop garden. Some forms of concrete are known for getting, asr
damage, and some are resistant. Later, they'll compare with analyses from other samples. Eventually, they hope
to identify bridges with internal cracks, so the bridges can get fixed before the cracks get too big. This has been
interesting, but it's about time for my next appointment.

Last time we discussed some of the steps we use in historical research. One is the collection of primary sources,
original materials, such as letters, documents, objects, from a particular time period, primary sources, service
evidence from the past. So we need to evaluate our source materials carefully and try to answer some basic
questions like, when was the material written or made who wrote it or made it? What is its meaning? And in
some cases, it can be very difficult to answer these questions. Um, take the voyage manuscript. The voyage
manuscript is a book, the term manuscript, in the case that it was written by hand, not printed on a printing
press. There's quite a mystery surrounding the voyage manuscript. It's an interesting example of a primary
source.

Okay, so some background, the manuscript surfaced in 1912 when it was found by an antique book dealer
named Wilfrid voyage. He came across near Rome while he was looking through a chest of rare books. Voyage
tried and tried for the rest of his life, in fact, to figure out the meaning of the manuscripts contents. But he just
couldn't make any sense of it. The manuscript appears to be a scientific text divided into sections like botany,
biology, astronomy. But it's filled with writing in a language or code that no one's been able to identify or
decipher.

Though, at first glance, the characters look like conventional letters set out in words and sentences. But all
attempts by scholars to decipher the text have been unsuccessful. There are also drawings on almost every page.
These illustrations are puzzling, too, and they range from astronomical designs to human figures, to hundreds of
intricate drawings of plants. And most of these plants haven't been identified. Furthermore, while the voyage
manuscript looks like a book from medieval Europe, this couldn't be confirmed for many years. In fact, some
scholars suggested that the voyage manuscript was actually a hoax that it was created much later, possibly even
in the 20th century. But researchers were recently able to date the pages of the book by using the technique of
radio carbon dating. See, the manuscript was written on parchment, a material made from animal skin. Um, and
the researchers took small samples of the parchment from 3 or 4 pages. And through radiocarbon dating, they
were able to determine that the pages had been created some time between 14 or 4 and 1438.

Now be careful of making assumptions here. The writing and the drawings on the pages still could have been
made after 1438. The inks, um, the colors of the inks used in the manuscript are consistent with colors that were
available, then. But that's as much as we know about the inks, because the researchers couldn't use radiocarbon
dating on them. For radio carbon dating, your sample has to contain carbon, right? It has to be organic. But
some of these inks were made from minerals. They're inorganic. And for the inks that do contain carbon, they're
so little that it would be difficult to distinguish it from the carbon in the pages. But there was another Discovery.
Tests with ultraviolet light have revealed a signature on the first page of the manuscript. And it was identified as
the signature of a man named yokoba state evidence. There are other records of cabinets as existence which
show that he died almost 400 years ago.

So what does that tell us? Well, if cabinets own the manuscript, which is what we think the signature indicates,
then that suggests that the manuscript is not a hoax from a later century. And we know from the records that tab
nets was a traveling doctor and medicinal plant expert. So it makes sense that he'd have been interested in
owning the manuscript. Two sections, in particular, one that includes over a hundred plant species with the
flowers, leaves and roots carefully drawn. And another section featuring drawings of what seemed to be
pharmaceutical jars with medicinal herbs and roots accompanied by inscriptions. Now, researchers actually
have identified some of the plants as coming from the Americas plants that were brought back to Europe by
Christopher Columbus. This would, of course, suggest that the writing and the drawings were made, not only
some time after the manuscripts pages were made, but in fact, after 1493, when Columbus returned from the
Americas for the first time.

