Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations

Peace Operations Training Institute
GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN UNITED

NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
Course Author
Professor Ximena Jimenez
Gender Consultant
Series Editor
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
© 2008 Peace Operations Training Institute

GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN UNITED
NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
Course Author
Professor Ximena Jimenez
Gender Consultant
Series Editor
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

© 2008 Peace Operations Training Institute

1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202
Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA
www.peaceopstraining.org
First edition: March 2007

Cover: UN Photo #99293 by Milton Grant
All photos and graphics are from the UN website unless otherwise indicated. This course is compliant with the
SGTM guidelines set forth by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations Integrated Training Service (DPKO
ITS).
The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute,
the Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. Although every effort has been
made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s)
disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated
largely from open media and other independent sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and
teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy and doctrine, but this course does not establish or
promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may establish or promulgate UN policy
or doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to
stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.
Gender Perspectives in United Nations
Peacekeeping Operations
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI
FORMAT OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII
METHOD OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VIII
LESSON 1 – CONFLICT SITUATIONS, THE UNITED NATIONS, AND PEACEKEEPING

OPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Historical Background of International Cooperation and Conflict
1.2 Overview of the United Nations System
1.3 The Security Council and Peacekeeping Operations
LESSON 2 – SEX AND GENDER: DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Sex and Gender
2.3 Other Definitions Related to Gender
2.4 Perspectives and Misunderstandings about Gender Studies in PKOs
LESSON 3 – UNDERSTANDING CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theories on Conflict Throughout History
3.3 Definitions of Conflict
3.4 Defining Armed War and Armed Conflict
3.5 Contemporary Conflict: From 1989 to the Present (Post-Modern Era)
3.6 The Nature of Post-Modern or Contemporary Conflict
LESSON 4 – SEARCHING FOR GENDER BALANCE AND GENDER EQUALITY: A

HISTORICAL RETROSPECTIVE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1 Gender Issues: A Historical Background
4.2 A History of Women’s Rights Movements
LESSON 5 – THE UN, PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS, AND GENDER ISSUES. . . . . . . . . 67

5.1 Peacekeeping Operations and Gender Issues
5.2 Gender: Implementation of UN Instruments
5.3 Current Situation
iii
LESSON 6 – GENDER PERSPECTIVES ON THE IMPACT OF ARMED CONFLICT. . . . . . .109
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Gender Relations
6.3 Sexual Violence
6.4 Gender and Contemporary Armed Conflict
6.5 Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
LESSON 7 – GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . 131

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Incorporating a Gender Perspective in PKOs
7.3 Policies and Guidelines of Gender Mainstreaming in DPKO
7.4 Training Gender Issues for Peacekeeping Personnel
LESSON 8 – GENDER, GBV-SEA, AND UN PEACEKEEPERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Facts About GBV-SEA and UN Peacekeeping Personnel
8.3 Training to Prevent Misconduct on Mission
8.4 How Human Rights are Violated
8.5 Special Measures Taken for Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
LESSON 9 – CASE STUDY: GENDER ANALYSIS ON UNAMIR AND MINUSTAH. . . . . . . 173

9.1 Historical Background to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
(UNAMIR)
9.2 Human Rights Violations Against Women and Girls in Rwanda
9.3 Historical Background to the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti
(MINUSTAH)
9.4 Human Rights Violations Against Women and Girls in Haiti
APPENDIX A – LIST OF ACRONYMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

APPENDIX B – LIST OF PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
APPENDIX C – ARMED CONFLICT DEFINITIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
APPENDIX D – GENERAL ASSEMBLY MILLENNIUM DECLARATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
APPENDIX E – SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION 1325 (2000). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
APPENDIX F – THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
APPENDIX G – SG’S BULLETIN ON SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AND ABUSE. . . . . . . . . . . 225
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
iv
FOREWORD
At the beginning of the 20th century, civilian victims of armed conflicts were estimated
to be 5%. During World War I, the figure reached 15%. By the end of World War II, estimates
leaped to an alarming 65%.1 Today, the numbers are between 75% and 90%, where women and
children are the majority.2
Faced with this new reality, the United Nations has had to deal with great challenges to
ensure the protection of the victims of modern armed conflicts: women, girls, and boys. These
are not mere opinions; they are supported by numerous studies and reports on the matter. Women
have become the target for armed forces, rebel groups, and local militias. Violence and the use of
women as weapons have widely spread. They are sexually abused, exploited, abducted,
mutilated, or used as sexual slaves or bargaining chip among rebel groups in situations of armed
conflict and post-conflict.
The UN, through the General Assembly, Security Council, Department of Peacekeeping
Operations, and its Integrated Training Service, has dealt with this critical situation with
declarations, resolutions, reports, agreements, and programmes constantly implemented. Today,
the training of military, police, and UN civilian personnel must include a module on gender.
Therefore, as part of the SGTM 1 and STM 2 projects, special modules on gender perspectives
integrated into UN Missions were created. All peacekeepers should be aware of these issues to
ensure an adequate performance during deployment and to ensure the mission’s success.
This course, Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, strives to

educate all interested individuals that want to learn about the conceptual and operational issues
involved in integrating a gender perspective in complex peace operations.
Prof. Ximena Jimenez

2007
1
Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, S/2001/331.
http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/reports/2001/sgrep01.htm.
2
Rehn, Elizabeth and Ellen Johnson. “Women, War and Peace: The Independent Assessment on the Impact of Armed
Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace Building.”
v
INTRODUCTION
Aim
The purpose of the course is to provide the student with basic knowledge on gender
perspectives to be taken into account in international modern conflicts—through theory and
practical examples—as a way to ensure the success of the peace operations missions where they
are assigned.
Scope
The course describes in general terms the problems related to gender issues surrounding
international modern conflict by analysing how it has evolved through time. This perspective has
gained importance, to the point of assigning it a position of strategic significance in the search
for a lasting and stable peace to modern-day conflict.
Approach
The course is aimed at describing and analysing how the incorporation of gender
perspectives into peace operations has evolved, as well as how gender balance and gender
equality allows women to stop being victimised in the conflict theater. The course also
emphasises the need for women to have a strategic role at all UN decision-making levels and at
the mission level, as well as at the government, local, grassroots, and other levels.
To achieve this aim, students have access to the bibliographical references, readings, and
other sources of related information.
Audience
The course is specially designed for those who are operating in conflict areas: military,
police, and UN civilian personnel at all levels, as well as those personnel working in
international government organisations, observers, and NGOs who are interested in gaining
awareness on gender issues in peace operations.
Application
Since the incorporation of a gender perspective into peace operations missions in 2004,
the student is expected to learn the basic concepts and principles of incorporating a gender
perspective into a mission. Given the crucial role of gender balance and gender equality in
achieving a stable and lasting peace, the student will have to apply the notions and principles of
integrating a gender perspective with his/her colleagues, whatever their nature or position.
vi
FORMAT OF STUDY
This course is designed for independent study

at a pace determined by the student.
Course format and materials permit:
• MODULAR STUDY
• EASE OF REVIEW
• INCREMENTAL LEARNING
Please visit http://www.peaceopstraining.org/course_extras

to view a video introduction to this course
by author Professor Ximena Jimenez.
STUDENT’S RESPONSIBILITY
The student is responsible for:
• Learning course material

• Completing the End-of-Course Examination
• Submitting the End-of-Course Examination
Please consult your enrolment confirmation email or the end of

this course for examination submission instructions.
vii
METHOD OF STUDY
The following are suggestions for how to proceed with this course.
Though the student may have alternate approaches that are
effective, the following hints have worked for many.
• Before you begin actual studies, first browse through the overall course material.
Notice the lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what will be involved as you
proceed.
• The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing individual

details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the
United Nations system.
• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.
• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each
lesson, orient yourself to the main points. If you are able to, read the material twice
to ensure maximum understanding and retention, and let time elapse between
readings.
• When you finish a lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, go back to
the lesson section and re-read it. Before you go on, be aware of the discrepancy in
your understanding that led to the error.
• After you complete all of the lessons, take time to review the main points of each
lesson. Then, while the material is fresh in your mind, take the End-of-Course
Examination in one sitting.
• Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve a passing grade of 75 percent or
higher, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75
percent, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-of-
Course Examination.
• One note about spelling is in order. This course was written in English as it is used in
the United Kingdom.
viii
LESSON 1
CONFLICT SITUATIONS, THE UNITED NATIONS,

AND PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
1.1 Historical Background of International

Cooperation and Conflict
Lesson 1 / Conflict Situations, the United Nations, and Peacekeeping Operations 2
LESSON OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the historical origins and development of the
academic field of conflict evolution and international cooperation, taking into account the role of
the United Nations System and the development of its peacekeeping operations.
After studying material contained in this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Trace the historical theories of the origin of conflicts;

• Identify institutions and persons that have contributed to understanding the importance of
the roles of the United Nations, the Security Council, and UNDPKO for keeping the
peace in theory and practice; and
• Define the development of peacekeeping operations, as well as their principles and
practices in an academic field.

to view a video introduction to this lesson by
course author Professor Ximena Jimenez.
1.1 Historical Background of International Cooperation and Conflict
From the Peace of Westphalia Until 1913
Armed conflict has been present in all societies throughout the history of mankind. Recall
that the creation of the nation-state after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648—which ended the
Thirty Years’ War1—gave birth to nationalism and consecrated the principle of European
balance to avoid conflicts and guarantee peace. Later on, in the late 18th Century and at the
beginning of the 19th Century, Napoleon appeared, trying to expand France and further his
influence in all of Europe by expanding his dominion to other nations by force. This led to the
creation of alliances between occupied nations to defeat him, which eventually took place. With
the subsequent fall of Napoleon’s Empire, new concepts were opened in international relations
that collectively sought for guarantees of international security. Thus, the Congress of Vienna
was held in June 1815, bringing together the four victorious states against Napoleon (Austria,
Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom2), eventually to be joined by Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
and France itself. This Congress adopted the formula of European balance. The Holy Alliance
was later signed.3 This alliance held three Congresses (in 1820, 1821, and 1822) and lasted only a
brief time,4 but these types of meetings—congresses—convened frequently, and some authors
consider them as the foundation of international agency. From a political point of view,
international problems began to be approached multilaterally in order to maintain international
security.
War and Peace

1648-1914
The Thirty Years War

Peace of Westphalia
The pursuit of
European state-
nation balance
Napoleonic Empire
The Fall of Napoleon
Congress of Vienna
Other Congresses
Multilateralisation
International Security
International Conferences
The Superpowers are Born
1
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) took place in Europe mainly due to religious considerations (Catholics against
Protestants) and later because the European powers fought to achieve balance, while others did so to reach a hegemonic state.
2
Figueroa, Uldaricio. “Organismos Internacionales.” Ed. Lexis Nexis. Santiago. 2002. p. 20. He called these four nations “the
superpowers,” a term still used to refer to the main powers in the international arena.
3
Carried out by Emperor Alexander I of Russia, with Austria and Prussia. Other States were eventually incorporated. This was
based on the principles of absolutism.
4
The Holy Alliance disappeared after the death of its inspiring force, Tzar Alexander I in 1825.
Up until the year 1914, International Conferences were held between nations in order to
jointly face problems which affected the security and interests of the superpowers.5 These
meetings were held in major cities such as Berlin, the Hague, London, and Paris. These
Congresses featured several important events, including: the Independence of Greece (1830); the
Dutch-Belgian Separation Treaty (1839); the Balkan situation, and the incorporation of Turkey
into the Concert of European Powers (1856); the independence of Montenegro, Rumania, and
Serbia (1878); the division of the African continent among the powers and the incorporation of
the United States into the Conferences (1885); the First Hague Peace Conference for the pacific
settlement of disputes and the creation of a Permanent Court of Arbitration (1899); the Second
Hague Peace Conference for the same purpose (1907); and the London Treaty on the Balkan
controversy, creating the Principality of Albania (1913). These were the efforts to maintain
international security and could be called the first international security system, although they
only considered situations affecting European nations and their colonies.
The Americas were largely unpopulated, and in 1889 the First Pan-American Conference
was held in Washington, D.C., which was to become the foundation of the present Inter-
american System.6
From 1914 to 1939
Ninety-nine years passed between the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the outbreak of
World War I (1914). With the exception of Crimea and some localised conflicts from a European
point of view regarding international relations, this period was the most stable period of peace in
the history of the Western world, since international wars always took place outside the
European continent (namely in Asia and the Americas).
The outbreak of World War I (1914-1918) in Europe—in which 20 million people died—
had political consequences whose impact affected the entire planet. Initiatives came up to resolve
armed conflicts peaceably, a new value scale was created, and the democratic political regime
began to hold sway over international living. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had promoted the
peaceful solution of controversies. A multilateral agreement was finally reached, called the
Covenant of the League of Nations, and was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles (1918),
which paradoxically was not signed by the U.S. This was the first universal political
organisation in history,7 but it had an idealist outlook (without powers). However, this initiative
lasted less than a decade due to its inability to contain the political disagreements of its members.
Other political events took place, such as the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) and the
economic depression of 1929 in the United States. Totalitarian governments appeared in Italy
with Mussolini and the fascist movement (1922), and Nazism appeared in Germany, led by
Hitler (1933) and finally triggering armed conflict throughout the world. In addition, Italy
invaded Ethiopia, and the Soviet Union invaded Finland.8 Under the passiveness of the other
European countries, Spain faced its own Civil War (1938), in which some European nations took
5
Conferences were held with Ambassadors as delegation chiefs starting only in 1896. Before this time, the monarchs
themselves attended.
6
In 1890, the Commercial Office of the American Republics was created in order to regulate Pan-American trade, eventually
giving rise to the Organisation of American States (OAS) in 1948.
7
Also known as the “League of Nations.”
8
This war-like action led to Russia being expelled from the League of Nations.
part, catalysing eventual confrontation. As we can observe, the agency created to oversee
international security was unable to avoid a second outbreak—World War II—and its
devastating consequences.9
War and Peace

1914-1939
World War I
The Treaty of
Versailles
The League of
Nations
From World War II to 1989 (Modern Era)
After World War II, Europe's power was weakened both politically and economically.
This power was transferred to the war’s victors: the Soviet Union and the United States, who
became the two world superpowers, without any counterweight. Thus, the bipolar system which
was to hold sway over the world for 45 years was born. For the first time in modern history,
Europe filled a secondary position in world affairs; European capitals were no longer the centre
of security issue discussions, but rather Washington or Moscow. This led to an accelerated
European decolonisation process due to pressure from the international community, with the
swift disappearance of colonial empires and the appearance of new states, especially in the
Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. In this manner, societies began to diversify with migration
from former colonies, which produced a heterogenisation of cultures, ethnic groups, political
regimes, and economic systems. Groups of states and regional systems eventually appeared.10
After Japan surrendered in 1945, the Allies had the idea of building an international
peace society that would have a permanent structure. Thus, from an international point of view,
the United Nations Organisation was created in 1945. At the same time, “countless international
agencies were founded, giving birth to a multi-agency system for international cooperation.”11
These political, economic, social, and cultural agencies were dedicated to a wide range of
cooperation and security-related activities. Many tried to maintain pronounced regionalism—in
Europe, the Americas, Africa, and eventually Asia—but non-confrontational in terms of the two
superpowers.
9
This included 50 million casualties and 35 million wounded, besides hundreds of thousands of war orphans and widows.
10
Examples include the Movement of the Non-Allies, the Group of 77, and the European Steel and Coal Community (1954),
which led to the present European Union.
11
Figueroa, Uldaricio. “Organismos Internacionales.” Ed. Lexis Nexis. Santiago. 2002. p.25.
Later on, the U.S. and the USSR struggled to maintain worldwide areas of influence,12
especially due to the political-ideological confrontation that represented each of them. Thus, the
so-called Cold War was born, which led to the USSR's nuclear and military development in
order to counter the power of the United States. From a military point of view, the two
ideological currents sought for alliances with other states, and the famed Warsaw Pact brought
together pro-Soviet States, whereas its counterpart, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO), brought together States which favoured European defence including the U.S. against
Soviet communist expansion.
War and Peace

1939-1989
World War II
The United Nations is

founded,
International Peace
and Security
Bipolarism (U.S.-USSR)
NATO-Warsaw Pact
Decolonisation
Disintegration of the
USSR
Berlin Wall Falls
End of the Warsaw Pact
The rise of
contemporary conflict
From 1989 to present-day, there has been contemporary armed conflict, which will be
described in Lesson 3.
Summary of International Cooperation and Conflict
• 1648: The Peace of Westphalia. The concept of the Nation-State was born.
• 1800-1815: France under Napoleon took over European countries.
• 1815: The Congress of Vienna. European borders were re-established after the fall of
Napoleon. The concept of European balance and multilateralisation of international
security was born.
• 1899: First Hague Peace Conference for the pacific settlement of disputes.
• 1815-1914: Ninety-nine years of relative peace.
12
The so-called “strategic niches” implemented by the USSR (with Cuba, Angola, Korea, North Vietnam, etc.), and those of
“U.S. allies or friendly countries” (Haiti, Nicaragua, Korea, South Vietnam, Japan, etc.).
• 1914-1918: World War I.

• 1918: Treaty of Versailles. Pact of the League of Nations. Pacific settlement of disputes.
• 1939-1945: World War II.
• 1945: The United Nations Organisation was founded. Pacific settlement of disputes.
• 1945-1989: The Cold War period (ideological bipolarism).
• 1989: Collapse of the USSR. End of the Cold War.
• New and numerous inter-state conflicts arise. Peacekeeping missions increase.
Origin of the United Nations
During World War II, two Allied

leaders recognised the need to establish a
new international entity to avoid conflicts
and to help preserve peace, avoiding the
error of its predecessor in 1918. Therefore,
this international entity should have a
certain power of coercion to empower the
concept of collective security.
• On 12 June 1941, the Interallied

Declaration was signed in London,
stating the value of “working
together with other free peoples at
war and in peace.”
• On 14 August 1941, aboard the
English vessel the Prince of Wales
off the coast of Newfoundland,
President Roosevelt and Prime
Minister Churchill met and signed
the Atlantic Charter in order to bring
UN Headquarters in New York, New York.
together good will in pursuit of
(Source: Harvey J. Langholtz)
peace and international security. The
Atlantic Charter contained general guidelines for a future policy and principles that
should hold sway in order to preserve international peace.
• On 1 January 1942, the allied nations in Washington, D.C., approved the Atlantic Charter
by signing the Declaration of the United Nations.13 Meetings with the allies were
continued, including the Moscow Conference and Teheran Conference in 1943, and the
Washington Conference in 1944.
• In 1945, at the Yalta (Crimea) Conference, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin resolved to
create an international organisation for maintaining peace and security. Twelve chapters
13
This was drawn up in Washington in January 1942 after the attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941. It was signed by 26
countries who committed to defeat Germany, Japan, and Italy, integrally reaffirming the renowned Atlantic Charter.
were to proceed from the organisation laying the groundwork for a future organisation
which was to be called the United Nations, under the conceptualisation of the powers
which drew up the chapters.
• On 25 April 1945, delegates from 51 nations met in San Francisco, California (U.S.) for
the Conference of the United Nations on International Organisation, concentrating on the
final wording of the Charter, which was made up of 111 articles.
• In San Francisco, on 25 June 1945, the Charter of the United Nations was unanimously
approved by the 51 states in attendance. The victorious states (China, France, Russia, the
United Kingdom, and the United States) self-adjudicated the right to veto in Security
Council votes. Thus was born the first universal international agency in history.
The United Nations system includes six main organs, which are as follows:
• The General Assembly
• The Security Council
• The Secretariat
• The Trusteeship Council
• The Economic and Social Council
• The International Court of Justice (The Hague)
The mission assigned to the Security Council (SC) by the Charter of the United Nations
is to maintain international peace and security, and this is the main purpose of the UN.14 In
keeping with this purpose, the Security Council must take collective measures to prevent and
eliminate threats to peace and to face acts of aggression or breaches of the peace. Therefore, the
SC is in charge of these responsibilities and acting consequently (Art. 24 of the Charter).15
The Security Council is made up of 15 members. France, the People’s Republic of China,
the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States shall be permanent members,
while the remaining 10 are non-permanent members and are elected for a period of two years.
These members are distributed by geographic areas from: two prepresentatives from Latin
America, two from Asia, three from Africa, three from Western Europe, and one from Eastern
Europe. Security Council resolutions are obligatory for all of its members (Art. 25).16 Permanent
states have the right to veto any UN Security Council resolution under consideration.
To maintain international peace and security in conformity with the purposes and
principles of the United Nations, the Security Council performs the following functions:
• Investigate any dispute or situation which may cause international friction;
• Recommend methods to settle or settlement conditions for said disputes;
• Formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments;
• Determine whether there is a threat to the peace or an act of aggression and recommend
which measures should be taken;
• Encourage Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures which do not imply
the employment of force, in order to prevent or stop aggression;
• Employ military action against aggressors;
• Recommend the incorporation of new Members;
• Exercise United Nations trusteeship functions in “strategic zones”; and
• Recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General (SG)
and, in conjunction with the Assembly, appoint the magistrates of the International Court
of Justice.
14
This principle has naturally been the cause of controversy and deep-reaching studies into the world political and academic
arena in order to facilitate its commitment within a framework of worldwide truth, justice, fairness, and neutrality. Thus
Articlde 2. No. 1 states, “The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.”
15
The Charter reads as follows: (1) In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer
on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in
carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf. (2) In discharging these duties the
Security Council shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The specific powers granted
to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII. (3) The Security
Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its consideration.
16
Art. 25: The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance
with the present Charter.
Actions which the SC can Take to Maintain the Peace
• The application of preventive and provisional measures. This includes requesting a

ceasefire or putting an end to hostilities and sending observers to supervise truces or a
peacekeeping operation. Chapter VI is generally adhered to. (e.g., Kashmir; Iraq in 1990)
• The application of coercive measures without the employment of force. Coercive
measures are used including economic blockades, the interruption of communications, or
rupture of diplomatic relations. Chapter VII, Art.41 is followed. (e.g, South Rhodesia in
1965, South Africa 1963, Iraq 1990, Serbia and Montenegro 1992)
• The application of coercive measures with the employment of force. This is the
exclusive prerogative of the SC. Chapter VII, Art. 43 is followed. (e.g., Iraq-Kuwait
1990, Somalia 1993, Haiti 1994, Bosnia 1995, Kosovo 1999, Haiti 2004)
Other Actions which can be Taken by the SC
• The employment of force in humanitarian military intervention. This takes place

when there are human rights violations. Chapter VII is followed. (e.g., Yugoslavia 1990-
2000, Rwanda 1994)
• SC legal actions: Constitution of International Criminal Courts. These were established
in the early 1990s due to serious violations of human rights and international human
rights. Chapter VII is followed. (e.g., Yugoslavia 1993, Rwanda 1994)
The Development of the Security Council and Actions for Maintaining the Peace
The word “peacekeeping” does not appear in the Charter of the United Nations. The UN
Charter was drafted in the immediate aftermath of World War II, and the structure of the UN
Charter was designed to provide mechanisms that would prevent the sort of cross-border
aggression that precipitated World War II. The concept of peacekeeping evolved as a series of ad
hoc interventions in the late 1940s, beginning with the early missions in the Middle East and the
India-Pakistan border.
The late 1940s were also the early years of the Cold War, when the Soviet Union and the
United States were each suspicious of the other’s intent. With both these superpowers wielding
the veto power in the Security Council, early UN peacekeeping missions could only exist in a
narrow range on the political spectrum as one superpower or the other would veto any Security
Council Resolution that would establish a peacekeeping mission that might favour the other.
It was during these early days that traditional peacekeeping was developed. The typical
scenario for traditional peacekeeping was that two nations were at war, neither side could prevail
militarily, neither side was willing to capitulate, but both sides sought a face-saving way out.
When both sides in the conflict asked for UN intervention, there would be an agreed-upon cease-
fire, and both sides would withdraw. The UN Security Council would authorise a peacekeeping
mission that called for the insertion of unarmed or lightly armed blue-helmeted peacekeepers
between the two sides. It was the purpose of the UN peacekeepers to monitor and support the
ceasefire, while diplomats would seek a more permanent political solution. It was never the
intent that peacekeeping missions would be permanent.
The key feature to traditional peacekeeping was the consent of both parties. While
Chapter VI deals with the pacific settlement of disputes through negotiation, mediation, and
arbitration, and Chapter VII deals with coercive measures and the collective use of force,
traditional peacekeeping came to be known informally as “Chapter Six and a Half.” It was the
former UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld who coined this phrase, and who worked with
the former Prime Minister of Canada, Lester B. Pearson, on the development and implementation
of traditional peacekeeping.
The first two peacekeeping missions during the 1940s were: in 1948 (UNTSO, United
Nations Truce Supervision Organisation) with military observers sent to oversee the ceasefire
after the first Arab-Israeli war; and in 1949 (UNMOGIP, United Nations Military Observer
Group in India and Pakistan) in the region of Jammu and Kashmir. These were followed by
another 15 operations until the year 1989.
The UN Security Council Chamber passes a

Security Council Resolution by a show of hands.
The Security Council and World Peace Since 1989
New Challenges After the End of the Cold War
With the close of the Cold War and an end of superpower rivalry, members of the
international community began to ask if the United Nations and the Security Council could play
a larger role in maintaining international peace and security. In January 1992, the Security
Council convened a summit attended by China’s Prime Minister Li Peng, French President
Francois Mitterrand, Russian President Boris Yeltsin, the United Kingdom’s Prime Minister
John Major, United States President George H.W. Bush, and heads of state of the non-permanent
members of the Security Council. The gathered heads of state instructed the new UN Secretary-
General Boutros Boutros-Ghali to draft a blueprint for how the United Nations and the
international community could play a more significant role in maintaining peace and security.
Several months later Butros Butros-Ghali issued An Agenda For Peace, in which he saw UN
Peacekeeping going beyond the narrow definition of traditional peacekeeping. He called for the
UN to play a more pro-active role and not wait for the onset of hostilities. He called for several
additional peace-related measures, among these Peace Building and Peace Enforcement. He
acknowledged that “the root causes of conflict are pervasive and deep” and called for a widening
of “the size, scope, and complexity” of UN peacekeeping missions.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, it was observed that the former Soviet Republics in
Eastern Europe and Central Asia yearned for autonomy. The first Gulf War took place in the
Middle East with state-of-the-art warfare technologies, Yugoslavia began falling apart in Central
Europe, inter-state tribal struggles arose in Africa, and Islamic currents became radical in
Afghanistan. These new situations fueled a series of armed conflicts which contributed towards
de-stabilising world peace. Not only were armed conflicts becoming more frequent but also
more complex. Therefore, an entire reengineering was required starting from the Security
Council in order to face these new challenges for world peace. As a result, the Security Council
created the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), which replaced the former Field
Administration and Logistics Division (FALD).
The DPKO and World Peace
The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations has the following mission statement:
In accordance with the purposes and principles enshrined in the Charter of the
United Nations, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) is dedicated
to assisting the Member States and the Secretary-General in their efforts to
maintain international peace and security. The Department's mission is to plan,
prepare, manage and direct UN peacekeeping operations, so that they can
effectively fulfil their mandates under the overall authority of the Security
Council and General Assembly, and under the command vested in the Secretary-
General. 17
DPKO Organisation
Source: UN
17
At: http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/info/page3.htm
A Summary of Peacekeeping Operations18
Legal Basis Type Action

Chapters VI and VI ½ • observation
First Generation: • interposition
In 1992, B. Ghali defined these • supervision
as: “to help maintain or restore Traditional
peace in conflict zones.” Peacekeeping (only with military personnel
under the UN mandate)
• humanitarian aid
• institutional strengthening
• political party encouragement
Chapter VI ½ 2nd Generation: • protection of minority rights
• election organisation
Consent of the parties to the Variable Finality • promotion of economic
conflict. Peacebuilding19 development
• natural disasters
(multidisciplinary under UN
personnel plus NGOs)
• interruption of economic and
3rd Generation: diplomatic relations in addition
Chapter VII to all kinds of communications
Article 41,42 Employment of Force • use of air, navy and land forces
(Peace Enforcement)
(multidisciplinary under UN
personnel plus NGOs)
Chapter VIII20
The same described for
To achieve peace by means of Chapters VI and VII
Regional Agencies and by 2nd and 3rd
peaceful means before submitting Generation: (multidisciplinary under the
these to the SC, which may respective regional agency
authorise coercive means under Peacebuilding and authorised by the SC)
its authority with the previous Peace Enforcement
agreement of the SC.
(Actions under
Chapters VI and VII)
18
Maroswki, Carl. Class notes. Master's in Peacekeeping Operations. ACAGUE. Chile. 2003. Adapted by the author.
19
Marowski, Carl. Class notes. Master's in Peacekeeping Operations. ACAGUE. Chile. 2003. Adapted by the author.
Peacebuilding “is based on Chapter VI of the UN Charter for the monitoring and implementation of impartial peacekeeping
agreements, limiting the employment of force and in legitimate defence and helping to promote consent.” Measures (which
are not included in the table) for the consolidation of peace can also be included, acting under Chapters VI, VII, and VIII.
20
Regional agencies recognized by the UN are: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS, the former USSR), Organization of American
Status (OAS), Organization of African Unity (OAU), Economic Community of West African Status (ECOWAS), ARF
ASEAN Regional Forum.
Peacekeeping Operation Characteristics
We have already seen that peacekeeping operations have evolved from the first
peacekeeping mission in 1948 until the present. Their characteristics are as follows:
• Classic Peacekeeping Operations21

− Limited spectrum: conflict termination
− Just one discipline: the Armed Forces
− Just one organisation: the United Nations
− Scarce media dissemination
• Complex Peacekeeping Operations22
− Wide-reaching23
− Multidisciplinary24
− Multiple organisations25
− Intense media coverage26
• Changes made
− From classic peacekeeping operations to modern peacekeeping operations
− From international wars to domestic conflicts
− From simple operations to complex operations
− From occasional media dissemination to intense media scrutiny
• UN Principles for Peace Operations
− Consent
− Impartiality
− Minimum necessary force
− Legitimacy
− Respect of sovereignty
− Credible force structure and composition
− Mutual respect
− Transparency
− Unity of command
− Interoperability
− Freedom of movement
• Complex Peacekeeping Operation Missions and Functions
− Truce supervision, ceasefire monitoring, military observation
− Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reintegration and Rehabilitation (DDRR)
− Humanitarian aid
− Electoral assistance
21
Also known as first generation or tradicional peacekeeping (carried out during the Cold War).
22
Also known as multidimensional, multi-purpose, or modern peacekeeping.
23
This refers to the fact that these operations not only pursue military objectives (peace, security) but also social and political
objectives (economic development, political stability, democracy).
24
These commit the participation of military personnel, the police, and civilians.
25
For example, professionals and specialists from different UN agencies and the participation of several NGOs.
26
Due to the development of information and communication Technologies, which report live from the scene of the event.
− Human rights (HR)

− United Nations Police (UNPOL)
− Clearing landmines
− Cooperation with local and regional organisations as well as NGOs
Organisation of Multidimensional Missions
Some Peacekeeping Operation Definitions27
• Establishment of peace: encompasses those measures which aim to help parties in

conflict to reach an agreement, which can hopefully be reached peaceably.
• Maintenance of peace: understood as the on-site deployment of United Nations
peacekeeping forces (including military, police, and civilian personnel) with the consent
of all parties involved. This is an effective technique for enhancing conflict prevention.
• Consolidation of peace: the series of measures which aim to define and strengthen those
structures that tend to reinforce peace and avoid conflict reengagement.
27
According to the Brahimi Report, August 2000.
LESSON SUMMARY
25 June 1945: The United Nations was founded. This was the first universal international
agency created to promote peace and international security, and it is still relevant today.
The Security Council: One of the UN's six agencies.

• Mission: Maintain peace for international security. Responsible for preventing and
eliminating threats to the peace, facing acts of aggression or breaches of world peace in
keeping with the principles and purposes of the UN.
• Actions for preserving the peace:
− Application of preventive and provisional measures
− Application of coercive measures without the employment of force
− Application of coercive measures with the employment of force
• Other actions:
− The employment of force in humanitarian military intervention (human rights)
− Legal actions (constitution of special International Criminal Courts)
• Creation of the DPKO (1992):
− Due to the huge increase and deep-reaching changes in the nature of post-Cold
War conflicts
− Mission: To plan, prepare, manage, and direct UN peacekeeping operations
• Changes made in peacekeeping operations:
− From classic peacekeeping operations to modern peacekeeping operations
− From international wars to domestic conflicts
− From simple operations to complex operations
− From occasional media dissemination to intense media scrutiny
LESSON 1
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. At the Vienna Convention in 1815, the four powers that defeated the Napoleonic Empire met.
These were:
a. Austria, France, Russia, and the UK;
b. Austria, Germany, Russia, and the UK;
c. Austria, Prussia, Russia, and the UK;
d. France, Prussia, Russia, and the UK.
2. The first international political organisation of a universal nature in history to propose the
pacific settlement of disputes was:
a. The Treaty of Versailles;
b. The Pact of the United Nations;
c. The United Nations;
d. The First Hague Conference.
3. With the exception of the Crimean War, the longest period of peace in Western history
lasted:
a. 49 years;
b. 59 years;
c. 69 years;
d. 99 years.
4. The levels existing before the approval of the United Nations Charter in June 1945 were:
a. The Inter-Allied Declaration, the Atlantic Charter, and the Teheran Conference;
b. The Atlantic Charter, the Declaration of the United Nations, and the Conferences of
San Francisco, Moscow and Yalta;
c. The Inter-Allied Declaration, the Atlantic Charter, the Declaration of the United
Nations, and the Moscow, Teheran, and Washington Conferences;
d. The Atlantic Charter and the Inter-Allied Declaration.
5. The Security Council is made up of:

a. Only 15 permanent members;
b. 5 permanent members and 10 non-permanent members;
c. 8 permanent members and 10 non-permanent members;
d. 16 members (permanent and non-permanent).
6. The SC is responsible for maintaining international peace and security in accordance with
which chapters of the UN Charter?
a. Chapters VI, VII, and VIII;
b. Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII;
c. Chapters VI and VII;
d. Chapters VII and XII.
7. The application of coercive measures with the employment of force is one of the three actions
the SC can employ for peacekeeping, and it acts in accordance with:
a. Chapters VI and XII;
b. Chapters VI and VII, article 42;
c. Chapter VII, article 43;
d. Chapter XII, article 40.
8. The creation of the DPKO in 1992 was especially due to:

a. The changing nature of conflict (type and causes);
b. The end of the Cold War;
c. The increase in number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs);
d. High demand from the Security Council.
9. Some of the principles of a modern PKO include having a force which features impartiality,
credibility, mutual respect, legitimacy, and interoperability.
a. True
b. False
10. All missions and functions of a peacekeeping operation are determined by:
a. The guiding principles for the UN System;
b. The head of the peacekeeping mission;
c. The UN military accompanying the peacekeepers;
d. The Secretary-General.
ANSWER KEY:
1c, 2c, 3d, 4c, 5b, 6b, 7c, 8a, 9a, 10a
LESSON 2
SEX AND GENDER:

DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
2.1 Introduction
2.4 Perspectives and Misunderstandings about
Gender Studies in PKOs
Lesson 2 / Sex and Gender: Definitions and Concepts 20
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson will provide the student with some concepts and definitions of the terms sex
and gender. Different points of view have been considered for their definitions in terms of how
they are used colloquially and academically, as well as in the United Nations, its agencies, and
peacekeeping operations. This lesson has been placed at the beginning of the course because
these terms will be used throughout the entire course.
• Recognise the concept of sex and the variables which determine it;
• Recognise the importance of gender issues and the academic reasons for applying the
concept;
• Differentiate the concepts of gender and sex in order to apply them properly within a
United Nations context; and
• Recognise and differentiate different terms used regarding gender and its incorporation
into the context of the United Nations, its agencies, and peacekeeping missions.

2.1 Introduction
Before the 1970s, it was understood by most theorists that one's biological sex
determined one’s gender. From that time, “feminist theorists began to question the biological
determinism implicit in the causal relationship between biological sex and gender by theorising a
distinction between sex and gender. A need for structure was still present in the 1970s and, at the
time, over-generalisation across cultures was not a concern.”1
What Does Sex Mean for Human Beings?
Determining a person's sex has an exclusively biological connotation, and several factors
determine whether a human being is identified as female or male. This distinction is known as
sexual differentiation2 and occurs in different phases from conception to birth:
• Chromosomic sex: takes place during the conception of a human being, which is to say,
upon union of the female gametes (the ovum) and male gametes (spermatozoid), which
make up the zygote. Each sex cell contains 23 chromosomes in its nucleus, one of which
contains the information that will determine the future chromosomic sex: the ovum
provides chromosome X and the sperm provides chromosome X or Y. The union of these
two chromosomes will determined male sex (XY) or female sex (XX).
• Gonadal sex: refers to the differentiation of the gonad (ovary or testicle) during fetal
development. This differentiation takes place due to certain hormones that act in the
primitive, undifferentiated gonad. At the end of this stage, we speak of phenotypical sex
(8th-10th week of gestation), which is eventually responsible for the development of
female internal genitals or male external genitals.
• Hormonal sex: masculinisation of the fetus is determined by three hormones secreted by
the masculine fetal gonad (testosterone and others), which allows for the development of
male reproductive organs. In this stage, the female phenotype does not require a female
gonad. The final formation of female genital organs is produced by the maturing of the
ovary follicle during the last stage of gestation.
• Female and male secondary characteristics: become present during puberty due to the
production of hormones, which enables the maturing of sex cells (ovums and sperm)
from the testicles and ovaries. These provide secondary characteristics for men (pubic
and axilar hair, whiskers, deep voice, triangular body, etc.) and women (growth of
mammary glands, pubic and axilar hair, menstrual flow, guitar-shaped body, etc.).
• Pathologies in sexual differentiation: as is the case with any living organism, there are
sexual differentiation disorders in each of the stages, which lead to chromosomic,
gonadal pathologies and diverse phenotypes.
1
At: http://culturecat.net/node/149
2
Harrison. Principios de Medicina Interna. Ed Interamericana-Mc Grow-Hill. Mexico. 1989. p. 2,239.
A person's sex is:

• Biologically determined
• Determined at birth and cannot be changed
• Universal for the human species
What is Gender?
The term gender was introduced by U.S. anthropologist Gayle Rubins, renowned for her
1975 essay titled The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex, in which she
coined the phrase ‘sex/gender system.’ In her essay, “she attempts to discover the origin of the
subjugation of women over time. She draws upon Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, Claude Levi-
Strauss, Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan besides many others, in her effort to unravel what
she calls the sex/gender system: the set of arrangements that condemn women to a secondary
position in human relations.”3 However, when the criteria generally used to define femaleness
and maleness are examined more closely, it becomes apparent that the assignment or
determination of sex occurs at multiple levels. Therefore, since the mid-1970s, it was agreed that
the use of these two concepts should be differentiated.
Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our
families, our societies, and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the expectations
held about the characteristics, aptitudes, and behaviours of both women and men (femininity and
masculinity). Gender roles and expectations are learned. They can change over time, and they
vary within and between cultures. Systems of social differentiation—such as political status,
class, ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age, and others—modify gender roles. The
concept of gender is vital because, when applied to social analysis, it reveals how subordination
or domination is socially constructed. As such, the subordination can be changed or ended.
Gender:
• Is about women and men
• Is not biologically determined
• Varies from culture to culture
• Varies over time
• Is learned, which implies that gender roles
can be changed over time
Moreover, gender refers to the socially constructed roles, responsibilities, norms,

expectations, and stereotypes accorded to men and women in areas such as, for example, the
division of labour, power-sharing, and decision-making.4
3
Shah, Rabia Nafees. At: http://www.clas.ufl.edu/boards/owl/f03-5538/messages/39.html
4
Gender and Peacekeeping Operations. Generic Training. Training and Evaluation Service. Military Division. DPKO.
United Nations. p. 82-84.
The following are additional definitions for terms used in gender studies.
• Gender identity5 of men and women in given society is socially and psychologically
determined. Where people live together, culture will arise: they will develop common
values and rules to internalise it. The more hierarchical a society, the more oppression
there will be regarding the differences of power.
• Gender roles6 are roles that women and men are expected to play in society.
Socialisation teaches and reinforces these roles. The culture of the community defines
these roles. They can be found in three categories:
− Reproductive role
− Productive role
− Community role7
Gender Roles
• Gender roles are based on social concerns, and not

on physical or biological concerns
• These vary according to the context*
− socio-economic
− political
− cultural
• These may be affected by:
− age
− race
− social classes or caste
− ethnicity
* Extracted from: Handbook of UN Multimensional Peaekeeping Operations. Chapter IX. p. 113.
5
Ibid
6
Ibid
7
Attitudes towards men’s and women’s work is referred to as the gender division of labour.
Gender Stereotypes
MALE FEMALE
• Independent • Dependent
• Rational • Weak
• Powerful • Incompetent
• Competent • Emotional
• Logical • Implementers
• Decision-makers • Housekeepers
• Bread-winners • Supporters
• Leaders • Fearful
• Brave • Peacemakers
• Aggressive • Fickle
• Consistent • Fragile
• Protectors
• Gender-responsive objectives are programme and project objectives that are non-
discriminatory, equally benefitting women and men and aimed at correcting gender
imbalances.
• Gender needs8 because men and women may have different positions in society based on
their gender roles, they also have gender needs in order to fulfil those roles more
effectively.
• Practical needs refer to what women (and/or men) perceive as immediate necessities,
such as water, shelter, and food.
• Gender perpectives implies analysis of social relations between women and men, and
girls and boys, in a given culturally and historically determined context. It is focused on
the social dynamics that underlie unequal access to power, land, resources, or decision-
making.9
• Gender equality means that women and men have equal conditions for realising their
full human rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural,
and political development. Gender equality is, therefore, the equal valuing by society of
the similarities and the differences of men and women and the roles they play. It is based
on women and men being full partners in their home, their community, and their society.
Additionally, gender equality refers to equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities of
women and men, and girls and boys. It is a human-rights issue and a precondition for and
indicator of sustainable people-centred development. According to the UNPKO “Gender
Resource Package for Peacekeeping Operations” (2004), gender equality:
8
Gender and Peacekeeping Operations. Generic Training. Training and Evaluation Service. Military Division. DPKO. United
Nations. p. 82-84.
9
Ibid, p. 82-83.
…does not mean that woman and men will become the same, but
women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not
depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equality implies
that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are taken
into consideration.
• Gender equity is the process of being fair to men and women. To ensure fairness,
measures must often be put in place to compensate for the historical and social
disadvantages that prevent women and men from operating on a level playing field.
Equity is a means. Equality is the result.
• Empowerment is about
people—both women and
men—taking control over
their lives: setting their own
agendas, gaining skills,
building self-confidence,
solving problems, and
developing self-reliance. No
one can empower another:
only the individual can
empower herself or himself
to make choices or to speak
out. However, institutions
including international
cooperation agencies can Ivorian widows run a small restaurant in Yopougon with the help
support processes that can of the non-governmental organisation, Les Compagnes de Ruth
nurture self-empowerment of (March 2005). (Source: UN Photo #NICA 68438 by Ky Chung)
individuals or groups.
• Gender division of labour is the result of how each society divides work among men
and among women according to what is considered suitable or appropriate to each
gender.
• Gender mainstreaming is a process rather than a goal. Efforts to integrate gender into
existing institutions of the mainstream have little value for their own sake. Gender
concerns are mainstreamed in order to achieve gender equality and improve the relevance
of development agendas. Such an approach shows that the costs of women’s
marginalisation and gender inequalities are borne by all. Gender mainstreaming:
entails bringing the perception, experience, knowledge and interests of
women and men to bear on policy-making, planning and decision-
making. Mainstreaming does not replace the need of targeted, women-
specific policies and programmes, and positive legislation; nor does it do
away with the need for gender units or focal points.10
10
“Women, Peace and Security.” UN. 2002. p. 4.
Gender Mainstreaming* refers to:

“The process of assessing the implication for women and men of any planned
action, including legislation, policies and programmes in all areas and at all
levels. It is a strategy for making the concern and experiences of women and
men an integral dimension of design, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal
spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not
perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.”
* ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions 1997/2.

