INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATIONS

COURSE no. 7

Assoc. Prof. Luminiţa SCRIPCARIU

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 FROM THE PREVIOUS COURSE

• HAMMING

• TURBO-ASCII

• TURBO-HAMMING

• REED-SOLOMON

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 QUESTION 1
Which of the following codes is applied on bit
sequences?
 ASCII
 HAMMING
 TURBO-HAMMING
 RS

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 QUESTION 1
Which of the following codes is applied on
bit sequences?
 ASCII
 HAMMING
 TURBO-HAMMING
 RS

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 QUESTION 2
Error detection is based on:
 Generator matrix (G)
 Control matrix (H)
 Error vector (e)
 Syndrome vector(s)

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 QUESTION 2
Error detection is based on:
 Generator matrix (G)
 Control matrix (H)
 Error vector (e)
 Syndrome vector(s)

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 QUESTION 3
How many errors can H(31,26) code correct?
 1
 2
 3
 5

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 QUESTION 3
How many errors can H(31,26) code correct?
 1
 2
 3
 5

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 QUESTION 4
What is the value of the minimum Hamming
distance of H(15,11) code?
 1
 3
 4
 11

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 QUESTION 4
What is the value of the minimum Hamming
distance of H(15,11) code?
 1
 3
 4
 11

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 QUESTION 5

Calculate the coding rate of TH(15,11) code:

..............................................

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 QUESTION 5

Calculate the coding rate of TH(15,11) code:

Rc = 112/152 = 121/225 ~ 1/2

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 QUESTION 6
Which of the following statements about
Turbo code are true?
 Turbo code encodes data using an
interleaving structure
 Turbo decoder works iteratively
 Turbo code has the same error correcting
capacity as the basic code
 Turbo code corrects more errors than the
basic one.
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 QUESTION 6
Which of the following statements about
Turbo code are true?
 Turbo code encodes data using an
interleaving structure
 Turbo decoder works iteratively
 Turbo code has the same error correcting
capacity as the basic code
 Turbo code corrects more errors than the
basic one.
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 QUESTION 7
Which of the following codes can be used to
correct error-burst?
 ASCII with parity bits
 Hamming
 RS
 Turbo-Hamming

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 QUESTION 7
Which of the following codes can be used to
correct error-burst?
 ASCII with parity bits
 Hamming
 RS
 Turbo-Hamming

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 QUESTION 8
Which of the following values are of the 3rd
order in GF(16)?
 2
 4
 6
 7
Tips: The powers of 2 in GF(16) are:
[1 2 4 8 3 6 12 11 5 10 7 14 15 13 9 1]
Definition: The order of an element in GF is the minimum not-
null power of the element which is equal to 1.
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 QUESTION 8
Which of the following values are of the 3rd
order in GF(16)?
 2
 4
 6
 7
Tips: The powers of 2 in GF(16) are:
[1 2 4 8 3 6 12 11 5 10 7 14 15 13 9 1]
Definition: The order of an element in GF is the minimum not-
null power of the element which is equal to 1.
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 Reed-Solomon Codes
• Block-codes defined on GF(2m)
• RS(n,n-2t) code corrects t errors at maximum.
• DEFINITION: n-DFTof any RS code word
has a group of 2t zeroes.
• Remember: n-DFT exists if and only if n
divides N = 2m-1.
• The zero-sequence of the DFT of the received
word corresponds to the syndrome vector.
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 The generating polynomial
of RS(n, n-2t) code
g(x) = (x+wn-2t)…(x+wn-1)

• w is the nth order root of the unit, in

GF(2m).
• n divids N=2m-1.
• The generating polynomial has 2t factors
(x+ w k), k = (n-2t) up to (n-1).
• The degree of the polynomial is 2t.
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 RS Code Design Methods
1. Time method: the data polynomial a(x) is
multiplied by the generating polynomial g(x):
c(x)=a(x)*g(x).
2. Frequency method: the codeword is
calculated as the IDFT of the data sequence
completed with 2t zeros.
3. Systematic method: the codeword
corresponds to the coefficients of the reminder
got by the division of x2ta(x) by g(x).
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 PROPOSED EXERCISE
• Calculate the generating polynomial of RS(5,3)
code, in GF(16): g(x)=(x+wn-2t)…(x+wn-1) with the
root of the unit equal to 8.