4-jh-004
To a conversation between a student and a counselor in the university career center.
You seem a little down Abbey. Everything, okay. I guess you guess. Yeah, it's just that this whole job hunting
business. I think I'm getting rejected by computers. I'm getting what look like robot generated emails saying I'm
not right for the position sometimes within minutes of submitting my resume online. No explanation, not even a
courtesy response saying, sorry, don't have enough experience or whatever. I don't know what's going on. Abby,
have you heard of applicant tracking software systems? An applicant tracking system, ATS for sure, is a tool to
help human resource departments manage recruitment of new employees. There might be hundreds of
applications for each job posting. For recruiters. There just aren't enough hours in the day. So the software
serves as a kind of filter.

So computer software sorts the resumes, according to how well they match the job requirements. Yes. Of
course, personnel specialists still need to sift through the resumes that do make it over the ATS wall and decide
which ones to put on the hiring managers desk. Virtually every major company uses this kind of system. I get it.
And you're right the. Ats is like a wall brick wall that I keep slamming into. You know, I do know. But there are
ways to make ATS work in your favor. Key is reverse engineering, your resume. And you see ATS algorithms
look for keywords. Um, you're applying for entry level computer programming, jobs, correct? What about the
company you interned with last summer that firm got bought by another company and they aren't hiring, which
is sad, because my mentor they are definitely recognized my potential. She said my programming skills were
excellent. I presume she gave you a letter of recommendation. Um, no. But I could probably use her as a
reference. Oh, well, I guess that's better than nothing.

Anyway. Here's how to reverse engineer your resume, first reread the job description, closely highlighting
keywords. If you're familiar with any programming languages that are mentioned, definitely list those on your
resume. And if the job description uses technical phrases like mission, critical systems, then your resume should
incorporate those exact words. If your work history justifies it, of course, include any key phrases in the job
description that jive with your skill set, do that throughout your resume as much as possible. But every job out
I'm responding to is different. Are you saying I should revise my resume for each one standard operating
procedure?
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class.
Let's continue with our discussion of adaptations that help keep organisms safe from predators. Okay, to review,
remember, we said that a large species, the number of potential predators is fairly small. On the other hand,
smaller organisms like insects have a large number of species that could potentially prey on them, like reptiles,
birds, and mammals. Now, when they're searching for prey, predators may use different what we call sense
modalities. For example, um, some birds will mainly use eyesight. Well, bets will use hearing to pick up out a
Sonic sounds. And this, in turn, is probably why an organism uses or uh develops. We're speaking in
evolutionary terms here, evolve certain defensive behaviors and physical structures to protect itself from
predators. Like some butterflies, when they're resting on a branch, have evolved to look like leaves.

So they're hard to put it as to notice, or if it's at rest and approached by a predator, a butterfly might suddenly
open and close its wings a few times, which creates a hissing sound that may startle the predator. This wing
movement also exposes colorful wing patterns which can frighten off certain attackers. This movement is called
flicking behavior. Two species of butterflies, the peacock butterfly, and the small tortoise shell butterfly, um,
sometimes referred to simply as the peacock and the tortoise shell. And i'll write that, um, both the peacock and
the tortoiseshell have developed these defense mechanisms. However, it seems the peacock is more likely than
the tortoise shell to use flicking behavior. This is interesting and how's possible implications. So I'd like to look
at a recent study conducted by researchers at Stockholm university that examined the use of flicking behavior in
these 2 species of butterflies.

Now both of these butterflies can use flicking behavior whether or not they're hibernating, of course, by
hibernating. I mean, passing the colder months in a state of rest. Um, but they were studied while hibernating
because that's when it's easiest to observe them. And when they're particularly vulnerable to predation. By the
way, you might think that when an organism hibernate, it doesn't move at all. But actually, it's just that its
metabolism slows down significantly. So it still can move in response to stimuli just much more slowly. Okay.
The Stockholm study, the researchers conducted the study indoors in a dark attic, one place where these
butterflies typically hibernate. And in this study, the peacocks were more likely than the tortoise shells to use
flicking behavior. So more of the peacock survived attacks from predators.