UNPKO. Gender Resource Package for Peacekeeping Operations. UN. 2004 (Document A/52/3/Rev.I).
• Gender balance refers to the degree to which men and women hold the full range of
positions in a society or organisation. The UN has a goal of achieving a 50/50 balance in
all professional posts.
Gender Balance*:
“Refers to the equal representation of women and men at all
levels of employment. The General Assembly has set the
goal of achieving a 50-50 representation between women
and men in all professional posts, particularly in decision
making and senior positions.”
* Gender Resource Package for PKO. United Nations. 2004. p.4
• Gender balance and gender mainstreaming are directly related to and support gender
equality. Both are different but related. There is much evidence that gender balance in
and of itself increases gender mainstreaming. However, gender mainstreaming is the
responsibility of both women and men.
• Gender discrimination is any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of
sex. In negative women’s discrimination, it can be seen as the way to share power,
decision-making, food intake, opportunities to develop skills, access to education,
choosing a life partner, or owning property. Any kind of discrimination has an impact on
social, economic, legal, or political areas of society.
Discrimination against women*:

“…shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made of the basis of sex
which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition,
enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a
basis of equality, of men and women, of human rights and fundamental
freedom in the political, economic, cultural, civil or any other field.”
* Gender Resource Package for PKO. United Nations. 2004. p.3

• Gender analysis is the collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated information. Men

and women both perform different roles. This leads to women and men having different
experiences, knowledge, talents, and needs. Gender analysis explores these differences so
policies, programmes, and projects can identify and meet the different needs of men and
women. Gender analysis also facilitates the strategic use of distinct knowledge and skills
possessed by women and men. Additionally, gender analysis can include systematic
efforts to identify and to document women’s and men’s roles within an specific context
and their potential impact on planned interventions.
Gender analysis11 means looking at the different roles and activities which women, men,
girls, and boys have in a particular society and the social relationships between them. It
means asking: “Who does what? Who makes decisions? Who derives the benefits? Who
uses resources such as land or credit? Who controls these resources?” and “What other
factors influence relationships?” (such as laws regarding property rights and inheritance).
Examining these aspects of a society reveals differences between the experience of
women, men, girls and boys and the differences in their needs.
• Sex-disaggregated data is data that is collected and presented separately on men and
women.
• Strategic (gender) interests. Interventions addressing strategic gender interests focus on
fundamental issues related to women’s (or, less often, men’s) subordination and gender
inequities. Strategic gender interests are long-term, usually not material, and are often
related to structural changes in society regarding women’s status and equity. These
include legislation for the equal rights of women and increased participation in decision-
making. The notion of “strategic gender needs,” first coined in 1985 by Maxine
Molyneux, helped develop gender planning and policy development tools, such as the
Moser Framework, currently being used by development institutions around the world.
Note: The purpose of introducing such distinctions between needs is to alert the programme
specialist to the importance of addressing the structural challenges to women’s empowerment.
The purpose is not to lock women’s realities and experiences into rigid and pre-conceived
notions of what a strategic need is versus what corresponds to a practical need. In many
instances, changes in women’s practical conditions of life have an effect on power relations
between men and women within the community.
Gender Psychosocial Levels
Usual assigned sex It’s a girl It’s a boy
Usual gender of rearing You are a girl You are a boy
Usual gender identity I am a girl/woman I am a boy/man
11
Gender and Peacekeeping Operations. Generic Training. Training and Evaluation Service. Military Division. DPKO. United
Nations. 2004. p. 22.
2.4 Perspectives and Misunderstandings about Gender Studies in PKOs12
• Gender is a controversial issue: It can be so for many reasons, such as:

− Confusion between sex and gender. In many languages, there is little or no
linguistic distinction between these two terms.
− It is essential when distinguishing the two meanings to understand gender
relations and the genderised nature of any society.
• Gender is an emotional subject: It strikes at the heart of who we are as individuals.
Being male or female is integral to our being: how we face the world, how it perceives
us, how we are expected to behave, the tasks we undertake, and how we relate to other
females or males.
• Gender is a political issue: It encompasses all aspects of our social structure, from the
family core to state institutions.
• Gender is often classified as a women’s issue: It is important that this misconception be
done away with. The reason can be focused on women’s interests since patriarchy is a
universal norm of social construction. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that male
perception, male value systems, and male priorities have blinded us to the genderised
nature of societies. Research regarding the effects of war on women, the abuse of
women’s rights, the treatment of women by peacekeepers, and the exclusion of women in
public affairs is relatively recent. The purpose of this is not to exclude males, but to
correct the gender balance.
• Gender is a serious issue. It has far-reaching implications. Learning about gender issues
helps us to understand the importance of gender roles and their responsibilities
throughout all peacekeeping and peace-building processes.
Liberian refugees in a transit camp in Abdjan. These girls are being

taught “female” activities during this conflict, hence reinforcing the
gender stereotype of domestic chores being reserved for women.
(Source: UN Photo #NICA 32504 by Eskinder Debebe, August 2004)
12
Gender in Peacekeeping Operations. Training Evaluations Service. DPKO. United Nations. 2002. p. 11-12.
LESSON SUMMARY
• The concept of gender was born in the mid-1970s. It was created by the anthropologist
Gayle Rubins.
• Sex and gender are different concepts.
• Sex is biological and determined at birth, it cannot be changed and it is universal.
• Gender is socially determined and refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and
women that are created in our families, our societies, and our cultures. Gender:
− Is about women and men
− Is not biologically determined
− Varies between cultures
− Is learned, which implies that gender roles can be changed over time.
• Gender is affected by the following factors:
− Socioeconomic
− Political
− Cultural
• Age
• Race
• Social classes or castes
• Ethnicity
• There are both masculine and feminine stereotypes.
• Gender balance, gender equality, and gender equity are all different concepts.
• Gender balance refers to achieving a 50/50 balance between women and men (as in any
society) in all organisations.
• Gender equality refers to equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities for women and
men and girls and boys. Equality is the result of gender equity.
• Gender equity is the process of being fair to men and women. Equity is a means.
• Gender analysis means looking at the different roles and activities that women, men,
girls, and boys have in a particular society and the social relationships between them.
• Gender concept misunderstandings is an issue which affects all activities of a society, and
its objectives are far-reaching since societies have traditionally been built following
patriarchal standards.
LESSON 2
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The term gender was introduced by Gayle Rubins in the:

a. 1960s
b. 1970s
c. 1980s
d. 1990s
2. A person's sex is:

a. Determined by the environment;
b. Determined biologically and cannot be changed;
c. The same as a person’s gender;
d. Determined by the parents within the first year of the child’s life.
3. Gender is about:
a. Women's issues;
b. Men's and women's issues;
c. Male and female sexuality issues;
d. Issues regarding the roles of men and women within a society.
4. Which of the following implies the concept of gender?

a. It is learned and varies over time and from culture to culture;
b. It is learned and is biologically determined;
c. These are men's and women's issues, and it is not biologically determined;
d. It is compatible with a person’s sex.
5. Gender is based on social issues. Culturally speaking, these factors affect:

a. Age, race, social class or caste, and ethnicity;
b. Socio-economic aspects;
c. Political aspects;
d. Biological aspects.
6. Gender equality is a result of gender equity.

a. True
b. False
7. Gender mainstreaming:
a. Is a policy;
b. Is a programme;
c. Achieves sex equality;
d. Is a process rather than a goal.
8. Gender balance and gender mainstreaming support gender equality.

a. True
b. False
9. Gender discrimination:
a. Takes advantage of women;
b. Takes advantage of men;
c. Is any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of sex;
d. Is any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of culture.
10. Peacekeepers must know the effects of war on women, the abuse of women’s rights, the
treatment of women by peacekeepers, and the exclusion of women in public affairs. These
topics are:
a. Directly related to gender issues in any society;
b. Based on the victim’s sex;
c. Determined by the specific culture;
d. Directly related to gender issues in underdeveloped societies.
ANSWER KEY:
1b, 2b, 3d, 4a, 5c, 6a, 7d, 8a, 9c, 10a
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LESSON 3
UNDERSTANDING
CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICT
3.1 Introduction
3.5 Contemporary Conflict: From 1989 to the Present
(Post-Modern Era)
Lesson 3 / Understanding Contemporary Armed Conflict 34
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson will provide the student with some academic concepts about conflict, its
historical evolution, its theories, its characteristics, and its definitions. The introduction has been
included in order to provide the peacekeeper with the tools needed to understand contemporary
armed conflict (CAC) and its impact on society, as well as to enable the peacekeeper to
distinguish how these concepts relate to the concerns of a modern peacekeeping mission.
After studying the material contained in this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Relate the evolution of conflict theories to contemporary armed conflict;

• Properly use the terminology and concepts related to war and modern conflict from a
perspective of the United Nations, its agencies, or other organisations with which the
student may be required to coordinate;
• Understand the causes of contemporary armed conflict and their relation to
multidimensional peacekeeping missions; and
• Identify the impact that modern armed conflict has on the civilian population and its
relationship to gender issues.

3.1 Introduction
From ancient times, there have been different theories to explain the origin of conflict
and its characteristics. These theories are based on the premise that conflict is a social
phenomenon, since conflict stems from life within society. Two phenomena spontaneously arise
from this interaction: cooperation and conflict. In general, the philosophical debates on the
theories of conflict are based on its political nature and on two lines of thought; one is called
realistic and appeals to the war-like (negative) nature of people, and the other is idealistic,
appealing to his peaceful (positive) nature. Theorists and academics base their ideas upon these
two concepts in order to explain the political phenomenon of conflict.
At the same time, starting with the most primitive societies, there is a type of natural
organisation, which implies the exercise of power. This regulates human behaviour in that
society; thus, we speak of people’s political nature. Societies have been evolving and becoming
more complex units, and therefore, the exercise of power has also been evolving. However, no
matter what period of human history we wish to analyse, humans strive for the common good as
well as collective and individual happiness.
We can understand the evolution of the exercise of power historically. In Ancient

Greece, for example, Aristotle saw the political nature of man (zoo politikon) from a realistic
perspective (i.e., “man is”). Plato,1 on the other hand, suggested the opposite: he saw man from
an idealistic perspective (i.e., “man must be”). In the Middle Ages, Saint Agustine2 proposed
that people must choose between “two cities”: an earthly city which highlights negative aspects
and lead into sin, and a celestial city (positive) which leads to salvation (The Kingdom of God).
Saint Thomas3 (highly influenced by Aristotle) said that people must be in balance with these
two forces and aim for the common good.
During the Renaissance, Machiavelli,4 concerned about the political disunity in Italy in
the face of so many wars, sought to unite his people by means of a prince, highlighting the most
negative and realistic aspects of governors. Hobbes,5 in England, on the other hand, explained
politics between two forces: monarchy and parliament. John Locke6 refuted Hobbes and
proposed political liberalism, whereas Locke’s successors of the following century
(Montesquieu,7 Diderot, and d’Alempert,8 all theorists on the U.S. Revolution, the French
Revolution, and Latin American freedom movements) proposed political liberalism and modern
democracy (followed by Rousseau9).
1
Plato, fragments of The Republic.
2
Saint Agustine, The City of God.
3
Saint Thomas, fragments of Commentary on the Sentences of Pedro Lombardo and Regiments and Princes.
4
Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince.
5
Thomas Hobbes, fragments of Leviathan.
6
John Locke, fragments of A Second Treatise on Civil Government.
7
Montesquieu, fragments of The Spirit of The Laws.
8
Diderot and D’Alempert, fragments of The Encyclopedia.
9
Jean Jaques Rousseau, fragments of The Social Contract.
During the 19th century, societies became more complex, and the studies of modern
social sciences and political economy were intensified. In addition to philosophy, history and law
were studied more in-depth, hence giving birth to political science in the 20th century. For
example, Tocqueville, just as Machiavelli had done, based his observations on the U.S.
democratic experience, and he believed that democracy and individual freedoms could help to
settle warlike conflicts in Europe. However, the problem turned out to be more than just a
question of political systems (monarchy and democracy). It centred, rather, on the political class
in a society of masses. Thus, we see the appearance of thinkers such as Mosca,10 Pareto, and
Michels who called for more openness and class participation for greater political effectiveness.
During the late 19th and early 20th century, Weber,11 who contributed study
methodologies and categorised political phenomena, became known as the most important
thinker of the pre-World War II era. Parsons12 then came along. He systemised socio-political
studies, in turn creating models and frames of reference for social sciences.
After World War II and starting in the 1950s, the studies of social and political science
were intensified, particularly by means of the scientific method. The behavioural movement
appeared, led by thinkers such as Easton,13 who introduced the concept of system analysis and
who saw politics as a system of human behaviour. Almond and Powell14 followed him. They
introduced the terms Political Socialisation and Political Culture, and suggested that political
attitudes and behavioural patterns are acquired.
After World War I and World War II, the search for world peace produced new political
phenomena, as well as new international political orders and balances. Due to the speed of these
changes in world power balances, theories and studies about conflict multiplied.
Today more than ever, and especially throughout this last decade, conflict situations have
become increasingly more complex. We live in a highly uncertain macro and micro social
environment, and the speed of political, scientific, technological, and social change makes the
study of conflict especially important.
As Freund says, conflict is always present in all societies. He states further that our
contemporary society is more conflictive since we have “witnessed an unprecedented
acceleration in the history of mutations and changes which have come together in a haphazard
fashion”15 and, therefore, regularities are always disturbed. Durkheim calls conflict anomy, a
sort of cankered civil war.
The second reason why our society is more disorganised is the speed of haphazard and
accelerated changes that “impacts the principles which condition human activities” (political
authority or economic balances). According to Freund, these factors lead us into “a
10
Gaetao Mosca, fragments of The History of Political Doctrine.
11
Max Weber, fragments of Economy and Society.Talcot Parsons, fragments of The Social System.
12
Talcot Parsons, fragments of The Social System.David Easton, fragments of A Framework for Political Analysis.
13
David Easton, fragments of A Framework for Political Analysis.
14
Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell, fragments of Comparative Politics.
15
Julian Freund, fragments of The Sociology of Conflict.
radicalisation of society's classes,” in such a way that “stronger groups would despotically
impose their points of view and opinions in order to impose order.”
His third argument is that today there is “a value conflict anarchy” which Weber called
“the antagonism of values which are mercilessly fought against in the modern world.” This leads
us to think that there seems to be no consistency in a global society between a political regime,
economic system, moral conduct, and religious or ethnic attachment. Freund, therefore,
concludes by stating that there is an increased politicisation of contemporary society's relations
and that “politics is the field for settling conflicts, since when they have reached a certain level of
intensity, the conflicts stemming from other activities become political.”
This brief summary shows how the existence of individual people as both the subject and
object of the society in which they live continues to evolve. Furthermore, the conflict that has
always accompanied humans evolves, as well.
The definitions of conflict are categorised as follows:
• Etymologically: in Latin, conflictus means a strike or collision of any kind. In modern

use, it means an intentional strike or collision.
• In political science: conflict is a voluntary strike.
• Lewis Coser16: conflict is a fight for access to resources, status, or power. The
incompatibility of actors arises when values are sought which cannot be attained by all.
Coser discards the idea of hostility (conflictive forms of behaviour), which does not
necessarily lead to conflict, since it is “always a trans-action.”
• Manuel Fraga: conflict is an inevitable relation, which cannot be separated from the idea
of society, since these are co-dependent.
• Max Weber: conflict is inevitable so long as some seek to prevail over others.
• Freund,17 Pfaltagreff, Dougerty,18 and other authors: conflict is a struggle of interests in
which different levels of tension are present.
• UN19: conflict occurs naturally and takes place when two or more parties find their
interests incompatible, express hostile attitudes, or take action, which damages the other
parties’ ability to pursue those interests.20 Conflict is not necessarily a negative thing and
can be a stimulus for addressing grievances. The key to dealing with conflict effectively
and to prevent it from turning violent is to create appropriate mechanisms and institutions
that ensure that needs and interests are met in an equitable and peaceful fashion.
16
Lewis Coser, “Las Funciones del Conflicto Social.”
17
Julian Freund, fragments of Sociologie du Conflict.
18
James E. Dougherty and Robert Pfaltagraff, fragments of Contending Theories of International Relations.
19
At: http://www.unssc.org/web1/programmes/ewpm/definitions.asp
20
Stiftung Wissenschaft and Politik/Conflict Prevention Network: Peace-Building & Conflict Prevention in Developing
Countries: A practical Guide, Draft Document, June 1999, p. 40.
The definitions of armed war are categorised as follows:
• Sun Tzu,21 in the 4th century B.C.E., stated with respect to war and conflict that “the art
of war is based on deceit in order to subdue the enemy without fighting.”
• Confucius, in the 4th century B.C.E., stated that “deceit and treachery exist and wars are
born of these.”
• Carl von Clausewitz,22 in the 19th century, stated that “war is the continuation of politics
by other means.”
• Waltz, in the 1950s, said: “the root of all evil lies in man; he in and of himself constitutes
the specific root of the evil of war.”
• War is armed conflict between states, organisations, or relatively large groups of people,
characterised by lethal violence between combatants or against civilians. Other terms for
war, which often serve as euphemisms, include armed conflict, hostilities, and police
action. War is contrasted with peace, which is usually defined as the absence of war.
• Conventional warfare is warfare that does not employ nuclear weapons or weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs). Instead, it is warfare in which regular troops from two or
more states with similar combat power face each other.
• War of liberation is a war to liberate an occupied country.
• Civil war23 is a war between factions of the same country. There are five criteria for
international recognition of this status: (1) the contestants must control territory; (2) they
must have a functioning government; (3) they must enjoy some foreign recognition; (4)
they must have identifiable and regular armed forces; and (5) they must engage in major
military operations.
• Symmetrical war (used until 1945) is war in which armies from different nation-states
of the same dependency, nature (in terms of organisation), and weapons oppose each
other on different fronts.
• Asymmetrical war is a modern U.S. concept that consists of armed conflict between two
adversaries whose military powers are highly disproportionate. Nonetheless, the actor
with less power compensates for this by the application of unconventional tactical
procedures, such as terrorism.
• Low-intensity warfare is also a U.S. concept that consists of maintaining a limited range
of employment of conventional forces; and therefore, the war is generated by limited
political objectives.
• Informal war is armed conflict where at least one of the antagonists is a non-state entity,
such as an insurgent army or an ethnic militia.24
21
Sun Tzu, “El Arte de la Guerra.” Ed. Fudamentos. Madrid. 1981.
22
Von Clausewitz, Carl. “De la Guerra.” NEED. Bs. A. Argentina. 1997.
23
At: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm
24
Metz, Steven. Armed conflict in the 21st century: the information revolution and post-modern warfare. 2003.
At: www.acces.gpo.govf.pdf
• Unconventional warfare25 (UW) is a definition used for a broad spectrum of military

and paramilitary operations conducted in enemy-held, enemy-controlled, or politically-
sensitive territories. Unconventional warfare includes, but is not limited to, the
interrelated fields of guerrilla warfare, evasion and escape, subversion, sabotage, and
other operations of a low visibility, covert, or clandestine nature. These interrelated
aspects of unconventional warfare may be prosecuted singly or collectively by
predominantly indigenous personnel, usually supported and directed in varying degrees
by an external source or sources during all conditions of war or peace.
• Gray area war26 is a phenomenon that combines elements of traditional warfare with
those of organised crime.
The definitions of armed conflict are categorised as follows:
• Ernie Regher27 defines armed conflict “as a political conflict in which armed combat
involves the armed forces of at least one state (or one or more armed factions seeking to
gain control of all or part of the state), and in which at least 1,000 people have been killed
by the fighting during the course of the conflict. An armed conflict is added to the annual
list of ‘Current Armed Conflicts’ in the year in which the death toll reaches the threshold
of 1,000; but the starting date of the armed conflict is shown as the year in which the first
combat deaths included in the count of 1,000 or more occurred.”
• The UN28 defines armed conflict as one in which at least two parties resort to the use of
force against each other. The definition is vague, since a number of different thresholds
and rules can be applied for deciding which conflicts qualify as armed.
• OCHA29 defines armed conflict as a dispute involving the use of armed force between
two or more parties.
• International humanitarian law distinguishes between international or non-
international armed conflicts. An international armed conflict is a war involving two or
more states, regardless of whether a declaration of war has been made or whether the
parties recognise that there is a state of war. A non-international armed conflict,
however, is one in which government forces are fighting with armed insurgents, or armed
groups are fighting amongst themselves.
• Political conflict30 becomes more difficult as the trend in current intrastate, armed
conflicts increasingly obscures the distinction between political and criminal violence. In
a growing number of armed conflicts, armed bands, militias, or factions engage in
criminal activity (e.g., theft, looting, extortion) in order to fund their political/military
campaigns, but frequently also for the personal enrichment of the leadership and the
25
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm
26
Metz, op. cit.
27
Regehr, Ernie. “Armed Conflict Report 2003.” At: http://www.ploughshares.ca/libraries/ACRText/ACR03-Introduction.htm.
Published annually in the yearbook of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, by Peter Wallensteen and
Margareta Sollenberg of the Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University (Sweden).
28
Miall, Hugo, O. Ramsbotham and T. Woodhouse. Contemporary Conflict Resolution. Polity Press: Cambridge. 1999. p. 20.
29
OCHA: Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN).
30
Regehr, op. cit.
general livelihood of the fighting forces. The violence that results from this social chaos,
armed combat, and state failure is not necessarily guided by a political program or a set
of political and military objectives. However, these trends are part of the changing
character of war. Thus, conflicts characterised more by social chaos than
political/military competition are included in the tabulation of current armed conflicts.
• Violent (or deadly) conflict is similar to armed conflict but also includes one-sided
violence, such as genocide or other gross human rights violations, against unarmed
civilians.31
• Low intensity conflict32 (LIC) is politico-military confrontation between contending
states or groups that is below conventional war but above the peaceful, routine
competition among states. It frequently involves protracted struggles of competing
principles and ideologies. Low intensity conflict ranges from subversion to the use of
armed force. It is waged by a combination of means, employing political, economic,
informational, and military instruments. Low intensity conflicts are often localised,
generally in the Third World, but contain certain regional and global security
implications.
For additional armed conflict definitions, please see Appendix C of this course.
3.5 Contemporary Conflict: From 1989 to the Present (Post-Modern Era33)
It is said that the arms (and space) race led to the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1989,
with the symbolic fall of the Berlin Wall in November. With the disintegration of the Soviet
Union, the United Nations was faced with new challenges for keeping world peace.
East and West Germany merged in 1990, and the communist governments of Eastern
Europe began to collapse. The Cold War was in its final days with the 1990 Paris Agreement. It
officially ended when NATO reached an agreement with Russia in October 1997, during the
Paris Convention. This brought an end to the existence of two political and ideological blocks
that had fought for world supremacy. With the Cold War officially over, the Warsaw Pact no
longer existed. The following disintegration of Yugoslavia allowed Europe to take the lead in
terms of regional and international security under the auspices of the UN, in turn implementing
actions for the maintenance and rebuilding of the peace in the region (which are still in force
today). Thus, an important role for international security began to arise, acting as a block that
was able to become an important political counterpart to the U.S.: the European Union.
This distribution of power directly affected the international security system, as well as
relations between and within states. State development, integration, and cooperation were
affected in conjunction with the phenomenon of globalisation, which has led to the appearance of
new tensions and armed conflict.
31
Miall, op. cit., p. 21.
32
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/100-20/10020gl.htm
33
The era we have been living in since the end of the Cold War has yet to be defined. This definition is arbitrary and is only
used for educational purposes.
War and Peace

1989-2006 and Beyond
The Paris Agreement
The First
Persian Gulf War
Disintegration of
Yugoslavia
The Balkan War
Interstate Wars
(Africa, Asia, Latin
America)
Genocide in
Rwanda
The Paris
Convention
(End of the Cold War)
U.S. Invasion of
Afghanistan following
September 11th
U.S. Invasion of Iraq
More Peace?
More War?
During the last decade of the 20th century and since the beginning of the 21st century,
nation-states have evidenced the need to face new and different threats that make them feel
vulnerable. These vulnerabilities may be economic, political, ethnic, value-based, cultural, or
military in nature. The evolution and globalisation of communications have enabled interaction
and interdependence between states and peoples, which has inevitably changed the nature of
conflict. We have been watching with concern how this situation has exacerbated over recent
years, namely with the overwhelming increase in civil wars, many of which have no clear
political objectives or defined actors.
Many of these post-Cold War conflicts have been characterised by short periods of peace
followed by even more virulent outbreaks of violence. This situation has led to great suffering
and desolation, especially among the civilian populations. Communities have been uprooted,
devastated, and wiped out, sometimes reaching proportions of genocide. Achieving peace,
stability, and the physical and political reconstruction of these states will take decades. Healing
wounds and feelings, such as mistrust, betrayal, or hate carried over from the war, is the
challenge for the future.
Causes of Contemporary Armed Conflicts (CAC)
Economic
According to some authors,34 one of the causes of contemporary armed conflicts (CAC) is
related to the control of economic resources—for example, oil, metals, diamonds, forests, and
water—and the disruption of territorial limits. Fighting for resources encourages the
militarisation of forces in conflict. In turn, it is the civilian population that suffers most from
factors such as pauperisation and ethnic and religious discrimination.
Economic armed
conflicts tend to arise within
poor, developing regions.
This setting of under-
development and poverty
makes peace-making an
enormous task that requires
continuously increased
financing and economic aid
from both the UN and
regional organisations or
governments willing to
provide.
At the same time,

with the modern phenomena
A hillside slum ravaged by armed bandits where MINUSTAH
of mass production and peacekeepers patrol. Port-Au-Prince, Haiti. June 2005. (Source: UN Photo
globalisation, we see that #85538 by Sophia Paris)
more wealth is being
produced with substantial economic and social benefits for the wealthy. However, as a result of
these benefits, the gap between the rich and the poor in many countries and societies—especially
in developing ones—is widening dangerously. Another negative result is the unequal
distribution of power and resources, which finally encourages or intensifies new conflicts.
34
Klare, Michael. The Resources War. The Future Scenario of Global Conflict. Urbano Tendencias, Barcelona. 2003.
Political
Globalisation has extended to the political processes, and in turn, new forms of
international law have appeared. These events go beyond our capacity to answer and adapt to
the changes they create. State borders have become more permeable, and the concepts of
sovereignty, borders, and the scope of international law are being questioned. In addition,
emerging threats, as seen in the appearance of non-conventional groups35 (involved in cyber
terrorism, drug trafficking, neo-slavery, illegal immigration, etc.), affect states globally. As a
result, “the State moves away from other states and becomes a detonator of its own
fragmentation which would detonate domestic conflicts due to ethnic considerations, extreme
nationalism, or religious fundamentalists who challenge central authorities.”36 Examples of this
trend can be seen in Somalia, Rwanda, Kosovo, and the Congo. Furthermore, these situations
are characterised by crudity and violence (especially towards the civilian population).
Lederach37 argues that “contemporary armed conflicts are more similar to communal and
inter-communal conflicts than they are to international or interstate conflicts. Such conflicts are
fuelled more by psychological or cultural factors than by substantive issues.”
Economic disparity, in conjunction with structural inequalities between and within

nation-states, has led to more regional conflicts (as in Africa) and to latent conflicts that have not
yet been settled. Until the beginning of the year 2006, half of UN peacekeeping missions were
deployed in Africa,38 all of which started in 1991. This regional situation is an example of the
characteristics of contemporary conflict.
As explained by some authors,39 a typology of Africa’s armed conflicts since 1990 can be
constructed under the following seven issues:
• Ethnic competition for control of the state;
• Regional or secessionist rebellion;
• Continuation of liberation conflicts;
• Fundamentalist religious opposition to secular authority;
• Warfare arising from state degeneration or state collapse;
• Border disputes; and
• Protracted conflicts within politicised militaries.
35
Smith, Paul. “Traditional Threats and Survival of the State, An Armed Forces Function.” Dec. 2000. Mr. Smith is a
researcher from the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies Center in Honolulu, and his research discusses transnational
security issues. He is the editor of Human Smuggling Magazine.
36
From an article by Captain Gonzalo Martín from the Argentine Army, “Papel de las FF.AA. en el siglo XXI.” UN statistics
indicate that after the 1990s, more than 85% of all conflicts were intrastate. From 1990 to 1995, there were 83 conflicts with
organized physical violence, of which 79 were domestic and low intensity or asymmetrical.
37
Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1997.
At: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/lede7424.htm
38
Three of these missions started in the 1990s (MINURSO 1991, UNAMSIL and MONUC 1999) and the rest between 2000
and 2005 (UNMEE, UNMIL, UNOCI, ONUB and UNMIS).
39
Lodge, Tom. “Towards un understanding of Contemporary Armed Conflict in Africa.”
At: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No36/ArmedConflict.html
Technological
The communications revolution, which began during the 1980s, was the main catalyst for
the deep-reaching changes listed above, by transforming the world into a global village. At the
same time, the superpowers' warfare technology is increasingly more sophisticated, encouraging
the development and commercialisation of the world’s defence industry (approximately 180
times greater than the UN's peacekeeping budget in a given year40). This encourages other
nations to do the same, thus continuously promoting the arms race for large and small countries.
As a result, existing conflicts tend to perpetuate, and new conflicts tend to arise.
In addition, the very nature of warfare has changed dramatically due to the development
of increasingly more sophisticated armament technology by the superpowers, which entails
greater emphasis on the increase and reinforcement of military power. Poor countries with
limited military power—and where intervention has taken place—struggle against invaders with
non-conventional means (terrorism, for example), which some call asymmetrical warfare.
Impact of Armed Conflict on the Civilian Population
Impact of Armed Conflict on the Civilian Population

Conflict Total Civilian Casualties
Casualties as percent of total
Before World War I: 5%
World War I (1914-18): 15 million 15%
World War II (1939-45): 55 million 65%
From the 1990s on 75-90%
The table above indicates the number of

casualties in armed conflicts from the beginning
of the 20th century41 and the percentage of the
civilian population affected:
Civilian victims in armed conflicts are

mostly found among the most vulnerable group,
namely, women and children. It is estimated
that victims due to gender discrimination
against women and children amount to
approximately 65-70% of civilian victims.
Therefore, it can be stated that gender issues are
Children in the town of Labado, where roughly 60,000 of
a perspective that should be considered during the town’s inhabitants had fled from violence and attacks.
all stages of a PKO (planning and development Darfur, 2005. (Source: UN Photo #77096, Evan Schneider)
during pre- and post-conflict).
40
See the figures at http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm and
http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/bnote.htm
41
LESSON SUMMARY
• Since ancient times, conflict theories have ranged between two philosophical lines of
thought, based on the political nature of people: realistic, which appeals to people’s warlike
(negative) nature (Aristotle); and idealistic, which appeals to our peaceful (positive) nature
(Plato).
• During the Middle Ages, many philosophers and thinkers tended towards one or the other, or
towards a balance between these two lines of thought (Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas).
• During the 19th century, the study of social sciences intensified (Locke, Montequieu, Hobbes,
Diderot), thus transferring conflict debate to government systems (monarchy, democracy)
and the political class (Tocqueville, Mosca, Pareto, Michels).
• Political Science appeared during the 20th century. Political phenomena were categorised
(Weber and Parsons after World War II) using social science models and reference
frameworks.
• In the 1950s, the scientific method was applied to social phenomena (Easton).
• In his book Sociology in Conflict, Freund suggests that our present society is more conflictive
due to accelerated changes which take place and accumulate in a haphazard fashion, and that
there is a lack of consistency between “political regimes, economic systems, moral conduct
and religious or ethnic attachment.” He says that “politics is the field for settling conflicts,
since when they have reached a certain level of intensity, the conflicts stemming from other
activities become political.”
• The concepts of war, conflict, and armed conflict are different.
• Violent conflict includes genocide and serious human rights violations against the unarmed
civilian population.
• Most conflicts that took place in the world between 1990 and 1995 were low intensity (95%).
• During the years following 2000, many of the UN’s peacekeeping missions were deployed in
Africa. This was due to structural causes that are political, economic, and technological in
nature.
• CAC is characterised by the fact that most victims are civilians, especially women and
children.
LESSON 3
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Starting in ancient times and up until the Middle Ages, conflict theories followed one of two
philosophical lines of thought. With which of the two is Plato commonly identified?
a. Realism;
b. Idealism;
c. Anomy;
d. Zoo politikon.
2. Development of the study of social sciences began in the 19th century, but political science
was born in the 20th century.
a. True
b. False
3. In his book The Sociology of Conflict, Freund states that our contemporary society is more
conflictive because:
a. Changes are fast-paced and accumulate in a haphazard fashion;
b. Societies are more organised;
c. Our society is involved in a sort of diseased civil war;
d. Changes are slower and occur in order.
4. Which author states that: “politics is the field for settling conflicts, since when [conflicts]
have reached a certain level of intensity, the conflicts stemming from other activities become
political.”
a. Weber;
b. Freund;
c. Parsons;
d. Machiavelli.
5. Freund states that in a global society, there is no consistency between political regime,
economic systems, moral conduct, and religious or ethnic affiliation, thus affecting the
increase of conflict.
a. True
b. False
6. A war that is characterised by the interrelated fields of guerrilla warfare, evasion and escape,
subversion, sabotage, and other operations of a low visibility, covert, or clandestine nature is
known as:
a. Symmetrical War;
b. Low-intensity War;
c. Unconventional Warfare;
d. War of Liberation.
7. Violent Conflict is similar to armed conflict but also includes:

a. Civilian and military victims;
b. Struggles between non-regular armies;
c. Genocide and human rights violations of unarmed civilians;
d. Fragmentation of political parties.
8. Between 1990 and 1995, UN statistics recorded 83 conflicts of which how many were
domestic and low intensity?
a. 31
b. 55
c. 79
d. 83
9. Many of the UN’s peacekeeping operatons were deployed in Africa during the years
following 2000. What are the main causes of this kind of conflict?
a. Political;
b. Political and technological;
c. Economic and technological;
d. Economic and political.
10. Contemporary armed conflict is characterised, among other factors, by the fact that most
victims are civilians. This trend has been increasing since the start of the 20th century. What
is the estimated current percentage of civilian victims?
a. 60%
b. 90%
c. Less than 70%
d. Over 75%
ANSWER KEY:
1b, 2a, 3a, 4b, 5b, 6c, 7c, 8c, 9d, 10b

LESSON 4
SEARCHING FOR
GENDER BALANCE AND GENDER EQUALITY:
A HISTORICAL RETROSPECTIVE

Lesson 4 / Searching for Gender Balance and Gender Equality: A Historical Retrospective 50
LESSON OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the historical origins and development of the
academic field of gender mainstreaming and gender discrimination against women in society and
their relation to the UN and peacekeeping operations.
After studying the material contained in this lesson, the student will be able to:
• Trace the historical origin of gender mainstreaming in society; and

• Identify key pioneers and institutions that have contributed to understanding the
importance of gender issues in social development, in theory and in practice.