• Encode the sequence [1 , 5, 10] by this code

applying the systematic method.

Tips: The powers of 2 in GF(16) are:

[1 2 4 8 3 6 12 11 5 10 7 14 15 13 9 1]

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 Performances of the error
correcting codes
• Redundancy (parity bits weight in the code
word)
• The number of detectable errors
• Error detection capability
• The number of correctable errors
• Error correction capability

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 Comparison of Hamming Codes

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 Bit Error Rate (BER)

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Comparison of Reed-Solomon Codes

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 BER of RS Codes

Coding gain expresses the difference of the received

SNR using the error correction code and the SNR
without using the code:
G = Rc*dH or 10*log(Rc*dH ) [dB].
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 Example

Calculate the coding gain of H(7, 4) code.

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 PROPOSED EXERCISE

Calculate the coding gain of RS(15,9) code.

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 Remarks
• Reed-Solomon codes, RS(n, k), can be used to
create symmetric TRS(n2,k2) Turbo-code.
• If the basic RS (n, k) code can correct t errors,
the corresponding Turbo-RS code may correct
error-burst of n*t erroneous symbols, at
maximum.
• Example: TRS(255, 135), defined on GF(256),
can correct 255*60=15300 Bytes or 122400
consecutive bits, at maximum.

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 Exercise
Design a Turbo-RS code on GF(256) for a 100
Mbps communication channel with maximum
1ms fading duration.
Solution:
• No. of bit errors = 10^(-3)*10^8=100000 bits
• No. of Byte errors = 100000/8+2=12502 Bytes
• Turbo-RS code: n = 255, n*t > 12502,
t=[12502/255]+1 = 50 => n-2t=155 =>
Basic code: RS(255, 155).
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 DATA CODING TECHNIQUES

• COMPRESSION CODES

• ENCRYPTION CODES

• ERROR-CORRECTION CODES

• LINE CODES

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 Line Codes
 Used to facilitate the synchronization of the
receiver (bit timing).
 Allow to increase the density of data stored
on magnetic or optical support.
 Balance the digital transmitters.
 Allow higher bit rates.

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 Clasification of Line Codes

 Binary
 Ternary
 Multilevel (Correlative coding or Partial-
Response PR Codes)

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 Binary Line Codes
• NRZ-M (Non-Return to Zero – Mark)
• RZ (Return to Zero)
• BIF-L (MANCHESTER)
• BIF-M (Biphase – Mark)
• MILLER

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 Ternary Line Codes
• AMI (Alternative Mark Inversion) = BIPOLAR 1
1 is coded alternatively by +/- (B-rule changes
the last polarity)
0 is coded by 0.
• BIPOLAR nr.2:
1 is coded alternatively by +/+/-/-; 0 / 0
• HDB3 (High Density Bipolar no. 3)
or constrained AMI: 1 coded by B-rule;
d.c.= 0 maximum 3 consecutive zeroes are
permitted: 0 0 0 V / B 0 0 V (V-rule uses the same
polarity as the last one)
* Two consecutive Vs have different polarities!
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 Example
Date: 111100001000000001
AMI +-+ -0000+00000000–
BIP. 2 ++- -0000+00000000+
HDB3 +-+ -000 - + 0 0 0 +- 0 0 - +
Observaţie: Ternary codes have memory
(e.g. the last polarity is stored in the code
memory).

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 PROPOSED EXERCISE

• Encode the following data sequence by

NRZ-M, RZ, MILLER, AMI, BIP2, HDB3:

1011100010001100

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 Remarks

Line codes create a discrete component in

the encoded signal spectrum on the bit
frequency or half of it, in order to ensure the
bit timing in the receiver.

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