Now, how did the flicking help the peacocks? Well, the peacock has a distinctive pattern called ice spots on its
wings, so that when it opens its wings, predators, such as birds, think they're seeing the eyes of a dangerous
animal, and they back off. So generally, researchers have thought that it was mainly the presence of eye spots
that protected the pick up from predators. And that explanation made sense. Before the Stockholm study. Uh,
it's important here to note that the butterflies, main predators during that stock and study were mice and mice
don't see very well in the dark. So it isn't likely they were startled by the ice bucks. So what was happening
here? Well, remember, flicking also involves making a sudden sound, and we know from previous studies on
lies that they will promptly attempt to escape from an area if they detect the hissing sound of a bumble bees
wings. So it would seem that the sound produced by the flicking was scaring the mice.

Now, that's important Information, because that evidence that the peacock has evolved a complex, multi sensory
defense mechanism, which can effectively target different senses of different predators. Clicking is a visual
defense against birds when the peacock is outdoors in nature. And it's an auditory defense against mice when
hibernating indoors. So why didn't the tortoise shells use flicking behavior more often in the Stockholm study?
They were observed using it occasionally. And when they used it, it was effective. Well, perhaps it's because the
tortoise shell doesn't need to use the flicking behavior when it's outdoors. Instead, their main form of defense is
to remain motionless, which makes them less likely to be spotted by outdoor predators. Mainly birds. So
perhaps the tortoise shell simply hasn't been able to adapt its behavior to resist that tendency to remain still
when it's indoors and hibernating. Even though such an adaptation would effectively protect it from mice.

to part of a lecture in an art history class.

Okay. So we're going to focus on surrealism today. Uh, this movement and it happened in art and literature. Uh,
it occurred in the 20th century between the first and second world wars. There was a group of French surrealist
who were very into exploring the um, unconscious mind, things like dreams, things that go on in our
unconscious. Things were not aware of. Um, and there were other surrealist who were more interested in the
conscious mind, like the Belgian artist renamed a creek who will be focusing on today. My greet wasn't really
into the unconscious at all. Like I said he explored conscious understanding. By that, I mean, reality things that
are real that we experience when we're awake. The Greek became well known for drugs to posing or combining
familiar images in such a way that they became unfamiliar. Like he did one painting of an apple in a room, two
common things, right? But he made the apple so big that it took up the entire room. So the image we see of two
familiar things becomes completely absurd.

Okay? All right. Now, um, along with his works that juxtaposed objects, Madrid explored the effect caused by a
introducing words into paintings. He put words in the paintings themselves or give the paintings kind of bizarre
titles. For example, there's a famous painting of his that that chose a curved tobacco pipe with the words written
beneath that saying in French, this is not a pipe. Well, obviously, it wasn't an actual tobacco pipe that someone
could smoke, but it was a very realistic painting of a pipe. Uh, so Madrid was experimenting with words and
images and how we use words to see and think about the world.

Now, before we get into this any further, we need to talk about the idea of representation. And this gets kind of
philosophical but bear with me. Okay? All right. Basically, two ways of representing things are by resemblance.
And by arbitrary association resemblance means basically, um, representing something with an image that looks
like the thing it's referring to. So if you're representing a tree, this way that you would draw a sketch of the tree
with a trunk branches leaves. So the thing you're using to represent an actual tree, uh, it resembles a tree all
right.

Now, arbitrary association is what words do. Written words themselves, at least in modern languages, don't look
like the things they're representing, but they were associated with them. So one way to represent the concept of
a tree by arbitrary association would be to just write down the word using the alphabetic symbols that spell the
word tree, tre those letters in themselves on anything, but scribbles, but they represent the concept of tree in our
minds. And it works with abstract ideas, too. If you see the word want written on a page, you know what it
means? You don't need to see a picture of it. Are you following me? Uh, you can use arbitrary association to
represent abstract things, things you couldn't draw a picture of. So McBride was interested in like playing with
representation and making people aware of these processes that we use. And this and all this about making us
think about representation and how we use it. Well, it's a common thing to study in art today. Much more so
than when the Greek was painted. Basically, the Greek was way ahead of his time in that respect.