Women, War, and Peace
Throughout history, women (physically weaker than men) have been systematically
abused. Although this phenomenon also takes place in times of peace, it rages out of control in
wartime. Just a brief look through the cycles of history is enough to prove this point. The raping
of women by soldiers as a sign of victory was, and still is, an unwritten law of war. It is a
symbol of victory.1
At present, we see that, as a consequence of modern conflict, violence against women has
reached epidemic proportions, and women have become the main target of those who use terror
as a tactic of war. Women are kidnapped, abused, mutilated, annihilated, or made into sexual
slaves or war trophies. The International Migration Organisation estimates that two million
women have been trafficked across international borders per year, most of them from places in
conflict.
It is only by making women active players in all levels of decision making for all
international organisations at worldwide, regional, state, and related structural levels that more
stable and lasting peace can be achieved. Peacekeeping missions at all levels of decision
making, whether conducted by military, police, or civil personnel, have shown to facilitate peace
processes, especially with DDRRR and state reconstruction, because of their conciliatory and
protective function for the family—the basic unit of any community. Fortunately, headway has
gradually been made, and there is presently an increase in the understanding of women for the
settling of conflicts and for the concrete qualities and skills they provide for the decision-making
process.2
A Historical Summary of the Pursuit of Gender Equality and Balance
In the past, women have generally filled a subordinate position with respect to men. This
secondary position has always been associated with a set family structure that differentiated
gender roles. The following is a brief summary of gender roles in family and society throughout
the history of our western culture.3
In Ancient Greece, “women's rights were not increased with respect to Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilisations. The law recognised divorce and repudiation of the wife without the
need to state a motive of any kind. Only in the event of mistreatment could women dissolve a
marriage. In addition, women spent their entire lives confined to the household and were in
charge of caring for the children and slaves without being allowed to participate in public affairs.
Girls lived close to their mothers and were married at the age of fifteen without their consent.”
1
This is the origin of the saying “go through the arms” or “give her the cloak” (terms for gang-raping a woman). Their origin
traces back to military behavior, when military personnel placed a cloak on the ground where they laid a helpless woman and
proceeded to gang-rape her. Loi, Isidoro. “Men.” Random House Mondatori. Santiago. 2005. p 142.
2
At: http://www.un.org/spanish/conferences/Beijing/fs5.htm
3
At: http://www.historiasiglo20.org/ sufragismo/index.htm
In Ancient Rome, “the Roman family was essentially patriarchal. The pater familias,
which is to say the husband, was the visible head of the [family] and exercised complete
authority over all the other members of the household...Roman women improved their position
with respect to Greek women, even though they were always under the tutorage of men...”
In Moslem Spain, “as was the case in the rest of the Moslem world, the Al-Andalus
society family was essentially patriarchal; the father of the family exercised his power over the
wife, children and servants; polygamy was commonplace among the rich, but the poor were
monogamous out of need.”
In the feudal system, “women were in charge of all domestic chores. They kneaded
bread, prepared meals, took care of the domestic animals and at the same time milked cows in a
society where milk was so necessary for a subsistence economy diet. Women were highly
specialised in the preparation of food products: preserves, pies, sweets, sausages, etc.”
During the Old Regime, “the concept of women and their social role underwent important
changes. New standards introduced in the 16th century based on the Christian humanism
advocated by Erasmus of Rotterdam did not completely break away from the misogyny inherited
from medieval times. Although we do find some intelligent and independent humanist women
such as Doña Mencía de Mendoza, women's commitment at the time was fundamentally
domestic. Their basic functions were three: to be a good mother and wife, organise domestic
work and perpetuate the human race. In his work The Perfect Wife, Fray Luis de Leon took up
the doctrine of the Council of Trent and sketched the ideal profile of a woman: modest, demure,
obedient, self-sacrificing, defender of her own honour and that of her family, educator of the
children, etc. But this profile was not altogether real. In 17th-century Spain, premarital sex was
commonplace and since marriage was not based on love, so was adultery, bastard children, and
abortion.”
Juridical inequality of the members of society was the norm in the Old Regime. Nobles
and clerics enjoyed privileges (tax exemption, monopoly of high public offices, special laws and
courts) that were forbidden for most of the population (the third estate and peasantry). The
absence of political rights (voting) and other freedoms (expression, gathering, and religion) was
another key characteristic of the Old Regime. In the case of women (half of the population), the
above was complemented by their social function circumscribed to domestic affairs, household
chores, procreation, and the care of children, as well as their legal subordination to men, fathers,
or husbands.
Highlights in the Pursuit of Gender Equality and Balance
The first known anti-war manifestation led by women took place in 411 B.C.E when the
play Lysistrata premiered in Ancient Greece. The play was based on the bloody war between the
Athenians and Spartans that lasted for 20 years. The women of the Acropolis and of
neighbouring cities, led by Lysistrata, agreed to begin a sex strike. They firmly resisted their
husbands' sexual advances while the conflict lasted. The male warriors couldn't take it anymore
and finally decided to make peace.4
4
Loi, Isidoro. “Men.” Ramdom House Mondadori. Santiago. 2005.
In 5th-century C.E. Egypt, Hypatia of Alexandria was thoroughly educated and came to
master mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and philosophy. Her fame spread throughout Europe,
Asia, and Africa, wherefrom people travelled to listen to her lessons. Unfortunately, the era in
which Hypatia lived was also an era in which Christianity—legalised by Constantine in 390 C.E.
and adopted as the only religion by Theodosius—abandoned the discourse on love and tolerance
during the era of persecution. Cyrillus, Patriarch of Alexandria, directed caustic discourses
against Hypatia because she was the main reference point for pagan culture in the city, and her
mere existence proved that woman was not inferior to man. As a result of her preaching (stating
that she did not consecrate her work to female duties), one morning on her way to work at the
museum, Hypatia was surrounded by a mob of fanatic Christians who cut her throat and tore her
body to pieces using sea shells. Many years later, in 1882, Pope Leo XIII declared Cyrillus a
Doctor of the Church, and he was eventually canonised.5
In the early 15th century, Joan of Arc (1413-1431), an illiterate French peasant girl, drove
the English out of Orleáns, thus fulfilling the promise made to the King that he would be
crowned. The Bishop of Beauvais later betrayed her by handing her over to the English for
10,000 gold ducats. At the eventual inquisition performed by the Church, she was accused of
witchcraft and blasphemy and then burned at the stake in Reims. The King did nothing to help
her.
In the 16th century, Maria Lejars wrote Equality Between Men and Women, in which she
exhorted women's rights and promoted gender equality and balance in a society dominated by
men. Following that, in the year 1731 in England, Mary Astell wrote A Serious Proposal to the
Ladies for Advancement of Their True and Greatest Interest, in which she defended women's
rights.
Before the French Revolution, there were women who dared to make claims in favour of
gender equality. For example, in 1769, Josefa Amar from Spain made a speech on women's
physical and moral education. In keeping with the trend, in 1784, a book was published on the
Importance of Education for women. However, it was not until the French Revolution that
women's voices began to be expressed collectively.
There were also men who sought women's equality. Among the illustrious French who
drew up an ideological program from the revolution, Condorcet (1743-1794), in his 1743 work
Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (Sketch for a Historical Picture
of the Progress of the Human Mind), called for recognition of women's role in society. The
intellectual claimed that the social condition of the women of his era was the same as that of
slaves. After the triumph of the French Revolution in 1789, a pronounced contradiction arose.
On the one hand, the universal idea of natural and political equality of human beings was
justified but did not extend to women’s political rights (half of the population), which really
meant denying their freedom and equality as opposed to other individuals. The Rights of Men
and Citizens proclaimed by the French Revolution referred exclusively to men and not to all
human beings.6
5
At: http://www.egiptologia.com
6
Condorcet. “Essai sur l’admission des femmes au droit de cité,” 1790 in PAULE-MARIE DUHET. “Las Mujeres y la
Revolución Barcelona,” 1974 Ed. Península. At: http://www.historiasiglo20.org/
In 1789, thousands of Parisians (mostly women) marched to Versailles shouting “liberty,

equality, and fraternity.” They eventually forced King Louis XVI and the royal family to march
with them back to Paris as a sign of their grievances. Two years later, another significant event
was the formulation of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, which
was, in fact, a copy of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen passed by the
National Assembly in August 1789. Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) presented the document to
the French National Assembly. She was the protagonist of the female response.
The comparison between both texts is illuminating:
The representatives of the French people, constituted as a National

Assembly, and considering that ignorance, neglect, or contempt of the rights
of man are the sole causes of public misfortunes and governmental
corruption...recognise and declare...the following rights of man and of the
citizen. Mothers, daughters, sisters [and] representatives of the nation
demand to be constituted into a national assembly. Believing that ignorance,
omission, or scorn for the rights of women are the only causes of public
misfortunes and of the corruption of governments, [the women] have
resolved to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural, inalienable, and
sacred rights of women...
Paraphrasing the content of the great document of the French Revolution, Olympe de
Gouges reported that the Revolution had forgotten women in its message of equality and
freedom. Thus, she stated that “woman is born free and remains equal to man in her rights” and
that “the laws must be the expression of the general will; all female and male citizens must
contribute either personally or through their representatives to its formation.”
Olympe de Gouges' program was clear: freedom, equality, and political rights, especially
the right for women to vote. However, the men who led the Revolution, not even the most radical
among them, did not share their assertion.
The enragés (the most radical faction of the revolutionaries) had not only
attracted the most revolutionary of the Parisian sans culottes, but also the
most revolutionary women. In 1793, they created the Society of
Revolutionary Republican Women…In their enthusiasm, some women
began wearing the tricolour over their hairdo while others wore the
Phrygian cap and even red trousers. However, their enemies' strength put an
end to their efforts. One of these, Chaumette, a notorious misogynist, went
so far as to say: ‘Since when is it permitted to renounce one's sex? Since
when is it decent to see women abandon the pious cares of their household,
the cradle of their children, to come into public places, to the galleries to
hear speeches, to the bar of the senate...to perform duties which nature has
assigned to men alone?’7
7
At: http://www.historiasiglo20.org/sufragismo/index.htm, based on: Guérin, D. La lucha de clases en el apogeo de la
Revolución Francesa, 1793-1795. Madrid, 1974. Alianza Editorial.
Such a petition was to cost Olympe her head. The women who accompanied her were a
little luckier and were locked away in an insane asylum for life. Olympe de Gouges became one
of the first women's rights martyrs.
The most feminist manifesto heard of at the time, entitled The Vindication of the Rights of
Women, was published in 1792. Its author, the Englishwoman Mary Wollstoncraft (1759-1797),
aimed to change the idea that women only existed for men's pleasure. The proposal was highly
controversial. It called for educational, political, labour, and moral rights equal to those applied
to men. This was contrary to the absolutism of kings, a political system that she accused of
preventing equal power between men and women. Men exercised absolute tyranny over women,
and the key to overcoming this female subordination was free access to education. This would
put women in equal conditions compared to men, hence achieving economic independence with
paid activities. However, she did not place importance on political vindications and did not refer
to women's right to vote.
I have already warned about the bad habits women acquire when they are
confined together; and believe that I could justly extend this observation to
the other sex, while the natural inference which I on my own behalf have
always considered important is not deduced; which is to encourage that both
sexes be educated together, not only in private families but also at public
schools. If marriage is the foundation of society, all humanity should be
educated under the same model, and if not, the relationship between sexes
shall never deserve the name of friendship, nor shall women carry out the
peculiar duties of their sex until they become illustrious and free citizens
who are able to make their own living, and independently of
men...Moreover, marriage shall never be considered sacred until women,
educated together with men, are prepared to be their companions instead of
just being lovers...
Starting in the mid-19th century and in the year 1848 in the United States, in contrast to
Europe, there were already large groups of educated middle-class women who became the
driving force behind the pursuit of gender equality in their society. Thus, the so-called Seneca
Falls Declaration appeared and was passed on 19 July of that same year in a Methodist chapel in
a locality of the state of New York. This document expressed thoughts on women's status in that
society, reporting the humiliations women had suffered throughout history. One of the
Declaration's authors, Elizabeth Candy Staton (1815-1892), stated in one paragraph:
The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on

the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of
an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a
candid world. He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to
the elective franchise. He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the
formation of which she had no voice. He has withheld from her rights
which are given to the most ignorant and degraded men—both natives and
foreigners. Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective
franchise, thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of
legislation, he has oppressed her on all sides. He has made her, if married,
in the eye of the law, civilly dead. He has taken from her all right in
property, even to the wages she earns. He has made her, morally, an
irresponsible being, as she can commit many crimes with impunity,
provided they be done in the presence of her husband.
The American Civil War was fought between 1861 and 1865. After the war, freed black
slaves were allowed to vote, but not women. The reaction took no time at all, and under the
leadership of two women, Elizabeth Staton and Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906), the National
Woman Suffrage Association was founded as an agency independent of any political parties at
that time.
In the year 1861 in England, male students of medicine from the Middlesex Hospital
(London) protested the possible event of a female student being admitted, Elizabeth Garrett
Anderson. They stated:
We, the undersigned students, consider that the result of mixed sexes in the
same class may be highly unpleasant. Teachers will probably feel
uncomfortable in the presence of women and will not be able to refer to
certain necessary facts explicitly and clearly. The presence of young women
as observers in an operating room is an offence to our natural instincts and
sentiments and is bound to destroy the feelings of respect and admiration
that any man of sound mind feels towards the opposite sex. Those feelings
are sign of civilisation and refinement.8
In 1869, the British liberal thinker John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) and his wife Harriet
Taylor Mill (1807-1856) published The Subjection of Women. His core thought was women's
right to vote and the elimination of any legal discrimination against women. He stated that once
these difficulties have been overcome, women's subjection to men would end and that they
would achieve total emancipation. He said:
The principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two
sexes—the legal subordination of one sex to the other—is wrong itself, and
now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to
be replaced by a principle of perfect equality, admitting no power or
privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other.
Mill's book had a huge impact on English society, internationalising the world suffrage
movement. In that same year, his book was published in Australia, Austria, Denmark, France,
Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, and the United States, and it appeared the following year in
Italy and Poland. This increased consciousness for thousands of women in the illustrious classes
of these countries. Eventually, in the year 1866, Mills presented a demand for women's right to
vote to the British Parliament. Although he was rejected, this event led to the appearance in the
year 1867 of the first group in favour of women's right to vote: The National Society for
Woman’s Suffrage, led at the time by Lydia Becker.
8
Loi, op. cit., p. 142.
In the year 1903, Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1910, an opening came
up in the French Scientific Academy and her name was proposed. The Academy answered:
“Women are not allowed to be part of the French Scientific Academy,” barring her name from
the academy for 10 years. She went on to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911.9
International Women's Day was created in 1908. There are several explanations behind
the origin of this day, which is still celebrated every year.
On 8 March 1857, hundreds of women from a New York textile factory organised a
march protesting inhumane working conditions and low salaries, given the fact that these were
60-70% less than what men were earning for the same job. The police scattered the protestors,
who went on to create their first union two years later. Starting with this historic event on 8
March, the date has been a reference for women's struggle to be recognised in a world dominated
by men.
In the year 1908 at the Cotton Textile Factory of Washington, a group of female workers
declared a strike in protest of inhumane working conditions, taking over the factory. They
demanded the same salary as men, that Sunday be a day off, that the working shift be reduced to
10 hours, that they be granted maternity leave, and that the work schedule be reduced. The owner
did not accept the strike, closed the doors, and set the factory on fire. One hundred twenty-nine
women died.
Once again, in 1909, New York witnessed a protest of 15,000 female workers. Under the
motto Bread and Roses—bread symbolised economic security and roses, quality of life—women
made their protests known regarding their right to vote and the abolition of child labour.
The Second International Conference of Socialist Women was held in Copenhagen,

Denmark, in the year 1910. Clara Zetkin, a representative of Germany and member of the
Women's Trade Union League, requested that this day become International Women's Day in
order to call for political, civil and economic rights for all the women in the world.
International Women's Day was celebrated for the first time in March 1911 in Germany,
Austria, Denmark, and Switzerland, bringing together over one million women and men. In
addition to the right to vote and hold public positions, women demanded the right to work, to
receive professional training, and not to be the victims of labour discrimination.
9
Loi, op. cit., p. 142.
Women from all over Cote d’Ivoire gather to celebrate International Women’s Day at the
Palais de la Culture in Abidjan. (Source: UN Photo #NICA 68442 by Ky Chung, March 2005)
Reacting to the two million Russian soldiers who died in the Great War, in 1917, Russian
women went on strike on the last Sunday of February demanding “bread and peace.” The Tsar
was forced to meet their demands, and the provisional government granted women the right to
vote.
In 1975, the First World Conference on Women was held in Mexico City, Mexico, during
International Women's Year. As a result of the event, the General Assembly proclaimed the
coming decade, “The United Nations Decade for Women” (1976-1985).
The Second World Conference on Women was held in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1980.
Its main goal was to evaluate the development of the United Nations Decade for Women, where
an Action Program was approved for the second half of the decade, principally emphasising
issues related to employment, health, and education.
In 1981, the First Feminist Meeting for Latin America and the Caribbean was held in
Bogotá, Colombia. It was there that 25 November was appointed as the date to celebrate the
International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women.
The Third World Conference on Women was held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1985.
Advancement and obstacles for the United Nations Decade for Women were assessed and
evaluated. A document known as Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of
Women Toward the Year 2000 was unanimously approved. The document contained strategies
that consisted of measures to be adopted at national, regional, and international levels to promote
social recognition of women's roles and the exercise and respect of their human rights.
In 1992, in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also

known as the Earth Summit), women's fundamental role in environmental conservation and
management was recognised. Principle 20 of the conference states: “Women have a vital role in
environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to
achieve sustainable development.”
In 1993, the World Conference on Human Rights was held in Vienna, Austria. The
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action recognised that violence against women and girls
constitutes a serious human rights violation.
The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt,

recognised that reproductive rights are human rights and that gender-based violence is an
obstacle for the reproductive and sexual health of women, as well as for education and
development. The States convened to implement the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence
Against Women.
The World Summit for Social Development was held in 1995, in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Among other commitments, it was decided that equality and equity between men and women
was to be furthered and that the participation and direct functions of women in political, civil,
economic, social, and cultural affairs were to be increased.
The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women (in Beijing, China) renewed the
international community's commitment to gender equality and peace development objectives for
all women, and it placed the issue of women's positions on the agenda for the 21st century. This
meant a declaration and the development of a Platform of Action.
The Beijing Platform of Action established a set of strategic objectives and explained
measures that needed to be taken no later than the year 2000 by governments, the international
community, non-governmental organisations, and the private sector in order to eliminate
obstacles that hamper gender issues. The 12 spheres of special concern identified in the
document, considered as representative of the main obstacles for the advancement of women, are
as follows:10
• The persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women;

• Inequalities and inadequacies in, and unequal access to, education and training;
• Inequalities and inadequacies in, and unequal access to, health care and related services;
• Violence against women;
• The effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on women, including those living under
foreign occupation;
• Inequality in economic structures and policies in all forms of productive activities and in
access to resources;
• Inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-making at all
levels;
• Insufficient mechanisms at all levels to promote the advancement of women;
10
At: http://www.un.org/spanish/conferences/Beijing/mujer2021.htm
• Lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and protection of the human rights of
women;
• Stereotyping of women and inequality in women's access to, and participation in, all
communication systems, especially the media;
• Gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the safeguarding of the
environment; and
• Persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl child.
The growing and ongoing international movement supporting the struggle for women's
rights—constantly backed by the United Nations by means of World Women's Conferences—
has contributed to bringing together and coordinating efforts in favour of women's rights and
their participation in political, economic, social, and military affairs. International Women's Day
is celebrated each year throughout the world and leads us to think about the advances that have
cost so much, demanding concrete changes with respect to equality, gender balance, and
women's rights in today's agitated and globalised world.
A group of women internally displaced persons (IDPs) sits before a banner

celebrating International Women’s Day, while waiting for Radhika
Coomaraswamy, Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children
and Armed Conflict, and Rima Salah, Deputy Executive Director of UNICEF, at
the Hamadiya IDPs’ camp in Zalingei, West Darfur, Sudan. January 2007.
(Source: UN Photo #138914 by Fred Noy)
1743 Condorcet publishes Discourse on the Successive Progression of the Human Spirit
1791 Olympe de Gouges publishes Declaration of the Rights of Women and of Female Citizens
1792 Mary Wollstonecraft publishes A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
1843 Flora Tristan publishes The Workers' Union
1848 Seneca Falls Declaration (New York)
1869 Wyoming is the first U.S. state to grant women the right to vote
1869 John Stuart Mill publishes The Subjection of Women
1879 August Bebel publishes Women and Socialism
1884 Friedrich Engels writes The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
1893 New Zealand is the first country to grant women the right to vote
1897 Lydia Becker and Millicent Fawcett found the National Union of Women's Suffrage
Societies (NUWSS)
1903 Emmeline Pankhurst and her followers abandon the NUWSS and found the Women's
Social and Political Union (WSPU)
1906 Finland is the first European country to grant women the right to vote
1907 The First International Conference of Socialist Women is held under the presidency of
Clara Zetkin
1912 Spain passes the so-called ley de la silla (Chair Law)
1913 British Parliament passes the Cat and Mouse Act
1917 Jeanette Rankin becomes the first woman elected to the U.S. Congress
1918 Asociación Nacional de Mujeres Españolas (ANME) is founded in Spain
1918 British Parliament passes an electoral law granting women over the age of 30 the right
to vote
1920 The 19th amendment to the U.S. Constitution is approved, thus granting all adult
women the right to vote
1931 The Spanish Constitution of the Second Republic grants adult women the right to vote
1945 Women are given the right to vote in France and Italy
Women's Right to Vote
New Zealand 1893

Australia 1901
Finland 1906
Norway 1913
Denmark 1915
The United Kingdom 1918 (+30 years)
Germany 1918
Netherlands 1918
Poland 1918
Russia 1918
Austria 1918
Belgium 1919
The United States 1920
The Czech Republic 1920
Slovakia 1920
Sweden 1921
Spain 1931
France 1945
Italy 1945
Greece 1952
Switzerland 1974
LESSON SUMMARY
• Societies have been historically made up of 50% men and 50% women. However, when it
comes to gender issues, women have always been subordinate to men, and therefore, large-
scale battles have been, and continue to be, waged in order to make gender balance, equality,
and equity a reality.
• There have been many people and organisations at the forefront of this struggle. Many of
these individuals have given their lives for these ideals: Hypatia, Joan of Arc, Olympe de
Gouges, and hundreds of other anonymous women over the course of history who were the
victims of slaughter and human rights violations throughout history and up to the present
day.
• The UN, since 1945, has implemented and facilitated gender mainstreaming with concrete
actions like:
− The creation of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) in 1946
− The creation of UNIFEM in 1976
− Sponsoring the four World Women’s Conferences (Mexico 1975, Denmark 1980,
Kenya 1985, and China 1995)
− The Windhoek Declaration (2000) in Namibia. Mainstreaming a Gender
Perspective In Multidimensional Peace Support Operations (principles of gender
equality in PKO)
− Beijing +5 (2000). UN General Assembly. Gender Equality, Development and
Peace for the Twenty-first Century
− Resolution 1325 (2000) and its 18 points. Concrete participation of women on all
levels of the PKO stages, as well as all levels of decision-making
− Beijing +10 (2005). 49th Session of the CSW. Incorporation of a gender
perspective in all United Nations system policies and programmes.
LESSON 4
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Gender roles in ancient times evidence an eminently patriarchal society, which is to say that
women were subordinate to men who exercised authority over the other members of the
family. This was present in which of the following cultures:
a. Egyptian, Greek, and Roman;
b. Byzantine, Egyptian, and Indonesian;
c. Greek, Norse, and Roman;
d. Byzantine, Indian, and Indonesian.
2. In European medieval society, gender roles assigned the following basic functions to women:
a. Be good mothers and wives and perpetuate the species;
b. Execute and supervise all domestic work;
c. Transmit culture to the children;
d. Provide financially for the family.
3. In 1789, the French National Assembly approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen. This featured:
a. Natural and political rights exclusively for privileged classes (clerics, royalty);
b. Equal natural and political rights for all human beings (not including women's rights);
c. Political rights exclusively for men;
d. Property rights for the nobility.
4. Olympe de Gouges was beheaded in 1793 for defending:

a. The right to extended maternity leave;
b. Freedom, equality, and political rights (the right to vote) for women in France;
c. Women’s rights to bear arms and participate in the French Revolution;
d. The March to Versailles, conducted by mostly Parisian women.
5. During the second half of the 19th century, there were many movements to vindicate equal
rights for men and women in both Europe and America. Identify the people who led these
movements.
a. Josefa de Amar (Spain) and Olympe de Gouges (France);
b. Mary Wollstoncraft (England);
c. Elizabeth Candy Staton and Susan Anthony (U.S.);
d. John and Harriet Mills and Lydia Becker.
6. The first working women's union was founded in:

a. The United States;
b. The United Kingdom;
c. France;
d. Norway.
7. In 1917, the Tsar of Russia authorised women's right to vote due to:
a. A women's hunger strike demanding better working conditions;
b. A working women's strike demanding peace;
c. A strike reacting to two million dead Russian soldiers called “Bread and Peace”;
d. A strike demanding the Tsar’s resignation.
8. The First World Conference on Women in 1975 took place in:

a. Washington, D.C.;
b. Mexico City;
c. London;
d. New Delhi.
9. When was “equality between genders, development and peace for all women” declared
leading to the issue of women's positions being incorporated into the UN's 21st century
agenda?
a. The Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, Kenya;
b. The creation of UNIFEM;
c. The Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China;
d. The Windhoek Declaration in Namibia.
10. The importance of the Windhoek Declaration and Namibia's Plan for Action is related to:
a. The incorporation of gender perspective in multidimensional peacekeeping operations;
b. Gender equality in societies and countries;
c. Gender balance in peacekeeping operations;
d. The impact of conflict on women and girls.
ANSWER KEY:
1a, 2a, 3c, 4b, 5c, 6a, 7c, 8b, 9c, 10a

LESSON 5
THE UN, PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS,
AND GENDER ISSUES

Lesson 5 / The UN, Peacekeeping Operations, and Gender Issues 68
LESSON OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, the student should be able to recognise that since its creation, the United
Nations has been implementing tools that have effectively contributed to the incorporation of a
gender perspective for all of its organisations and agencies, and especially for peacekeeping
missions during recent years.
• Recognise advances made by the United Nations to favour gender balance and equality,
especially for complex peacekeeping operations;
• Define the relationship between the academic field of gender issues and the principles
and practices of UN and complex peacekeeping operations; and
• Identify the tools that have contributed to understanding the importance of gender issues
in global social development, both in theory and in practice.

The United Nations and Peacekeeping Missions
United Nations peacekeeping missions are a vital instrument for international peace and
security. They are made up of international forces that act under the mandate of the United
Nations. The objective of these missions is to provide supervision and to settle conflicts between
hostile states and/or between hostile communities within the same state. Peacekeeping missions
or operations are created by the UN Security Council by means of Resolutions or Mandates.
Throughout its 60 years of existence, the UN has deployed 60 peacekeeping operations; 13 were
deployed between 1948 and 1989, and 47 from that time to the present. One hundred and twenty
countries and over 800,000 persons have participated in these operations. As of May 2006, there
were 82 countries that provided 81,154 persons as civilian and military personnel to operate in
16 peacekeeping operations throughout the world.1
UN Agenda
• Promotion of HR
• Gender equality and the empowerment of women
• Eradication of poverty
• Sustainable development for the world
The United Nations and Gender Perspective
For over two decades, the United Nations has directed its efforts towards making
women's participation a relevant actor in the organisation. In keeping with these efforts, the
organisation has committed its agenda to the promotion of human rights, gender equality, the
empowerment of women, the eradication of poverty, and sustainable development for the world.
Over 190 nations have committed to this global agenda. There is still a lot left to do in order to
meet these promises and ensure their implementation throughout the world.
Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women as Essential Objectives
Most governments and international institutions, including the United Nations and the
World Bank, have chosen to agree that gender equality and the empowerment of women are
essential components in achieving goals in all areas of development, including those contained in
the Millennium Development Goals articulated by the UN at the 2000 Millennium Summit
Meeting.
The following were the petitions laid out by women to their governments:
• Expand efforts to combat violence against women and girls;
• Guarantee women's sexual and reproductive health and rights;
1
Online information available at http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/
• Assure women’s and girls’ property, housing, land and inheritance rights;
• Eliminate gender inequality in employment, including the earning gap; and
• Ensure equal representation and participation of women in national and local
governments.
Peacekeeping Operations and Gender Issues
We know that peacekeeping operations have evolved since their implementation in 1948.
Initially, these emphasised monitoring, observing, and reporting of ceasefire truces between
parties. These conflicts were essentially between states and generally arose from border disputes.
UN personnel available in the theatre were exclusively military. Starting in the 1990s, the nature
and complexity of most conflicts changed, and therefore, peacekeeping missions now have other
objectives. In addition to UN, military, and other personnel, missions now include police and
civilian personnel who must interact with other international agencies such as NGOs and IGOs.
The Origin of Modern Conflicts
The origin of today's conflicts is mainly found in the following:

• Internal state conflicts;
• Civil wars;
• Secessions;
• Partitions;
• Ethnic conflicts; and
• Tribal disputes.
Therefore, the functions of a modern and complex peacekeeping mission include several
other aspects, apart from the supervision or observation of truces, such as the following:
• Civil affairs;
• Elections;
• Shelter for refugees and displaced
persons;
• Humanitarian aid;
• De-mining;
• Rebuilding state powers (law,
order, and justice);
• DDRRR (disarmament,
demobilisation, reintegration,
rehabilitation, and repatriation);
• Human rights; and
• Incorporation of a gender
perspective, which is to say, Women voters in Kosovo take part in the Municipal
Elections under UNMIK supervision. (Source: UNMIK
promoting equality and gender- Photo, October 2002)
balance for peacekeeping missions.
The incorporation of gender, therefore, implies the careful implementation of actions,

policies, and programs promoted by the UN. This course aims to provide some concepts
regarding these issues.
Why Study Gender Perspectives in Armed Conflicts?
Armed conflicts often intensify a community's gender inequality beyond that which
already existed. In general, when it comes to studying a community's gender relations, the first
things to come up are gender-related stereotypes, both those of the analysts themselves and those
of the communities where the conflict takes place. As Amani El Jack said, “Armed conflict
negatively affects women and men and results in gender-specific disadvantages, particularly for
women that are not always recognised or addressed by the mainstream, gender-blind
understandings of conflict and reconstruction.”2
As we will see
hereinafter, gender
refers to perceptions
about behaviour
expected from men
and women within a
specific social
context. In the
context of an armed
conflict, male and
female stereotypes
are exaggerated,
giving women the
role of wives,
mothers, and
homemakers, while
men are expected to
be soldiers or Registering to surrender weapons. As a result of the Disarmament,
aggressors/defenders Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (DDRR) programme, more than
100,000 combatants were disarmed and demobilized, including 22,000 women,
of the community. 8,500 boys and 2,500 girls. Gbarnga, Liberia. (Source: May 2004, UNMIL Photo)
However, women can
play other roles, such as soldiers and aggressors, and men can be victims or combatants. Social
upheaval imbalances gender relations and may open opportunities for new kinds of gender
relations in the building of the desired society. Unfortunately, the possibility of a fairer society
for men and women requires careful analysis of these relationships and their status before the
conflict and then in terms of how the conflict affects these relations. This applies especially for
those minority groups that do not conform to female or male stereotypes (such as women
soldiers as combatants or men as peace leaders), while also considering that women in particular
have to fill many roles and responsibilities at home and in the community that have a negative
impact on women during and after conflict.
2
El Jack, Amani. Gender and Armed Conflicts. General Report. Bridge, Institute of Development Studies, University of
Sussex. At: http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports_gend_CEP.html
At present, we see
that as a consequence of
modern conflicts,3
violence against women
has reached epidemic
proportions and women
have become the main
target of those who use
terror as a tactic of war.
Women are kidnapped,
abused, mutilated, made
into sexual slaves or war
trophies or annihilated.
The International
Migration Organisation
estimates that two million
women have been
In Port-au-Prince, Haiti, two women operate a streetside food-stand. These
trafficked across women, in the post-conflict stage, show the change in gender roles during
international borders per times of economic hardship. (Source: UN/DPI #187535C, Eskinder Debebe)
year, most of them
coming from places in conflict.
Peacekeeping missions at all levels of decision making, in the theatre (military, police or
civil personnel) have shown to facilitate peace processes, especially with DDRR and State
reconstruction because of their conciliatory and protective function for the family—the basic unit
of any community.
Women have been shown to facilitate peace processes due to

their conciliatory and protective nature for the family
• Women provide a different outlook with concrete skills and abilities

for the decision-making process and the settlement of conflicts in all
processes and at all levels.
• In the DPKO*: Throughout the entire PKO process: planning,
implementation and monitoring.
• In the theatre:
− During peace talks between the parties
− During the DDRR process
− Regarding human rights violations
− During State reconstruction (from women's participation in
community organisations to important political positions)
* At: http://www.un.org/spanish/conferences/Beijing/fs5.htm
3
See Lesson 6
It is only by making women active actors in all levels of decision making for all
international organisations at worldwide, regional, state and related structure levels that more
stable and lasting peace can be achieved.
Fortunately, headway has gradually been made, and there is presently increasingly better
understanding of women for the settling of conflicts and for the concrete qualities and skills they
provide for the decision-making process. It is therefore necessary that we continue along the
same path in order to achieve gender balance and equality in the complex theatres in which
peacekeeping missions are presently deployed.
Since before the Charter of the United Nations passed in 1945, at the League of Nations,
women were already participating and struggling to incorporate vindications against
discrimination in order to encourage the legal and social advancement of women. At the United
Nations, there have been multiple documents issued in favour of gender balance and equity, and
UN support for initiatives promoting gender balance was analysed above. Specifically, we see
that since its creation, the UN has always made reference to gender issues. This section presents
some instruments issued by the Organisation that we believe merit analysis. Gender issues stated
in each instrument have been highlighted.
Charter of the United Nations (1945)
Preamble to the UN Charter
“We the peoples of the United Nations are determined to save succeeding
generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought
untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in
the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
women and of nations large and small...”
• Chapter I, referring to its purposes:

− Art.1, No. 3: “To achieve international co-operation in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in
promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental
freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.”
• Chapter III, referring to its organs:

− Art. 8: “The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men
and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its
principal and subsidiary organs.”
• Chapters IX and X (referring to International Economic and Social Cooperation) include

several articles which make reference to gender:
o Art. 55, letter c: “Universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or
religion.”
− Art. 56: “All Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in co-
operation with the Organisation for the achievement of the purposes set forth in
Article 55.”
− Art. 59: “The Organisation shall, where appropriate, initiate negotiations among
the states concerned for the creation of any new specialised agencies required for
the accomplishment of the purposes set forth in Article 55.”
− Art. 62, No. 2: “The Economic and Social Council may make recommendations
for the purpose of promoting respect for, and observance of, human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all.”
− Art. 68: “The Economic and Social Council shall set up commissions in economic
and social fields and for the promotion of human rights, and such other
commissions as may be required for the performance of its functions.”
• Chapter XII, referring to the International Trusteeship System:

− Art. 76, letter c: “To encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental
freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion, and to
encourage recognition of the interdependence of the peoples of the world.”
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW)4 (1946)
The Commission began in 1946 with 15 members and now consists of 45 members
elected by the Economic and Social Council for a period of four years.
The Economic and Social Council modified the Commission's terms of reference in 1996,
in its resolution 1996/6. In 2000, a comprehensive review and appraisal of progress made in the
implementation of the Platform for Action was undertaken by the 23rd special session of the
General Assembly (Beijing +5) entitled “Women 2000: gender equality, development and peace
for the twenty-first century.
The Assembly adopted a political declaration and further actions and initiatives to
implement the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (the Outcome Document). The
Commission’s current and future work, as determined by its multi-year programme of work
(2002-2006), is closely related to both the Platform for Action and the Outcome Document so as
to ensure their effective implementation.
4
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Approved by the GA, 1948)
The United Nations General Assembly adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights on 10 December 1948, which eventually became the foundation of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ISCSCR) and the Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by the Assembly in 1966. Together, they make up
the legal foundation for the International Human Rights Programme.
The following are specific references to women:

• Preamble (paragraph five): “Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the
Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of
the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to
promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom.”
• Art. 1: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights…”
• Art. 2: “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”
• Art. 16: “Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or
religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as
to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.”
• Art. 23 (paragraph two): “Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal
pay for equal work.”
Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict5
General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI), 16 December 1966: “Expressing its deep
concern over the sufferings of women and children belonging to the civilian population who in
periods of emergency and armed conflict in the struggle for peace, self-determination, national
liberation and independence are too often the victims of inhuman acts and consequently suffer
serious harm…”
4. All efforts shall be made by states involved in armed conflicts, military operations in
foreign territories, or military operations in territories still under colonial domination
to spare women and children from the ravages of war. All the necessary steps shall be
taken to ensure the prohibition of measures such as persecution, torture, punitive
measures, degrading treatment and violence, particularly against that part of the
civilian population that consists of women and children.
6. Women and children belonging to the civilian population and finding themselves in
circumstances of emergency and armed conflict in the struggle for peace, self-
determination, national liberation and independence, or who live in occupied
territories, shall not be deprived of shelter, food, medical aid or other inalienable
rights.
5
At: http://www.peacewomen.org/un/women/unwomenpeacedocs.html#3
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
This Covenant was adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession by
United Nations General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 1966.
• Art. 3: “The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of
men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights set forth in the present
Covenant.”
• Art. 4, paragraph one: Refers to the fact that the States Parties to the present Covenant
will take the necessary measures to avoid discrimination on the ground of race, colour,
sex, language, religion, or social origin.
• Art. 6 No. 5: “Sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons
below eighteen years of age and shall not be carried out on pregnant women.”
• Art. 23. No. 2. “The right of men and women of marriageable age to marry and to found
a family shall be recognised.”
• Art. 24: “Every child shall have, without any discrimination as to race, colour, sex,
language, religion, national or social origin, property or birth, the right to such measures
of protection as are required by his status as a minor, on the part of his family, society
and the State.”
• Art. 26: “All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination
to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any
discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against
discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.”
Convenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Approved by the GA, 1966)
This convenant was adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession by
General Assembly resolution 2200 (XXI) of 16 December 1966. It was entered into force on 3
June 1976 in accordance with Art. 27.
Art. 7, letter a, paragraph i: “Remuneration which provides all workers, as

a minimum, with:(i) Fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal
value without distinction of any kind, in particular women being
guaranteed conditions of work not inferior to those enjoyed by men,
with equal pay for equal work…"
UN World Conference on Women; Declaration of Mexico on the Equality of Women and

their Contribution to Development and Peace (1975)6
This conference recognised that women of the entire world, whatever differences existing
between them, share the painful experience of receiving or having received unequal treatment.
Furthermore, it stipulated that as their awareness of this phenomenon increases, they would
become natural allies in the struggle against any form of oppression, such as was practiced under
colonialism, neo-colonialism, Zionism, racial discrimination, and apartheid; therefore, this would
constitute an enormous revolutionary potential for economic and social change in the world
today.
The conference also recognised the urgency of improving the status of women and
finding more effective methods and strategies to enable them to have the same opportunities as
men to participate actively in the development of their countries and to contribute to the
attainment of world peace. On that note, the conference also declared that women must play an
important role in the promotion, achievement and maintenance of international peace, and that it
is necessary to encourage their efforts towards peace, through their full participation in the
national and international organisations that exist for this purpose.
Finally, the conference conluded that women, as well as men, should promote real,
general and complete disarmament under effective international control, starting with nuclear
disarmament. Until genuine disarmament is achieved, women and men throughout the world
must maintain their vigilance and do their utmost to achieve and maintain international peace.
The primary objective of development being to bring about sustained improvement in the
well-being of the individual and of society and to bestow benefits on all, development should be
seen not only as a desirable goal in itself but also as the most important means for furthering
equality of the sexes and the maintenance of peace.
An essential condition for the maintenance and strengthening of international co-

operation and peace is the promotion and protection of human rights for all in conditions of
equity among and within nations. In order to involve more women in the promotion of
international co-operation, disarmament, development of friendly relations among nations, and
strengthening of international peace, the efforts of women as individuals and in groups, and in
national and international organisations should be recognised and encouraged.
Women should have equal opportunity with men to represent their countries in all
international forums where the above issues are discussed, and in particular at meetings of the
organisation of the United Nations system, including the Security Council, and all conferences
on disarmament and international peace.
6
General Assembly Resolution 3519 on Women's Participation in the Strengthening of

International Peace and Security (15 December 1975)7
This conference called upon all governments and intergovernmental and non-
governmental organisations, particularly women's organisations and women's groups, to intensify
their efforts to strengthen peace, to expand and deepen the process of international detente and
make it irreversible, to eliminate completely and definitely all forms of colonialism, and to put
and end to the policy and practice of apartheid, all forms of racism, racial discrimination,
aggression, occupation and foreign domination.
General Assembly Resolution 3521 (calling on states to ratify international conventions and
other instruments concerning the protection of women's rights), A/RES/3521 (XXX), 15
December 19758
According to this resolution, women, enjoying fully the rights provided for in the relevant
international instruments, should play an equal role with men in all spheres of life, including the
ensuring of peace and the strengthening of international security, and should fully participate in
political life. Moreover, the resolution was confident that the relaxation of international tension
contributes to the development and implementation of standards in all fields of concern to
women.
Finally, the resolution called upon all states to vigorously promote wider participation of
women in the strengthening of international peace and in extending the relaxation of
international tensions contributing to the creation of the most favourable conditions for the
complete elimination of discrimination against women.
Creation of United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) (1978)
Passed by the General Assembly in 1976 (as the result of the First Conference)9
UNIFEM is the women's fund at the United Nations. It provides financial and technical
assistance to innovative programmes and strategies to foster women's empowerment and gender
equality. Placing the advancement of women's human rights at the centre of all of its efforts,
today, UNIFEM focuses its activities on the following areas:
• Achieving gender equality in democratic governance
• Ending violence against women
• Halting the spread of HIV/AIDS
• Reducing women's poverty and exclusion
• Securing indigenous women’s rights and participation
• Supporting women’s leadership and participation in the reconstruction of Afghanistan
• The Millennium Development Goals
7
8
9
At: http://www.unifem.org/about/fact_sheets.php
• Women and Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)

• Women and water
• Women's human rights
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW),10 1981
This resolution was adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession by
General Assembly Resolution 34/180 of 18 December 1979. It was entered into force on 3
September 1981, in accordance with article 27(1).
This Convention is often described as an international bill of rights for women.

Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against
women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.
The Convention defines discrimination against women as:

...Any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which
has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition,
enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a
basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental
freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.
By accepting the Convention, states commit themselves to undertake a series of measures to end
discrimination against women in all forms and:
• To incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system;
• To abolish all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination
against women;
• To establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of
women against discrimination; and
• to ensure the elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons,
organisations or enterprises.
The Convention provides the basis for realising equality between women and men
through ensuring women's equal access to, and equal opportunities in, political and public life --
including the right to vote and to stand for election -- as well as education, health and
employment. States parties agree to take all appropriate measures, including legislation and
temporary special measures, so that women can enjoy all their human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
The Convention is the only human rights treaty that affirms the reproductive rights of
women and targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family
relations. It affirms women's rights to acquire, change, or retain their nationality and the
10
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
nationality of their children. States parties also agree to take appropriate measures against all
forms of traffic in women and exploitation of women.
Countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention are legally bound to put its
provisions into practice. They are also committed to submit national reports, at least every four
years, on measures they have taken to comply with their treaty obligations.
Article 1: “For the purposes of this Declaration, the term violence against
women means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely
to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women,
including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty,
whether occurring in public or in private life.”
The Convention highlights the importance of recalling that discrimination against

women: 1) violates the principles of equality of rights and respect for human dignity, 2) is an
obstacle to the participation of women, on equal terms with men, in the political, social,
economic and cultural life of their countries, 3) hampers the growth of the prosperity of society
and the family, and 4) makes more difficult the full development of the potentialities of women
in the service of their countries and of humanity.
The Convention further emphasises that the eradication of apartheid, all forms of racism,
racial discrimination, colonialism, neo-colonialism, aggression, foreign occupation and
domination, and interference in the internal affairs of states is essential to the full enjoyment of
the rights of men and women.
It also affirms that the strengthening of international peace and security, the relaxation of
international tension general, and complete disarmament (in particular nuclear disarmament)
under strict effective international control, will promote social progress and development and as
a consequence, will contribute to the attainment of full equality between men and women.
Finally, the Convention concludes that the full and complete development of a country,
the welfare of the world, and the cause of peace require the maximum participation of women on
equal terms with men in all fields.
Article 2.(e) State parties will take all appropriate measures to eliminate
discrimination against women by any person, organisation or enterprise.
Article 8. State parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure to

women, on equal terms with men and without any discrimination, the
opportunity to represent their governments at the international level and to
participate in the work of international organisations
Report of the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality,
Development and Peace. Copenhagen, Denmark. 14-30 July 1980, A/CONF.94/3511
• Paragraph 33. In accordance with their obligations under the Charter to maintain peace
and security and to achieve international cooperation in promoting and encouraging
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, bearing in mind, in this respect, the
right to live in peace, states should help women to participate in promoting international
cooperation for the sake of the preparation of societies for a life in peace.
• Paragraph 76. Women of the entire world should participate in the broadest way in the
struggle to strengthen international peace and security, to broaden international
cooperation and develop friendly relations among nations, to achieve detente in
international relations and disarmament, to establish a new economic order in
international relations, and to promote guarantees of fundamental freedoms and human
rights.
• Paragraph 77. Solidarity campaigns with women struggling against colonialism, neo-
colonialism, racism, racial discrimination, and apartheid, and for national independence
and liberation should be intensified; such women should receive all possible assistance,
including support from agencies of the United Nations system as well as other
organisations.
• Paragraph 78. The efforts of intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations to
strengthen international peace and security should be intensified in every way. The active
participation of women in the activities of such organisations should be supported.
General Assembly Declaration A/RES/37/63 on the Participation of Women in Promoting

International Peace and Cooperation. 3 December 198212
• Article 1. Women and men have an equal and vital interest in contributing to
international peace and cooperation. To this end, women must be enabled to exercise
their right to participate in the economic, social, cultural, civil, and political affairs of
society on an equal footing with men.
• Article 12. All appropriate measures shall be taken to provide practical opportunities for
the effective participation of women in promoting international peace and cooperation,
economic development, and social progress including, to that end:
(a) The promotion of an equitable representation of women in governmental and non-
governmental functions;
(b) The promotion of equality of opportunities for women to enter diplomatic service;
(c) The appointment or nomination of women, on an equal basis with men, as
members of delegations to national, regional or international meetings;
(d) Support for increased employment of women at all levels in the secretariats of the
United Nations and the specialised agencies, in conformity with Article 101 of the
Charter of the United Nations.
11
12
Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Resolution 3452 (XXX), annex.
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, General Assembly Resolution 39/46 of 10 December 1984.13 Entered into force
on 26 June 1987, in accordance with article 27(1)
• Article 16: The provisions of this convention are without prejudice to the provisions of
any other international instrument or national law that prohibits cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment, or which relates to extradition or expulsion. No
exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal
political instability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification of
torture.
The Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women from the III
World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade
for Women: Equality, Development and Peace. Nairobi, Kenya. 15-26 July 1985.
A/Conf.116/28/Rev.1, 198614
• Paragraph 13: “The full and effective promotion of women's rights can best occur in
conditions of international peace and security.”
Peace includes not only the absence of war, violence and hostilities at the
national and international levels but also the enjoyment of economic and
social justice, equality and the entire range of human rights and
fundamental freedoms within society.
Peace cannot be realised under conditions of economic and sexual

inequality, denial of basic human rights and fundamental freedoms,
deliberate exploitation of large sectors of the population, unequal
development of countries, and exploitative economic relations.
Peace is promoted by equality of the sexes, economic equality and the

universal enjoyment of basic human rights and fundamental freedoms. Its
enjoyment by all requires that women be enabled to exercise their right to
participate on an equal footing with men in all spheres of the political,
economic and social life of their respective countries, particularly in the
decision-making process, while exercising their right to freedom of opinion,
expression, information and association in the promotion of international
peace and cooperation.
13
14
III. Peace
A. Obstacles
− Paragraph 232: “The threat to peace resulting from continuing international tension
and violations of the United Nations Charter, resulting in the unabated arms race as
well as wars, armed conflicts, external domination, foreign occupation, acquisition of
land by force, aggression, imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism,
apartheid, gross violation of human rights, terrorism, repression, the disappearance of
persons and discrimination on the basis of sex are major obstacles to human progress,
specifically to the advancement of women.
− Paragraph 235: “Universal and durable peace cannot be attained without the full and
equal participation of women in international relations, particularly in decision-
making concerning peace, including the processes envisaged for the peaceful
settlement of disputes under the Charter of the United Nations nor without overcoming
the obstacles mentioned in paragraph 232.”
− Paragraph 236: “Full equality between women and men is severely hampered by the
threats to international peace and security.”
− Paragraph 237: “All obstacles at national and international levels in the way of
women's participation in promoting international peace and co-operation should be
removed as soon as possible.”
− Paragraph 238: “Governments should take measures to encourage the full and
effective participation of women in negotiations on international peace and security.
The rejection of the use of force or of the threat of the use of force and foreign
interference and intervention should become widespread.”
B. Basic strategies
− Paragraph 241: “In view of the fact that women are still very inadequately represented
in national and international political processes dealing with peace and conflict
settlement, it is essential that women support and encourage each other in their
initiatives and action relating either to universal issues, such as disarmament and the
development of confidence-building measures between nations and people, or to
specific conflict situations between or within States.”
− Paragraph 244: “The strategies in this field should include the mobilisation of women
in favour of all acts and actions that tend to promote peace, in particular, the
elimination of wars and danger of nuclear war.”
− Paragraph 253: “Women's equal role in decision-making with respect to peace and
related issues should be seen as one of their basic human rights and as such should be
enhanced and encouraged at the national, regional and international levels.”
E. Women in areas affected by armed conflicts, foreign intervention and threats to peace
F. Measures for the implementation of the basic strategies at the national level
1. Women's participation in efforts for peace

− Paragraph 266: “Women should be able to participate actively in the decision-
making process related to the promotion of international peace and co-operation.
Emphasis should be given to the grass-roots participation and co-operation of
women's organisations with other non-governmental organisations in this process.”
− Paragraph 267: “Governments which have not done so should undertake all
appropriate measures to eliminate existing discriminatory practices towards women
and to provide them with equal opportunities to join, at all levels, the civil service,
to enter the diplomatic service, and to represent their countries as members of
delegations to national, regional and international meetings, including conferences
on peace, conflict resolution, disarmament, and meetings of the Security Council
and other United Nations bodies.”
Report of the Secretary-General to the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) on the
first review and appraisal of the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies
E/Cn.6/1990/5, 22 Nov. 1989
11. Peace
1. It is significant that, although women have been disproportionately the victims of

violence, whether international, national or domestic, they have seldom been
involved in the decision to combat it. That situation has not changed substantially
since 1985.
2. While the hypothesis that women, because of their experiences, would be less likely
to choose conflict than cooperation cannot be tested empirically in the absence of
female decision makers, it is a reasonable one based on women's action in other
official spheres and in non-governmental organisations. The peace process has also
benefited from the work of women outside government who have worked towards
solutions to conflicts. Whether, when these conflicts are resolved, women will be
given the recognition and continuing presence in the processes that their
contribution merits, remains to be seen.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child
Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by the General Assembly
resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989. Entered into force on 2 September 1990, in accordance
with Article 49.
• Article 2: “States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present
Convention to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind,
irrespective of the child’s or his or her parent’s or legal guardian’s race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property,
disability, birth or other status.
• Article 19: States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and
educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence,
injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including
sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has
the care of the child.
• Article 24: (d) To ensure appropriate pre-natal and post-natal health care for mothers.
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of
children in armed conflicts. Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by
General Assembly resolution A/RES/54/263 of 25 May 2000 entered into force on 12 February
2002.
• Paragraph 15. Recognising the special needs of those children who are particularly
vulnerable to recruitment or use in hostilities contrary to the present Protocol owing to
their economic or social status or gender
* Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child
prostitution and child pornography. This was adopted and opened for signature, ratification and
accession by General Assembly resolution A/RES/54/263 of 25 May 2000 entered into force on
18 January 2002, paragraphs 3 to 6:
• Gravely concerned at the significant and increasing international traffic in children for the
purpose of the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography,
• Deeply concerned at the widespread and continuing practice of sex tourism, to which
children are especially vulnerable, as it directly promotes the sale of children, child
prostitution and child pornography,
• Recognising that a number of particularly vulnerable groups, including girl children, are
at greater risk of sexual exploitation and that girl children are disproportionately
represented among the sexually exploited,
• Concerned about the growing availability of child pornography on the Internet and other
evolving technologies, and recalling the International Conference on Combating Child
Pornography on the Internet, held in Vienna in 1999.
Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty
This was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 14 December 1990.
Fundamental Perspectives
4. The Rules should be applied impartially, without discrimination of any kind as to race,
colour, sex, age, language, religion, nationality, political or other opinion, cultural beliefs
or practices, property, birth or family status, ethnic or social origin, and disability. The
religious and cultural beliefs, practices and moral concepts of the juvenile should be
respected.
Declaration on Elimination of Violence against Women
This was adopted under General Assembly Resolution 48/104 of 20 December 199315:
The declaration recognised the urgent need for the universal application to women of the
rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human
beings. Furthermore, it expressed its concern that violence against women is an obstacle to the
achievement of equality, development and peace.
• Article 4: Develop, in a comprehensive way, preventive approaches and all those
measures of a legal, political, administrative and cultural nature that promote the
protection of women against any form of violence, and ensure that the re-victimisation of
women does not occur because of laws insensitive to gender considerations, enforcement
practices or other interventions,
(g) States should work to ensure, to the maximum extent feasible in the light of their
available resources and, where needed, within the framework of international
cooperation, that women subjected to violence and, where appropriate, their
children have specialised assistance, such as rehabilitation, assistance in child care
and maintenance, treatment, counselling, and health and social services, facilities
and programmes, as well as support structures, and should take all other
appropriate measures to promote their safety and physical and psychological
rehabilitation;
(i) Take measures to ensure that law enforcement officers and public officials
responsible for implementing policies to prevent, investigate and punish violence
against women receive training to sensitise them to the needs of women;
(p) Facilitate and enhance the work of the women's movement and non-governmental
organisations and cooperate with them at local, national and regional levels;
• Article 5(e): Encourage coordination between organisations and bodies of the United
Nations system to incorporate the issue of violence against women into ongoing
programmes, especially with reference to groups of women particularly vulnerable to
violence.
15
World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action,

A/CONF.157/23, 12 July 1993
The World Conference on Human Rights Deeply concerned by various forms of

discrimination and violence, to which women continue to be exposed all over the world. The
following sections describe the efforts to stop the injustice:
• I. 18: The human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and
indivisible part of universal human rights.
• The full and equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural
life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the eradication of all forms of
discrimination on grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community.
• The human rights of women should form an integral part of the United Nations human
rights activities, including the promotion of all human rights instruments relating to
women.
• The World Conference on Human Rights urges Governments, institutions,
intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations to intensify their efforts for the
protection and promotion of human rights of women and the girl-child.
• 28: The World Conference on Human Rights expresses its dismay at massive violations
of human rights especially in the form of genocide, “ethnic cleansing” and systematic
rape of women in war situations, creating mass exodus of refugees and displaced persons.
While strongly condemning such abhorrent practices it reiterates the call that perpetrators
of such crimes be punished and such practices immediately stopped.
• II.B.36: The World Conference on Human Rights also underlines the importance of the
integration and full participation of women as both agents and beneficiaries in the
development process, and reiterates the objectives established on global action for
women towards sustainable and equitable development set forth in the Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development and chapter 24 of Agenda 21, adopted by the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June
1992).
• II.B.37: The equal status of women and the human rights of women should be integrated
into the mainstream of United Nations system-wide activity. These issues should be
regularly and systematically addressed throughout relevant United Nations bodies and
mechanisms.
• II.B.38: In particular, the World Conference on Human Rights stresses the importance of
working towards the elimination of violence against women in public and private life, the
elimination of all forms of sexual harassment, exploitation and trafficking in women, the
elimination of gender bias in the administration of justice and the eradication of any
conflicts which may arise between the rights of women and the harmful effects of certain
traditional or customary practices, cultural prejudices and religious extremism. The
World Conference on Human Rights calls upon the General Assembly to adopt the draft
declaration on violence against women and urges States to combat violence against
women in accordance with its provisions. Violations of the human rights of women in
situations of armed conflict are violations of the fundamental principles of international

human rights and humanitarian law. All violations of this kind, including in particular
murder, systematic rape, sexual slavery, and forced pregnancy, require a particularly
effective response.
• II.B.40. Treaty monitoring bodies should disseminate necessary information to enable
women to make more effective use of existing implementation procedures in their
pursuits of full and equal enjoyment of human rights and non-discrimination. New
procedures should also be adopted to strengthen implementation of the commitment to
women's equality and the human rights of women. The Commission on the Status of
Women and the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women should
quickly examine the possibility of introducing the right of petition through the
preparation of an optional protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women. The World Conference on Human Rights welcomes the
decision of the Commission on Human Rights to consider the appointment of a special
rapporteur on violence against women at its fiftieth session.
• II.B.43. The World Conference on Human Rights urges Governments and regional and
international organisations to facilitate the access of women to decision-making posts and
their greater participation in the decision-making process. It encourages further steps
within the United Nations Secretariat to appoint and promote women staff members in
accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, and encourages other principal and
subsidiary organs of the United Nations to guarantee the participation of women under
conditions of equality.
Programme of Action of the United Nations International Conference on Population and

Development Chapter IV: Gender Equality, Equity and Empowerment of Women,
A/CONF.171/13, 18 October 1994:
• Paragraph 4.10: Countries are urged to identify and condemn the systematic practice of
rape and other forms of inhuman and degrading treatment of women as a deliberate
instrument of war and ethnic cleansing and take steps to assure that full assistance is
provided to the victims of such abuse for their physical and mental rehabilitation.
International Conference on Population and Development. Cairo, Egypt (1994)
The Conference recognises that reproductive rights are human rights and that gender
violence is an obstacle for the reproductive and sexual health of women, education and
development. The same convenes the States to implement the Declaration on the Elimination of
Violence against Women.
Fourth World Conference on Women. Beijing. 1995
Programme of Action of the United Nations International Conference on Population and

Development Chapter IV: Gender Equality, Equity and Empowerment of Women,
A/CONF.171/13, 18 October 1994. Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing
4 to 15 September 1995 A/CONF.177/20, 17 October 1995.
The Achievements of Beijing in 199516:
The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action was adopted at the Fourth World
Conference on Women (4-15 September 1995) by representatives from 189 countries. The
Platform reflects a new international commitment to the goals of equality, development and
peace for all women everywhere. It builds on commitments made during the United Nations
Decade for Women, 1976-1985, including at the Nairobi Conference, and on related
commitments made in the cycle of United Nations global conferences held in the 1990s.
The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in September 1995, approved
the Declaration of Beijing and a Platform for Action. The Declaration committed governments to
implement the strategies agreed to in Nairobi in 1985 before the end of the 20th century and to
mobilise resources for the implementation of this platform
The Beijing Platform for Action is the most complete document produced by a United
Nations conference with respect to women's rights, since it incorporates achievements from
former conferences and treaties, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the
CEDAW (Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women) and the Vienna
Declaration. The same also reaffirms the Cairo definitions and includes a paragraph on Human
Rights in general. Article 8.25 of the Cairo Conference was expanded to include a
recommendation to the States to review their punitive legislation.
Points were agreed in order to eliminate discrimination against women, eradicate poverty
and adopt measures for a substantial number of women to fill strategic positions. It was also
recognised that women's human rights include their right to have control over their sexuality and
reproduction and called for a revision of laws which foresee punishment for women who have
had an abortion. The same also called for reinforcement of legislation to protect women's rights.
It is also important to highlight recommendations on unpaid labour, the definitions

contained in the chapter on armed conflict and some decisions related to macro-economic issues
as well as the recognition of race and ethnic origin as causes for discrimination and inequality
factors. The fact that the terms race and ethnic origin have been incorporated into a United
Nations document means that the former resistance of some member countries has been
overcome.
16
At: http://www.choike.org/nuevo/informes/1360.html
Spheres of special concern at the 4th International Conference on Women

(Beijing, 1995)
• The persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women

• Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to education and training
• Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to healthcare and related services
• Violence against women
• The effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on women, including those living under
foreign occupation
• Inequality in economic structures and policies, in all forms of productive activities and in
access to resources
• Inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision-making at all
levels
• Insufficient mechanisms at all levels to promote the advancement of women
• Lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and protection of the human rights of
women
• Stereotyping of women and inequality in women's access to and participation in all
communication systems, especially in the media
• Gender inequalities in the management of natural resources and in the safeguarding of
the environment
• Persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl child (Source:
Mujeres del Sur)
Other conferences, United Nations meetings, and grassroots groups that, starting in the
1970s, have been incorporating gender vindications, committing governments, and
generating more widespread society discussion on the rights of women, have preceded
this summit.
Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (GA, 1998)17
These are contained in the report of the representative of the Secretary-General on

internally displaced persons (E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2) presented to the fifty-fourth session of the
Commission on Human Rights
Section I - General Principles
− Principle 4
1. These Principles shall be applied without discrimination of any kind, such as race,
colour, sex, language, religion or belief, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or
social origin, legal or social status, age, disability, property, birth, or on any other
similar criteria.
2. Certain internally displaced persons, such as children, especially unaccompanied
minors, expectant mothers, mothers with young children, female heads of household,
persons with disabilities and elderly persons, shall be entitled to protection and
assistance required by their condition and to treatment which takes into account their
special needs.
17
Ibid
Section III - Principles Relating to Protection during

Displacement
− Principle 23
3. Special efforts should be made to ensure

the full and equal participation of women
and girls in educational programmes.
Section IV - Principles relating to humanitarian

assistance
− Principle 24
All humanitarian assistance shall be carried out

in accordance with the principles of humanity
and impartiality and without discrimination.
More than 200,000 ethnic Albanians were
displaced inside Kosovo since the beginning
of the conflict in March 1998. These
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court children live in makeshift shelters in the
(as corrected by the process-verbaux of 10 wooden hills near Nekovce and are among
the internally displaced persons in Kosovo.
November 1998 and 12 July 1999)18 October 1998. (Source: UN Photo #31542,
UNHCR, U. Meissner)
− Article 7: Crimes against humanity
1. For the purpose of this Statute, “crime against humanity” means any of the following acts
when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian
population, with knowledge of the attack:
g) Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation, or
any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity;
(h) Persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national,
ethnic, cultural, religious, gender as defined in paragraph 3, or other grounds that are
universally recognised as impermissible under international law, in connection with any
act referred to in this paragraph or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court;
− Article 8: War crimes
2. For the purpose of this Statute, “war crimes” means:
(b)(xxii) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as
defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilisation, or any other form of sexual
violence also constituting a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions;
18
At:: http://www.peacewomen.org/un/women/unwomenpeacedocs.html#20
(e) Other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts not of
an international character, within the established framework of international law, namely,
any of the following acts:
(vi) Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as
defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilisation, and any other form of
sexual violence also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the
four Geneva Conventions;
− Article 36: Qualifications, nomination and election of judges
(a) The States Parties shall, in the selection of judges, take into account the need, within
the membership of the Court, for:
(iii) A fair representation of female and male judges.
(b) States Parties shall also take into account the need to include judges with legal
expertise on specific issues, including, but not limited to, violence against women or
children.
− Article 68: Protection of the victims and witnesses and their participation in the
proceedings
1. The Court shall take appropriate measures to protect the safety, physical and
psychological well-being, dignity and privacy of victims and witnesses. In so doing, the
Court shall have regard to all relevant factors, including age, gender as defined in article
7, paragraph 3, and health, and the nature of the crime, in particular, but not limited to,
where the crime involves sexual or gender violence or violence against children. The
Prosecutor shall take such measures particularly during the investigation and prosecution
of such crimes. These measures shall not be prejudicial to or inconsistent with the rights
of the accused and a fair and impartial trial.
2. As an exception to the principle of public hearings provided for in article 67, the
Chambers of the Court may, to protect victims and witnesses or an accused, conduct any
part of the proceedings in camera or allow the presentation of evidence by electronic or
other special means. In particular, such measures shall be implemented in the case of a
victim of sexual violence or a child who is a victim or a witness, unless otherwise ordered
by the Court, having regard to all the circumstances, particularly the views of the victim or
witness.
Security Council Resolution on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, S/RES/1265,

17 September 1999
This resolution recognises the direct and particular impact of armed conflict on women as
referred to in paragraph 18 of the report of the Secretary-General and, in this regard, welcoming
the ongoing work within the United Nations system on the implementation of a gender
perspective in humanitarian assistance and on violence against women. Furthermore, it requests
the Secretary-General to ensure that United Nations personnel involved in peacemaking,
peacekeeping and peace-building activities have appropriate training in international
humanitarian, human rights and refugee law, including child and gender-related provisions,
negotiation and communication skills, cultural awareness and civilian-military coordination, and
urges States and relevant international and regional organisations to ensure that appropriate
training is included in their programmes for personnel involved in similar activities.
Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict S/RES/1296 of 19 April

2000
This resolution reaffirms its grave concern at the harmful and widespread impact of
armed conflict on civilians, including the particular impact that armed conflict has on women,
children and other vulnerable groups, and further reaffirms in this regard the importance of fully
addressing their special protection and assistance needs in the mandates of peacemaking,
peacekeeping and peace-building operations.
We The Peoples Millennium Forum Declaration and Agenda for Action Strengthening the
United Nations for the 21st Century of 26 May 200019
B. PEACE, SECURITY, AND DISARMAMENT

− The cycle of violence begins with cultures that glorify violence and warrior virtues, and
may be manifest in domestic violence.
− Despite over 50 years of effort, no decisive progress has yet been made in eliminating
nuclear weapons, still capable of destroying all life on this planet, and the circle of their
possessors is expanding. For mainly commercial reasons, there is no adequate verification
for treaties prohibiting biological weapons, while knowledge of how to produce them
spreads. Rape continues to be used as a weapon of war.
The Forum urges the United Nations to:

− 11. To establish ready police and peacekeeping forces. Sensitivity and respect for
civilians, especially women and children, should be included in the training of all
peacekeepers.
19
12. HUMAN RIGHTS

Promoting and Protecting the Rights of Women and Girls
The forum calls on the United Nations, governments and civil society to recognise and assure
equal opportunity and full participation of women in all aspects of society, including leadership,
the economy and decision making.
− The Forum calls upon The United Nations

− To ensure that gender mainstreaming effectively brings women into leadership positions
throughout the system and a gender perspective into all its programmes and policies; to
provide gender training; and to strengthen its mechanisms for the protection and
promotion of the human rights of women and girls.
F. STRENGTHENING AND DEMOCRATISING THE UNITED NATIONS AND

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
The Forum urges Governments
− 4. To ensure that a gender perspective is integrated at all remaining stages of the process
to establish the International Criminal Court and at all stages of the proceedings of the
functioning Court and that the particular needs of children, the elderly, and persons with
disabilities are considered.
The Windhoek Declaration. Namibia. May 2000. The Namibia Plan of Action20 on:
“Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective In Multidimensional Peace Support Operations”
This Declaration is considered to be very important because it provides the first

guidelines for the incorporation of gender in UN Peacekeeping Operations. The Declaration
reads as follows:
In a world riven by war, women and men yearn for peace and are
everywhere striving to resolve conflict and bring about peace, reconciliation
and stability in their communities, their countries and through the United
Nations and regional organisations.
United Nations peace operations have evolved from peacekeeping, in its

traditional sense, towards multidimensional peace support operations. So
far, women have been denied their full role in these efforts, both nationally
and internationally, and the gender dimension in peace processes has not
been adequately addressed.
In order to ensure the effectiveness of peace support operations, the

principles of gender equality must permeate the entire mission, at all levels,
20
At: http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/WindhoekDeclaration.html
thus ensuring the participation of women and men as equal partners and
beneficiaries in all aspects of the peace process -- from peacekeeping,
reconciliation and peace-building, towards a situation of political stability in
which women and men play an equal part in the political, economic and
social development of their country.
Having considered these matters in Windhoek, Namibia, at a seminar on ‘Mainstreaming

a Gender Perspective in Multidimensional Peace Support Operations’ organised by the Lessons
Learned Unit of the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations and hosted by the Government
of Namibia from 29 to 31 May 2000, participants looked at practical ways in which the UN
system and Member States can bring the aims set out above closer to realisation. In that regard,
the Seminar recommends ‘The Namibia Plan of Action’ and urges the Secretary-General to
ensure that appropriate follow-up measures are taken to implement it, in consultation with
Member States, and that periodic progress reviews are undertaken.
1. Negotiations in Furtherance of a Ceasefire and/or Peace Agreements
These negotiations stipulated that equal access and participation by women and men
should be ensured in the area of conflict at all levels and stages of the peace process.
Furthermore, they concluded that, in negotiations for a ceasefire and/or peace agreements,
women should be an integral part of the negotiating team and process. The negotiating team
and/or facilitators should ensure that gender issues are placed on the agenda and that those issues
are addressed fully in the agreement.
2. Mandate
The mandate stipulated that the initial assessment mission for any peace support
operation should include a senior adviser on gender mainstreaming. Furthermore, that the
Secretary-General’s initial report to the Security Council based on the assessment mission (as
well as Security Council resolutions setting up and extending peace support operations) should
include the issue of gender mainstreaming, and should propose adequate budgetary provisions.
All mandates for peace support operations should refer to the provisions of the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as other
relevant international legal instruments. Follow-on mechanisms should also be established
within the mission’s mandate to carry over tasks to implement fully gender mainstreaming in
the post-conflict reconstruction period.
3. Leadership
In accordance with the Secretary-General’s target of 50% women in managerial and

decision-making positions, more determined efforts must be made to select and appoint female
special representatives of the Secretary-General and senior field staff for peace support
operations. For that purpose, a comprehensive database with information specifically on female
candidates with their qualifications, both military and civilian, should be maintained.
Furthermore, an Advisory Board should be set up within the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations (DPKO), preferably with qualified external participation, to ensure that this database
and existing lists of female candidates are given due consideration. Special representatives of
the Secretary-General and senior mission personnel should receive an in-depth briefing on
gender mainstreaming issues prior to deployment.
4. Planning, Structure and Resources of Missions
A gender affairs unit is crucial for effective gender mainstreaming and should be a
standard component of all missions. It should be adequately funded and staffed at appropriate
levels and should have direct access to senior decision-makers.
The DPKO-led operational planning teams at United Nations Headquarters must include
gender specialists and representatives of other United Nations agencies and organisations
dealing with gender issues. Furthermore, all DPKO and Department of Political Affairs
briefings to the Security Council, as well as formal and informal briefings to the General
Assembly legislative bodies, Member States and other relevant bodies, should integrate gender
issues related to that particular mission.
There is a need for the financial authorities of the United Nations, particularly the
Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ), to give priority to
the funding of gender mainstreaming. Lessons learned from current and prior missions on gender
should be incorporated at the planning stage of a new mission. To this end, the compilation of
good practices on gender mainstreaming should be constantly updated.
5. Recruitment
The United Nations must set an example by rapidly increasing the number of senior
female civilian personnel in peace support operations in all relevant departments (including
DPKO) and in the field. Member states should also be asked to increase the number of women
in their military and civilian police forces who are qualified to serve in peace support
operations at all levels, including the most senior. To this end, a stronger mechanism than the
current note verbale to troop-contributing nations should be developed. Requests to troop-
contributing nations could be tailor-made to nations that are known to have suitable female staff,
while other potential troop-contributing nations could be encouraged to develop longer-term
strategies to increase the number and rank of female personnel in their respective forces.
The terms of reference, including eligibility requirements, for all heads of mission
components and their personnel should be reviewed and modified to facilitate the increased
participation of women, and, depending on the outcome of that review, special measures should
be taken to secure this goal.
Finally, all agreements and individual contracts governing the assignment of personnel,
including arrangements for United Nations volunteers, should reflect the gender-related
obligations and responsibilities of those personnel. In particular, the code of conduct should
be addressed in all of these documents.
6. Training
Troop-contributing nations, which are training military, police and civilian personnel
specifically for their participation in peace support operations, should involve a higher
percentage of women in that training. Gender issues should furthermore be mainstreamed
throughout all regional and national training curricula and courses for peace support operations,
particularly those sponsored directly by the Training Unit of DPKO.
In order to meet United Nations standards for behaviour, DPKO should provide gender
awareness guidelines and materials so that Member States can incorporate these elements into
their national training programmes for military and civilian police personnel in preparation for
deployment. Such training should be enhanced by United Nations training (assistance teams and
train-the-trainers programmes).
Obligatory induction training with regard to gender issues held upon arrival at mission
areas should include the following:
• Code of Conduct
• Culture, history and social norms of the host country
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
• Sexual harassment and sexual assault.
7. Procedures
DPKO should consider the gender mainstreaming mechanisms currently used by

United Nations agencies and adopt an appropriate version for their field operations. DPKO
directives should be amended to include gender mainstreaming. Moreover, the reporting
mechanisms between the field and Headquarters on gender mainstreaming need to be clarified.
A post for a Senior Gender Adviser in DPKO, to serve as gender focal point for field
missions, should be funded under the regular budget or the peacekeeping support account and
filled as a matter of urgency. The terms of reference of the Senior Gender Adviser should ensure
a proper interchange of information and experience between gender units in individual missions.
The functions and roles of mission gender units/advisers should be announced to all personnel.
Finally, standard operating procedures applying to all components of missions should be

developed on the issues of sexual assault and sexual harassment.
8. Monitoring, Evaluation and Accountability
Accountability for all issues relating to gender mainstreaming at the field level should be
vested at the highest level, in the Secretary-General’s special representative, who should be
assigned the responsibility of ensuring that gender mainstreaming is implemented in all areas and
components of the mission. The Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations (C-34) and
other concerned legislative bodies should furthermore submit recommendations to the General
Assembly promoting gender mainstreaming in peace operations.
Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to assess the implementation of the United

Nations gender mainstreaming objectives should be established at United Nations Headquarters
and at peacekeeping missions, in consultation with the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender
Issues and Advancement of Women. The current format of reporting, particularly with regard to
situation reports and periodic reports of the Secretary-General, should include progress on
gender mainstreaming throughout peacekeeping missions.
There should also be periodic and end-of-mission evaluations, led by an independent

external team, of the degree to which the United Nations gender mainstreaming approach and
objectives have been integrated into all policies and activities of each peace support operation.
The first studies should be on East Timor and Kosovo. Reporting mechanisms should be
established to monitor the effects of the implementation of the peace agreement on the host
country population from a gender perspective.
Finally, research should be encouraged on the short- and long-term effects of the gender
dimension of peace support operations on the host country population. Such research should be
designed to strengthen host country research capacity, in particular that of women researchers.
9. Public Awarenes
All possible means should be employed to increase public awareness of the importance of
gender mainstreaming in peace support operations. In this connection, the media should play a
significant and positive role.
Brahimi Report: A comprehensive review of the question of peacekeeping operations in all

their aspects. Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, A/55/305-
S/2000/809 of 21 August 200021
Under the direction of Lakhdar Brahimi, former Algerian Foreign Affairs Minister, the
“Brahimi Report” aims to formulate a series of recommendations as to how to improve all of the
Organisation's peace and security activities.
The following are some of the points discussed regarding gender issues:
III. B. Effective mission leadership
To facilitate early selection, the Panel recommends that the Secretary-General compile, in
a systematic fashion, and with input from Member States, a comprehensive list of potential
SRSGs, force commanders, police commissioners and potential deputies, as well as candidates to
head other substantive components of a mission, representing a broad geographic and equitable
gender distribution. Such a database would facilitate early identification and selection of the
leadership group.
21
VI. Challenges to implementation
United Nations personnel in the field, perhaps more than any others, are obliged to
respect local norms, cultures, and practices. They must go out of their way to demonstrate this
respect, as a start, by getting to know their host environment and trying to learn as much of the
local culture and language as they can. They must behave with the understanding that they are
guests in someone else’s home, however destroyed that home might be, particularly when the
United Nations takes on a transitional administration role. And they must also treat one another
with respect and dignity, with particular sensitivity towards gender and cultural differences.
United Nations General Assembly Special Session “Women 2000: Gender Equality,
Development and Peace for the Twenty-first Century.” New York, 5-9 June 200022
Governments, the United Nations, and civil society, following the Fourth World
Conference on Women, have made great efforts in this area. Governments have enacted and
revised legislation in line with the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women, other international and regional human rights instruments, and
the demands of the Beijing Platform for Action. Women's access to justice at the national and
international level has improved, with courts in various countries having rendering judgments
that reflect commitment to gender equality.
Governments have taken steps to ensure that the realities of women's lives are more
explicitly addressed in planning and policy-making processes designed to confront the great
social challenges of our time (in particular to eradicate poverty). Non-governmental
organisations have become more sophisticated in their advocacy work for women's
empowerment and equal participation in decision-making processes at all levels. The entities of
the United Nations system are now placing gender units and focal points strategically in central
policy- and decision-making positions to enable them to better influence such processes for
gender equality.
Addressing Gender Equality Concerns in the Follow-up to Global Conferences and Summits
Attention to gender equality concerns has also continued in intergovernmental processes,

particularly through the follow-up to global conferences and summits. For example, the link
between the persistence of poverty and women's inequality are being highlighted at various
international fora, such as the UN General Assembly and in the preparatory process for the five-
year review of the World Summit for Social Development in June 2000. Attention is being
drawn to women’s empowerment and gender equality as both a means and an end in the fight
against the ancient enemy of poverty.
Why a Special Session?
As a follow-up to that conference, the United Nations General Assembly convened a

special session for the five-year review of the Beijing Platform for Action, adopted by the 1995
22
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/session/presskit/gasp.htm
Conference. This special session took place in New York, from 5-9 June 2000, under the theme
of “Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the Twenty-First Century.” Also
called Beijing + 5, the special session focused on examples of good practices, positive actions,
lessons learned, obstacles and key challenges remaining. It considered further actions and
initiatives for achieving gender equality in the new millennium. At the end of the special session,
governments issued a political declaration calling for recommitment to the Beijing Platform for
Action.
The call for a high-level review of the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action
was made by the UN General Assembly in January 1998, when it reaffirmed that the
implementation of the Platform for Action would require immediate and concerted action by all
to create a peaceful, just and humane world based on all human rights and fundamental
freedoms, including the principle of equality for all people of all ages and from all walks of
life.
Who attended the Special Session?
Participants at the special session included high-level political representatives from

governments and observer states, as well as representatives of the United Nations system,
intergovernmental organisations and non-governmental organisations.
The Role of the Commission on the Status of Women
As the UN intergovernmental advocate for equality between men and women, the
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) acts as the preparatory body for the special session.
Each year since the adoption of the Platform for Action in 1995, the Commission, which is
responsible for monitoring the follow-up to the Beijing Conference, has examined several of the
critical areas contained in the Platform for Action, to assess progress and recommend priorities
for accelerating implementation. In its preparatory role, CSW is holding open-ended
deliberations allowing for the full participation of all UN Member States, specialised agencies,
and observers.
Preparatory Activities
Numerous preparatory activities for the special session were planned at the national,
regional and international level. Among them were:
• Preparation of national action plans by Governments.

• Five regional meetings in 1999 and 2000: Bangkok, Thailand (October 1999), Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia (November 1999), Beirut, Lebanon (December 1999), Geneva,
Switzerland (January 2000), and Lima, Peru (February 2000).
• Meetings of the Commission on the Status of Women, as preparatory body for the special
session, one in March 1999 and another from 3 March to 17 March 2000.
• A UN workshop on “Beijing + 5 — Future Actions and Initiatives” in Lebanon in
November 1999.
• Analysis by the UN Secretariat of the replies from UN Member States and Observers to
the Secretary-General's questionnaire on the implementation of the Beijing Platform for
Action (A/52/231): over 130 responses were received.
• Activities by various UN bodies, organisations and agencies as input to the special
session.
• On-line working groups on the 12 critical areas of concern of the Beijing Platform for
Action, conducted on the WomenWatch website of the United Nations.
• Activities around the world by non-governmental organisations.
A Commitment
In her address to the fifty-fourth session of the General Assembly in October 1999,
Angela E.V. King, Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues and Advancement
of Women, reiterated:
As we prepare for the special session to appraise progress made in the

implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action and to commit ourselves
to further actions and initiatives, we recognise that much has been done to
achieve gender equality. Many areas still need our thought, imagination,
careful attention and energy.
Security Council Resolution 1325 (31 October 2000)
The Security Council passed this resolution unanimously at its 4213th session, celebrated
31 October 2000 in New York. This resolution set an important milestone within the world's
political framework. It addressed women's contributions from a gender perspective, which takes
on an unparalleled historical dimension with concrete actions in PKO implemented (and to be
implemented) in the future, to achieve sustainable peace and reconstruction.
Summary of the 18 points of Resolution 1325
• Increase representation of women in decision-making at all levels and ensure

that more SRSGs are appointed for missions or to act in favorable positions.
• Special training for peacekeepers regarding the protection of human rights for
women and children, especially regarding rape and sexual abuse.
• Women's role in peacebuilding and the gender perspective of settling all
stages during and after a conflict.
• Propose a global study on the impact of conflict on women and girls.
• Request increased financing from Member States in order to carry out all of
these actions.
Joint Conference for Latin America and the Caribbean on Building Capacities for
Peacekeeping and Women’s Dimensions in Peace Processes. Santiago, Chile, November
2002
The aim of this meeting was to exchange experiences on the role of women on United
Nations peacekeeping operations by listening to the expert opinions that promoted the discussion
among participants. These included both civilians and representatives of uniformed institutions
from most of Latin America, the Caribbean, and European Union, as well as UN academia and
NGOs.
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) - 49th Session, 28 February - 11 March 2005
(Beijing+10)23
This event was a follow-up to the Fourth World Conference on Women and to the special
session of the General Assembly entitled “Women 2000: gender equality, development and
peace for the twenty-first century.” Its goal was the implementation of strategic objectives and
action in the critical areas of concern. The chairperson of the Commission on the Status of
Women submitted the draft, and the Commission on the Status of Women at its forty-ninth
session issued the declaration.
The commission reaffirmed the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (adopted at
the Fourth World Conference on Women), and the outcome of the twenty-third special session of
the General Assembly. It welcomed the progress made thus far towards achieving gender
equality, and stressed that challenges and obstacles remain in the implementation of the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action, as well as the outcome of the twenty-third special session
of the General Assembly. Finally, it pledged to undertake further action to ensure their full and
accelerated implementation.
It emphasised further that the full and effective implementation of the Beijing Declaration
and Platform for Action is essential to achieving the internationally agreed development goals,
including those contained in the Millennium Declaration.24 It also stressed the need to ensure
the integration of a gender perspective in the high-level plenary meeting on the review of the
Millennium Declaration.
It recognised that the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
and the fulfilment of the obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women are mutually reinforcing in achieving gender equality and the
empowerment of women.
It called upon the United Nations system, international and regional organisations, all
sectors of civil society, including non-governmental organisations, as well as all women and
men, to fully commit themselves and to intensify their contributions to the implementation of the
23
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw49/documents.html#fin
24
See Appendix D. General Assembly Resolution 55/2.
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the outcome of the twenty-third special session
of the General Assembly.
Resolutions presented at the 49th Session of the CSW
• Resolution on women, the girl child and HIV/AIDS. This resolution was presented by
Mauritius, on behalf of the South African Development Community (SADC).
• Resolution on reducing demand for trafficking women and girls from all forms of
exploitation, presented by the United States government.
• Resolution on a Special Rapporteur on laws that discriminated against women,
introduced by the governments of Rwanda and the Philippines.
• Resolution on mainstreaming a gender perspective into national policies and
programmes, presented by the governments of Bangladesh and the United Kingdom.
• Resolution on integrating a gender perspective in post-disaster relief efforts, particularly
in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami disaster. This resolution was presented by
the government of the Philippines.
• Resolution on the situation of and assistance to Palestinian women, introduced by
Jamaica on behalf of the Group of 77.
• Resolution on the strengthening of the International Research and Training Institute for
the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), introduced by Jamaica on behalf of the Group
of 77.
• Resolution on economic advancement for women, presented by the U.S.
• Resolution on the situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, introduced by Jamaica on
behalf of the Group of 77.
• Resolution on indigenous women, presented by the government of Bolivia.
Let us recall that at the beginning of the 20th century it was estimated that the civilian
victims of the world's armed conflicts amounted to 5%. During World War I, this increased to
15%. At the end of World War II, this was estimated to be 65%.25 By the end of the 20th century,
these figures ranged as high as 90%, with women and children accounting for the vast majority
of the victims.26
The increasing number of armed conflicts, and the violations associated to them, has
given rise to an increased number of forced flows of domestic displacement and refugees. As a
general rule, over 75% of the persons displaced are women and children, and in some refugee
populations these figures reach 90%.27
Tension between communities or conflicts generated by the competition for resources to

gain political power continues to be a current reality that in one way or another affects persons at
community, regional or worldwide levels. The number of conflicts shows no signs of reduction.
Between 1989 and 1997, for example, there were an estimated 103 armed conflicts in 69
countries. In Africa alone, more than one quarter of the continent's 53 countries were the theatre
of conflicts at the end of the 1990s. As of January 2006, nine of the UN's 16 peacekeeping
operations were deployed in the African continent.
MONUC Moroccan contingent medical staff treat refugees in Che, Ituri,

after they fled their homes due to violent militia fighting where they were
the victims of machete wounds among other injuries that were treated by the
MONUC doctors. (Source: MONUC, Christophe Boulierac, Feb. 2005)
25
At: http://www.un.org/spanish/docs/report01/repl01.htm
26
27
At: http://www.un.org/spanish/conferences/Beijing/fs5.htm
LESSON SUMMARY
• United Nations Peacekeeping Operations are an essential instrument for international peace
and security.
• PKOs increased by 361% in the 15 years following 1989 and the end of the Cold War,
compared with the period of 1945-1989.
• Most of the recent PKOs are deployed in Africa.
• Gender equality and the empowerment of women are part of the Millennium Development
Goals (2000).
• Violence against women and girls has reached epidemic proportions in contemporary
conflicts.
• Women have been shown to facilitate peace processes due to their conciliatory and protective
nature for the family.
• Women provide a different outlook with concrete skills and abilities for the decision-making
process and the settlement of conflicts in all processes and at all levels.
• Since its creation in 1945, the UN has been promoting Gender Equality. Here are some
examples:
− 1946: Commission on the Status of Women (CSW)
− 1948: Universal Declaration of Human Rights
− 1976: Creation of UNIFEM
− 1981: CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women)
− 1985: Third World Women Conference, Nairobi (United Nations Decade for Women:
Equality, Development and Peace)
− 1993: Declaration on Elimination of Violence Against Women (GA)
− 1995: Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing (Gender Equality, Equity and
Empowerment of Women)
− 1999: Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
− 2000: The Brahimi Report
− 2000: Security Council Resolution on the Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict
− 2000: The Windhoek Declaration, Namibi (Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective In
Multidimensional Peace Support Operations)
− 2000: United Nations General Assembly Special Session. Women 2000: Gender
Equality, Development and Peace for the Twenty-first Century. (Beijing +5)
− 2000: Security Council Resolution 1325:
• Increase representation of women in decision-making at all levels and ensure
that more SRSGs are appointed for missions or to act in favorable positions.
• Special training for peacekeepers regarding the protection of human rights for
women and children, especially regarding rape and sexual abuse.
• Women's role in peace-building and the gender perspective of settling all
stages of a conflict.
• Propose a global study on the impact of conflict on women and girls.
• Request increased financing from Member States in order to carry out all of
these actions.
− 2005: 49th Session of the CSW (Commision of the Status on Women) (Beijing +10)
LESSON 5
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Which agency declares: “equal rights for men and women, nations large and small…”?
a. OAS
b. UNIFEM
c. CSW
d. UN
2. Compared to the period from 1945 to 1989, by what percentage did peacekeeping missions
increase from 1990 to the present?
a. 50%
b. A little over 200%
c. A little over 360%
d. They did not increase
3. Since what event has reference been made to gender equality in UN instruments?
a. The Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations in 1945;
b. The creation of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) in 1946;
c. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948;
d. The First World Conference on Women in Mexico in 1975.
4. Within the Millennium Development Goals for the year 2000, the following was considered
prioritary:
a. The status of boys and girls in underdeveloped countries;
b. The shortening of working hours;
c. The empowerment of women and gender equality;
d. The creation of more jobs for women.
5. The Millennium Summit petitions included:

a. Protection of children’s rights during and after conflicts;
b. Increased job opportunities for women;
c. The ensurement of equal representation and participation of women in national and
local governments;
d. Improvement of refugee status in conflict areas.
6. It has been shown that women's participation facilitates peace processes due to their
conciliatory and protective nature.
a. True
b. False
7. The UN and the DPKO encourage women's participation in decision-making in order to

ensure more sustainable peace at which of the following levels?
a. International UN and regional agencies;
b. Household;
c. Communal;
d. National governmental.
8. The Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 in Beijing defined spheres of special
concern. These included:
a. Gender inequality in the workplace;
b. Demographic explosion;
c. Violence against women and the consequences of armed conflict and conflict of other
kinds on women, including those who live under foreign occupation;
d. Children’s rights in conflict areas.
9. Which historic document was relevant within a world political framework and stressed the
importance of women's role in PKOs from a gender perspective?
a. Charter of the UN of 1945;
b. Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948;
c. GA Resolution 3519 of December 1975;
d. SC Resolution 1325 of October 2000.
10. The 18 points proposed in Resolution 1325 include the following:

a. Deployment of female peacekeepers on PKOs to ensure the protection of children in
areas of conflict;
b. Children’s roles in conflict resolution during and after the conflict;
c. Special training for peacekeepers in order to protect the human rights of women and
children, especially those related to sexual abuse and rape;
d. Increase disease awareness in areas of conflict.
ANSWER KEY:
1d, 2c, 3a, 4c, 5c, 6a, 7a, 8c, 9d, 10c

LESSON 6
GENDER PERSPECTIVES ON THE

IMPACT OF ARMED CONFLICT
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Sexual Violence
Lesson 6 / Gender Perspectives on the Impact of Armed Conflict 110
LESSON OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, the student will learn that one of the characteristics of contemporary armed
conflict, and its devastating impact on the civilian population, is that women and girls are the
most frequent victims. The relationship existing between gender issues and the consequences of
contemporary armed conflict will be viewed from an academic perspective.
• Understand and differentiate how gender relations affect the evolution and consequences
of contemporary armed conflict in all stages (before, during, and after conflict);
• Differentiate, manage, and apply the concepts of sexual violence and gender-based
violence (GBV) used in the UN System;
• Understand and recognise how GBV is manifested in modern armed conflict; and
• Analyse information supplied about victims who have suffered the consequences of the
conflict due to gender reasons.