Okay, anyway, let's look at another Madrid from 1929 called the palace of curtains three. Well, what did I say
about these are titles? Now this is a pretty simple example of what we were just talking about. We have two
frames. The one on the left is the sky, right? Okay? And over on the right, it's just the word cl let now sell me
sky in French. So here you have 2 kinds of representation. There's resemblance on the left, because it's painted
to look like the sky and arbitrary association on the right, because it has the word for sky. And if you notice,
there are shadows behind these two frames. So the light must be coming from behind the viewer and to the left,
not from the sky, which you might expect if it actually were the sky. So the representation of sky is an accurate
cause of the lighting. So the question is, does it really resemble the sky? And by the way, don't think my Greek
didn't do this on purpose. That was the point to make people think about the way things are represented as
images and as words.

Listen to a conversation between a student and and English literature professor.

Professor Eastman, I just wanted to say how much I'm enjoying your class. Great. Now you're not in English
major, are you? No environmental science, which is why I decided to take your class as a matter of fact.
Because I knew that nature in the environment, inspired British romantic poets in the late 1700s and early
1800s. But I wasn't aware just how strong that influence was. Well, it more than inspired them to them. Nature
represented innocence, and purity. Also, their embrace of nature was a rejection of the urban lifestyle and all the
problems associated with it. I really see that now. And it's given me an idea for my final paper. I know it's not
exactly what you asked for.

Well, I'm studying the current environmental movement in another class. I mean, and I was thinking I could link
British romanticism to it to the current movement. I don't know, it it sounds intriguing, but the topic might be a
bit too wide. Remember, I'm only looking for 10 pages. Ii know, and I'd focus it. Um, like, for example, the poet
that we read a couple of weeks ago, you know, John Claire, I uh, I was kind of shocked at first by his intentional
use of incorrect grammar. But I see now that that was his way of emphasizing his connection with nature and
his poetry, mourning the loss of forests and wetlands around his village, pretty powerful stuff, I agree.

But how do you plan on connecting that to? Okay, so what we're discussing in my environmental science class
is right now, there are two ways of thinking represented by ecologists and environmentalists. Ecologists want to
do away with large scale industry and replace it with smaller local businesses that are designed to be friendly to
the environment. But environmentalists are focused more on cleaning pollution and striking a balance between
economic growth and the preservation of nature, okay but. Well, I could link John Claire with contemporary
ecologists. I see where you're going with this, but you're going to need to make the connection more explicit.
Um, well, maybe it's not a direct influence, but a way of thinking that I can trace from Claire to modern
ecologists. Now, that is definitely beyond the scope of what I want. Your focus should be on literature. Maybe
you could explore a contemporary poet, someone who writes about environmental issues and compared their
work with claire's. I can think of a few names just off the Top of my head. Well, that's kind of not, but I see
your.

Most of the research for evidence of life on other planets focuses on water. Since life on earth depends on water,
evidence of water anywhere in the universe could mean the existence of life at that location at some point in
time. But water is not the only substance associated with life. Another substance associated with life here on
earth is methane gas. A lot of the methane gas in earth's atmosphere is a result of biological processes like the
decay of organic materials. So it's no wonder that when traces of methane were discovered in the atmosphere of
Mars, in 2003, scientists got very excited. Since then, there's been a lot of discussion about the source of the
methane and what's happening to make its levels fluctuate the way they do. And i'll explain about the
fluctuation in a moment. But first, methane is a molecule made up of carbon and hydrogen. Common sources of
methane gas on earth, as I said, include decay of organic material, typically bacterial activity and wetlands or
landfills cow digestion. And um, some methane is produced by microbes under very harsh conditions, like in
extremely salty pools and permanently frozen ground, non biological sources of methane include volcanic
eruptions or other naturally occurring chemical reactions that are not related to biological processes.