6.1 Introduction
In the 14 years after the end of the Cold War, from 1990 to 2004, there were 60 different
major armed conflicts in 49 locations. Only four of these involved war between nations. This
means that fighting is now taking place more often, not on the battleground as it was in the past,
but in the places where people live. This means that civilians are more likely to be direct or
indirect targets of violence. Some organisations calculate between 75-90% of the victims of these
conflicts are civilian, and women and girls are 70-90% of these victims.
Different studies show that in the last century, over a hundred million people died in war.
In all wars, women have suffered horrible atrocities and injustices. Women rarely have the same
resources, political rights, authority or control over their environment and needs as men do. “The
situation of women in armed conflicts is systematically neglected.”1
Amani El-Jack in her study states:
The transversalisation of gender consciousness in structures which control

armed conflict and post-conflict reconstruction require greater cooperation
between international institutions, the States and NGOs. If we are to build
more equalitarian societies after conflicts, it is particularly important that
we involve women's organisations at decision-making levels in the
formulation of political and legal structures. In fact, the overwhelming
disturbances caused by armed conflicts create the potential for redefining
gender relations in the post-conflict period in more gender-equitative
manners. However, without a greater contribution from organisations and
interventions which promote gender equity in all sectors, there is a serious
risk that lasting patterns of oppression will be re-established.
Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that we understand that modern conflict entails
devastating consequences for any society in all aspects (political, economic, and social). As we
have already stated, this is especially devastating for the civilian population and within it, it is
mainly manifested as systematic violence against women and children. This situation is known
as Gender-Based Violence (GBV).2
• Contemporary armed conflict (CAC) entails devastating political,

economic, and social consequences for communities.
• Victims are mainly civilians (up to 90%), and of these, most are women
and children due to the mere fact that they are women and children.
This violence is known as Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
1
Woman, War and Peace. UNIFEM. UN Publications. 2002. p.1
2
El Jack, Amani. Gender and Armed Conflicts. General Report. Bridge, Institute of Development Studies, University of
Sussex. At: http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports_gend_CEP.html
Changes in Gender Relations
Several studies have addressed the consequences of contemporary armed conflict for
gender issues. Much of the existing analysis on armed conflict and post-conflict reconstruction is
wanting in this aspect; some do not consider gender, others ignore women or do not consider
gender relations, or consider gender relations stereotypically.3 However, the impact of armed
conflict on gender relations is highly significant and the degree of CAC will depend on the stage
of conflict under analysis. Conflict changes gender relations and alters power balances.
In any armed conflict, gender relations are imbalanced and this may have two interpretations:
• Negative, with increased discrimination against traditionally more vulnerable groups

such as women, boys and girls. Imbalances and inequalities existing before the conflict
are maximised during conflict, making these groups even more vulnerable.
• Positive: after the disturbances of war, society can be reconstructed, redetermining what
kind of society is to be built and how gender relations will work within it. It is hoped that
during post-conflict, greater balance or equality is achieved in terms of gender relations.
But this is not always the case. Any analysis of gender relations requires prior knowledge
regarding the nature of gender relations existing before the conflict in the society. Thus we will
be able to understand how conflict and its aftermath affected these relations. This is the stage in
which peacekeepers can play an important role in the reconstruction of society in order that it
become fairer and more equalitarian.
In CAC, gender relations change and may be negative or positive

• Negative: These may exacerbate gender stereotypes during and after
conflict (inequality, imbalance, gender inequity)
• Positive: These represent an opportunity to build a new post-conflict society
and to seek better balance and equality and, therefore, a better society
Violence Against Women and Girls
Both women and men, and boys and girls can lose their lives, be injured (landmines,
other weapons), displaced, or exiled. These situations are favourable for the use of sexual
violence as a true strategy and tactic of war between hostile groups. This violence especially
affects women and girls, although it is now admitted that men and boys are affected but to a
lesser degree. The consequences are disastrous.
3
El Jack, op. cit.
Civilian women and

girls face different risks and
dangers compared to civilian
men and boys. As ICRC
noted, “women do not go off
to fight and largely remain
unarmed and unprotected.”
When institutional safeguards
have disintegrated and
weapons have proliferated,
this leads to women being
particularly vulnerable during
wartime.
Women and men do

different types of work. In Residents in the partially destroyed Muslim enclave of Stari Vitez, Bosnia
conflicts, women and girls and Herzegovina. (Source: UN Photo #186718C)
tend to be responsible for the
care of the family (working long hours, collection of firewood, water or food) exposing them to
risks such as kidnapping, landmines, or sexual violations. In addition, men and boys are recruited
into armed forces, displaced, kidnapped, detained, or disappear, increasing economic
vulnerabilities. This critical situation places them at a higher risk of being forced by criminal
groups into GBV and its consequences.
After conflicts, weapons are not removed but remain in the hands of men. Studies show
that domestic violence increases, meaning that women and children are at a higher risk of injury
or death. In addition, women are more likely to be killed or injured by landmines while
gathering food or water along public roads. Women who have lost theirs limbs are unable to
farm and are often abandoned by their husbands. On the other hand, men are most often the
casualties of landmines and women provide the sole support of their families.
Civilian women and girls face different risk compared to

men and boys due to gender stereotypes
• During conflict, their responsibility is to take care of the family. They have higher
risks of being abducted, kidnapped, injured by landmines, displaced, sexually
abused, or tortured during long working hours to collect water, firewood, or food.
• They do not have weapons, and many are abandoned by their husbands. Thus,
their families suffer devastation, remaining at home to avoid violence.
6.3 Sexual Violence
Introduction
In November 2004, on the International Day for the Prevention of Violence Against
Women, UNICEF in Geneva, Executive Director Carol Bellamy said:
The systematic use of rape as a weapon of war is a violation of human

rights that demands urgent attention and an end to impunity…The
prevalence of rape and sexual violence during armed conflict is not a new
problem, but it is as serious as it has ever been…Perpetrators of sexual
violence during armed conflict are violating international law. States must
hold them accountable, and there must be resources for victims to seek
justice…War has always dealt cruelly with women, but the nature of violent
conflict in the world has changed in the past decades in ways that are taking
an even greater toll on women and children…Perpetrators of sexual
violence during armed conflict, as well as those who authorise attacks, must
be prosecuted…Rape is being used as a weapon of war, often with complete
impunity, in the interest of human rights, human decency and human
dignity this must end.
These expressions show what we are facing today.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan meets with victims of sexual violence.

(Source: UNMIS Photo, Evan Schneider, May 2005)
Sexual Violence Against Women*
• “Perpetrators of sexual violence during armed conflict are violating international law.
States must hold them accountable, and there must be resources for victims to seek justice.”
• “Perpetrators of sexual violence during armed conflict, as well as those who authorize
attacks, must be prosecuted.”
• “Rape is being used as a weapon of war, often with complete impunity, in the interest of
human rights, human decency and human dignity this must end.”
* Carol Bellamy. Executive Director of UNICEF. Nov. 2004. International Day for the Prevention of Violence against Women.
Defining Sexual Violence
Sexual violence is directly related to culture and gender roles of society. It is a

consequence of gender imbalance and gender inequity. The term sexual violence is used to
denote sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. It refers to any act, attempt, or threat of a sexual
nature that results, or is likely to result in, physical, psychological and emotional harm. Sexual
violence is therefore a form of gender-based violence (GBV).
The UN Declaration on Elimination of Violence Against Women defines such violence

as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or
psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary
deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private.”4
CEDAW defines “violence against women and girls as a form of discrimination. This
includes acts that inflict physical, mental or sexual harm or suffering, threats of such acts,
coercion and other deprivations of liberty.”
The Preliminary Report of the Special Reporter on Violence Against Women (1994)5
said: “women’s vulnerability to violence is determined by their sexuality” (resulting, for
example, in rape or female genital mutilation (FGM)), from their relationship to particular men
(domestic violence, dowry deaths), and from membership of groups where violence against
women is a means of humiliation directed at specific groups (e.g., mass rape in conflict
situations). It is said that gender violence against women is violence directed against women
because they are women.6
Amnesty International7 says: “Sexual violence against women is a human rights violation
that cannot be justified by any political, social, religious, or cultural claim. A global culture of
discrimination against women allows sexual violence to occur daily and with impunity.”
4
CEDAW. General Assembly 1979/1981.
5
At: http://www.undp.org/hiv/publications/gender/violencee.htm
6
Elimination of Discrimination against Women, General Recommendation 19, Violence against Women (11th period of
sessions, 1992), UN document HRI\GEN\1\Rev.1, paragraph 6.
7
At: http://www.amnestyusa.org/women
Amnesty USA8 says: “Sexual violence against women is rooted in a global culture of
discrimination, which denies women equal rights with men, and which legitimises and sexualises
the violent appropriation of women's bodies for individual gratification or for political ends.”
The Rome Statute states: “Sexual violence can be considered a crime against humanity,
and in some cases constitutes an element of genocide.” It recognises rape and sexual violence by
combatants in the conduct of armed conflict as war crimes.
HIV and UNDP9 say: “Sexual violence describes the deliberate use of sex as a weapon to
demonstrate power over, and to inflict pain and humiliation upon, another human being. Thus,
sexual violence does not have to include direct physical contact between perpetrator and victim:
threats, humiliation and intimidation may all be considered as sexually violent.”
Sexual Violence
“Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual
or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion
or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private.”*
“Violence against women and girls is a form of discrimination.”*
“Sexual violence against women is a human rights violation that cannot be justified
by any political, social, religious, or cultural claim.” (Amnesty International)
“Sexual violence can be considered a crime against humanity, and in some cases
constitutes an element of genocide.” (Statute of Rome)
* UN Declaration on Elimination of Violence against Women (CEDAW)
The World Health Organisation (WHO), and other organisations’, definition of Sexual Violence
includes:
• Rape within marriage, in community relationships, and by strangers.

• Systematic rape during armed conflict.
• Unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment, including demanding sex in return for
favours.
• Forced marriage and cohabitation, including the marriage of children.
• Forced abortion.
• Denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt other measures to protect against
sexually transmitted diseases.
• Violent acts against the sexual integrity of women, including female genital mutilation
and obligatory inspection for virginity.
• Use of sexual violence as a strategic and tactical weapon of war to spread sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS.
8
At: http://www.amnestyusa.org/stopviolence/factsheets/sexualviolence.html
9
At: http://www.undp.org/hiv/publications/gender/violencee.htm
• Use of sexual violence against women (as well as boys and girls and sometimes men) as a
strategic and tactical weapon of war to psychologically humiliate the enemy.
• Forced prostitution and trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual exploitation.
The Division for the

Advancement of Women,
Department of Economic and
Social Affairs,10 in its report of
2000 (Beijing+5), “Sexual
Violence and Armed Conflict:
United Nations Response”
specifies that the term “sexual
violence” refers to many
different crimes including:
• Rape
• Sexual mutilation
• Sexual humiliation
• Forced prostitution
• Forced pregnancy
• Forced abortion These Maake women in Lesotho are participants in a female
circumcision ceremony. (Source: UN Photo #187052C)
• Military sexual slavery
Sexual Violence
“Sexual violence of women and girls is used as a strategic and tactical

weapon of war to psychologically humiliate enemies.” (WHO)
“Gender violence against women and girls is just because they are women
or girls, which affects them disproportionately compared to men and boys.”
(UN. 11th Session Period. Doc HRI/GEB/Rev.1. Paragraph 6, 1992)
These crimes are motivated by a many factors:

• The commonly held view throughout history has been that women are part of the spoils
of war to which soldiers are entitled.
• Deeply entrenched in this notion is the idea that women are property -- chattel available
to victorious warriors. They are a trophy of war.
• Sexual violence may also be looked upon as a means of troop mollification. This is
particularly the case where women are forced into military sexual slavery.
• To destroy male, and thereby community, pride. Men who have failed to protect their
women are considered to be humiliated and weak. It can also be used as a form of
punishment, particularly where women are politically active, or are associated with others
who are politically active.
10
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2apr98.htm#part2
• Can be used as a means of inflicting terror upon the population at large. It can shatter
communities and drive people out of their homes.
• Can be part of a genocidal strategy. It can inflict life-threatening bodily and mental harm,
and form part of the conditions imposed to bring about the ultimate destruction of an
entire group of people.
Analysing Gender Impact in CAC
In the report “Women, Peace and Security (UN 2002),” it is specified that in order to
approach the impact of armed conflict in gender issues the following four aspects must be taken
into consideration:
• Impact: Women and girls tend to experience conflict differently than men and boys.
Differences and inequalities during war and post-conflict reconstruction exacerbate these
two aspects.
• Gender roles: Women and men are both actors and victims. Generally, men are
combatants, but women are forced to play many roles.11
• Conditions: The economic, political, and social conditions of countries, regions, or
continents are different, so gender roles must be understood in their own terms. Women
are not a homogeneous group and may have contradictory interests and priorities.
• Concepts: There is often confusion and misunderstanding between gender analysis and
what happens to women and girls in armed conflicts (see definitions above).
Some studies recommend certain aspects be considered when analysing violence against
women in armed conflict. It is important to realise that even today, violence against women has
reached epidemic proportions, as women have become the primary targets of those who use
terrorism as a tactic of war. Women’s bodies have become a battleground over which opposed
forces struggle.
Women from a certain racial, ethnic or religious group are generally the victims of
violence against their physical and sexual integrity. Due to their reproductive capacity, they are
considered carriers of the cultural, ethnic or religious identity of their community and the
reproducers of their society, in opposition with that of the adversary. Within this context,
violence against women goes beyond rape itself, since they represent the continuation of the
nation's culture. Therefore, invading armies are symbolically raping the nation itself, which
11
In addition to their classical roles as protectors of family, between 1990 and 2002, girls were in fighting forces and groups in
at least 54 countries, and fought in 36 of those countries. In addition, they were passing information and smuggled weapons,
as well as infiltrating information in government and peacekeeping forces by means of social contacts, such as community
activism, helping displaced and homeless persons, small business owners and many others.
affects the morale of the other side. This truth has remained over centuries of history and it
shamefully remains even in the conflicts of the 21st century.12
Conflict intensifies existing patterns of sexual violence against women in two aspects:
• Domestic violence or household violence, which increases in intensity and frequency

during and after conflict (UN 2003).
• Everyday violence, which is to say that of the environment, which also increases within
the context of a conflict in a masculine and militarised environment.
The establishment of camps for public rape and the provision of sexual services to
occupying armed forces in exchange for resources such as food and protection are two examples
of GBV during and after conflict.13
Women and girls are kidnapped and used as sexual slaves to serve troops, as well as to
cook for soldiers going from camp to camp. This situation leads to greater traffic, which
encourages sexual slavery, or
slavery of other types, and the
consequences thereafter: forced
impregnation or HIV infection
on purpose to spread the
infection and inflict a slow and
painful death.
Trafficking and sexual

slavery are inextricably linked to
conflict. Women are trafficked
from one country to another to be
used in labour schemes that
include forced sex work. Armed
groups abduct women in order to
have them carry out dangerous In Savannakhet, in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, a woman
work such as demining contested covers her daughter’s face to protect her identity. The daughter was
trafficked when she was 16 years old and spent seven years as a
areas. The women therefore risk
domestic servant for a wealthy businessman in Bangkok, where she
their lives to make a field or a was beaten and tortured. (Source: UNICEF Photo, Jim Holmes)
hillside safe for soldiers.
12
We have watched in horror while sexual violence has become a weapon of ethnic cleansing in conflict zones, as was the case
in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo, where rape was used by the Serbian police and paramilitary forces to punish women
who belonged to the Kosovo Liberation Army (Human Rights Watch, 2000). Given the fact that rape had been used in
Bosnia, this became a causal factor in displacement related to conflict in Kosovo.
13
At: http://www.ids.ac.uk/bridge
Sexual Violence Against Men
Men also experience violence, although differently, during and after conflict, either as
victims or as perpetrators. We have stated that sexual violence is mainly experienced by women,
but men and boys are also raped during armed conflict, using this violence in order to destroy the
masculine power of the adversary. However, raped men often become male heroes.14
One study states:
In the case of former Yugoslavia, the negative aspect of identifying men

who had been victims of sexual violence throughout the armed conflict was
rationalised in terms of power relations during the war as well as in the
following process of the rebuilding of the nation, which determined who
would be classified as victims of sexual abuse. This is to say, a woman can
be a victim, but a man never is, which constitutes a denial of one of the
gender realities of armed conflict.15
These examples illustrate how the same phenomenon experienced by women and men is
perceived and classified differently. The most dramatic issue is the trend during armed conflicts
for victims to be increasingly among civilians, and mostly non-combatant women and children.16
Sexual Violence and Gender Discrimination
• Women and men who have been sexually raped are classified differently.
• Women are victims of a conflict; men are sometimes turned into heroes, never victims.
“Broken Lives.” Amnesty Internacional. http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/eslact770752004 (Conflict in former Yugoslavia)
14
Moser, C. and F. Clark (eds). Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence. London: Zed
Books. 2001. At:: www.ids.ac.uk/bridge
15
Zarkov, D.The Body of the Other Man: Sexual Violence and the Construction of Masculinity, Sexuality and Ethnicity in
Croatian Media’. C. Moser and F. Clark (eds), Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political
Violence, London: Zed Books. 2001. At: www.ids.ac.uk/bridge
16
Broken Lives. Amnesty International. At: http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/eslact770752004. Sept. 05
Introduction
Gender-based violence is not the inevitable result of armed conflict, as we may be led to
believe, but women are rather deliberately used as true bargaining chips and weapons of war in
order to break the family balance and that of communities.
Violence against women is perhaps the most shameful human rights

violation, and it is perhaps the most pervasive. It knows no boundaries of
geography, culture or wealth. As long as it continues, we cannot claim to be
making real progress towards equality, development, and peace.
SG Kofi Annan
“Violence against women in conflict is one of

history’s greatest silences.”
E. Rehn and E. Johnson. Women, War and Peace. UNIFEM. 2002. p. 9.
Defining Gender-Based Violence
According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees17 (UNHCR), the term
gender-based violence (GBV) is used to distinguish violence that targets individuals or groups of
individuals on the basis of their gender from other forms of violence. GBV includes violent acts
such as rape, torture, mutilation, sexual slavery, forced impregnation and murder. When
involving women, GBV is violence that is directed against a woman or girl because she is
female, or violence that affects women disproportionately.
The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) considers that the term
gender-based violence provides a new context for understanding violence against women
because it reflects the unequal power relationship between women and men in society. This does
not mean that all acts against a woman are gender-based violence, or that all victims of gender-
based violence are female.
According to a report written by Amani El-Jack,18 GBV is understood as:
…violence, sexual or of another nature, which is supported by gender

standards and exclusions in order to physically and psychologically
demoralise persons. Although the targets of GBV are more often women,
17
At: http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/gbv/
18
At: http://www.ids.ac.uk/bridge
both women and men can be victims and the object of rape; of a greater
HIV infection rate and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs); of
damage to physical and psychological health; of broken lives, as well as the
loss of personal confidence and self esteem.
As the Rehn and Johnson19 report says, in many African conflicts during and after the
1990s, “girls were sex workers, even belonging to different religions and ethnic groups, but they
had one thing in common: they were separated by force from their families during war, most
were abducted and forced to stay with rebels until they escaped or the ceasefire was signed.”
Eventual post-conflict community integration is difficult, sometimes with the family
disintegrated, houses burned, and eventually money is earned by working in the street.
As UN experts report
(UN 2000), the forms of violence
used as GBV are closely linked
to gender relations in the society
and culture; these allow
perpetrators to carry out violent
acts such as the following:
• Torture
• Rape
• Gang rape
• Sexual slavery
• Enforced prostitution
• Forced sterilisation
• Forced termination of
pregnancy
Women and girls who were kidnapped or raped or suffered other
• Genital mutilations abuses such as amputations, can have difficulties reintegrating into
• Abortion their families and communities. (Source: iAfrika Photos, Eric Miller)
GBV: Consequences on Women and Girls
Consequences of GBV on women and girls include:
• Physical: health, reproductive or genital problems

• Psychological: suffering, depression, or later being branded as community outcasts due
to the stigma associated with sexual abuse.
• Social: gender discrimination such as inequity and imbalance for getting a job, as well as
refusal by family due to forced pregnancy or rape.
19
Women, War and Peace. UN. 2002. p. 12.
GBV in Men and Adolescent Boys
Men and adolescent boys are also subjected to gender-based violence, sexual torture, or
mutilations by male captors or prisoners who wish to destroy their sense of masculinity or
manhood. Abuse and torture against female family members in their presence is used to convey
the message that they have failed in their role as protectors.20 The goal of humiliating men has
powerful political and symbolic meanings.21
Spreading HIV/AIDS
As women and adolescent girls are subjected to rape or gang rape, they are often used to
wilfully transmit HIV infection.22 The Security Council and Secretary-General recognise that
HIV/AIDS is a serious threat to peace and security. Sexual abuse is used as a weapon in order to
increase the spread of STIs and HIV/AIDS. Women and adolescents have the highest rate of HIV
infection. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding contributes to
increased infant and child mortality.23
Forced Impregnation of Women and Adolescent Girls
Forced impregnation is used as a form of ethnic cleansing. It is a deliberate strategy used

by armed forces to destroy ethnic groups. It includes repeated raping of the woman or girl until
they conceive.24
Sexual Slavery
Another form of GBV is that women and adolescent girls are abducted and forced into
sexual and domestic slavery. Captor soldiers use them as “wives” for sexual and domestic roles.
Increased Demand for Prostitution
The presence of International personnel during armed conflict (civilian, police or

military) has been linked to an increase in the demand for sexual services, including prostitution
and trafficking.25
20
Women, Peace and Security. UN 2002. p. 12-16 (Incidents later reported in former Yugoslavia. 1994)
21
Women, Peace and Security. UN Publications. 2002. p. 16.
22
As was the case in Rwanda, Uganda, and Sierra Leona. (UN SG-GA Reports)
23
In Sierra Leona, 70-90% of rape survivors were infected with STIs. Women, Peace and Security. UN 2002. p. 20.
24
See cases in Rwanda and Bosnia Herzegovina. Women, Peace and Security. UN 2002. p. 12-16
25
From the investigation made at Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leona, “where women, girls and boys revealed sexual exploitation
by humanitarian workers and peacekeepers in exchange for basic provisions”: Women, Peace and Security. UN Publications.
2002. p. 14-15
Trafficking in Women and Girls26
Trafficking and sexual slavery are inextricably linked to conflict. Trafficking worldwide
grew almost 50% from 1995 to 2000.
The annual profit from this trade is estimated at somewhere between US$ 5
to 7 billion. The connection between armed conflict and trafficking in
women is becoming increasingly apparent as criminal networks involved in
arms and drugs.27
According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), in 2001 alone, an

estimated 700,000 to 2 million women and children were trafficked across international
borders.28 This included recruitment, transportation and transfer. The purpose of this trafficking
was for sexual exploitation, prostitution, forced labour and slavery. Perpetrators allowed
traffickers to function since they did, and do, not fear arrest, prosecution or conviction.
We must consider that the pre-conflict system of gender inequality combines to place
women and girls at a high risk of trafficking.
Perpetrators and Locations of GBV29
Amnesty International states in one of its studies that perpetrators of abuse are many and
manifold, including:
• Government armed forces soldiers

• Paramilitary groups or pro-government militias
• Armed groups fighting against the government or other armed groups
• Police
• Prison security personnel
• Private security personnel
• Foreign military/police forces, including UN forces
• Other peacekeeping forces
• Humanitarian personnel agencies, including UN agencies
• Neighbours and relatives
Furthermore, places where sexual violence usually exists include:
• Captor or prisoner centres

• Checkpoints and borders
• Near military units
26
See UN reports about Cambodia, Vietnam, and in the recent past as in Southeast Europe such as Bosnia Herzegovina,
Macedonia, Kosovo, Liberia, Sierra Leona, Rwanda, and current events such as Sudan, DRC and other conflicts. Woman,
War and Peace. UNIFEM. UN Publications. 2002. p.12
27
Women, Peace and Security. UN 2002. p. 18.
28
Women, War and Peace. UNIFEM. UN Publications. 2002. p.12.
29
Broken Lives. Amnesty International. At: http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/eslact770752004
• Public places
• Community or neighbourhood
• Home
Statistics about GBV in Women and Girls
The following are part of the UNIFEM report about sexual violation and atrocities in
some conflicts:
• Rehn and Johnson said that 94% of displaced households surveyed in Sierra Leona had
experiences of sexual assault, including rape, torture, and slavery.
• UNIFEM said that 50% of all women in Sierra Leona had experienced sexual abuse, in
Liberia this was more than 40%. This number amounted to 500,000 in Rwanda during the
genocide of 1994 and in Bosnia there were between 30,000 to 50,000 victims of sexual
abuse.
• The IOM (International Organisation of Migration) estimates that as many as 2 million
women are trafficked across borders annually. Many of them come from or through
conflict areas.30
Some Facts on GBV
• Extreme violence that

women suffer during conflict
does not arise only under
conditions of war; rather,
violence during war is
directly related to the
violence that existed in
women’s lives before war.
• Women’s experience of
violence is because they are
women, and often because
they have not the same rights
or autonomy as men do.
• Violence against women Worldwide, 20 to 50 per cent of women experience some degree
largely goes unpunished, so, of domestic violence during marriage. Here, Haitian National
it comes to be an accepted Police arrest a man for beating his wife, in Gonaives. (Source:
UN Photo #187328C)
norm, one which escalates
during conflict as violence in general increases.
30
UNIFEM. During conflict, women’s bodies become a battleground. Progress of World’s Women. 2002. The Independent
Experts Assessment. Vol. 1.
• Militarisation and the presence of weapons legitimise new levels of brutality, and
subsequently, greater levels of impunity. Often this escalation of violence becomes a
norm, which continues into the post conflict period.
• No women or girls are exempt from violence and exploitation during conflict, no matter
who they are or what they do (simply staying at home when soldiers arrive or being
community or political leaders).
• During conflict, women and girls experience violence at the hands of many armed
groups. They are physically and economically forced to become sex workers for food,
shelter, safe passage, or other needs for surviving.
• During post conflict, survival is still a problem because of social rejection by their
communities. They are vulnerable in the hands of police who take their money or force
them to have sex, after which placing them in jail.
• With the arrival of peacekeeping personnel, a sense of security increases, but it may also
have negative repercussions:
− Sexual violence against women, and prostitution
− Child prostitution may especially increase with the influx of military contingents
and/or civil organisations around their installations.
• Women and girls suffer sexual violence before, during, and after conflict due to historical
gender discrimination. It occurs from home, the neighbourhood, or the community.
• The consequences of Gender-Based Violence show a real problem for the survival of all
women and girls violated in their rights. Their lives have been devastated, sometimes
forever, due to physical, psychological, and social consequences. These include:
− Sexual diseases
− Depression
− Rejection from family and society
− Impossibility to get a job
LESSON SUMMARY
• Contemporary armed conflict (CAC) entails devastating political, economic, and social
consequences for communities.
• Victims are mainly civilians (up to 90%), and of these most are women and children due to
the mere fact that they are women and children.
• In any armed conflict, gender relations are imbalanced, and this may have two consequences,
negative and positive.
• Civilian women and girls face different risks compared to men and boys due to gender
stereotypes.
• Perpetrators of sexual violence during armed conflict are violating international law.
• Sexual violence against women is a human rights violation.
• Sexual violence can be part of a genocidal strategy.
• Sexual violence is a shameful truth that remains even in conflicts of the 21st century.
• Extreme violence that women suffer during conflict does not arise under conditions of war.
It is directly related to the violence that existed in women’s lives before war.
• Women’s experience of violence is because they are women, and often because they do not
have not the same rights or autonomy that men do.
• Violence against women largely goes unpunished, so it comes to be an accepted norm, one
which escalates during conflict as violence in general increases.
• Militarisation and the presence of weapons legitimise new levels of brutality and,
subsequently, greater levels of impunity.
• Often this escalation of violence becomes a norm that continues into the post-conflict
period.
• No women or girls are exempt from violence and exploitation during conflict, no matter
who they are or what they do.
• During conflict, women and girls experience violence at the hands of many armed groups.
They are physically and economically forced to become sex workers for food, shelter, safe
passage, or other survival needs. During post-conflict, this situation of survival does not
change because of social rejection by their communities. They are vulnerable in the hands of
police who take their money or force them to have sex, putting them afterwards in jail.
• With the arrival of peacekeeping personnel, a sense of security increases, but it may also
have negative repercussions: sexual violence against women and prostitution, especially
child prostitution, may increase with the influx of military contingents and/or civil
organisations around their installations.
• Women and girls suffer sexual violence before, during, and after conflict due to historical
gender discrimination. It occurs in the home, the neighbourhood, or the community prior to
the conflict.
• Consequences of gender-based violence show a real problem for the survival of all women
and girls violated in their rights. Their lives have been devastated, sometimes forever, due to
physical, psychological, and social consequences (e.g., sexual disease, depression, rejection
from family and society, impossibility to get a job, and others).
LESSON 6
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Conflict significantly changes gender relations and alters a society's .

a. Balance of power;
b. Ratio of males to females;
c. Employment opportunities;
d. Number of diseased citizens.
2. During conflict, the destabilisation of gender relations is manifested by the fact that:
a. Men become more vulnerable because they are the enemy's targets;
b. Women remain in the household and carry on domestic chores;
c. Women and girls are the most vulnerable groups because they are exposed to greater
risks than men and boys;
d. Men and boys experience sexual abuse.
3. The report “Women, Peace and Security” recommends that four factors be taken into
consideration when analysing a conflict's gender problems. One of them is that:
a. Conflict has a number of causes;
b. Conflict increases gender imbalances and inequalities;
c. Women are required to play many roles;
d. Gender roles of women and men must be understood beforehand.
4. Sexual violence:
a. Is a consequence of gender imbalance and inequality;
b. Occurs only in areas of conflict;
c. Does not occur among UN officials in areas of conflict;
d. Occurs only during peace-time.
5. Gender-based violence against men and boys is practiced in order to:

a. Stop the spread of HIV/AIDS;
b. Destroy the masculine power of the adversary;
c. Make the women jealous;
d. Take them as prisoners of war.
6. According to the Rome Statute, sexual violence during armed conflict is not considered a war
crime.
a. True
b. False
7. It is stated that inequality between gender roles allows the same phenomenon of sexual
violence against men and women to be perceived differently, going as far as making the men
heroes.
a. Always
b. Sometimes
c. Rarely
d. Never
8. Amnesty International reports that the most common perpetrators of sexual abuse include all
of the following except:
a. Humanitarian aid personnel (including UN agencies);
b. Military personnel (from both sides, including the UN) and militias;
c. Police personnel, prison, and security personnel;
d. Local criminals and degenerates.
9. GBV acts against women include:

a. Recruitment, domestic labour, and slavery;
b. Rape, torture, gang rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, genital mutilations,
abortion, sterilisation, amd forced termination of pregnancy;
c. Denied access to education, community participation, and participation in peace
agreements;
d. Denied access to food and water.
10. The OIM (International Organisation of Migration) reports that trafficking in women
amounts to how many persons per year?
a. 25,000
b. 500,000
c. Over 2,000,000
d. 1 billion
ANSWER KEY:
1a, 2c, 3d, 4a, 5b, 6b, 7b, 8d, 9b, 10c

LESSON 7
GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN
PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
7.1 Introduction
Lesson 7 / Gender Mainstreaming in Peacekeeping Operations 132
LESSON OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, the student will gain an understanding of the headway which has been
made, and which is still ongoing, for the incorporation of a gender perspective in peacekeeping
operations, in keeping with the goals set, especially after UN Security Council Resolution 1325
(2000). The lesson will especially focus on how the DPKO has implemented concrete measures
by means of a systemised training programme in order to achieve greater incorporation of gender
perspective in all stages of peacekeeping operations.
• Understand and analyse background information that led to the approval of Security
Council Resolution 1325;
• Understand and define the implementation of the approaches that Res. 1325 had, and has,
throughout the entire peacekeeping operation process, as well as the importance of
women's contribution before, during, and after conflicts in order to ensure sustainable and
stable peace;
• Recognise the importance of the DPKO's role in keeping personnel trained regarding
gender issues in order to fully implement Res. 1325; and
• Understand and apply UN principles related to gender, in order to ensure and maintain
proper conduct in the mission area, hence avoiding or reducing the negative effects that
may arise due to inadequate training.

7.1 Introduction
In the preceding lessons we have

seen that armed conflicts especially
affect women and girls compared to men
and boys. This phenomenon is closely
related to gender roles and gender
equality existing before conflict, which
are usually exacerbated during conflict.
The United Nations has

implemented several tools regarding the
incorporation of a gender perspective in
the organisation (See Lesson 5.2).
However, it was starting in the year
2000 that more concrete measures have
been introduced in order to consider UNOCI peacekeepers participate in a sexual exploitation and
gender issues in modern armed conflicts, awareness training programme in Bondoukou, Côte d'Ivoire.
July 2005. (Source: UN Photo #87711 by Ky Chung)
which has led the Organisation to deploy
more complex, multidimensional and multidisciplinary peacekeeping operations. Within this
context, it has been proven that women's contribution is strategically important and invaluable in
order to maintain, build, and promote world peace.
This chapter consequently focuses on the concrete measures that have been implemented
at a DPKO level, placing emphasis on the period following Resolution 1325.
From January to October 2000
March 2000. In the Statement of the Security Council (SC) Chairman on the occasion of
International Women’s Day, the chairman recognised the link between peace and gender equality
and the crucial role that the full participation of women in peace operations plays in establishing
sustainable peace.
May 2000. DPKO, in coordination with OSAGI,1 organised a seminar on

“Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in Multidimensional Peace Support Operations,” called
the Namibia Plan of Action, in which they urged the Secretary-General (SG) to ensure that
appropriate follow-up measures be taken to implement this plan. Furthermore, they insisted that
Member States must be consulted to review the progress measures undertaken. This document
was based on SC Resolution 1325 which was adopted five months later.
1
OSAGI: Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advance of the Woman
27 August 2000 – The Brahimi Report (A/55/305 - S/2000/809).
This report, prior to the Millennium Declaration, in its part III. B. 96 states:
[…] A comprehensive list of potential SRSGs, force commanders, police

commissioners and potential deputies, as well as candidates to head other
substantive components of a mission, representing a broad geographic
and equitable gender distribution. Such a database would facilitate early
identification and selection of the leadership group.
Furthermore, part VI. 272 reads: “…And they must also treat one another with respect
and dignity, with particular sensitivity towards gender and cultural differences.”
13 September 2000 – Millennium Declaration (passed by the General Assembly).
Faith was reaffirmed in the Organisation and its Charter as “indispensable foundations of a more
peaceful, prosperous and just world.” The Declaration featured the following eight central issues:
I. Values and principles

II. Peace, security and disarmament
III. Development and poverty eradication
IV. Protecting our common environment
V. Human rights, democracy and good governance
VI. Protecting the vulnerable
VII. Meeting the special needs of Africa
VIII. Strengthening the United Nations
The following points make specific reference to gender-related issues:
• Point 20 (issue III) declares: “To promote gender equality and the empowerment of
women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate
development that is truly sustainable.”
• Point 25 (issue V) reads: “To combat all forms of violence against women and to
implement the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women” (CEDAW).
• Point 30 (issue VIIII) indicates: “To strengthen further cooperation between the United
Nations and national parliaments through their world organisation, the Inter-
Parliamentary Union, in various fields, including peace and security, economic and social
development, international law and human rights and democracy and gender issues.”
For the full text of the Millennium Declaration, please see Appendix D.
31 October 2000 – SC Resolution 1325
In this resolution, the SC recommends that gender perspectives become integral to all UN
conflict prevention and peace-building, peacekeeping, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. It
also focuses on the full involvement of women in all aspects of promoting and maintaining
peace and security, with a strengthened role in decision-making. It further recommends
specialised training for peacekeepers on the protection, special needs, and human rights of
women and children at all levels of PKO. Finally, it requests that the SG include in his report the
progress made on gender mainstreaming in PKO, as well as the need to consolidate data on the
impact of armed conflict on women and girls.
For the full text of Security Council Resolution 1325, please see Appendix E.
From October 2000 to March 2006
Resolution 1325 and its implementation process allowed the UN to carry out a series of
initiatives in order to define its recommendations. The following are the most important
recommendations:
• October 2001: Following Resolution 1325, the SC again discussed women’s role in all
peace processes, and adopted a Presidential Statement on the first anniversary of Res.
1325 in October 2001.
• March 2002: The Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations reaffirmed the need to
ensure that gender equality issues are properly addressed in all operations at HQ as in the
field, providing the UN Secretariat with adequate resources and support for Gender
Advisers in the field.2
• June 2002, Beijing +5 (Known as “Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the XXI
Century”3): In this document, Member States reaffirmed their commitments made in the
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. This document states the importance of full
participation of women at all levels of decision-making in the peace process,
peacekeeping and peace-building. In addition, emphasis was placed on improving
protection of girls during armed conflict, especially prohibiting forced recruitment.
• July 2002: The SC held an open session on Women, Peace and Security.
• October 2002 (Second anniversary of Res. 1325): Study submitted by Secretary-General
to SC called “Women, Peace and Security” (pursuant to Security Council Resolution
1325).
Secretary-General Kofi Annan said in its Foreword:

Most of today's conflicts take place within states. Their root causes often
include poverty, the struggle for scarce resources, and violation of human
rights. They have another tragic feature in common: women and girls suffer
2
SG Report on Gender mainstreaming in peacekeeping activities. 13 Feb. 2003, (A/57/731, paragraph 9)
3
Held during the 23rd special session of the GA
the impact of [these causes] disproportionately. While women and girls

endure the same trauma as the rest of the population—bombing, famines,
epidemic, mass execution, torture, arbitrary imprisonment, forced
migration, ethnic cleansing, threats and intimidation—they are also targets
of specific forms of violence and abuse, including sexual violence and
exploitation.
Efforts to resolve these conflicts and address their root causes will not
succeed unless we empower all those who suffered from them—including
and especially women. Only if women play a full and equal part can we
build the foundations for enduring peace, development, good governance,
human rights and justice.
In conflict areas throughout the world, women’s movements have worked

with the United Nations to rebuild structures of peace and security, to
rehabilitate, and reconcile societies, to protect refugees and the internally
displaced, to educate and raise awareness of human rights and the rule of
law. Within the Organisation itself, the integration of gender perspectives
in peace and security areas has become a central strategy. An Inter-Agency
Task Force on Women, Peace and Security has been established to address
the role of women in peacemaking, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance
and other activities.
This study, like the Inter-Agency Task Force, is an initiative undertaken in

response to Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and
Security adopted on October 2000, in which the Council underlined the
vital roles of women in conflict resolution, and mandated a review of the
impact of the armed conflicts on women and girls, the role of women in
peacebuilding, and the gender dimension of the peace process and conflict
resolution.
While the study shows that positive steps have been taken to implement the
resolution, women still form a minority of those who participate in peace
and security negotiations, and receive less attention than men in post
conflict agreements, disarmaments and reconstruction. Our challenges
remain to be the full implementation of the landmark document that
Resolution 1325 represents. This study points the way to a more systematic
move forward.
During and after armed conflict, the different interests, needs and priorities
of women, men, girls, and boys in a host country need to be understood and
taken into account so that the entire population can benefit equally from
peacekeeping efforts and so both men and women can participate in
consolidating peace and rebuilding conflict-torn societies.4
4
Gender Resource Package for Peacekeeping Operations. Jean-Marie Guéhenno. Foreword. UN DPKO. NY. USA. 2004. p. v.
UNIFEM: “Women, War and Peace: The independent experts Assessment on the Impact of
Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peacebuilding” (2002)
This book examines the progress made in implementing the United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1325 on women, peace and security. The report, prepared by two
independent experts,5 gives us highlights of the prevalence of violence against women before,
during, and after armed conflicts. The experts base their findings on firsthand data and
testimonies collected during visits to East Timor, Cambodia, the Balkans, Israel and Occupied
Palestinian Territory, Colombia, Africa's Great Lakes region, Somalia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and
Guinea.6
Therefore, these two last studies (“Women, Peace, and

Security” and “Women, War and Peace”), after extensive
research and analysis, provide guidelines and recommendations
on how to implement Resolution 1325.
• Nov. 2002. Santiago. Chile. Joint Conference for Latin

America and the Caribbean-European Union on “The
Role of Women in Peace Operations.” Santiago, Chile.
• December 2002. Presidential Statement: reaffirmed the
importance of mainstreaming gender perspectives into
PKO.
• October 2003. Third anniversary of Res. 1325. In an
open session of the SC, Under-Secretary-General Jean-
Marie Guéhenno, reaffirmed the DPKO’s commitment
to gender mainstreaming in PKO. However, it was
recognised that there is still much to be done for Res. Jean-Marie Guéhenno, Under-
1325 to fully incorporate mainstreaming throughout all Secretary-General for Peacekeeping
the Organisation of the United Nations. The importance Operations, addressing correspondents
on the implementation of Security
of maintaining gender advisers in all PKO was Council Resolution 1325 on Women,
highlighted.7 Peace and Security. UNHQ in New
York, October 2004. (Source: UN
• Feb-March 2005. Commission on the Status of Women Photo #54756 by Eskinder Debebe)
(CSW) 49th Session. (Beijing+10).8
A review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for
Action9 adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women10 (Beijing, 1995), and the outcome
of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly (2000), is mandated in the multi-
5
Ellen Johnson and Elizabeth Rehn
6
At: http://www.unfpa.org/publications/
7
Letter from the SC Chairman to the SG, dated 31 October 2003 (S/2003/1055).
8
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw49/documents.html#fin
9
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/index.html
10
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/index.html
year programme of work11 of the Commission on the Status of Women12 for its forty-ninth
session13 in March 2005. The Commission considered two themes:
• Review of the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome
documents of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly.
• Current challenges and forward-looking strategies for the advancement and
empowerment of women and girls.
Incorporating a Gender Perspective in PKOs
DATE LEVEL ISSUE
2000 March SC • Peace and Gender Equality
• Women’s role in sustainable peace
2000 May DPKO-OSAGI • Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in

Multidimensional Peace Support Operations
• Namibia Plan of Action
2000 August SG • The Brahimi Report
• Components of Mission representing abroad

geographic and equitable gender distribution
• Particular sensitivity towards gender and

cultural differences
2000 September GA • Gender equity and the empowerment of women
• Combat all forms of violence against women
2000 October SC • Resolution 1325
• Strengthened women’s role in decision-making
• Mainstreaming gender perspective for PKO and

protection of HR of women and girls
• Impact of Contemporary Armed Conflict on

women and girls
2001 October SC President • Women’s role in all peace process
2002 March Special • Ensure gender equality in PKO

Committee on
PKOs
11
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/resolution20014.pdf
12
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/
13
At: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/Review/
DATE LEVEL ISSUE
2002 June Beijing +5 • Gender Equality, Development and Peace for

the 21st century
• Full participation of women in all levels of

decision-making and all peace process stages
2002 July SC Open Session • Women, Peace and Security
2002 October SG to SC • 2nd Anniversary of Res. 1325
• Study: “Women, Peace, and Security”
• Impact of CAC on women and girls
2002 UNIFEM • Book: “Women, War, and Peace”
• Independent experts
2002 December SC Presidential • Reaffirm the importance of mainstreaming

Statement gender perspective into PKO
2003 October SC-USG • Reaffirm DPKO commitment to gender

mainstreaming in PKO
• The importance of Gender Advisors in all PKOs
2005 Feb-March CSW- Beijing +10 • Review of implementation of Beijing Platform of

Action
• Challenges for the advancement and

empowerment of women and girls
2006 March DPKO • Policy Dialogue to review strategies for

enhancing gender balance amongst uniformed
personal in PKOs
Advances in Gender Mainstreaming
We must remember that United Nations Peacekeeping is a means to reach peace. Its
performance is regulated by principles14 with the purpose of creating a positive political
atmosphere to facilitate negotiations between hostile parties.
Taking into account characteristics of multidimensional peacekeeping operations, and

their impact on civilian population, it is imperative to understand how conflict affects the lives of
women and girls compared to men and boys.15
14
See Lesson 1.3
An extensive knowledge of this special context will enable peacekeepers to do a better

job in the field. The UN peacekeeping staff within the scope of this mandate, or any other
organisations, must assist the local population in redressing social inequities and avoiding past
discrimination (such as women’s lack of access to decision-making at any stage of the process,
limited access to education, or gender-based violence).
In this respect, DPKO has expanded its gender in-house expertise in gender
mainstreaming.16 As reported, since April 2004, DPKO has full-time gender advisers, as well as
in some peacekeeping operations.17
As detailed in Lesson 5, since its creation, the UN has taken gender dimension into
account at all levels of its organisation. However, based on the Beijing Conference (1995), the
Namibia Plan of Action and its “Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in Multidimensional Peace
Support Operation” (2000), the Brahimi Report (2000), and specifically after Resolution 1325
(2000), gender mainstreaming in PKO took on a special dimension.
DPKO gender experts report roles and responsibilities in gender mainstreaming as

follows18:
a. Gender mainstreaming is a joint responsibility between DPKO headquarters and

peacekeeping mission staff. Both provide all guidelines and technical support to the
mission. Final responsibility is in each PK member. It is in their hands to define the
needs and priorities of women and men, and girls and boys in local communities.
b. The success of gender mainstreaming in all areas of the mission is a responsibility of

the Head of Mission and his or her senior staff. At the same time, at the headquarters
level, senior staff members (of the gender unit in PK missions) play a key role.
Adequate and permanent coordination and cooperation between military, police, and
civil staff is indispensable.
c. The roles of the Head of Mission and senior management during planning and
implementation of the Mandate are to:
• Include a gender adviser in senior-level management meetings to cover all
areas of mission.19
• Conduct discussions that must include external partners such as
government officials, civil society, and other UN agencies representatives.
d. Within gender units, gender advisers’ duties include “promoting, facilitating,

supporting and monitoring the gender-mainstreaming perspective in PKO.” This
includes:
15
Largely detailed in: “Women, War and Peace,” UNIFEM. 2002, “Women, Peace and Security.” UN.2002. “No More
Violence Against Women.” Amnesty International. At: http://web.amnesty.org/library/index , “Gender and Armed Conflict.”
BRIDGE. 2002. At: http://www.bridge.ids.uac.uk
16
As the entire UN does at all of levels of the Organization.
17
Afghanistan, DRC, Kosovo, Liberia, Sierra Leone, East Timor. Recently in the Ivory Coast and Haiti.
18
Based on: Gender Resource Package for Peacekeeping Operations. UN DPKO. NY. USA. 2004 p. 4.
19
See Res. 2325 text.
• Situation analysis: in-depth understanding of gender issues in the field.

• Program planning and design: consulting a gender expert (from the
mission or other UN agencies such as UNICEF, UNIFEM, UNFPA).
• Monitoring: reviewing gender indicators of achievement in gender
mainstreaming.
• Implementation: integrating gender dimension in all activities, including
training and reporting.
• Coordination: with the UN organisation and women’s organisations.
• Networking: with UN gender entities and local women’s organisations.
e. Focal point for women: This was established in DPKO in late 2000 to achieve the UN
objective gender balance at all post levels.
Gender Mainstreaming Responsibilities
• A joint responsibility
• Success is linked to senior-level commitment
• Role of the Head of Mission and senior management
• Implementation of Gender Units
• A focal point for women
Managing Gender Mainstreaming
We have already seen that after Resolution 1325, concrete measures have been
implemented to make the incorporation of gender perspective a reality at all levels and stages
related to Peacekeeping Operations, although there is still much to be done.
We can define two major areas for the incorporation of gender perspective: 1) At all level
of the DPKO, and 2) in each of the pre-deployment phases of a PKO:
• At all administrative and operational levels of the mission; and

• In post-conflict assistance towards the affected area (this will depend on the Mandate).
Concrete Measures Taken in Gender Mainstreaming (GM)
Who is responsible for GM?
Gender equality and women’s rights have had the support of the highest levels within the
mission (senior management). “The Head of Mission has the responsibility to promote and
facilitate attention to gender perspectives in all areas of work […] A clear commitment to the
promotion of gender equality in the entire mission is required, from the conception of its
mandate to its end.”20
20
Women, Peace and Security. UN. 20002. paragraph 236, pp. 76-77.
The Head of Mission’s Responsibility is to promote gender equality

in the entire mission, from the conception of its mandate to its end.
Where is gender mainstreaming taking place?
Gender Units: DPKO has a staff of gender experts. Its role is “to promote, facilitate,
support and monitor the incorporation of gender perspective in peacekeeping operations.” The
mission’s concept will determine where the gender unit will be located in the mission structure.21
What are the steps of the GM process?
During planning the PKO process, for new or expanding PKOs, a panel of interagency
gender experts must provide an initial baseline of the gender situation in the host country. These
reports can be used to program gender issues for the mission.
During mandate
implementation,22 and before
developing a program to
mainstream gender issues in the
mission’s policies, program and
activities, we need to understand
the real gender situation of the
host country in order to identify
areas of possible interventions.
These must be included in the
Mandate in order to achieve
better results with limited
resources. In others words, a
gender analysis23 of the situation
is required.
A participant in an UNMIS Gender Unit hosted workshop on
• Literature reviews and “Engendering the Peace Process after the Comprehensive Peace
web-based searches: Agreement (CPA)” being interviewed by a UN Radio Journalist.
books, reviews, journals, Khartoum, Sudan. (Source: UNMIS, John Charles, September 2005)
studies and expert gender reports, research on women’s development centres (BRIDGE),
humanitarian and human rights organisations and networks.
• Consultations: UN agencies, gender experts (UNIFEM, UNICEF, CEDAW, OSAGI,
UNAIDS, WFP, UNDP), women's organisations, NGOs (Woman Watch, WEDO,
Peacewomen, Women International for Peace and Freedom, Stop Violence Against
Women, Amnesty International, and others), and governmental organisations (ministers,
commissions, universities).
21
Gender Resource Parking for Peacekeeping Operation. UN. 2004. p. 21.
22
Ibid, p. 22-23.
23
See definition of gender analysis in Lesson 2.3.
• Gender analysis tools: used to explore particular gender issues with the cooperation of
representatives from governmental organisations, civil society, academia, or local
women’s organisations. These data must take into account all factors that could affect
gender relations from legal, economical, political, religious, cultural, educational, or other
spheres of analysis.
During the programming of the mainstreaming process,24 priorities of functional areas in

which the mandate has been determined must be defined. Areas still under gender mainstreaming
must be focused on the short, medium, or long term.
Once gender units are defined, they require widely shared in-house expert consultations
(DPKO, UN agencies), external partners, and a HQ gender adviser in the mission if one exists.
The Final Plan must be approved by the Head of Mission. “The final mission
implementation plan in Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000), should be shared with all
sections, the gender adviser and relevant programme managers at HQ and the appropriate UN
entities and external partners.”
As in all processes, gender units must provide input from their activities. Monitoring and
reporting must be done at all different levels, such as the UN Secretary-General, DPKO Gender
Advisers, Head of Mission, and so forth. We need to know of the implementation progress of the
SG’s study on “Women, Peace, and Security” by means of regular reports to Headquarters.
As stated in the preceding paragraph, monitoring and evaluation of the mission’s

Implementation Plan in SC Resolution 1325 has a bigger scope than the mission itself, because it
is more closely linked with other global areas such as the country's development goals.
Steps of Gender Mainstreaming Training Process at DPKO

• During planning PKO process
• During mandate implementation
• During Programming Mainstreaming Process
24
Based on: Gender Resource Parking for Peacekeeping Operation. UN. 2004. p. 23-24.
Res. 1325 regarding training:
• Point 5: “Express its willingness to incorporate a gender perspective into peacekeeping

operations, and urges the Secretary-General to ensure that, where appropriate, field
operation includes a gender component.”
• Point 6: “Request the Secretary-General to provide Member States with training
guidelines and materials on the protection, rights and the particular needs of women, as
well as on the importance of involving women in all peacekeeping and peacebuilding
measures, inviting Member States to incorporate those elements as well as HIV/AIDS
awareness training into their national training programmes for military and civilian police
personnel in preparation for deployment, and further request the Secretary-General to
ensure that civilian personnel of peacekeeping operation receive similar training.”
General Goals of Gender Training25
The following are the goals of gender training:
• To ensure that peacekeepers (military, UN police,

civilians) “have a common understanding of the
values they are to uphold when working for the
United Nations,” which includes the principles of
equality between women and men and non-
discrimination based on sex.
• To help peacekeepers understand the social
context where the peacekeeping operation has
been implemented.
• To help peacekeepers become aware of the
positive or negative impact their actions can have
in the host country.
• To improve the “effective discharge of the
mission’s mandate and reduce both harmful forms
of behaviour by personal and unintended negative
effects of mission policies and programmes.”
• To reduce misconduct, such as sexual harassment A female member (centre) of the Swedish
in the workplace or sexual abuse and exploitation Infantry Battalion attached to UNFICYP
of the local population by peacekeepers. stands on parade at Battalion Headquarters
in Larnaca. The 12 female members of this
• To ensure the UN policy of non-discrimination Battalion were the first women to join the
based on sex and equality between women and Force. (Source: UN Photo #151324C)
men, boys and girls.
25
Ibid, p. 45.
Positive Effects of Gender Mainstreaming Training
• Common understanding of the values when working for the United Nations
• Common understanding of principles of equality between women and men and
non-discrimination based on sex
• Common understanding of the social context where PKOs are deployed and the
impact of its behavior
• Reduce misconduct
• Ensure UN policy of non-discrimination based on sex
• Promote gender equality between women and men, boys and girls
Training Level Courses
Training gender issues requires all category levels of staff, such as senior and middle
trainers, with national and international personnel. It is a good opportunity for trainers in the
field to work with local resources (mentioned in the preceding text). Levels of training include:
• Basic training: such as an awareness-raising course for peacekeeping personnel.

• Specific gender issues intensive training: depending on the mission area, these include
combating trafficking, SEA, prevention of HIV/AIDS, and others.
Steps for Gender Training at DPKO26
• Pre-deployment gender-awareness training (under the responsibility of Member

States, detailed in Res. 1325, point 6, based on the Generic Training package of the
Training and Evaluation Service of DPKO).
• In-mission gender awareness training (given in some missions to military, UN police
peacekeepers—separated from civilians—as induction training upon arrival to the
mission).
• Headquarters gender-awareness training. This is for personnel based at Headquarters.
It is organised by the DPKO Executive Office. By request of OHRM (Office of Human
Resources Management), the UN Secretariat can organise programmes on gender-
awareness and related courses for DPKO staff at HQ.
Facing Difficulties in Gender Issues Training27
There is generally a confusion between use of the terms sex and gender. This confusion
could provoke strong emotional reactions by touching on deep-rooted, personal beliefs and
family practices.
26
Ibid, p. 46.
27
Ibid, p. 46-47.
Defining gender is related to cultural traditions of all society structures, and it varies by
communities, regions, and countries. The term “gender” does not exist in many languages, or it
can be used for the same concepts as the term “sex.” Therefore, it is necessary to deeply
understand roles and stereotypes about women and men, and boys and girls in the field where a
PKO is deployed.
Gender Issues Training Complications

• Confusion between use of the terms sex and gender
• Emotional reactions
• Cultural misunderstandings
• Linguistic complications
A woman stands next to an anti Sexual

Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) poster during
a one-day workshop hosted by the National
Council on Child Welfare (NCCW), in
Khartoum, Sudan. January 2007. (Source:
UN Photo #138055 by Fred Noy)
LESSON SUMMARY
Advances in UN Gender Mainstreaming
2000:
• The Chairman of the Security Council's Statement: Gender Equality and Sustainable Peace
• Beijing + 5: Full participation of women at all levels of decision-making and in all stages
of the peace process
• UN Millennium Statement:
− To promote gender equality and empowerment of women
− To combat all forms of violence against women
− To improve gender issues within the UN System
• SC Resolution 1325:
− Increase women's participation at all levels of decision-making and in the peace
process
− Special training in gender issues of all UN peacekeepers
− Gender mainstreaming and women’s role in all stages of the peace process
− A study of the impact of armed conflict on women and girls is requested
2001 and on:

• 2001: First anniversary of Res. 1325: SC discussed women’s role in the entire peace
process
• 2002: Second anniversary of Res. 1325: SG presented the study “Women, Peace and
Security”
• UNIFEM presented the Study “Women, War and Peace”
• 2003: Third anniversary of Res. 1325: The Under-Secretary-General reaffirmed
DPKO’s commitment to gender mainstreaming in PKO.
• 2005: Fifth anniversary of Res. 1325 (Beijing+10)
− Review of Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action
− Challenges for the Advancement and Empowerment of Women and Girls
LESSON 7
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The issue “Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the XXI Century” was discussed
in/at:
a. The Namibia Plan of Action;
b. The Millennium Statement;
c. Beijing +5;
d. The Brahimi Report.
2. SC Resolution 1325 especially considers:

a. Increasing women's participation at all levels of peace process decision-making;
b. Promoting gender equality and empowerment of women;
c. Combating all forms of violence against women;
d. Improving gender issues within the UN system.
3. SC Resolution 1325 was a consequence of the:

a. Namibia Plan of Action;
b. Brahimi Report;
c. Commission on the Status of Women;
d. Inter-Agency Task Force.
4. The subject of the studies “Women, War, and Peace” and “Women, Peace, and Security” is:
a. Gender issues in under-developed societies;
b. Gender issues in contemporary armed conflict;
c. The role of women in the DPKO;
d. Empowerment of women.
5. Final gender mainstreaming responsibilities are on:

a. HQ staff;
b. DPKO senior gender advisers;
c. Peacekeepers;
d. Middle gender advisers.
6. The promotion, facilitation, support, and monitoring of the incorporation of gender

perspectives in peacekeeping operations are the duites of the:
a. DPKO gender advisers;
b. Middle gender advisers;
c. Mission gender adviser;
d. Force Commander.
7. The promotion of gender equality in the entire mission, from the conception of its mandate to
its end, is a responsibility of:
a. DPKO senior staff;
b. The Head of Mission;
c. The mission's gender adviser;
d. Military and UNPOL peacekeepers.
8. One of the steps included in the Gender Mainstreaming Training Process at DPKO is that the
training be carried out:
a. At the mission;
b. At UN headquarters;
c. During the PKO planning process;
d. During pre-deployment.
9. One positive effect of Gender Mainstreaming Training is:

a. A common understanding of the principles of equality between women and men and
non-discrimination on the basis of sex;
b. Better solidarity between soldiers and citizens;
c. A more valid justification of peacekeeper misconduct;
d. An improvement in the employment opportunities for women.
10. Generally, gender issues training presents some complications, such as:
a. Confusion of the role of the peacekeeper;
b. Confusion regarding the usage of the terms sex and gender;
c. Peacekeeper misconduct during the training period;
d. An increase in military-civilian clashes.
ANSWER KEY:
1c, 2a, 3a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 7b, 8c, 9a, 10b

LESSON 8
GENDER, GBV-SEA,
AND UN PEACEKEEPERS
8.1 Introduction
8.5 Special Measures Taken for Protection from
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
Lesson 8 / Gender, GBV-SEA, and UN Peacekeepers 152
LESSON OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, the student will come to understand the sexual exploitation and abuse
(SEA) problems that were detected among UN personnel deployed in peacekeeping operations.
We will see how the first cases were detected, by whom they were detected, and the
consequences they produced.
The serious damage produced by SEA for the local population, UN missions, and the
organisation itself is the reason why this lesson exclusively discusses the issue.
As we have already seen in former lessons, SEA is a form of gender-based violence

(GBV) that harms women and girls during different stages of conflict and especially after them.
We suppose that it is in this stage that the role of UN peacekeepers is especially important
because peacekeepers are there to help and protect the reduced and suffering local population.
Therefore, the commission of SEA offences is considered the most serious of misconduct, a
serious and abhorrent violation of UN principles.
A summary will be made of the measures that have been implemented at levels in order
to detect, prevent, manage, and punish those responsible for this serious violation of UN
principles, policies, rules, procedures, and codes.
• Understand background information that led to the detection of the first UN peacekeeper
SEA accusations, as well as subsequent cases since that date;
• Understand and analyse measures implemented by the Security Council by means of the
Secretary-General Bulletin “Special Measures for Protection from Sexual exploitation
and Sexual Abuse” dated April 2003, and the consequences thereafter;
• Understand and internalise consequences of the Zero Tolerance policy in cases of SEA;
• Understand and identify that SEA is a serious form of gender-based violence that goes
against UN principles, rules, policies, and codes, especially those related to gender issues;
and
• Understand and apply UN principles regarding SEA and the Code of Conduct, in order to
ensure and sustain adequate conduct at the mission location.

8.1 Introduction
In the first lessons, we briefly described the evolution of contemporary armed conflict.
We especially focused on this due to its cruel and devastating impact on the civilian population.
We observed that among the victims of war, women and girls are the most vulnerable and most
affected group. Many studies confirm this, both those conducted by the United Nations and its
agencies as well as those by governmental or private research centres. Furthermore, extensive
bibliographies back these studies. We can therefore observe the close relationship between these
devastating consequences and gender-based violence (GBV) issues.
Notwithstanding the
essential role the United
Nations plays in the settlement
of conflicts and the importance
the organisation provides to
gender issues and women's
participation within the
organisation, this has not been
free of difficulties. The gender
inequality and imbalance
remaining within the
organisation and especially
within the mission area has led
us to face difficult cases
involving misconduct by UN
peacekeepers. These mostly
Secretary-General Kofi Annan (second from left) meets with
stem from the interaction of participants of gender justice in post-conflict situations conference,
male and female personnel “Peace Needs Women and Women Need Justice.” The conference was
within the UN, as well as in the organized by the United Nations Development Fund for Women
community where the mission (UNIFEM) and the International Legal Assistance Consortium (ILAC).
is deployed (among other UNHQ, New York. (Source: UN Photo #37021 by Ky Chung)
agencies, NGOs, and the local
population).
The first serious violations of the Code of Conduct by peacekeepers reported sounded the
alarm about cases of SEA. This problem was present up to the organisation's highest levels, and
therefore, the UN took immediate measures to prevent, correct, control, and punish this kind of
behaviour.
Let us remember that during the post-conflict period, the environment in which
peacekeepers and humanitarian personnel carry out their labours is highly uncertain and unsafe,
and characterised by the absence of rule of law, or fragility. This situation increases the local
population's vulnerability, since its security and even its very subsistence remains in the hands of
United Nations personnel and humanitarian aid organisations. These factors produce a power
imbalance between the population and UN personnel that fosters the commission of offences
such as sexual abuse, sexual exploitation, and other forms of GBV.
Background
In October 2002, the UN faced a series of sexual abuse and sexual exploitation
accusations against some peacekeepers and humanitarian personnel by displaced and refugee
women in West Africa.1 This situation allowed the organisation to realise the system's
weaknesses, both in terms of preventing, detecting, and monitoring gender-based violence
committed by its personnel, as well as the lack of facilities and resources for victims to be able to
make accusations.
On 9 October 2003, the Secretary-General’s Bulletin, “Special Measures for Protection

from Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse”2 declared:
• UN forces conducting operations under UN command and control are prohibited from
committing acts of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse, and have a particular duty of
care towards women and children, pursuant to section 7 of Secretary-General’s bulletin
ST/SGB/1999/13, entitled “Observance by United Nations forces of international
humanitarian law.”
• The Secretary-General’s Bulletin ST/SGB/253, entitled “Promotion of Equal Treatment
of Men and Women in the Secretariat and Prevention of Sexual Harassment,” and the
related administrative instructions, set forth policies and procedures for handling cases of
sexual harassment in the Secretariat of the UN.
In March 2005, UN Secretary-General Mr. Kofi Annan declared:
The revelations last year of sexual exploitation and abuse by a significant

number of United Nations peacekeeping personnel in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) shocked and angered us all and have done
great harm to the name of peacekeeping. These abhorrent acts are a
violation of the fundamental duty of care that all United Nations
peacekeeping personnel owe to the local population that they are sent to
serve.3
1
Security Council, A/57/465: Late in November 2001, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was asked by the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to review allegations of sexual exploitation of
female refugees by international and national aid workers, specifically regarding United Nations and non-governmental
organization (NGO) staff and peacekeepers in three West African countries: Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. The
allegation of widespread sexual exploitation arose from a report by two consultants who had been commissioned by UNHCR
and Save the Children (UK) to study the question of sexual exploitation and violence in the refugee communities in the three
countries.
2
UN Secretariat ST/SGB/2003/13
3
SG Mr. Annan said: “I invited Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid Al-Hussein, the Permanent Representative of a major troop- and
police-contributing country and a former civilian peacekeeper himself, to act as my adviser and assist me in addressing this
grave problem. When the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations asked me to produce a comprehensive report with
recommendations on sexual exploitation and abuse by United Nations peacekeeping personnel, I asked Prince Zeid to
undertake its preparation.”
On April 2005, Under-Secretary-General for DPKO, Mr. Jean-Marie Guéhenno, made a

presentation to the Special Committee on PKO regarding SEA in which he said:
The problem of sexual exploitation and abuse will only be solved by joint
action – action by the Secretariat here at headquarters, by the TCCs and the
General Assembly as a whole, and by the managers and leaders in
peacekeeping operations on the ground.
On 31 May 2005, the Security Council condemned “in the strongest terms all acts of
sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeeping personnel. In its Presidential Statement, the
Council recognised shared responsibility of the Secretary-General and all Member States to
prevent abuse and enforce UN Standards.”
That same day, Mr. Jean-Marie Guéhenno stated:

I am grateful for the privilege of addressing the Security Council on one of
the fundamental challenges facing peacekeeping today. The problem of
sexual exploitation and abuse by United Nations peacekeeping personnel is
an abhorrent one. It represents a violation of the duty of care owed by
peacekeepers to the local population that they are sent to serve.4
In a statement read
out by Council President
Ellen Margrethe Løj
(Denmark) -- following its
first-ever public meeting
devoted exclusively to sexual
exploitation and abuse -- the
Council condemned, in the
strongest terms, all acts of
sexual exploitation and abuse
committed by peacekeepers
and reiterated the importance
of ensuring that they were
properly investigated and
appropriately punished.5 At a one-day workshop on SEA, hosted by the National Council on Child
Welfare, in Khartoum, Sudan, a participant holds up a copy of the Daily
Telegraph article about SEA allegedly committed in South Darfur by UN
personnel. January 2007. (Source: UN Photo #138056 by Fred Noy)
4
Since 1 December 2004, investigations have been completed into allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse involving 152
peacekeeping personnel (32 civilians, three civilian police, and 117 military). So far, five UN staff members have been
summarily dismissed, nine more are undergoing the disciplinary process, and four have been cleared. On the side of
uniformed personnel, two members of Formed Police Units and 77 military personnel have been repatriated or rotated home
on disciplinary grounds including six military commanders.
5
Security Council Press Release, SC/8400. 31 May 2005. See the full text of Presidential statement S/PRST/2005/21.
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by UN Peacekeepers
• “The problem of sexual exploitation and abuse by United Nations peacekeeping

personnel is an abhorrent one. It represents a violation of the duty of care owed by
peacekeepers to the local population that they are sent to serve.”
• “The problem of sexual exploitation and abuse will only be solved by joint action –
action by the Secretariat here at headquarters, by the TCCs and the General
Assembly as a whole, and by the managers and leaders in peacekeeping
operations on the ground.”
• “The Council condemned, in the strongest terms, all acts of sexual abuse and
exploitation committed by peacekeepers and reiterated the importance of ensuring
that they were properly investigated and appropriately punished.”
• “It was inferred, however, that given the apparently prevalent nature of the
exploitation, both by civilian, as well as military personnel, the levels of abuse had
probably been more serious than previously thought.”
Declarations by and before the Security Council Related to GBV-SEA by UN Peacekeepers
The Security Council would consider including relevant provisions for preventing,
monitoring, investigating, and reporting misconduct cases in its resolutions establishing new
mandates or renewing existing mandates. In that regard, the UN Secretary-General is called to
include, in his regular reporting of peacekeeping missions, a summary of the preventative
measures taken to implement a zero-tolerance policy, and of the outcome of actions taken against
personnel found culpable for sexual exploitation and abuse.
Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein (Jordan), the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser on
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, made a report entitled, “A comprehensive strategy towards the
elimination of sexual exploitation and abuse in peacekeeping operations” in which he said:
It had become obvious that sexual exploitation, predominantly prostitution,

in at least some United Nations operations appeared widespread. The scale
of sexual abuse – when the exploitation became criminal – had been
somewhat more difficult to gauge. It was inferred, however, that given the
apparently prevalent nature of the exploitation, both by civilian, as well as
military personnel, the levels of abuse had probably been more serious than
previously thought.
For a peacekeeper to exploit the vulnerabilities of a wounded population,
already the victim of all that was tragic and cruel in war was really no
different from a physician who would violate the patient entrusted to their
care or the lifeguard who drowned the very people in need of rescue.
Actions of that sort punctured violently the hope embodied by the very
presence of the person who was there to help those in need.
Sexual exploitation and abuse in peacekeeping operations was a most

serious and tragic issue, especially for the victims, many of whom were
young women living in the most difficult conditions. And it carried with it
the most serious consequences for the future of peacekeeping if Member
States proved themselves incapable of solving the problem.
Prince Zeid Ra'ad Zeid Al-Hussein of Jordan, the Secretary-General's

Special Adviser on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, addresses an open
meeting of the Security Council on sexual exploitation and abuse by
United Nations peacekeeping personnel. UNHQ, New York.
(Source: UN Photo #112530 by Ryan Brown)
Important Measures to Prevent, Control, and Investigate SEA by UN Peacekeeping Personnel6
First and foremost, personnel must create a culture and environment in peacekeeping
operations that does not permit sexual exploitation and abuse. This requires joint action by both
DPKO and Member States.
Over the past year (2004) field missions have put in place a wide array of
measures to prevent misconduct and to enforce UN standards of conduct.
For instance, on the prevention side, missions in Cote d'Ivoire, Sierra
Leone, and Liberia provide induction training on UN standards of conduct
relating to sexual exploitation and abuse.
There was a network of focal points on sexual exploitation and abuse in all
missions to facilitate receipt of allegations, as well as telephone hotlines in
Sierra Leone and Liberia. At Headquarters, the Department had established
a task force to develop guidance and tools for peacekeeping operations to
address sexual exploitation and abuse effectively.
6
Ibid.
The Security Council condemns, in the strongest terms, all acts of sexual
exploitation and abuse committed by UN peacekeeping personnel. The
Council reiterates that sexual exploitation and abuse are unacceptable and
have a detrimental effect on the fulfilment of mission mandates.
The Security Council, while confirming that the conduct and discipline of
troops is primarily the responsibility of Troop-Contributing Countries,
recognises the shared responsibility of the Secretary-General and all
Member States to take every measure within their purview to prevent sexual
exploitation and abuse by all categories of personnel in UN peacekeeping
missions, and to enforce UN standards of conduct in this regard.
The Security Council underlines that the provision of an environment in

which sexual exploitation and abuse are not tolerated is primarily the
responsibility of managers and commanders.
The Security Council urges the Secretary-General to ensure that the

recommendations of the Special Committee, which fall within their
respective responsibilities, are implemented without delay.
“The Security Council will consider including relevant provisions for prevention,
monitoring, investigation and reporting of misconduct cases in its resolutions
establishing new mandates or renewing existing mandates. In this regard, the Security
Council calls on the Secretary-General to include, in his regular reporting of
peacekeeping missions, a summary of the preventative measures taken to implement a
zero-tolerance policy and of the outcome of actions taken against personnel found
culpable for sexual exploitation and abuse.”
Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein further states in his report:
Missions in Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, the Congo, Ethiopia, Kosovo and Timor-
Leste had established lists of premises and areas frequented by prostitutes,
which were now out of bounds to all personnel. There was a network of
focal points on sexual exploitation and abuse in all missions to facilitate
receipt of allegations, as well as telephone hotlines in Sierra Leone and
Liberia.
At Headquarters, the DPKO had established a task force aimed at

developing guidance and tools for peacekeeping operations to address
sexual exploitation and abuse effectively. For instance, the Department was
developing a database, in coordination with the Office of Internal Oversight
Services (OIOS), to track and monitor allegations and investigations, as
well as follow-up action.
Together with the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, the
DPKO was co-chairing an inter-agency task force aimed at creating an
organisational culture throughout the United Nations system that would

prevent sexual exploitation and abuse. His Department was cooperating
closely with the OIOS, which was in charge of investigating allegations of
sexual exploitation and abuse in peacekeeping missions.
DPKO hoped to establish a dedicated capacity to address conduct issues in

the form of personnel conduct units at Headquarters and in the field. Those
units would be an essential tool for preventing misconduct, monitoring
compliance with United Nations standards, and ensuring swift follow-up on
disciplinary cases. In an organisation that aimed towards professional
standards, that was no longer a luxury, but a must.
In Secretary-General’s Bulletin “Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation

and sexual abuse,” section 3 is entitled: “Prohibition of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse.”7
According to this section, sexual exploitation and sexual abuse violate universally
recognised international legal norms and standards and have always been considered
unacceptable behaviour. Such conduct is prohibited by the United Nations Staff Regulations and
Rules.
In order to further protect the most vulnerable populations, especially women and
children, the following specific standards (which reiterate existing general obligations under the
United Nations Staff Regulations and Rules) are promulgated:
a. Sexual exploitation and sexual abuse constitute acts of serious misconduct and are
therefore grounds for disciplinary measures, including summary dismissal;
b. Sexual activity with children (persons under the age of 18) is prohibited regardless of
the local age of majority or age of consent. Mistaken belief in the age of a child is not
a defence;
c. Exchange of money, employment, goods or services for sex, including sexual favours
or other forms of humiliating, degrading, or exploitative behaviour, is prohibited.
This includes any exchange of assistance that is due to beneficiaries of assistance;
d. Sexual relationships between United Nations staff and beneficiaries of assistance,
since they are based on inherently unequal power dynamics, undermine the credibility
and integrity of the work of the United Nations and are strongly discouraged;
e. Where a United Nations staff member develops concerns or suspicions regarding

sexual exploitation or sexual abuse by a fellow worker, whether in the same agency
or not, and whether or not within the United Nations system, he or she must report
such concerns via established reporting mechanisms;
7
ST/SGB/2003/13. 9 October 2003. UN Secretariat. Secretary-General’s Bulletin: Special measures for protection from sexual
exploitation and sexual abuse. See Appendix G.
f. United Nations staff is obliged to create and maintain an environment that prevents
sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. Managers at all levels have a particular
responsibility to support and develop systems that maintain this environment.
The standards set out above are not intended to be an exhaustive list. Other types of
sexually exploitive or sexually abusive behaviour may be grounds for administrative action or
disciplinary measures, including summary dismissal, pursuant to the United Nations Staff
Regulations and Rules.
“Sexual exploitation and sexual abuse violate universally recognized

international legal norms and standards and have always been unacceptable
behaviour and prohibited conduct for United Nations staff. Such conduct is
prohibited by the United Nations Staff Regulations and Rules.”
UNMIS police conduct a gender and children protection sensitisation

workshop with senior police officers from Bahr el Jabal State, in Juba, Sudan.
November 2005. (Source: UN Photo #116898 by Arpan Munier)
Within the UN personnel-training programme, there are modules that aim to reinforce
values and principles in order to avoid UN peacekeeper misconduct. These define levels of
responsibility, guidelines, and principles that must be taken into account by each UN
peacekeeper deployed in the mission area -- be these civilians, police or military personnel at
each and every level of the mission's structure.
Training Modules
For example, the fifth Standardised Generic Training Module (SGTM 5) describes issues
and areas of attitude and behaviour of United Nations peacekeepers. SGTM 5 is divided into the
submodules of
• 5 A: Code of Conduct
• 5 B: Cultural Awareness
• 5 C: Child Protection
• 5 D: Prevention of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse.
This submodule 5 D on prevention of sexual exploitation and abuse should be presented

together with other SGTMs especially 5 A, on the United Nations code of conduct for uniformed
personnel, 5 B on cultural awareness, 5 C on child protection, eight on human rights, 14 on
personnel issues, and 17 on gender equality in peacekeeping.
Special Representative of the Secretary-General William Swing addressing the

MONUC staff on issues of sexual exploitation and abuse. (Source: MONUC
Photo, Kevin Jordan, 17 December 2004)
Codes of Conduct and Misconduct
Misconduct can be defined as:
Any act, omission or negligence, including criminal acts that is a violation

of mission standard operating procedures, directives, or any other applicable
rules, regulations or administrative instructions that results in or is likely to
result in serious damage or injury to an individual or to the mission.8
Even in view of all the impacts of conflict on girls and boys seen above, allegations of
widespread sexual exploitation and abuse of refugees and internally-displaced women and
children by peacekeepers and humanitarian workers in West Africa is still a reality. Let us not
forget that according to the UN definition, a child “is a boy or girl under the age of 18.”
8
Gender Resource Package for PKO. DPKO. 2004.
Cultural Awareness: Attitude and Behaviour of Peacekeepers
Peacekeepers’ behaviour at mission locations where the culture is different from their
own must consider prior training regarding the culture in question. In keeping with the training,
certain concepts and codes must be understood and managed in order to ensure proper behaviour
at the mission location. In general there are certain adaptation stages9 (see table).
It is important to understand cultural differences before and during the mission. These
differences include, but are not limited to, the following:
• Nutritional habits
• Religion and beliefs
• Use of language (communication)
• Body language (gestures)
• Use of apparel
• Local laws and codes
• Use and concept of time
• The family and gender roles
Furthermore, it is important to build cultural awareness by:

• Understanding your own culture
• Understanding and accepting logic of other cultural frameworks
• Understanding cultural differences as a unique and creative problem-solving opportunity
Keep in mind, however, that things will be much more likely to go well if you are humble,
respectful, and friendly.
Stages of Cultural Awareness
Stage Situation Approaches Reactions

First exiting
Excitement, curiosity,
Honeymoon contact with the Observe
slight concern
culture
First intensive Surprise and confusion;
Initial Solve problems in
feeling with the mystified about others’
Confrontation familiar ways
culture behaviours
Some Feeling frustration,
Adjustment
Problems intensify experimentation with anger, confusion about
Crisis
new behaviours own identity
Now feeling that the
New strategies to culture is
Sense of belonging
Recovery help one function understandable,
to culture emerges
effectively enjoying many aspects
of the new culture
9
UN SGTM 1.2. June 2003. Module 3 Training Material. The UN PK. 05B. Cultural Awareness.
Child Protection
In former lessons, we saw how contemporary armed conflict (CAC) affects children,
who, along with women, are the two most vulnerable potential victim groups. We also saw that
due to gender roles, CAC mostly affects girls. Ever since its creation, the United Nations has
implemented an entire legal framework to protect boys and girls by means of resolutions, such as
the SC Resolution on Children and Armed Conflict, and the Convention on the Rights of the
Child.
Violations of Children's Human Rights
Nonetheless, children continue to be

victims of human rights violations and lack of
attention such as:
• Forced enlistment in irregular or regular

armies (child soldiers)
• Easy victims for minefields (collecting
firewood, water or food)
• SEA (especially girls)
• Child slavery
• Victims of slaughter (genocide)
• Malnutrition, sicknesses (sexually
transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS) and Khmer Rouge child soldiers at the perimeter of
disability the French UNTAC camp. (Source: UN Photo
• Illiteracy #159496, by J. Bleibtreu)
In keeping with the above considerations, the role of peacekeepers is to protect children's
human rights. Among other tasks, these should: help to ensure demobilisation, eradicate
impunity toward violations of their rights, help to reintegrate children considering their specific
needs (gender roles of boys and girls), and report any situations which go against or violate
children's rights, among other tasks. Moreover, close coordination and cooperation with all
children's agencies, UN agencies and NGOs, or other local agencies, is highly important.10
The UN has Child Protection Advisers in PKO who work in close collaboration with
Mission Training Cells, HIV/AIDS focal points on SEA, Personnel Conduct Officers, and
Gender Units. These joint efforts must ensure that in-mission training courses include the
gender-specific vulnerability of girls and boys to SEA, as well as to HIV/AIDS. For example,
girls use sex work in order that they, or for their families, survive, hence increasing the risk of
contracting and spreading sexually transmitted diseases.11
10
For further information, see: http://www.unicef.org, http://www.quno.org, http://www.watchlist.org
11
See “Watch List on Children and Armed Conflict.” At: http://www.watchlist.org
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse as Violations of Human Rights12
During the 1999 UN World Conference in Vienna, women's slogan was: “women's rights
are human rights.” They affirmed that, “the human rights of women and girls are an inalienable,
integral and indivisible part of Universal Human Rights.”
SEA and Human Rights
• SEA is a violation of Human Rights

• Women’s rights are human rights
• Human rights of women and girls are:
− Inalienable
− Integral
− An indivisible part of Universal Human Rights
In 2002, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “adopted
gender mainstreaming as an institutional policy objective, recognising the fulfilment of gender
equality as a pre-condition for the effective promotion and protection of all human rights.”
In Cambodia in December 1992, the Human Rights Office held a fair to

encourage and publicise the growth of organisations that promote human
rights. (Source: UN Photo #186430C)
12
For further information about gender and human rights, see http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/savitri.htm. Prof.
Savirtri Goonesekere. “A Rights-Based Approach to Realizing Gender Equality.” 2004.
These are some violations of the human rights of women and girls seen in the different
stages of modern conflict, and are considered crimes13:
• Discrimination on the basis of Gender (any distinction, exclusion, or restriction based on
sex that is intended to prevent the recognition and exercise of rights or freedom);
• Denial of political rights to women (right to vote, right to be elected);
• Certain laws apply only to women/men (dress codes, freedom of movement, property
rights, divorce, children, inheritance, etc.);
• Sexual crime, including rape, trafficking, and abuse (prostitution, soliciting, pornography,
sex with minors, etc.);
• Displace/separate men or women only (specific actions to kill, displace, rape or capture
on the basis of sex);
• Sex-specific mortality rates (indicate specific acts or omissions); and
• Sex-specific unemployment (laws that prevent women from employment).
Woman and girls are particularly vulnerable to violation of human right in conflict. They
may not receive adequate food supplies in refugee camps; they may be forced to provide sexual
favours to police and border guards in order to gain asylum in another country; they may not be
able to pass on citizenship to their children in the absence of the father; they may be refused
employment; they may be denied provision of specialised health care; etc.
The most profound and shameful form of discrimination in wartime is the sexual violence
committed against girls and women. This has been a constant which still remains as part of
contemporary conflict.
8.5 Special Measures Taken for Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
Report of the Secretary-General14 (15 April 2005)
This Report was submitted in compliance with General Assembly resolution 57/306 of 15
April 2003, in which the Assembly requested the Secretary-General to maintain data on
investigations into sexual exploitation and related offences. The report presented data on
allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse in the United Nations system in the period from
January to December 2004. It also described progress made in the creation and implementation
of measures designed to prevent SEA, and measures for processing allegations.
The General Assembly in resolution 57/306 of 15 April 2003 requested the Secretary-
General to, inter alia, maintain data on investigations into sexual exploitation and related
offences by humanitarian and peacekeeping personnel, and all relevant actions taken thereon.
Pursuant to that resolution, the Secretary-General on 9 October 2003 issued his bulletin
ST/SGB/2003/13 on special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse.
13
From UN SGTM 1.1. Module C. Gender and Human Rights. June 2003.
14
UN General Assembly, 15 April 2005. A/59/782.
It was addressed to all staff of

the United Nations, including
staff of separately administered
organs and programmes.
One of these groups, the

Inter-Agency Standing
Committee Task Force,15 was
established in May 2002 by the
Inter-Agency Standing
Committee and the Executive
Committee on Humanitarian
Affairs. The major achievements
of the Task Force were outlined
in its final report of June 2004. UN human rights team from Bujumbura and Ngozi regional office
They included clarifying monitoring the situation of Batwas people in Kirundo province.
specific standards of conduct, Batwas people represent roughly 1% of the population in the country.
and establishing practical (Source: ONUB Photo, Martine Perret, March 2005)
measures to address sexual
exploitation and abuse by civilian personnel employed by, or affiliated with, the United Nations
or other organisations. Individual agencies and organisations have now taken on the
responsibility for following up on the work of the Task Force.
Inter-Agency Standing Committee Task Force OCHA-UNICEF Members (2002)

• Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues
• Department of Peacekeeping Operations
• WFP
• UNHCR
• The United Nations Office for Project Services
• Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
• Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and
Armed Conflict
• International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
• Non-governmental organization consortia Interaction
• Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response: Save the Children-United
Kingdom; Oxfam
• Other United Nations and non-humanitarian and development organizations
• Liaised with the Office of Human Resources Management, the Office of Legal
Affairs, and Member States
15
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Task Force was chaired jointly by the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs and UNICEF and comprises the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations, WFP, UNHCR, the United Nations Office for Project Services, the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights, the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed
Conflict, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and the non-governmental organization
consortia Interaction and the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response, including Save the Children-United Kingdom
and Oxfam. A large number of other United Nations and non-humanitarian and development organizations provided input to
the work of the Task Force. It also liaised with the Office of Human Resources Management, the Office of Legal Affaire, and
Member States.
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Task Force (June 2004)
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Task Force took some concrete measures in June
2004. Point 19 reads as follows:
A wide range of measures were put in place in peacekeeping operations in