So if methane can be produced by both biological and non biological processes, how do we how do we tell the
source? Good question. Remember, from chemistry class, the term isotope that the atomic weight of an element
can change, depending on the number of neutrons, it contains uh, the atomic weight of the carbon and hydrogen
in the methane tells us the source of the methane. However, in order to measure the isotopes of the methane on
Mars, well, we need actual samples of it. And that we don't have. Another mystery here is the fluctuating
amounts of methane on Mars. Methane is broken down by the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. According to
calculations, methane should last in Mars atmosphere for many years. However, much of the methane that
appears in the atmosphere is gone within a year. What's causing the methane to disappear so quickly? Are there
any ways to figure that out? Astronomers have made various models to try to replicate conditions on Mars? For
example, is it something in the soil? And if so, how is it destroying the methane? So far? Nothing. There are
these hot spots of high concentrations of methane, but as I said, somehow that methane is gone within a year,
even though earth and Mars have completely different atmospheres, given the conditions on Mars, this quick
disappearance of methane is totally unexpected.

Of course, many ideas on how to study the methane have been proposed from placing a satellite in a locked
orbit that could watch the places where high concentrations of methane appear to launching balloons or other
flying apparatuses into Mars atmosphere to monitor methane levels in the atmosphere.

However, since methane can be made by non biological sources, I don't think we should be putting a great deal
of effort into this. The search for evidence of liquid water should be our main goal. And there have already been
some important discoveries in this regard like water under the southern polar ice cap and claim mineral deposits
in the shallow subsurface all over Mars. Presence of the clay indicates a past presence of underground water.
Um, yes, Jennifer. But if there's a possibility that the presence of methane means some sort of life on Mars, are
there any other clues besides water? I mean, now someone's thinking like an astronomer, astronomers are not
content to sit around waiting to get actual samples of methane for analysis. So we've been listing other
chemicals that are the results of biological processes on earth, and then searching for them, both on Mars and
elsewhere in space. And that is an area of research that I personally find very promising and exciting.

4-jh-005
Listen to a conversation between a student and her theater history professor.
Thanks again for agreeing to meet with me. I'm sorry, in this class last Thursday. No problem. I'm glad you're
feeling better. By the way. Were you able to make the performance Friday night? No, but I did get to the
Sunday night night. It was the first university theater performance of attended. I was really impressed. We
certainly do have some very talented students here, I think. And the play you saw were going to be reading it
later in the semester. So you'll be ahead of everyone. Cool. So, um, I'm trying to get caught up. I got the class
notes from Maria. She usually takes really Complete notes. Anyway, I copied everything, but, well, there were a
couple of gaps. I could fill in most of it from the textbook but um. There was something about the scientific
method, but this is theater, the art, you know, um, well, we were talking about realism and dinner.

Now with realism, there was this desire to represent the natural world and society within the natural world as
closely and in as much detail as possible. And this was a new thing, MHM. The late 19th century when realism
developed, was a time when philosophers and scientists were starting to say that we needed to observe the
natural world and use the scientific method to try to figure it out, to find out why things are, how things happen,
what's going on, what causes these things that we see in that natural world to happen?

And this inspired playwrights? Exactly. If we observe the natural world, they thought if we observe the way
people interact and we reflect that on stage, that would it would give us a greater understanding about the world
around us. And this is the uh new mindset, a new way of thinking II get it. Realist plays are certainly different
from the exaggerated melodramatic place that came before. And that made it difficult for audiences to, well,
they didn't know what to make a real estate. It's going on for it to take hold, but audiences kept coming back,
they kept coming back. And uh realism eventually became the dominant genre. And it's appealing to people to
see something they can identify with something closer to their own lives that, you know, real life or what seems
to be realized depicted. So perhaps it's had an impact on TV shows today. I mean, reality based shows on
television are growing in popularity where we watch normal people living their lives interacting with each
other. They're not acting. They're just, you know, right? We also see a continuing trend toward realism and
movies.

So we've talked about the evolutionary pressure to attract a mate and how that can actually drive uh the
presence of physical differences between the sexes. We use the term sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism
refers to physical or behavioral differences between males and females of the same species. So if males and
females are different sizes or colored differently, for example, and we saw last time that sexual dimorphism
often develops in response to reproductive pressures, like the male peacocks, brighter feathers.