2004 to prevent and respond to sexual exploitation and abuse and to enforce
United Nations standards of conduct in this regard. Some specific actions
included the following:
(a) At Headquarters, late in 2004, the Department of Peacekeeping

Operations created a multidisciplinary task force on sexual exploitation and
abuse led by the Assistant Secretary-General, Jane Holl Lute. The task force
is intended to support peacekeeping operations in addressing sexual
exploitation and abuse effectively. The task force is focusing on producing
policy and other guidance, particularly relating to data management and
reporting, training, welfare, planning and public information and
communications.
(b) A full-time Personnel Conduct Officer was assigned to MONUC in

April 2004 to provide the Mission with increased capacity to address
conduct issues. Similar posts have been established in Côte d’Ivoire,
Burundi and Haiti, and an Officer has been appointed in Burundi.
(c) On the prevention side, the majority of peacekeeping operations issued

memoranda during 2004 reminding all members of the mission about the
standards set out in ST/SGB/2003/13. Basic induction training on United
Nations standards of conduct relating to sexual exploitation and abuse was
initiated in a number of peacekeeping operations, including those in Côte
d’Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.
(d) Missions in Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, the Democratic Republic of the

Congo, Ethiopia, Kosovo (Serbia and Montenegro) and Timor-Leste have
established lists of premises and areas frequented by prostitutes which are
now out of bounds to all personnel.
(e) During 2004, MONUC also introduced a number of mission-specific

measures to eliminate abuse. These measures included:
(i) Establishment of a Personnel Conduct Unit to address sexual

exploitation and abuse.
(ii) Investigations into allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse
by professional investigators with a background in sex crimes,
particularly those involving children.
(iii) Establishment of a strict non-fraternisation policy and a curfew

for military contingents.
(iv) Designation of off-limits areas and premises for all MONUC
personnel.
(v) Increased monitoring of off-limits areas and premises.
(vi) Strengthening cooperation with the local police to decrease the
interaction between local women and military personnel around
military bases and to ensure the positioning of street vendors away
from the premises.
(vii) Requirement for military contingents to wear uniforms at all
times when outside the military camp.
(viii) Replacement of static guard posts in densely populated areas
with mobile and frequent foot patrols, where possible.
(ix) Proposals for improving welfare and recreational facilities for
civilian and uniformed personnel.
A wide range of measures were put in place in peacekeeping operations in 2004

to prevent and respond to sexual exploitation and abuse.
Staff members at UNOCI take part in the Sexual Exploitation and

Abuse (SEA) awareness training in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. March
2005. (Source: UN Photo #68443 by Ky Chung)
LESSON SUMMARY
• During post-conflict, there is a power imbalance among the population and UN personnel
that favours the commission of offences such as sexual abuse, sexual exploitation, and
other forms of GBV.
• Ever since incidents of SEA among UN peacekeeper personnel were detected in 2002, the
UN has been implementing concrete measures to avoid this serious breach of its Code of
Conduct. The present policy is Zero Tolerance.
• “The Security Council condemns, in the strongest terms, all acts of sexual abuse and
exploitation committed by UN peacekeeping personnel. The Council reiterates that sexual
exploitation and abuse are unacceptable and have a detrimental effect on the fulfilment of
mission mandates.”
• Sexual exploitation and sexual abuse violate universally recognised international legal
norms and standards and have always been unacceptable behaviour and prohibited conduct
for United Nations staff. Such conduct is prohibited by the United Nations Staff Regulations
and Rules.
• There are specific training programmes (SGTMs) for the prevention of sexual exploitation
and sexual abuse.
• UN definition of misconduct: “Any act, omission or negligence, including criminal acts that
is a violation of mission standard operating procedures, directives, or any other applicable
rules, regulations or administrative instructions that results in or is likely to result in serious
damage or injury to an individual or to the mission.”
• We must not forget that:
− SEA is a form of GBV
− SEA is a human rights violation
− SEA is a form of gender-based discrimination, since it mostly affects women and
girls because of the mere fact that they are women and girls
− SEA is a crime
− SEA is a consequence of gender inequality
− SEA is a violation of the UN peacekeeper's Code of Conduct
• Human Rights of women and girls are inalienable, integral, and are an indivisible pat of
universal human rights.
• The Inter-Agency Standing Committee Task Force was established in May 2002 by the
Inter-Agency Standing Committee and the Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs.
Its purpose was to maintain data on investigations into sexual exploitation and related
offences by humanitarian and peacekeeping personnel, and all relevant actions taken thereon.
• At UN Headquarters, late in 2004, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations created a
multidisciplinary task force on sexual exploitation and abuse led by the Assistant Secretary-
General, intended to support peacekeeping operations in addressing sexual exploitation and
abuse effectively.
• Since 2004, missions in countries such as Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Ethiopia, Haiti, Liberia, Kosovo (Serbia and Montenegro), and Timor-Leste
have introduced a number of mission-specific measures to eliminate SEA.
• Special measures were taken in MONUC to prevent further SEA among UN personnel.
LESSON 8
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Which factor do you believe fosters UN peacekeeper misconduct (SEA) during post-conflict?
a. Distance from family;
b. Boredom;
c. Power imbalance between the peacekeeper and the local population;
d. Making new friends.
2. Which agencies made allegations of the first cases of SEA among PKOs in late 2001 in three
states of West Africa?
a. UNHCR and Save the Children (UK)
b. OCHA and UNICEF
c. ICRC and UNICEF
d. OXFAM and Save the Children
3. Who presented the report “A comprehensive strategy towards the elimination of sexual
exploitation and abuse in peacekeeping operations” to the Security Council?
a. Under-Secretary-General for PKO Jean-Marie Guéhenno;
b. Secretary-General Kofi Annan;
c. Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein, the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser on
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse;
d. Ellen Margrethe Løj, SC Chairman (May 2005).
4. What was one of the most important measures taken by the Security Council to prevent the
spread of SEA among UN peacekeepers?
a. Eliminating prostitution at mission locations;
b. The payment of damages to victims;
c. Proper training at the mission location;
d. Zero tolerance.
5. In 2004, in order to enforce UN standards of conduct on the prevention of SEA in mission

fields, special induction training on UN standards of conduct relating to sexual exploitation
and abuse was conducted. In which countries was this measure implemented for the first
time?
a. Angola, Liberia, and Sudan;
b. Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone;
c. Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, and Sierra Leone;
d. Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, and Liberia.
6. The Secretary-General’s Bulletin Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation
and sexual abuse reads: “SEA violates universally-recognised international legal norms and
standards and has always been behaviour and conduct for United Nations
staff.”
a. Unacceptable; allowed
b. Unacceptable; prohibited
c. Acceptable; allowed
d. Acceptable; prohibited
7. According to UN rules, sexual activities with children means having sex with people under
the age of:
a. 15
b. 16
c. 18
d. 21
8. In the Secretary-General’s Bulletin Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation
and sexual abuse, SEA includes:
a. Mutual volunteer sexual activity with local women;
b. Exchange of money, employment, goods, or services for strategic information;
c. Sexual favours or other forms of humiliating, degrading, or exploitative behaviour;
d. Social interaction with local women and girls.
9. Violations of the Code of Conduct are permitted when:

a. There is imminent danger of death;
b. The local culture goes against peacekeeping principles;
c. Local people can be economically assisted through the purchase of sexual favours;
d. Code of Conduct violations are never permitted.
10. According to different international organisations, SEA is defined as:

a. A crime against women, boys, and girls;
b. A violation of the human rights of women and girls;
c. A violation of the human rights of men and boys;
d. A form of GBV against women and children.
ANSWER KEY:
1c, 2a, 3c, 4d, 5b, 6b, 7c, 8c, 9d, 10b
LESSON 9
CASE STUDY: GENDER ANALYSIS ON

UNAMIR AND MINUSTAH
9.1 Historical Background to the United Nations Assistance

Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)
9.2 Human Rights Violations Against Women and Girls in Rwanda
9.3 Historical Background to the United Nations Stabilisation
Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)
9.4 Human Rights Violations Against Women and Girls in Haiti
Lesson 9 / Case Study: Gender Analysis on UNAMIR and MINUSTAH 174
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson consists of two real-life examples of armed conflict and its impact on women
from a human rights point of view. Historical background is first provided for the situations that
occurred in two UN missions, located in Rwanda and Haiti. With this information, the student
can then analyse the readings for each, drawn from UNIFEM reports on both Rwanda and Haiti.
The UNIFEM analysis of the impact of armed conflicts on women and girls includes the four
most relevant variables:
• Political and seurity impact;

• Humanitarian impact;
• Human rights violations, including GBV; and
• Economics, security, and human rights.
In this lesson, we will focus only on what is of concern to the area of human rights.

9.1 Historical Background to the UN Assitance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)1
Duration: October 1993 to March 1996
Mandate: UNAMIR was originally established to help implement the Arusha Peace Agreement
signed by the Rwandese parties on 4 August 1993. UNAMIR's mandate and strength were
adjusted on a number of occasions in the face of the tragic events of the genocide and the
changing situation in the country. UNAMIR's mandate came to an end on 8 March 1996.
UNAMIR Mission Map
Fighting between the Armed Forces of the mainly Hutu Government of Rwanda and the
Tutsi-led Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF) first broke out in October 1990 across the border
between Rwanda and its northern neighbour, Uganda. A number of ceasefire agreements
followed, including one negotiated at Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania, on 22 July 1992,
which arranged for the presence in Rwanda of a 50-member Neutral Military Observer Group I
(NMOG I) furnished by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Hostilities resumed in the
northern part of the country in early February 1993, interrupting comprehensive negotiations
between the government of Rwanda and RPF, which were supported by OAU and facilitated by
the United Republic of Tanzania.
1
http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unamir.htm
The United Nations’ active involvement in Rwanda started in 1993, when Rwanda and
Uganda requested the deployment of military observers along the common border to prevent the
military use of the area by RPF. The Security Council in June 1993 established the United
Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR) on the Ugandan side of the border to
verify that no military assistance reached Rwanda.
Meanwhile, the Arusha talks, brokered by Tanzania and OAU, reconvened in March
1993 and finally led to a peace agreement in August 1993. The comprehensive peace agreement
called for a democratically elected government and provided for the establishment of a broad-
based transitional government until the elections, in addition to repatriation of refugees and
integration of the armed forces of the two sides. Both sides asked the United Nations to assist in
the implementation of the agreement. In early August 1993, NMOG I was replaced by an
expanded NMOG II force composed of some 130 personnel to operate as an interim measure
pending the deployment of the neutral international force.
In October 1993, the Security Council, by its Resolution 872 (1993), established another
international force, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), to help the
parties implement the agreement, monitor its implementation, and support the transitional
government. UNAMIR's demilitarised zone sector headquarters was established upon the arrival
of the advance party and became operational on 1 November 1993, when the NMOG II elements
were absorbed into UNAMIR. Deployment of the UNAMIR battalion in Kigali, composed of
contingents from Belgium and Bangladesh, was completed in the first part of December 1993,
and the Kigali weapons-secure area was established on 24 December.
The United Nations solicited troop

contributions, but initially only Belgium with a
half a battalion of 400 troops, and Bangladesh
with a logistical element of 400 troops, offered
personnel. It took five months to reach the
authorised strength of 2,548. But because of many
unresolved issues between the parties,
implementation of the agreement was delayed.
Consequently, the inauguration of the transitional
government never took place.
In April 1994, the presidents of Rwanda UNAMIR peacekeepers being briefed at their HQ
and Burundi were killed while returning from in Kigali, Rwanda. July 1994. (Source: UN
peace talks in Tanzania, when the Rwandese Photo# 186762)
plane crashed, in circumstances that are still to be determined, as it was landing in Kigali,
Rwanda's capital. This set off a tidal wave of political and ethnic killings: the Prime Minister,
cabinet ministers, and UNAMIR peacekeepers were among the first victims.
The armed forces, the presidential guard, and the ruling party’s youth militia mainly
carried out the killings, targeting Tutsi and moderate Hutus. The Special Rapporteur on Rwanda
of the UN Human Rights Commission subsequently confirmed this. The RPF resumed its
advance from the north and the east of Rwanda, and government authority disintegrated.
An interim government was formed, but failed

to stop the massacres. With the RPF's southward push,
the number of displaced persons and refugees increased
tremendously. On 28 April alone, 280,000 people fled
to Tanzania to escape the violence. Another wave of
refugees went to Zaire. The United Nations and other
agencies provided emergency assistance on an
unprecedented scale.
UNAMIR sought to arrange a ceasefire, without

success, and its personnel came increasingly under
attack. After some countries unilaterally withdrew their
contingents, the Security Council, by its Resolution 912
(1994) of 21 April 1994, reduced UNAMIR's strength
from 2,548 to 270. Despite its reduced presence,
UNAMIR troops managed to protect thousands of
Rwandese who took shelter at sites under UNAMIR
control.
The Security Council, by adopting Resolution

918 (1994) of 17 May 1994, imposed an arms embargo
In Ndosha Camp, Zaire, food is distributed against Rwanda, called for urgent international action
to Rwandan children who lost their parents and increased UNAMIR's strength to up to 5,500
in the recent massacres. (Source: UN troops. But it took nearly six months for Member States
Photo #186790, July 1994)
to provide troops.
To contribute to the security of civilians, the Council, by Resolution 929 (1994) of 22

June 1994, authorised, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, a multi-national
humanitarian operation. French-led multinational forces carried out “Operation Turquoise,”
which established a humanitarian protection zone in southwestern Rwanda. The operation ended
in August 1994 and UNAMIR took over in the zone.
In July, RPF forces took control of Rwanda, ending the civil war, and established a
broad-based government. The new government declared its commitment to the 1993 peace
agreement and assured UNAMIR that it would cooperate on the return of refugees.
For their part, when the conflict broke out in April, UNOMUR observers had expanded
their monitoring activities in Uganda to the entire border area. But the Security Council
gradually scaled down the operation, and UNOMUR left Uganda in September.
By October 1994, estimates suggested that out of a population of 7.9 million, at least half
a million people had been killed. Some 2 million had fled to other countries and as many as 2
million people were internally displaced. A United Nations humanitarian appeal launched in July
raised $762 million, making it possible to respond to the enormous humanitarian challenge.
A commission of experts, established by the Security Council, reported in September that

“overwhelming evidence” proved that Hutu elements had perpetrated acts of genocide against
the Tutsi group in a “concerted, planned, systematic and methodical way.” The final report of the
Commission was presented to the Council in December 1994.
In the following months, UNAMIR continued its efforts to ensure security and stability,
support humanitarian assistance, clear landmines, and help refugees to resettle. But Rwanda
supported ending the mission,
stating that UNAMIR did not
respond to its priority needs.
The Security Council heeded
that request, and UNAMIR left
in March 1996.
At a meeting organised
by Rwanda and the United
Nations Development
Programme in 1996,
international donors pledged
over $617 million towards the
reconstruction of the country.
United Nations agencies have
continued to provide Refugee children who fled the fighting stay at a camp in Gikongoro,
humanitarian aid and to assist Rwanda, where they are protected by French peacekeeping forces.
(Source: UN Photo #186768, July 1994)
in the return of the refugees.
International Tribunal for Rwanda
On 8 November 1994, the Security Council established the International Tribunal for
Rwanda “for the sole purpose of prosecuting persons responsible for genocide and other serious
violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of Rwanda, and Rwandan
citizens responsible for genocide and other such violations committed in the territory of
neighbouring states, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994.” Located in Arusha,
Tanzania, the Tribunal issued the first indictments in 1995 and held the first trials in 1997.
1999 Independent Inquiry
Five years after the event, the United Nations and the whole international community
remained accused of not having prevented the genocide. In view of the enormity of what
happened, and the questions that continued to surround the actions of the United Nations and its
Member States before and during the crisis, in March 1999 the Secretary-General, with the
approval of the Security Council, commissioned an independent inquiry into those actions. The
members included Mr. Ingvar Carlsson (former Prime Minister of Sweden), Professor Han Sung-
Joo (former Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea) and Lieutenant-General Rufus M.
Kupolati (rtd.) (Nigeria).
The findings of the inquiry were made public on 15 December 1999. The inquiry
concluded that the overriding failure in the international community’s response was the lack of
resources and political will, as well as errors of judgment as to the nature of the events in
Rwanda. Expressing deep remorse over the failure to prevent the genocide in Rwanda, the
Secretary-General, in a statement on 16 December, said that he fully accepted the conclusions of
the report. He welcomed the emphasis that the inquiry had put on the lessons to be learned, and
its recommendations to ensure that the United Nations and the international community could,
and would, act to prevent or halt any other such catastrophes in the future.
9.2 Human Rights Violations Against Women and Girls in Rwanda2
According to Human Rights Watch, during the 1994 crisis, Hutu militia and government
guards and soldiers practiced widespread rape and gang rape against women and girls. Child
combatants raped women and girls during the genocide. The National Population Office
estimates there to be 2,000 to 5,000 “children of hate” or “pregnancies of war.”
Human Rights Watch collected testimony of widespread rape and gang-rape by

militiamen and members of the army. In addition, women were raped with objects such as
sharpened sticks and gun barrels and were sexually mutilated.
In Rwanda, rape and sexual violence carry enormous stigma for victims. As a result,
Human Rights Watch reported that Rwandan women have found reporting violations against
their bodies extremely difficult.
According to Laketch Dirasse, one health centre in Kigali reported four women coming
in seeking abortions eight months after the genocide. One woman had been impregnated by the
same man who had killed her husband and children in front of her.
According to Human Rights Watch, “The Rwandan government report estimates that
one-fifth of Rwandan women are victims of domestic violence at the hands of their male
partners. One Rwandan proverb states that a woman who is not yet battered is not a real
woman.”
Street girls, most of whom were orphaned during the genocide, experienced arrest and
harassment for begging and vagrancy. Of those interviewed by Human Rights Watch, eighty to
ninety-three percent of street girls have been victims of rape.
The Akayesu judgment delivered by the Trial Chamber of the Rwanda Tribunal on 2
September 1998 is one of the most important trials for gender rights. In this trial, for the first
time in history, rape was explicitly recognised as an instrument of genocide and a crime against
humanity. The original indictment against Akayesu, mayor of the Taba commune, contained no
charges of sexual violence. However, after a witness on the stand spontaneously testified about
the gang rape of her 6-year-old daughter, the sole female judge at the ICTR at that time, Judge
Navanethem Pillay, questioned the witnesses about these crimes. Suspecting that these were not
2
http://www.womenwarpeace.org/rwanda/rwanda.htm
isolated instances of rape, the judges invited the prosecution to consider investigating gender
crimes in Taba and, if found to have been committed, and if attributable to Akayesu, to consider
amending the indictment to include charges for the rape crimes. When the trial recommenced,
several witnesses testified about pervasive rape and forced nudity committed under Akayesu's
watchful gaze or with his encouragement. The Trial Chamber concluded that sexual violence was
widespread and systematic in Taba, and committed by Hutus with intent to humiliate, harm, and
ultimately destroy, physically or mentally, the Tutsi group. Akayesu was ultimately convicted of,
among other crimes, rape as an instrument of genocide and as a crime against humanity. He was
sentenced to life imprisonment. The Trial Chamber also noted that there was no definition of
rape in international law, and it thus specified that rape could be defined as “a physical invasion
of a sexual nature, committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive.”
According to a September 2004 Human Rights Watch report, many women who were
raped during the genocide have yet to receive appropriate legal or judicial redress. As many of
them are struggling to meet their basic needs and the needs of their loved ones in a context of
grinding poverty and high rates of HIV/AIDS, women have not had the time or the energy to
pursue justice from their aggressors.
In a statement honouring International Women’s Day on 8 March 2005, President Paul

Kagame said, “I feel the work of fighting defilement, rape, and other forms of women abuse
have not been satisfactorily carried out. Such cases should be closely investigated.” Both
President Kagame and Valerie Nyirahabineza, Minister of Gender and Women’s Development,
reiterated Rwanda’s commitment to women’s national leadership and noted the international
example that Rwanda has set in this area.
Summary of the Impact on Women
• Tribal war between Hutus and Tutsis

• 800,000 victims, 250,000 women violated in 100 days.
• 500,000 women victims of GBV
• Total of 937,000 victims (reported by IRINA press)
• Bigger genocide after WWII
• 10% of population was massacred (small arms and machetes)
• 1,900,000 refugees displaced
• 2,000 to 5,000,000 “pregnancies of war” (children of hate)
• Murder/rape of women in massive scale
• Women infected with HIV/AIDS as a weapon of war
• Women dying after conflict due to AIDS
• Conflict qualified as a genocide
• Creation of an International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
9.3 Historical Background to the UN Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)3
Duration: 30 April 2004 to present
Mandate: Having determined that the situation in Haiti continued to constitute a threat to
international peace and security in the region and acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter,
the Security Council, by its Resolution 1542 of 30 April 2004, decided to establish the United
Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) and requested that authority be transferred
from the Multinational Interim Force (MIF), authorised by the Security Council in February
2004, to MINUSTAH on 1 June 2004.
MINUSTAH Mission Map
In July 1994, the Security Council authorised the deployment of a 20,000-strong

multinational force to facilitate the prompt return of the legitimate Haitian authorities, maintain a
secure and stable environment in the country, and promote the rule of law. The multinational
force was followed by a number of successive United Nations peacekeeping missions from 1994
to 2001, including UNMIH, which assumed its functions in full in March 1995, the United
Nations Support Mission in Haiti (UNSMIH), the United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti
(UNTMIH), and the United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH).
3
http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/minustah/background.html
Throughout this period, there were a

number of positive developments, including the
restoration of some measure of democracy, with
the first peaceful handover of power between two
democratically elected presidents, the growth of a
multifaceted civil society, and its increasing
involvement in the development of a political
culture based on democratic values. There were,
however, also setbacks. Owing to the continuing
political crisis and concomitant lack of stability in
the country, serious reforms never took hold.
In the 2000 presidential and parliamentary

elections, President Jean-Bertrand Aristide and
his Fanmi Lavalas party claimed victory with a
turnout that hardly rose above 10 per cent of the
voters. The opposition, as well as members of the
international community, contested the results and
accused the government of manipulating them.
Subsequently, dialogue between the government
and the opposition broke down. By late 2003, a
newly united opposition movement, comprising The Jordanian military contingent of MINUSTAH
arrives in Port-au-Prince for duty 10 November 2004.
political parties, civil society actors, as well as the (Source: MINUSTAH, Sophia Paris)
private sector, was calling for the President’s
resignation. The Caribbean Community (CARICOM) offered to mediate and, on 31 January
2004, submitted a Prior Action Plan, followed in February by an implementation plan worked
out by the Group of Six, involving the Bahamas for CARICOM, Canada, the European Union,
France, the Organisation of American States (OAS), and the United States. Both of these plans
were agreed to by President Aristide. The Prior Action Plan had called for major reforms,
including a new cabinet, while allowing President Aristide to serve out his term. However, the
opposition refused to back the plan. Several diplomatic initiatives, spearheaded by CARICOM
and the OAS, were subsequently taken with a view to overcoming the political stalemate and
preventing a further deepening of the political crisis.
In early February 2004, armed conflict broke out in the city of Gonaives, and in the
following days fighting spread to other cities. Gradually, the insurgents took control of much of
the northern part of the country. Despite diplomatic efforts, the armed opposition threatened to
march on the Haitian capital. Early on 29 February, Mr. Aristide left the country. His letter of
resignation was read out by the Prime Minister, Yvon Neptune. Within hours, Boniface
Alexandre, the President of the Supreme Court, was sworn in as interim president, in accordance
with the constitutional rules of succession. On the evening of 29 February, the permanent
representative of Haiti to the United Nations submitted the interim President’s request for
assistance, which included the authorisation for international troops to enter Haiti. Pursuant to
that request, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1529 (2004) authorising the Multinational
Interim Force (MIF) and declaring the Council’s readiness to establish a follow-up United
Nations stabilisation force to support continuation of a peaceful and constitutional political
process and the maintenance of a secure and stable environment. MIF immediately started its
deployment to Haiti, as authorised by that resolution.
In consultation with the interim president and the then Prime Minister, steps were taken
to form a transitional government. On 17 March 2004, the Prime Minister, in consultation with
the Conseil des Sages (a group of eminent persons), formed a 13-member transitional
government.
In order to build broad political consensus for the work of the transitional government, a
political pact, the Consensus on the Political Transition Pact, was signed by the Prime Minister
on behalf of the transitional government, members of the Conseil des Sages, representatives of
various political groups, and civil society organisations. The signatories came to a general
understanding on the political transition, which would see the holding of municipal,
parliamentary and presidential elections in 2005 and would end with the installation of a newly
elected president. Fanmi Lavalas denounced the Pact.
The Pact also set out measures to be undertaken during the transitional period in the areas
of security, development, fight against impunity and corruption, decentralisation, elections,
judicial reform, a national conference initiative and a new social contract, institutional
strengthening of political parties and civil society organisations, reintegration of former armed
elements, and professionalisation of the Haitian National Police (HNP). Additionally, it was
agreed to establish a number of commissions to address issues such as recent human rights
abuses, financial wrongdoing and matters related to the former military. The Pact emphasised the
need to provide assistance to victims of the prior government. The Pact also provided that the
signatories would engage in discussions with the United Nations on the status of the MIF and the
follow-up peacekeeping operation.
Reporting to the Security Council on 16 April 2004, the United Nations Secretary-
General welcomed the Pact that “has brought together many Haitian leaders from different parts
of society in order to chart the way forward during the transitional period.” He said, however,
that this Pact did not include all major political movements, as it could have (and that all Haitians
should have), nor did it seize the opportunity to participate meaningfully in a comprehensive
national dialogue.
As envisaged by Security Council Resolution 1529 (2004) and on the basis of the
findings of the multidisciplinary assessment team, which visited the country in March 2004, the
Secretary-General recommended the establishment of a multidimensional stabilisation operation
to be known as the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH).
Acting on the recommendations of the Secretary-General, the Security Council adopted

Resolution 1542 of 30 April 2004, establishing MINUSTAH for an initial six-month period, and
requested that authority be transferred from the MIF to MINUSTAH on 1 June 2004.
MINUSTAH’s Mandate Extended
Reporting on the situation in Haiti on 18 November 2004 (S/2004/908), just prior to

expiration on 30 November of the mandate of MINUSTAH, the Secretary-General described the
progress made in the Mission’s deployment since its establishment on 30 April. In view of the
time line for elections, scheduled to be held in 2005, with power to be transferred to en elected
President on 7 February 2006, the Secretary-General recommended that the Council extend the
mandate of the Mission for a further period of 18 months, until 31 May 2006, with some
modifications within the general structure.
The Secretary-General said in the report that the time was not yet right for a major review
of the Mission’s general structure, as it had not yet fully deployed, the political processes were
still in their early stages, and the situation in Haiti remained fluid. A number of modifications
within the present structure could work, however.
He, thus, proposed the following adjustments: adding an additional formed police unit of
125 officers for an interim period, to be stationed in Port-au-Prince, to provide enhanced
operational support to the Haitian National Police, and to strengthen security arrangements in the
capital; implementing, beyond the Missions’ first year, quick-impact projects of a humanitarian
nature; augmenting MINUSTAH’s capacity to implement disarmament, demobilisation and
reintegration (DDR) projects in the community, and strengthening MINUSTAH’s capacity to
monitor and evaluate the legal and institutional framework for DDR, including small arms
control and other security
sector-related legislation;
adding one engineering
company to the Mission’s
military component, with the
task of repairing roads and
bridges used by mission
personnel during
implementation of their
mandate; and strengthening
modestly the humanitarian
and development
coordination pillars of
MINUSTAH, in light of
Jordanian contingent patrolling Cité Soleil, 16 December 2004. Haiti’s vulnerability to
(Source: MINUSTAH/Sophia Paris)
natural disasters.
The Secretary-General said that since his interim report of 30 August, the security
situation in Haiti had deteriorated with a surge in violence, particularly in the capital in October.
He appealed to all armed groups to break this cycle of violence in order not to further endanger
the transition process under way. As MINUSTAH troops and police personnel continued to build
up their strength, the Mission’s capacity to ensure a secure and stable environment would
increase.
The Secretary-General supported the transitional government’s efforts to put an end to

the violence perpetuated by armed groups and welcomed the establishment of an office, which
would seek to reintegrate into society the demobilised military. The restoration of law and order
throughout Haiti needed to be achieved with due regard for basic human rights and the rule of
law, the report stated. In this regard, the transitional government, in particular its law
enforcement structures, needed to demonstrate a genuine and consistent adherence to human
rights and legal principles as it deals with those responsible for the recent violence.
Also according to the report, the recent violence again underlined the need to remove all
illegal weapons from the streets effectively, including through a comprehensive and community-
based disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programme. While security was a
necessary condition for the success of the transitional process, it was not sufficient. Without a
parallel political process involving all segments of society, no sustainable peace and security
would be achieved. The Secretary-General encouraged the transitional government to continue to
explore all possible ways to include in the democratic and electoral process those who still
remained outside the transition process, but had rejected violence.
The report welcomed the transitional government’s sustained commitment to holding

local, legislative and presidential elections in 2005. At the same time, the Provisional Electoral
Council was encouraged to remain focused on its tasks within the agreed time frame. The
Secretary-General welcomed the signing of the memorandum of understanding with the
Organisation of American States and was confident that, together, the organisations would strive
to accompany the Haitians towards elections in the most efficient way. He was also grateful for
the assistance that the International Organisation of la Francophonie and other international
organisations, agencies, and donors were providing. The support that members of Caribbean
Community (CARICOM) could provide to the electoral process in Haiti would add a significant
dimension to regional cooperation efforts there.
A political process without job creation or longer-term development was not credible for
a population that had been living in severe poverty for such a long time, the report stated further.
MINUSTAH remained committed to mobilising resources for projects that make an immediate
difference in people’s lives. The Secretary-General welcomed the establishment of coordination
mechanisms aimed at aiding implementation of the interim cooperation framework, which had
received overwhelming support from international donors at the International Donors Conference
on Haiti, held in Washington, D.C., on 19 and 20 July 2004.
On 29 November 2004, by Resolution 1576, the Security Council, noting the continuing
existence of challenges to the political, social, and economic stability of Haiti and determining
that the situation continued to threaten international peace and security in the region, extended
the mandate of MINUSTAH until 1 June 2005, with the intention to renew it for further periods.
The Council welcomed the Secretary-General’s report on the situation in Haiti and endorsed his
recommendations.
For the developments in Haiti from December 2004 through February 2005, please see
Secretary-General's report S/2005/124 dated 25 February 2005.
MINUSTAH Temporarily Reinforced
In his further report to the Security Council on MINUSTAH dated 13 May 2005, the
Secretary-General stated that over the past few months, MINUSTAH had made progress towards
creating an environment in which the political transition could unfold. This progress remained
fragile, however, and key challenges lay ahead as the political transition enters a crucial phase.
Further outreach by the transitional government was essential to obtain the confidence and
support of the population.
Likewise, strong and coordinated support by the international community was essential.
The transitional government and the Haitian people, with the support of the international
community, must now redouble their efforts to advance this process. The visit of the Security
Council mission to Haiti from 13 to 16 April, in conjunction with the Ad Hoc Advisory Group
on Haiti of the Economic and Social Council, represented an important demonstration of
commitment to addressing the needs of Haiti.
According to the Secretary-General's report, there were signs of improvement in the

security situation following successful operations by MINUSTAH and the Haitian National
Police, with a view to curbing the activities of illegal armed groups and reducing their activities.
These efforts must be maintained to eliminate potential threats to the approaching electoral
process.
However, the Secretary-General said that unless real progress was achieved in the
disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programme, the security situation would remain
uncertain. He urged the transitional government to ensure the prompt implementation of a
comprehensive disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programme. He also urged the
international community to help secure the necessary funds to successfully implement the
programme.
The launching of the electoral process and the national dialogue was a welcome
development. The Secretary-General encouraged all Haitian citizens to participate fully in both
processes as an important step towards consolidating democracy in Haiti. The transitional
government needed to do more to secure broad participation in these processes, and to ensure
that legislation conducive to such participation was, and is, in place. He called on the
transitional government to address the concerns raised regarding the electoral law so as to
maintain the independence of the Electoral Council and to create an even playing field for all the
candidates. Political leaders in Haiti had a special responsibility to ensure the success of both the
national dialogue and elections.
The transitional government and the leaders of political parties and civil society were to
also ensure that these processes were sustainable and resulted in a realistic and achievable vision
for the future of Haiti, the first step being the installation of an elected government. The
Secretary-General urged the international community to redouble its efforts to support the
electoral process in Haiti, and in particular called on the donor community to ensure that the
necessary financial means were available. He welcomed the offer of the Caribbean Community
(CARICOM) to provide technical assistance to the electoral process.
The human rights situation and the impunity enjoyed by those who commit violations of
human rights remains a deep concern, the report stated. There is an urgent demand for justice in
Haiti. The Secretary-General appealed to the transitional government to set the example by
promptly initiating an investigation into those human rights violations allegedly committed by
national police officers. The state institutions responsible for guaranteeing respect for the rule of
law—including the police, the justice and prison systems—remain particularly weak. Therefore,
he encouraged the Transitional Government to explore the practical means by which the
international community might provide immediate assistance to expedite some of the most
sensitive cases.
The Secretary-General said that furthering the reform of the justice and penal systems
should be pursued parallel to the efforts to professionalise the police. Demonstrable progress in
these key areas could be crucial to building the confidence of the Haitian population in its
national institutions. The commitment of the transitional government and the police to take the
reform forward, as well as to work effectively with MINUSTAH in police operations and reform,
also needs to be strengthened. He urged the transitional government to ensure that the technical
advice and recommendations provided by the Mission 's UN police officers were implemented
by national police officers at all levels.
Concluding the report, the Secretary-General said that the United Nations remained
committed to supporting the transitional government in its efforts to ensure the success of the
political transition. To enable MINUSTAH to implement its mandate more effectively, the
Secretary-General recommended that the Council approve the proposals set out in the report.
The Secretary-General proposed that the Mission deploy an additional infantry battalion of 750
troops to respond quickly in likely “hot spots” during the pre-election period; raise the military
ceiling for United Nations
troops from the current
level of 6,700 to 7,500; and
raise the ceiling on United
Nations police officers to
nearly 1,900, from just over
1,600. He also
recommended that the
Mission be extended for a
further period of 12
months, until after the
electoral process and the
establishment of the newly
elected government of
Haiti.
By Resolution 1608
of 22 June 2005, the
Security Council extended A MINUSTAH worker helps an elderly woman in to vote at the Lycee Fort
the mandate of National in the seaside slum of Bel Air. Port-Au-Prince, Haiti. (Source:
MINUSTAH until 15 MINUSTAH Photo/Sophia Paris, February 2006)
February 2006, and expressed support for the Secretary-General's proposals to temporarily
reinforce the mission to help facilitate the country's political transition.
Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Council supported a temporary increase,
during the electoral period and subsequent political transition, of 275 personnel to the current
strength of the Mission's UN police component, and 750 personnel to its currently authorised
military strength in order to create a rapid reaction force in Haiti to provide increased security,
particularly in and around Port-au-Prince.
The Council also decided that, for a temporary period, MINUSTAH would consist of a
military component of up to 7,500 troops of all ranks and up to 1,897 UN police. It requested the
Secretary-General to devise, in a timely manner, a progressive drawdown strategy of the
MINUSTAH force levels for the post-election period, in accordance with the situation on the
ground.
In addition, the Council requested the Secretary-General to share with the Council the
overall plan for the successful holding of elections in Haiti, including voter registration, security,
logistics, civic education, observation, and detailed budget information. It urged Haitian
authorities to increase and accelerate efforts to prepare for and ensure the smooth conduct of the
elections, and called on international donors to provide the necessary resources to support the
electoral process.
Furthermore, the Council urged the Transitional Government to conduct thorough and
transparent investigations into cases of human rights violations. It also urged the Transitional
Government and MINUSTAH to begin immediately effective implementation of the
disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration programme, and called on all Member States to
provide timely financial, human, and technical resources in support of that programme.
9.4 Human Rights Violations Against Women and Girls in Haiti4
According to the National Coalition for Haitian Rights, violence against women is not
considered a serious offence by many Haitian women and men. This belief has led to a culture of
impunity and tolerance of gender-based violence, which is exacerbated by frequent episodes of
political unrest.
During the repeated episodes of political instability and upheaval, the rape of Haitian
women has been commonly used as a tactic to repress, frighten, and terrorise Haitian people,
regardless of their political affiliation.
The Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women reported in January 2000 that
women who suffered violence during the Cedras regime (1991-1994) have never received any
measure of justice for the crimes committed against them. In fact, many perpetrators continue to
mix in the communities with the women they violated.
4
http://www.womenwarpeace.org/haiti/haiti.htm
According to the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women who issue a report
on Haiti in January 2000, Haitian women suffer what is termed “structural violence,” meaning
that structural inequalities based on gender, vulnerability and poverty disparately impact Haitian
women and make them susceptible to physical violence and alienate them from various forms of
protection. The Special Rapporteur noted that her interlocutors “characterised Haiti as a
structurally violent society, in which violence against women manifests itself in all forms.”
Another of the Special Rapporteur’s interlocutors estimated that 90 per cent of Haitian women
experience gender-based violence in their lives.
Haitian women do not receive equal protection under the law. Harsher punishments are
meted out to female adulterers, and men who murder adulterous women can be excused by
judges. As is the case in so many countries, in the past, the courts have attributed more
importance to the rape of virgins.
Due to inadequate legal protections and institutional support for victims, violence against
women remains massively under-reported in Haiti. There are no state-run shelters for women
victims of violence in Haiti.
The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights reported in its February
2004 Flash Appeal for Haiti that in addition to the political and military violence, a sharp
increase in incidents of social violence, including rape and violent dispute resolution, is
occurring.
According to the Secretary-General's 18 November 2004 report to the Security Council

on MINUSTAH, there was an increase in reported cases of violence against women between
August and November 2004.
In January 2005, an independent delegation organised under the auspices of Let Haiti
Live: Coalition for a Just U.S. Policy, travelled to asses and report on the state of women’s rights
in Haiti. Their report included observations on the impact of violence, insecurity, economic
rights, and the judicial system on women. Their conclusions found that due to a general increase
in violence and insecurity, women in Haiti face challenges to their safety on many levels. Haitian
women have been increasingly marginalised in the informal sector, greatly reducing their ability
to maintain viable and safe livelihoods. The report indicated that there was a spike in the number
of politically motivated rapes in addition to an increase in women forced into vulnerable
situations involving exchanging sex for money.
The UN News Service reported on 25 February 2005 that a board of inquiry had begun its
investigation into a Haitian woman's accusation of rape by two civilian police officers (CIVPOL)
serving with the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti. The board was expected to
complete investigations within two weeks.
On 18 February 2005, a Gonaïves radio station reported that a young woman had been
raped by three MINUSTAH peacekeepers. By the 21st, MINUSTAH had investigated the
incident and aired its findings at a local press conference. A Refugees International report
suggested that while the rapid action of MINUSTAH was to be praised, there were still concerns
regarding MINUSTAH's ability to enforce the “zero tolerance” policy it had adopted. The report
cited the relationship between poverty and sexual exploitation, particularly among the most
vulnerable members of the Haitian population. Refugees International also noted a potential
conflict of interest within MINUSTAH, with the Gender Advisor also serving as the Focal Point
on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse.
Human rights investigators reported in March 2005 that among the growing number of
rape cases in Haiti, a large number were politically motivated. Women were targeted because
their relatives were suspected of being part of the political opposition. Marie Joseph, an attorney
for a human rights organisation said, “Rape is becoming a common tool of oppression.” The
report noted that the number of victims remained unclear because of the difficulty and security
risks involved in investigating allegations in the poorer neighborhoods where many attacks are
thought to have occurred.
In his 13 May 2005 report to the Security Council, the Secretary-General noted that
Women’s organisations have reported that 72 per cent of rape victims are minors and the
Transitional Government has been slow to investigate cases where national police are alleged to
have been involved.
According to an Emergency Situation Report, there was a high incidence of human rights
violations exemplified by “cases of arbitrary arrest, prolonged pre-trial detention, summary
executions, ill-treatment and torture of detainees, denial of justice, as well as a high incidence of
violence against women and children.”
The Secretary-General’s report of 6 October stated that armed gangs in Port-au-Prince

and Cité Soleil continue to use sexual assault, harassment, extortion, intimidation, torture, and
rape against residents in these areas. Also, “a joint nationwide awareness campaign against all
forms of violence against children, including sexual abuse and child prostitution, was launched
in collaboration with the Haitian Coalition for Child Rights.”
Summary of the Impact on Women

• 200 years of slavery
• History of political unrest, continuous foreign invasions, and
repressive dictatorships
• Bad relations with neighbours
• Worst humanitarian condition of western hemisphere
• Higher rate of HIV/AIDS in western hemisphere
• Human rights violation is not considered as a serious offence
• Violated or abused women never have access to justice
Thousands of women were raped during Cedras’s government
(1991-1994)
Exercise in Gender Analysis
List the differences and similarities between the situations in Rwanda and Haiti.
DIFFERENCES
RWANDA HAITI
SIMILARITIES
Possible Answers – Exercise in Gender Analysis
DIFFERENCES
RWANDA HAITI
Reports about Human Right Violations have been made
Reports about Human Rights Violations have been made mainly by UN investigators like the UN Special
mainly by NGO Human Right Watch or the Rwandan Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, the UN High
government. Trial Chamber of the Rwanda Tribunal. Commissioner for Human Rights, and the UN News
Service.
Sexual violence and rape carry enormous stigma for Violence against women is not considered a serious
victims. offence between women and men.
Perpetrators of sexual violence were mainly Hutu Perpetrators of sexual violence against women are
militia, government guards, soldiers, and child mainly military and policemen of opposite political
combatants during genocide. parties.
During repeated episodes of political instability, women
During genocide, Hutus intended to humiliate, harm, and
have been commonly uses as a tactic to repress, frighten,
ultimately destroy Tutsi groups, both mentally and
and terrorise people according to their political
physically.
affiliation.
Women suffer from tribal genocide violence. Women suffer from “structural violence.”
Most of the human right violations, such as cases of Most of the human right violations, such as cases of
rape, were motivated by begging and vagrancy. rape, were politically motivated.
The Trial Chamber of the Rwanda Tribunal was
A UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women
established to investigate genocide and human right
was established to investigate human rights violations.
violations.
Many Rwandan women were struggling for the basic

needs of their loved ones in a context of grinding Haitian women have been increasingly marginalised in
poverty and a high rate of HIV/AIDs, as well as being the informal sector, forced into vulnerable situations
forced into such vulnerable situations as begging and involving sex for money.
vagrancy, arrests, harrassment, and rape.
80% to 93% of girls (minors) have been victims of rape. 72% of victims of rape are minors.
UN peacekeepers involved in SEA not reported in this MINUSTAH peacekeepers have been involved in SEA
text. investigations.
Most of the human right violations were perpetrated by Most of the human rights violations are perpetrated by
Hutu tribal groups. government military, police, or guards.
The Trial Chamber of the Rwanda Tribunal declared that
rape is an instrument of genocide and is a crime against There is no definition of rape in international law.
humanity.
President and Minister of Women’s Development A campaign was launched to protect all forms of
reiterated Rwanda’s commitment to closely investigate violence against children, including SEA and child
rape and other forms of abuse. prostitution, by the Haitian coalition for Child Rights.
This mission includes a Gender Advisor serving as focal
There was not a Gender Advisor at this mission.
point on SEA.
The mission occurred twelve years ago. The mission is current.
SIMILARITIES
• Both are intra-states conflicts.