This difference is an adaptation that helps the male attractive partner, but sexual dimorphism can also be
adaptive in other ways.

One of these was first suggested by Charles Darwin in his work on evolution, Darwin wrote that sexual
dimorphism could be driven by ecological factors, by things like feeding habits. He had a hypothesis that for
certain bird species in New Zealand, a dimorphism in the shape of the beak or bill had evolved basically to
allow males and females to exploit different sources of food. Unfortunately, the bird dull was referring to has
been extinct for some 100 years now. So we can't test his claim experimentally. But modern research does
suggest that something similar is going on with a species of hummingbird that lives on Saint Lucia. An island in
the Caribbean. It's called the purple throated, Carib hummingbird. There are a few reasons why the purple throw
to Carib or let's call it. The Caribe is ideal to test Darwin hypothesis. For one thing, the difference between the
male and the female beaks is one of the most extreme observed in hummingbirds. The male beak is short and
relatively straight. While the bill of the female is longer and curves downward at a30°angle, not only is this
sexual dimorphism clearly pronounced. It doesn't correlate with body size. The males are larger, even though
their beaks are actually shorter.

And finally, on Saint Lucia, the camp happens to be the only pollinator of the flowering plants that it feeds
from. The cabs, the only species that collects the nectar, making this a nice, clear relationship without
interference from other species. So these flowers, there are two related flowers species, h Caribbean and HB
high. And researchers noticed that male hamburgers usually freed from each Caribbean females, on the other
hand, seemed to prefer nectar from the HB high flower. So the male and female cabs on Saint Lucia each have
their own food source. And when I describe the actual shape of these flowers, well, you won't be surprised. The
flower of h caribbee is short and straight like the male bill, while that of HB high is longer and curved, making
it easy for the female to reach its nectar.

Okay, but how do we know that this matters that the match provides some evolutionary advantage? Well,
researchers recorded the amount of time spent feeding at the flowers, and they found that each gender requires
less time to feed at the flower that matches its beak. So these differing bill shapes allow the carrots to forage
without wasting much energy.

Probably when the carrots first arrived on Saint Lucia, they competed for resources. The larger males would
have dominated edge Caribbean which produces more flowers leaving HB high for the females. Over time, the
male and female bills seemed to have involved to fit their flower just as Darwin hypothesis predicts. And here's
a twist. The cabs also live in parts of Saint Lucia where each Caribbean doesn't grow and both sexes feed
primarily at HB high flowers. And what's happened, in this case, is that HB high evolved to produce two
different flower shapes. Some HB high plants have shorter, straighter flowers, which replace the absent age
Caribbean as an accessible food source for the males. So the carrot flower relationship seems to be reciprocal,
not only if the hummingbirds adapted to the flowers, but the flowers have responded to maintain this this
mutually beneficial ecological link.
There's debate among some experts actually over which came first, whether it was the birds or the flowers that
evolved to fit the other. Frankly, I find this dispute pointless. If we frame the question like that, I doubt we'll
ever find an answer. What I'm seeing here is co evolution changes in one organism affecting the evolution of the
other, and the relationship goes back and forth like that, both ways. So it's a dynamic process.
Listen to part of a lecture in an archaeology class.
We've been talking about prehistory and some early communities. And I want to talk about a particular site
because it goes to the heart of how we reach conclusions in archaeology. It's a site in Turkey, known as Quebec.
Le tapping. Quebec leap is roughly 11,000 years old. It was built before pottery or metal tools had been
developed. At that time, people were still using stone tools, and yet they were able to build at Quebec teeth, an
impressive complex of stone structures covering 22 acres of land. These structures include sets of massive t
shaped pillars. They were arranged in rings and inscribed with images of snakes, boxes, and other animals. So
what was the purpose of this extraordinary sight? Well, as with many fines, we must use deduction to figure out
what it was used for. And the time period we're referring to was about 6,000 years before the invention of
writing. So we don't have any written records to help us out.

Let's first consider the hypothesis of the archaeologist who discovered the site. Klaus Schmidt, Schmidt, who
LED the excavation of Quebec, teppy, believed it was constructed as a ritual center, a collection of temple
buildings. If he's right, then it's the oldest temple site ever found. Schmidt asserts that a culture of hunter
gatherers would travel to the site for ritual purposes. But and this is a key.These hunter gatherers did not live
there.

Schmidt based his conclusion on several things. First, he asserted that the carvings on the pillars suggest a
symbolic or ritual function, not a domestic function. He also said that the pillars were not built to support a roof.
Other pieces of evidence for residential use were missing. Fireplaces or ovens or the types of trash pits found at
residential sites.

Schmidt further contended that a huge amount of labor was required to create and erect the massive pillars. It
likely required the cooperation of hundreds of people. If that's true, it suggests it was an important public place
for those people. Clearly, his conclusion that these buildings were temples is a logical one.

But there's another view I want to bring to your attention by archaeologist Edward banning banning challenges,
the assumption that Quebec Lee tech couldn't have been a residential place. First, the art on the pillars, those
animal images banning notes that art, even large and unusual art has been found elsewhere in residential
structures of the same time period. And banning says there is some evidence of settlement at Quebec, li Taipei.
For example, sickles have been found at the site. Sickles, a tool used to cut grasses to cut grain. They're part of a
layer of debris in the structures that's consistent with residential debris. Banning also disputes the idea that the
structures had no roof. He believes the pillars could have supported wooden beams to frame a sloping circular
roof. At least one pillar has a groove at the Top that he suggests could have accommodated a beam. And in fact,
the arrangement of the pillars is similar to the arrangement of wooden posts that support roofs on some houses
of the period.

So what's banning saying that Schmidt hypothesis is completely wrong? No banning makes clear that he does
not dismiss the possibility that the buildings were temples. Indeed, he considers it likely that there was some
ritual function here. But he asks us to consider whether some of the buildings could have had a residential as
well as a ritual function. He points out that there have been many societies that conduct rituals and domestic
spaces, and there still are. And this reminds us of a fundamental truth in archaeology. Our conclusions are
formed based on observations. But how we interpret those observations is often influenced by our own
perspective, our biases, our personal experiences, our assumptions. If our perspective is that ritual spaces are
always distinct from residential spaces, we will see in Quebec, li Taipei only a ritual space. Indeed, that could
be completely accurate, but we shouldn't automatically discount other possibilities. Banning asks us to at least
consider whether it could have had a dual function, ritual and residential. We might yet find more evidence of
how go badly tape was used. But often in archaeology, some mystery remains. It's important to remember that
there's often more than one way to interpret what we find.
at the university student counseling office.

So what brings you here today? I'm a psychology major, and everyone in my class was assigned to a group
project, which I'm not exactly thrilled about. Groups can be challenging, but a lot of professors do like to assign
group work, but why I'm way more comfortable working alone and I really don't like depending on anyone else
for my grade.

Okay, think about workplace settings. Simplest you might land after graduation. You're studying psychology.
Yeah. So maybe you work in a hospital someday, or a counseling office like this one. Here, we often put our
heads together to solve problems or make important decisions. Do you see where I'm going with this? Sure.
Professors assign group work because that's what will probably do later in life, right? Group members need to
be open to new ideas, use good negotiating skills, and just be diligent about fulfilling basic responsibilities, like
being well prepared for meetings. What's your group doing? We're following up on a study. Professor Lightfoot
conducted about the emotions. People feel when they listen to music. From the data she collected, she
developed this list of 66 emotion words to describe feelings that music can evoke for people. Sounds
interesting. So what's your group doing? Specifically? We've been putting together this question there about
musical tastes, and it has professor Lightfoot, 66 emotion terms on it. We're supposed to attend a concert on
campus and pass out the questionnaire to other concert attendees. So people listen to the music and circle the
words that describe how they felt while the music was playing.

Then we're going to get together as a group and come up with a presentation on our findings. Okay, so what's
the trouble? Well, when I make suggestions, the group usually votes them down, like I thought we should go to
a classical music concert. The university symphony is performing next week, but my group members all want to
go to this outdoor music festival instead. It was like, my opinion, didn't even matter. That's rough. How are
things at the beginning of the project? I don't know. Our first meeting happened in class, and the consensus was
to eat lunch together 3 days, a week, but I always study during lunch. So I suggested meeting after dinner, but
this one has basketball practice, and that one plays guitar in a band, the other one studies at night um. Um. So
you changed your study schedule I had to, and I'm not happy about it. Is it possible that your group mates are
reacting to your lack of enthusiasm? Yeah, I guess. Okay, let's talk about ways you might turn that around.

Part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

Comets are surprisingly small. The core, what we call the nucleus, is usually just 1 to 10 kilometers in diameter.
But if you've ever actually seen a comment or images of one, you know that they appear to be enormous, right?
So how is that possible? Well, the first thing to remember is like planets, comets or. Most comets anyway, are
part of our solar system. They orbit the sun, but comets orbits are not like the orbits of planets which have the
sun near their centers. Comets orbits are highly elliptical or elongated. And at one extreme, they're very close to
the sun, but the other extreme lies somewhere out beyond Neptune. And this is important because when we
think of a comet with its large, luminous orbit, long tail, well, these features aren't always present. It's only
when the comedies close to the sun that we see the form we're familiar with.

So there's no tail unless the comic gets close to the sun, right? When a comment nears the sun, it brightens
enormously and develops its coma, which i'll talk about in a second and its tail. Actually, sometimes two tails, a
dust, tail, and an ion tail. And these tales can extend over 100 million kilometers from the nucleus. So how does
the sun make such a major change in the comment? We'll see a comets nucleus is composed of rocks, dust, and
frozen gases, a bunch of different types of frozen gases.
Now, what do you think happens to these gases as the comet approaches? The sun? Uh, they vaporize exactly.
Here look at this graphic, the intense heat from the sun, vaporize is, some of the gases, which then stream out of
the nucleus carrying dust with them. And this is what creates the coma, the sort of fuzzy halo, you see
surrounding the nucleus. Think of the coma as the comets atmosphere, it can be huge, even larger than the sun
itself. And it glows often quite brightly. Both the gases which have become ironized by the sun's radiation and
the dust, which reflects sunlight. This is why until recently, it's been difficult to learn about comments,
especially the nuclei, not just because they're so small, but also, when the coma is all lit up, the nucleus is so
obscured. It's basically invisible to us.

As the comet orbit brings it closer and closer to the sun. Two main tales usually developed each produced by a
different solar effect and pointing in slightly different directions. So first of all, solar radiation pushes dust
particles away from the coma, creating the bigger and brighter dust tail. This dust tail, which is often kind of
curved, looks like a fat beam of sunlight, because again, dust particles reflect sunlight. And then you've often
got a smaller, darker ion tail, which is formed by the solar wind.

Now, the solar wind consists of charged particles that are continually being ejected from the sun. And these
particles, in turn, charge or ionize some of the commerce gases. Basically, the charge solar wind is knocking
electrons off some of these gas molecules and sending these electrons streaming directly away from the sun.

Since both of these tails are always pointing away from the sun, when a comet reaches the point in its orbit
where it's moving away from the sun, its tails actually preceded. You mean, the nucleus and its coma follow the
tail. That's right. It's not like the exhaust from an airplane, which always extends out behind the plane,
regardless of which direction the plane's heading. Uh, Jane. Um, I read somewhere that a comments movement
around the sun can be kind of uh, unpredictable in terms of speed. Why is that? That's true? See, we now know
that the frozen gases in a comet nucleus are in its core, covered by a crusty outer layer of rocks and dust. But
this crust isn't uniformly thick. There are thin spots, even holes. And because the nucleus rotates as it travels,
sometimes these thin spots or holes will directly face the sun, exposing underlying pockets of gas to the heat. So
these heated gas is scored out from time to time. The release gases act like jets jets of gas that can either slow or
accelerate the comets movement, depending whether it's approaching or moving away from the sun.