• Women do not receive equal protection under the law.
• Due to inadequate legal protection and institutional support, violence against women
remain massively under-reported.
• Domestic violence against women increased after conflict.
• Most of the raped cases are perpetrated against minors (70-93%).
• Human rights violations have been investigated by different organisations after conflict.
• There exists a commitment to continue investigating human rights violations against
women and girls.
LESSON 9
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The Haitian and Rwandan conflicts are:

a. Intra-state conflicts;
b. Tribal conflicts;
c. Political conflicts;
d. Gender-based conflicts.
2. In the Rwandan conflict, gender rights violation against women was considered by the Trial
Chamber of the Rwanda Tribunal as:
a. An instrument of genocide and a crime;
b. Legal under certain circumstances;
c. A weapon of war;
d. Gender-based violence.
3. In the Rwandan conflict, by October 1994, estimates suggested that out of a population of 7.9
million, at least _________ people had been killed, some _________ had fled to other
countries, and as many as 2 million people were internally displaced.
a. 200,000; 2 million
b. 500,000; 2 million
c. 500,000; 5 million
d. 2 million; 1 million
4. According to an interlocutor to the Special Rapporteur in 2000, what percentage of Haitian

women experienced gender-based violence in their lives?
a. 60%
b. 78%
c. 90%
d. 95%
5. During 2000, experts called Haitian violence against women as “structural violence.” Who
made this report?
a. Human Rights Watch;
b. UNIFEM;
c. UN Special Rapporteur;
d. UN News Service.
6. In the Haitian conflict, Resolution 1529 (2004) authorised the following:

a. A Multinational Interim Force to deploy troops immediately;
b. The establishment of a multinational stabilisation force;
c. The establishment of a Transitional Government;
d. The deployment of gender officers to monitor the treatment of women and children.
7. In the Rwandan conflict, Resolution 912 (1994) did the following:

a. Increased the number of UNAMIR troops from 270 to 2,548;
b. Established camps for Rwandan refugees through UNAMIR;
c. Decreased the number of UNAMIR troops from 2,548 to 270;
d. Set up HIV/AIDS test clinics in refugee camps.
8. Of those interviewed by Human Rights Watch in Rwanda, what percentage of the street girls
had been victims of rape?
a. 50-60%
b. 65-78%
c. 80-93%
d. 100%
9. Marie Joseph, an attorney for a human rights organisation, said, “Rape is becoming a
common tool of oppression.” This is based on the observation made in March 2005 that a
large number of the rape cases in Haiti were _________ motivated.
a. Economically
b. Religiously
c. Sexually
d. Politically
10. According to the Secretary-General’s report to the Security Council on 13 May 2005, what
percentage of rape victims were minors in Haiti?
a. 63%
b. 72%
c. 88%
d. 91%
ANSWER KEY:
1a, 2a, 3b, 4c, 5c, 6a, 7c, 8c, 9d, 10b
Appendix A / List of Acronyms 196
APPENDIX A: LIST OF ACRONYMS
Acronym Meaning
ACABQ Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ANME Asociación Nacional de Mujeres Españolas
CAC Contemporary Armed Conflict
CARICOM Caribbean Community
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
CIVPOL Civilian Police
CSW Commission on the Status of Women
DDRR Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reintegration and Rehabilitation
DDRRR Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reintegration, Rehabilitation, and Repatriation
DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
FALD Field Administration and Logistics Division
FGM Female Genital Mutilation
GA General Assembly
GBV Gender-Based Violence
GM Gender Mainstreaming
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HNP Haitian National Police
HR Human Rights
ICCPR Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
ICTs Information and Communication Technologies
IGO Inter-Governmental Organisation
INSTRAW International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women
IOM International Organisation for Migration
ISCSCR International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
LIC Low-intensity Conflict
MIF Multinational Interim Force
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
Appendix A / List of Acronyms 197
Acronym Meaning
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NMOG I Neutral Military Observer Group I
OAS Organisation of American States
OAU Organisation of African Unity
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
OHRM Office of Human Resources Management
OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services
OSAGI Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advance of the Woman
PCPB Post-Conflict Peace-Building
PKO Peacekeeping Operation
RPF Rwandese Patriotic Front
SADC South African Development Community
SC Security Council
SEA Sexual Exploitation and Abuse
SG Secretary-General
SGTM Standardised Generic Training Module
SRSG Special Representative to the Secretary-General
STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections
STM Standardised Training Module
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
UNPOL United Nations Police
UW Unconventional Warfare
WHO World Health Organisation
WMDs Weapons of Mass Destruction
Appendix B / List of UN Peacekeeping Operations 198
APPENDIX B: LIST OF UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic

MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala
MINURCA United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic
MINURSO* United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
MINUSTAH* United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti
MIPONUH United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti
MONUA United Nations Observer Mission in Angola
MONUC* United Nations Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
ONUB United Nations Operation in Burundi
ONUC United Nations Operation in the Congo
ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America
ONUMOZ United Nations Operation in Mozambique
ONUSAL United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador
UNAMA* United Nations Mission in Afghanistan
UNAMIC United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia
UNAMIR United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
UNAMSIL United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
UNASOG United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group
UNAVEM United Nations Angola Verification Mission
UNCRO United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation
UNDOF* United Nations Disengagement Observer Force
UNEF United Nations Emergency Force
UNFICYP* United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
UNGOMAP United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan
UNIFIL* United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
UNIIMOG United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group
UNIKOM United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission
UNIOSIL* United Nations Integrated Office in Sierra Leone
UNIPOM United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission
UNMEE* United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
UNMIH United Nations Mission in Haiti
UNMIK* United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo
UNMIL* United Nations Mission in Liberia
UNMIS* United Nations Mission in the Sudan
UNMISET United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor
UNMIT* United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste
UNMOGIP* United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan
UNMOP United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka
UNMOT United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan
UNOCI* United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire
Appendix B / List of UN Peacekeeping Operations 199
UNOGIL United Nations Observation Group In Lebanon

UNOMIG* United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia
UNOMIL United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia
UNOMSIL United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone
UNOMUR United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda
UNOSOM United Nations Operation in Somalia
UNOTIL* United Nations Office in Timor-Leste
UNPREDEP United Nations Preventive Deployment Force
UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force
UNPSG United Nations Civilian Police Support Group
UNSF United Nations Security Force in West New Guinea (West Irian)
UNSMIH United Nations Support Mission in Haiti
UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UNTAES United Nations Transitional Authority in Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, and Western Sirmium
UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
UNTAG United Nations Transition Assistance Group
UNTMIH United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti
UNTSO* United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation
UNYOM United Nations Yemen Observation Mission
* Ongoing operations, as of December 2006.
For more information on these operations, visit UNDPKO’s website at

http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/index.asp.
Appendix C / Armed Conflict Definitions 200
APPENDIX C: ARMED CONFLICT DEFINITIONS 1
NOTE: These definitions are taken from various sources within the UN system and academia as
applicable. They are not meant to represent universally accepted meaning of the terms but rather
form a basis of common understanding as related to the EWPM training workshops. These
definitions should be regarded as work in progress. Your comments are encouraged.
Armed Conflict denotes conflicts in which at least two parties resort to the use of force against
each other. It is difficult to define since a number of different thresholds and rules can be applied
for deciding which conflicts can be categorised as an armed conflict (Miall, Hugh/Ramsbotham,
Oliver/Woodhouse, Tom: Contemporary Conflict Resolution, Polity Press:Cambridge 1999,
pp.20).
Civil Society refers to the range of institutions, groups and associations, which represent diverse
interests and provide a counterweight to government (Stiftung Wissenschaft and Politik/Conflict
Prevention Network: Peace-Building & Conflict Prevention in Developing Countries: A practical
Guide, Draft Document, June 1999, p.40).
Conflict occurs naturally and takes place when two or more parties find their interests
incompatible, express hostile attitudes, or take action, which damages the other parties’ ability to
pursue those interests. (Stiftung Wissenschaft and Politik/Conflict Prevention Network: Peace-
Building & Conflict Prevention in Developing Countries: A Practical Guide, Draft Document,
June 1999, p.40). Conflict is not necessarily a negative thing and can be a stimulus for
addressing grievances. The key to dealing with conflict effectively and to prevent it from turning
violent, is to create appropriate mechanisms and institutions that ensure that needs and interests
are met in an equitable and peaceful fashion.
Conflict Management refers to actions undertaken with the main objective to prevent the
vertical (intensification of violence) or horizontal (territorial spread) escalation of existing
violent conflicts (Stiftung Wissenschaft and Politik / Conflict Prevention Network: Peace-
Building & Conflict Prevention in Developing Countries: A practical Guide, Draft Document,
June 1999, p.40).
Conflict Prevention in the context of the EWPM training relates to averting violent intra-state or
inter-state conflict: The Security Council recognises that early warning, preventive diplomacy,
preventive deployment, preventive disarmament and post-conflict peace–building are
interdependent and complementary components of a comprehensive conflict prevention strategy
(S/PRST/1999/34, 30 November 1999).
1
At: http://www.unssc.org/web1/programmes/ewpm/definitions.asp
Conflict Resolution is a more comprehensive term than conflict management, which implies
that the deep-rooted sources of conflict are addressed and resolved. This implies that the
behavior is no longer violent, attitudes are no longer hostile, and the structure of the conflict has
been changed (Miall, Hugh/ Ramsbothan, Oliver/Woodhouse, Tom: Contemporary Conflict
Resolution, Polity Press: Cambridge 1999, pp.20).
Early Warning is the process of collecting and analysing information for the purpose of
identifying and recommending strategic options for preventive measures prior to the outbreak of
violent conflict (Course Definition). For EWPM purposes, early warning is considered in the
longer term (2-3 year time frame before the outbreak of conflict or the onset of a crisis. Early
warning has three fundamental elements: information, analysis and a communications channel
that opens the way for taking appropriate preventive action (James Sutterlin: Early Warning and
Conflict Prevention: The Role of the United Nations, in: Van Walraven, Klaas (ed.); Early
warning and Conflict Prevention – Limitations and Possibilities, Kluwer Law International, The
Hague; London; Boston 1998,pp. 121-129).
Fact-Finding means any activity designed to obtain detailed knowledge of the relevant facts of
any dispute or situation which the competent United Nations organs need in order to exercise
effectively their functions in relation to the maintenance of international peace and security.
(Declaration on Fact-Finding by the United Nations in the Field of the Maintenance of
International Peace and Security, A/RES/46/59, 9 December 1991).
Negative Peace can be defined as the absence of war or direct physical violence. It is a condition
in which opposing groups are not engaged in violence (International Alert: Thinking about
Conflict – Resource Pack for Conflict Transformation, 1996, p.19).
Peace-Enforcement essentially refers to military action undertaken by the international

community under chapter VII of the UN Charter during a violent intra or interstate conflict in
order to force the parties to a dispute into compliance with international law and create the
necessary conditions for finding a peaceful settlement to a conflict. A mandate from the Security
Council authorising the use of force is essential if the enforcement operation is to have broad
international support and legitimacy (Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform,
A/51/950, 14 July 1997 at para.107).
Peacekeeping:
• Traditional Peacekeeping involves the deployment of military forces pursuant to a cease-
fire/peace settlement in order to monitor the implementation of the settlement. The core
operational principles include 1) consent of the parties, 2) impartiality and 3) the use of
force in self–defence only;
• Multidimensional Peacekeeping relates to the implementation of a comprehensive peace
agreement, involving military and police as well as a civilian tasks in the field of
governance, human rights, development and humanitarian assistance.
(Post-Conflict) Peace-Building (PCPB) is preventive action taken to inhibit the reoccurrence of

conflict comprised of activities and programmes that are aimed at creating conditions necessary
for a sustainable peace in war-torn societies. It is a holistic process involving broad-based
interagency cooperation across a wide range of issues such as demobilisation, reconciliation and
institution-building. It should be seen as part of an overall conflict prevention strategy and
therefore encompasses only those activities that are clearly targeted at the prevention of the
outbreak or recurrence of violent conflict and the consolidation of peace. (1999 Annual report on
the Work of the Organisation at para. 101; DPA Departmental Retreat on Post-Conflict Peace
Building, 9-11 December 1999 – Summary Report). See also Preventive Peace-Building.
Peacemaking refers to diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to agreement, essentially

through such peaceful means as those foreseen in Chapter VI. See also Preventive Peace-
Making.
Positive Peace includes the absence of direct physical violence and of indirect forms of harm
such as structural violence, but includes the presence of social values and institutions which
positively maintain a state of peace (International Alert: Resource Pack for Conflict
Transformation, 1996, p.19).
Preventive Action encompasses all UN activities and programmes that can have a useful effect
in preventing a potential conflict or crisis. It is the combination and application of a variety of
preventive measures that form a comprehensive preventive action. In addition to preventive
diplomacy, preventive action includes preventive deployment; preventive disarmament;
preventive humanitarian action; and preventive peace-building (1996 50th Anniversary Annual
Report on the Work of the Organisation at para.652, amended).
Preventive Deployment:
• Military: To prevent the threat or use of armed force, or to prevent the spread of existing
armed conflict to new areas, through pre-emptive positioning of peacemaking and
civilian police (CIVPOL) forces;
• Political: To prevent the threat or use of armed force, or to prevent the spread of existing
armed conflict to new areas, through pre-emptive positioning of political and/or human
rights observers (UN Staff College Typology and Survey of Preventive Measures, 20
May 1999).
Preventive Development refers to development strategies, programmes and projects that are
specifically geared towards the prevention of violent conflict:
• Social: To prevent the emergence of inter-group polarisation and hostilities within
society through the promotion of norms and practices of tolerance for plural social
identities;
• Economic: To prevent the sudden adverse effects of economic
crises/dislocation/transitions on the social stability of a country (UN Staff College
Typology and Survey of Preventive Measures, 20 May 1999).
Preventive Diplomacy is the use of diplomatic measures to prevent disputes from arising
between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread
of the latter when they occur. (An Agenda for Peace, 1992). Preventive diplomacy is not
restricted to officials. Private individuals as well as national and international civil society
organisations are playing an increasingly important role
Preventive Disarmament relates to action intended to reduce the number of small arms and
limit weapons in conflict-prone regions. Activities include curtailing the trafficking in small
arms and light weapons and demobilising combat forces as well as collecting and destroying
weapons as part of the implementation of a peace agreement in order to prevent their future use.
Preventive Humanitarian Action refers to the use of humanitarian tools to prevent the outbreak
or escalation of violent conflict:
• Refugees: To prevent the causes of forced migration with particular reference to support
for national protection capacity in potential or existing crisis situations;
• Relief: To prevent violent conflict from causing complex humanitarian emergencies and
to prevent the violation of humanitarian norms and principles (UN Staff College
Typology and Survey of Preventive Measures, 20 May 1999 – amended).
Preventive Measures are specific activities aimed at preventing violent conflict such as
diplomatic initiatives, preventive military deployment, human rights monitoring, S-G good
offices, etc.
Preventive Peace-Building refers to action taken to resolve the root causes of conflict as a
strategy to prevent the outbreak of violent conflict:
• Governance: To prevent the paralysis or breakdown of legitimate political institutions,
mechanisms and processes regulating the peaceful resolution of conflicts between State
organs as well as between the State and civil society;
• Human rights: To prevent the systematic violation of human rights, particularly with
regards to civil and political rights, as a means to prevent a conflict from escalating and
to promote and protect human rights in conflict situations;
• Social Stability: To prevent the polarisation of social relations between different groups
within a society, particularly between ethnic and religious groups and
minorities/majorities, from escalating into violent conflict;
• Economic: To prevent the impact of economic crises/dislocation/transitions from
contributing to political violence and the rise or recurrence of violent conflict, and to
prevent the development of war economies. (UN Staff College Typology and Survey of
Preventive Measures, 20 May 1999 – amended).
Preventive Peacemaking refers to action that is geared towards preventing violent conflict from
occurring or escalating by applying tools of peaceful conflict resolution:
• Preventive Diplomacy: To prevent the possible collapse of non violent modes of conflict
resolution, through the use of indirect and ad hoc diplomatic contacts;
• Consultations: To prevent the possible collapse of non violent modes of conflict
resolution, through the use of ad hoc missions to the conflict area;
• Good Offices/Mediation: To prevent the collapse of, or to re-establish a stable political
process and dialogue between contending conflict actors, by providing various forms of
direct third party facilitation (UN Staff College Typology and Survey of Preventive
Measures, 20 May 1999 – amended).
Protracted Social Conflict is characterised by the prolonged and often violent struggle by
communal groups for such basic needs as security, recognition and acceptance, fair access to
political institutions and economic participation (Edward Azar: The analysis and management of
protracted social conflict, in: Volkan, J./Montville, J./Julius, D. (eds.), The Psychodynamics’ of
International Relationships, Vol. II, Lesington, MA 1991, pp.93 – 120).
Proximate causes or immediate causes of conflict are those developments in which triggers for
violent conflict can occur (e.g. collapsing states, intensifying leadership struggles, changing
intrastate military balances, fast-paced development and modernisation).
Structural Causes or underlying causes of conflict are those long-term conditions that create
the situation for potential violent conflict (e.g. weak state structures, group inequalities,
economic exclusion).
Sustainable Peace: Sustainable development involves the institutionalisation of participatory

processes in order to provide civil and political rights to all peoples. The building blocks of
sustainable peace and security are well-functioning local, state, regional and international
systems of governance, which are responsive to basic human needs. (Connie Peck: Sustainable
Peace: The Role of the UN and Regional Organisations in Preventing Conflict, Carnegie
Commission on Preventing deadly Conflict Series, Lanham; Boulder; New York; Oxford 1998,
p.45).
Violent Conflict, or deadly conflict, is similar to armed conflict, but also includes one-sided
violence such as genocide or other gross human rights violations against unarmed civilians
(Miall, Hugh/Ramsbotham. Oliver/Woodhouse, Tom, eds: Contemporary Conflict Resolution,
Polity Press: Cambridge 1999, p 21).
ICRC DEFINITIONS2
Additional Protocols - complements to a treaty or body of international law. For example, the
original Geneva Conventions of 1949 were supplemented by two additional protocols in 1977.
Enslavement - a crime against humanity - the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to
the right of ownership over a person and includes the exercise of such power in the course of
trafficking in persons, in particular women and children.
Ethnic Cleansing - forcibly displacing or exterminating an ethnic population from a particular

area in order to assert the identity and power of another ethnic group.
Geneva Conventions - treaties signed in Geneva in 1949, which form the basis of modern
international humanitarian law. They concern: wounded and sick of armed forces, prisoners of
war and the civilian population.
Genocide - deliberate and systematic destruction of a racial, ethnic, religious or cultural group,
through killing, injuring, worsening of the conditions of life, prevention of births or transfer of
children.
Humanity - the International Red Cross and Red Crescent, born of a desire to bring assistance
without discrimination to the wounded and sick on the battlefield, endeavours, in its international
and national capacity, to prevent and alleviate human suffering wherever it may be found. Its
purpose is to protect life and health and to ensure respect for the human being. It promotes
mutual understanding, friendship, cooperation, and lasting peace among all peoples.
International Armed Conflict - fighting between the armed forces of at least two countries.
Non-international Armed Conflict - also called internal conflict or civil war. Fighting on the
territory of a State between the regular armed forces and identifiable armed groups, or between
armed groups fighting one another.
Sexual Violence - a particularly brutal crime to which women are all too frequently subjected in
wartime. It is a means of warfare when used to torture, injure, extract information, degrade,
intimidate and punish for actual or alleged deeds attributed to women or members of their
family.
Torture - the intentional infliction of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental.
2
At: http://www.redcross.ca/article.asp?id=005011&tid=006
Appendix D / General Assembly Millennium Declaration 206
APPENDIX D: GENERAL ASSEMBLY

MILLENNIUM DECLARATION
United Nations A/RES/55/2
Distr.: General
General Assembly 18 September 2000
Fifty-fifth session
Agenda item 60 (b)
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly

[without reference to a Main Committee (A/55/L.2)]
55/2. United Nations Millennium Declaration
The General Assembly

Adopts the following Declaration:
United Nations Millennium Declaration

I. Values and principles
1. We, heads of State and Government, have gathered at United Nations
Headquarters in New York from 6 to 8 September 2000, at the dawn of a
new millennium, to reaffirm our faith in the Organization and its Charter
as indispensable foundations of a more peaceful, prosperous and just
world.
2. We recognize that, in addition to our separate responsibilities to our
individual societies, we have a collective responsibility to uphold the
principles of human dignity, equality and equity at the global level. As
leaders we have a duty therefore to all the world’s people, especially the
most vulnerable and, in particular, the children of the world, to whom the
future belongs.
3. We reaffirm our commitment to the purposes and principles of the
Charter of the United Nations, which have proved timeless and universal.
Indeed, their relevance and capacity to inspire have increased, as nations
and peoples have become increasingly interconnected and
interdependent.
4. We are determined to establish a just and lasting peace all over the world
in accordance with the purposes and principles of the Charter. We
rededicate ourselves to support all efforts to uphold the sovereign
equality of all States, respect for their territorial integrity and political
independence, resolution of disputes by peaceful means and in
conformity with the principles of justice and international law, the right
to self-determination of peoples which remain under colonial domination
and foreign occupation, non-interference in the internal affairs of States,
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, respect for the equal
rights of all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion and
international cooperation in solving international problems of an
economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character.
5. We believe that the central challenge we face today is to ensure that
globalization becomes a positive force for all the world’s people. For
while globalization offers great opportunities, at present its benefits are
very unevenly shared, while its costs are unevenly distributed. We
recognize that developing countries and countries with economies in
transition face special difficulties in responding to this central challenge.
Thus, only through broad and sustained efforts to create a shared future,
based upon our common humanity in all its diversity, can globalization
be made fully inclusive and equitable. These efforts must include
policies and measures, at the global level, which correspond to the needs
of developing countries and economies in transition and are formulated
and implemented with their effective participation.
6. We consider certain fundamental values to be essential to international
relations in the twenty-first century. These include:
• Freedom. Men and women have the right to live their lives and raise
their children in dignity, free from hunger and from the fear of violence,
oppression or injustice. Democratic and participatory governance based
on the will of the people best assures these rights.
• Equality. No individual and no nation must be denied the opportunity to
benefit from development. The equal rights and opportunities of women
and men must be assured.
• Solidarity. Global challenges must be managed in a way that distributes
the costs and burdens fairly in accordance with basic principles of equity
and social justice. Those who suffer or who benefit least deserve help
from those who benefit most.
• Tolerance. Human beings must respect one other, in all their diversity of
belief, culture and language. Differences within and between societies
should be neither feared nor repressed, but cherished as a precious asset
of humanity. A culture of peace and dialogue among all civilizations
should be actively promoted.
• Respect for nature. Prudence must be shown in the management of all
living species and natural resources, in accordance with the precepts of
sustainable development. Only in this way can the immeasurable riches
provided to us by nature be preserved and passed on to our descendants.
The current unsustainable patterns of production and consumption must
be changed in the interest of our future welfare and that of our
descendants.
• Shared responsibility. Responsibility for managing worldwide

economic and social development, as well as threats to international
peace and security, must be shared among the nations of the world and
should be exercised multilaterally. As the most universal and most
representative organization in the world, the United Nations must play
the central role.
7. In order to translate these shared values into actions, we have identified
key objectives to which we assign special significance.
II. Peace, security and disarmament

8. We will spare no effort to free our peoples from the scourge of war,
whether within or between States, which has claimed more than 5 million
lives in the past decade. We will also seek to eliminate the dangers posed
by weapons of mass destruction.
9. We resolve therefore:
• To strengthen respect for the rule of law in international as in national
affairs and, in particular, to ensure compliance by Member States with
the decisions of the International Court of Justice, in compliance with the
Charter of the United Nations, in cases to which they are parties.
• To make the United Nations more effective in maintaining peace and
security by giving it the resources and tools it needs for conflict
prevention, peaceful resolution of disputes, peacekeeping, post-conflict
peace-building and reconstruction. In this context, we take note of the
report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations1 and request the
General Assembly to consider its recommendations expeditiously.
• To strengthen cooperation between the United Nations and regional
organizations, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter VIII of the
Charter.
• To ensure the implementation, by States Parties, of treaties in areas such
as arms control and disarmament and of international humanitarian law
and human rights law, and call upon all States to consider signing and
ratifying the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.2
• To take concerted action against international terrorism, and to accede as
soon as possible to all the relevant international conventions.
• To redouble our efforts to implement our commitment to counter the
world drug problem.
• To intensify our efforts to fight transnational crime in all its dimensions,
including trafficking as well as smuggling in human beings and money
laundering.
• To minimize the adverse effects of United Nations economic sanctions
on innocent populations, to subject such sanctions regimes to regular
reviews and to eliminate the adverse effects of sanctions on third parties.
1
A/55/305-S/2000/809; see Official Records of the Security Council, Fifty-fifth Year, Supplement for
July, August and September 2000, document S/2000/809.
2
A/CONF.183/9.
• To strive for the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, particularly

nuclear weapons, and to keep all options open for achieving this aim,
including the possibility of convening an international conference to
identify ways of eliminating nuclear dangers.
• To take concerted action to end illicit traffic in small arms and light
weapons, especially by making arms transfers more transparent and
supporting regional disarmament measures, taking account of all the
recommendations of the forthcoming United Nations Conference on
Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons.
• To call on all States to consider acceding to the Convention on the
Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-
personnel Mines and on Their Destruction,3 as well as the amended
mines protocol to the Convention on conventional weapons.4
10. We urge Member States to observe the Olympic Truce, individually and
collectively, now and in the future, and to support the International
Olympic Committee in its efforts to promote peace and human
understanding through sport and the Olympic Ideal.
III. Development and poverty eradication

11. We will spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from
the abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, to which
more than a billion of them are currently subjected. We are committed to
making the right to development a reality for everyone and to freeing the
entire human race from want.
12. We resolve therefore to create an environment – at the national and
global levels alike – which is conducive to development and to the
elimination of poverty.
13. Success in meeting these objectives depends, inter alia, on good
governance within each country. It also depends on good governance at
the international level and on transparency in the financial, monetary and
trading systems. We are committed to an open, equitable, rule-based,
predictable and non-discriminatory multilateral trading and financial
system.
14. We are concerned about the obstacles developing countries face in
mobilizing the resources needed to finance their sustained development.
We will therefore make every effort to ensure the success of the High-
level International and Intergovernmental Event on Financing for
Development, to be held in 2001.
15. We also undertake to address the special needs of the least developed
countries. In this context, we welcome the Third United Nations
Conference on the Least Developed Countries to be held in May 2001
and will endeavour to ensure its success. We call on the industrialized
countries:
3
See CD/1478.
4
Amended protocol on prohibitions or restrictions on the use of mines, booby-traps and other devices
(CCW/CONF.I/16 (Part I), annex B).
• To adopt, preferably by the time of that Conference, a policy of duty- and

quota-free access for essentially all exports from the least developed
countries;
• To implement the enhanced programme of debt relief for the heavily
indebted poor countries without further delay and to agree to cancel all
official bilateral debts of those countries in return for their making
demonstrable commitments to poverty reduction; and
• To grant more generous development assistance, especially to countries
that are genuinely making an effort to apply their resources to poverty
reduction.
16. We are also determined to deal comprehensively and effectively with the
debt problems of low- and middle-income developing countries, through
various national and international measures designed to make their debt
sustainable in the long term.
17. We also resolve to address the special needs of small island developing
States, by implementing the Barbados Programme of Action5 and the
outcome of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly
rapidly and in full. We urge the international community to ensure that,
in the development of a vulnerability index, the special needs of small
island developing States are taken into account.
18. We recognize the special needs and problems of the landlocked
developing countries, and urge both bilateral and multilateral donors to
increase financial and technical assistance to this group of countries to
meet their special development needs and to help them overcome the
impediments of geography by improving their transit transport systems.
19. We resolve further:
• To halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose
income is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who
suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the proportion of
people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.
• To ensure that, by the same date, children everywhere, boys and girls
alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling and that
girls and boys will have equal access to all levels of education.
• By the same date, to have reduced maternal mortality by three quarters,
and under-five child mortality by two thirds, of their current rates.
• To have, by then, halted, and begun to reverse, the spread of HIV/AIDS,
the scourge of malaria and other major diseases that afflict humanity.
• To provide special assistance to children orphaned by HIV/AIDS.
• By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at
least 100 million slum dwellers as proposed in the “Cities Without
Slums” initiative.
20. We also resolve:
5
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (Report of
the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States,
Bridgetown, Barbados, 25 April-6May 1994 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.I.18 and
corrigenda), chap. I, resolution 1, annex II).
• To promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective

ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate
development that is truly sustainable.
• To develop and implement strategies that give young people everywhere
a real chance to find decent and productive work.
• To encourage the pharmaceutical industry to make essential drugs more
widely available and affordable by all who need them in developing
countries.
• To develop strong partnerships with the private sector and with civil
society organizations in pursuit of development and poverty eradication.
• To ensure that the benefits of new technologies, especially information
and communication technologies, in conformity with recommendations
contained in the ECOSOC 2000 Ministerial Declaration,6 are available to
all.
IV. Protecting our common environment

21. We must spare no effort to free all of humanity, and above all our
children and grandchildren, from the threat of living on a planet
irredeemably spoilt by human activities, and whose resources would no
longer be sufficient for their needs.
22. We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development,
including those set out in Agenda 21,7 agreed upon at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development.
23. We resolve therefore to adopt in all our environmental actions a new
ethic of conservation and stewardship and, as first steps, we resolve:
• To make every effort to ensure the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol,
preferably by the tenth anniversary of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development in 2002, and to embark on the required
reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases.
• To intensify our collective efforts for the management, conservation and
sustainable development of all types of forests.
• To press for the full implementation of the Convention on Biological
Diversity8 and the Convention to Combat Desertification in those
Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification,
particularly in Africa.9
• To stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing
water management strategies at the regional, national and local levels,
which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies.
6
E/2000/L.9.
7
Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June
1992 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigenda), vol. I: Resolutions adopted by
the Conference, resolution 1, annex II.
8
See United Nations Environment Programme, Convention on Biological Diversity (Environmental
Law and Institution Programme Activity Centre), June 1992.
9
A/49/84/Add.2, annex, appendix II.
• To intensify cooperation to reduce the number and effects of natural and

man-made disasters.
• To ensure free access to information on the human genome sequence.
V. Human rights, democracy and good governance

24. We will spare no effort to promote democracy and strengthen the rule of
law, as well as respect for all internationally recognized human rights
and fundamental freedoms, including the right to development.
• To respect fully and uphold the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.10
• To strive for the full protection and promotion in all our countries of
civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights for all.
• To strengthen the capacity of all our countries to implement the
principles and practices of democracy and respect for human rights,
including minority rights.
• To combat all forms of violence against women and to implement the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women.11
• To take measures to ensure respect for and protection of the human rights
of migrants, migrant workers and their families, to eliminate the
increasing acts of racism and xenophobia in many societies and to
promote greater harmony and tolerance in all societies.
• To work collectively for more inclusive political processes, allowing
genuine participation by all citizens in all our countries.
• To ensure the freedom of the media to perform their essential role and
the right of the public to have access to information.
VI. Protecting the vulnerable

26. We will spare no effort to ensure that children and all civilian
populations that suffer disproportionately the consequences of natural
disasters, genocide, armed conflicts and other humanitarian emergencies
are given every assistance and protection so that they can resume normal
life as soon as possible.
We resolve therefore:
• To expand and strengthen the protection of civilians in complex
emergencies, in conformity with international humanitarian law.
• To strengthen international cooperation, including burden sharing in, and
the coordination of humanitarian assistance to, countries hosting refugees
and to help all refugees and displaced persons to return voluntarily to
their homes, in safety and dignity and to be smoothly reintegrated into
their societies.
10
Resolution 217 A (III).
11
Resolution 34/180, annex.
• To encourage the ratification and full implementation of the Convention

on the Rights of the Child12 and its optional protocols on the involvement
of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child
prostitution and child pornography.13
VII. Meeting the special needs of Africa

27. We will support the consolidation of democracy in Africa and assist
Africans in their struggle for lasting peace, poverty eradication and
sustainable development, thereby bringing Africa into the mainstream of
the world economy.
• To give full support to the political and institutional structures of
emerging democracies in Africa.
• To encourage and sustain regional and subregional mechanisms for
preventing conflict and promoting political stability, and to ensure a
reliable flow of resources for peacekeeping operations on the continent.
• To take special measures to address the challenges of poverty eradication
and sustainable development in Africa, including debt cancellation,
improved market access, enhanced Official Development Assistance and
increased flows of Foreign Direct Investment, as well as transfers of
technology.
• To help Africa build up its capacity to tackle the spread of the HIV/AIDS
pandemic and other infectious diseases.
VIII. Strengthening the United Nations

29. We will spare no effort to make the United Nations a more effective
instrument for pursuing all of these priorities: the fight for development
for all the peoples of the world, the fight against poverty, ignorance and
disease; the fight against injustice; the fight against violence, terror and
crime; and the fight against the degradation and destruction of our
common home.
• To reaffirm the central position of the General Assembly as the chief
deliberative, policy-making and representative organ of the United
Nations, and to enable it to play that role effectively.
• To intensify our efforts to achieve a comprehensive reform of the
Security Council in all its aspects.
• To strengthen further the Economic and Social Council, building on its
recent achievements, to help it fulfil the role ascribed to it in the Charter.
• To strengthen the International Court of Justice, in order to ensure justice
and the rule of law in international affairs.
• To encourage regular consultations and coordination among the principal
organs of the United Nations in pursuit of their functions.
12
13
Resolution 54/263, annexes I and II.
• To ensure that the Organization is provided on a timely and predictable

basis with the resources it needs to carry out its mandates.
• To urge the Secretariat to make the best use of those resources, in
accordance with clear rules and procedures agreed by the General
Assembly, in the interests of all Member States, by adopting the best
management practices and technologies available and by concentrating
on those tasks that reflect the agreed priorities of Member States.
• To promote adherence to the Convention on the Safety of United Nations
and Associated Personnel.14
• To ensure greater policy coherence and better cooperation between the
United Nations, its agencies, the Bretton Woods Institutions and the
World Trade Organization, as well as other multilateral bodies, with a
view to achieving a fully coordinated approach to the problems of peace
and development.
• To strengthen further cooperation between the United Nations and
national parliaments through their world organization, the Inter-
Parliamentary Union, in various fields, including peace and security,
economic and social development, international law and human rights
and democracy and gender issues.
• To give greater opportunities to the private sector, non-governmental
organizations and civil society, in general, to contribute to the realization
of the Organization’s goals and programmes.
31. We request the General Assembly to review on a regular basis the
progress made in implementing the provisions of this Declaration, and
ask the Secretary-General to issue periodic reports for consideration by
the General Assembly and as a basis for further action.
32. We solemnly reaffirm, on this historic occasion, that the United Nations
is the indispensable common house of the entire human family, through
which we will seek to realize our universal aspirations for peace,
cooperation and development. We therefore pledge our unstinting
support for these common objectives and our determination to achieve
them.
8th plenary meeting

8 September 2000
14
Appendix E / Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) 215
APPENDIX E: SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION 1325
United Nations S/RES/1325 (2000)

Security Council Distr.: General
31 October 2000
Resolution 1325 (2000)

Adopted by the Security Council at its 4213th meeting, on
31 October 2000
The Security Council,

Recalling its resolutions 1261 (1999) of 25 August 1999, 1265 (1999) of
17 September 1999, 1296 (2000) of 19 April 2000 and 1314 (2000) of 11
August 2000, as well as relevant statements of its President, and recalling also
the statement of its President to the press on the occasion of the United
Nations Day for Women’s Rights and International Peace (International
Women’s Day) of 8 March 2000 (SC/6816),
Recalling also the commitments of the Beijing Declaration and Platform
for Action (A/52/231) as well as those contained in the outcome document of
the twenty-third Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly
entitled “Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the
Twenty-First Century” (A/S-23/10/Rev.1), in particular those concerning
women and armed conflict,
Bearing in mind the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United
Nations and the primary responsibility of the Security Council under the
Charter for the maintenance of international peace and security,
Expressing concern that civilians, particularly women and children,
account for the vast majority of those adversely affected by armed conflict,
including as refugees and internally displaced persons, and increasingly are
targeted by combatants and armed elements, and recognizing the consequent
impact this has on durable peace and reconciliation,
Reaffirming the important role of women in the prevention and resolution
of conflicts and in peace-building, and stressing the importance of their equal
participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and
promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in
decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution,
Reaffirming also the need to implement fully international humanitarian

and human rights law that protects the rights of women and girls during and
after conflicts,
Emphasizing the need for all parties to ensure that mine clearance and
mine awareness programmes take into account the special needs of women and
girls,
Recognizing the urgent need to mainstream a gender perspective into
peacekeeping operations, and in this regard noting the Windhoek Declaration
and the Namibia Plan of Action on Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in
Multidimensional Peace Support Operations (S/2000/693),
Recognizing also the importance of the recommendation contained in the
statement of its President to the press of 8 March 2000 for specialized training
for all peacekeeping personnel on the protection, special needs and human
rights of women and children in conflict situations,
Recognizing that an understanding of the impact of armed conflict on
women and girls, effective institutional arrangements to guarantee their
protection and full participation in the peace process can significantly
contribute to the maintenance and promotion of international peace and
security,
Noting the need to consolidate data on the impact of armed conflict on
women and girls,
1. Urges Member States to ensure increased representation of women
at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions
and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict;
2. Encourages the Secretary-General to implement his strategic plan
of action (A/49/587) calling for an increase in the participation of women at
decision-making levels in conflict resolution and peace processes;
3. Urges the Secretary-General to appoint more women as special
representatives and envoys to pursue good offices on his behalf, and in this
regard calls on Member States to provide candidates to the Secretary-General,
for inclusion in a regularly updated centralized roster;
4. Further urges the Secretary-General to seek to expand the role and
contribution of women in United Nations field-based operations, and
especially among military observers, civilian police, human rights and
humanitarian personnel;
5. Expresses its willingness to incorporate a gender perspective into
peacekeeping operations, and urges the Secretary-General to ensure that,
where appropriate, field operations include a gender component;
6. Requests the Secretary-General to provide to Member States
training guidelines and materials on the protection, rights and the particular
needs of women, as well as on the importance of involving women in all
peacekeeping and peace-building measures, invites Member States to
incorporate these elements as well as HIV/AIDS awareness training into their
national training programmes for military and civilian police personnel in
preparation for deployment, and further requests the Secretary-General to
ensure that civilian personnel of peacekeeping operations receive similar
training;
7. Urges Member States to increase their voluntary financial,

technical and logistical support for gender-sensitive training efforts, including
those undertaken by relevant funds and programmes, inter alia, the United
Nations Fund for Women and United Nations Children’s Fund, and by the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and other
relevant bodies;
8. Calls on all actors involved, when negotiating and implementing
peace agreements, to adopt a gender perspective, including, inter alia:
(a) The special needs of women and girls during repatriation and
resettlement and for rehabilitation, reintegration and post-conflict
reconstruction;
(b) Measures that support local women’s peace initiatives and
indigenous processes for conflict resolution, and that involve women in all of
the implementation mechanisms of the peace agreements;
(c) Measures that ensure the protection of and respect for human rights
of women and girls, particularly as they relate to the constitution, the electoral
system, the police and the judiciary;
9. Calls upon all parties to armed conflict to respect fully
international law applicable to the rights and protection of women and girls,
especially as civilians, in particular the obligations applicable to them under
the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Additional Protocols thereto of 1977,
the Refugee Convention of 1951 and the Protocol thereto of 1967, the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
of 1979 and the Optional Protocol thereto of 1999 and the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child of 1989 and the two Optional Protocols
thereto of 25 May 2000, and to bear in mind the relevant provisions of the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court;
10. Calls on all parties to armed conflict to take special measures to
protect women and girls from gender-based violence, particularly rape and
other forms of sexual abuse, and all other forms of violence in situations of
armed conflict;
11. Emphasizes the responsibility of all States to put an end to impunity
and to prosecute those responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity, and
war crimes including those relating to sexual and other violence against
women and girls, and in this regard stresses the need to exclude these crimes,
where feasible from amnesty provisions;
12. Calls upon all parties to armed conflict to respect the civilian and
humanitarian character of refugee camps and settlements, and to take into
account the particular needs of women and girls, including in their design, and
recalls its resolutions 1208 (1998) of 19 November 1998 and 1296 (2000) of
19 April 2000;
13. Encourages all those involved in the planning for disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration to consider the different needs of female and
male ex-combatants and to take into account the needs of their dependants;
14. Reaffirms its readiness, whenever measures are adopted under
Article 41 of the Charter of the United Nations, to give consideration to their
potential impact on the civilian population, bearing in mind the special needs
of women and girls, in order to consider appropriate humanitarian exemptions;
15. Expresses its willingness to ensure that Security Council missions

take into account gender considerations and the rights of women, including
through consultation with local and international women’s groups;
16. Invites the Secretary-General to carry out a study on the impact of
armed conflict on women and girls, the role of women in peace-building and
the gender dimensions of peace processes and conflict resolution, and further
invites him to submit a report to the Security Council on the results of this
study and to make this available to all Member States of the United Nations;
17. Requests the Secretary-General, where appropriate, to include in his
reporting to the Security Council progress on gender mainstreaming
throughout peacekeeping missions and all other aspects relating to women and
girls;
18. Decides to remain actively seized of the matter.
Appendix F / The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 219
APPENDIX F: THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF

HUMAN RIGHTS
Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948
On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and
proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the full text of which appears in the
following pages. Following this historic act the Assembly called upon all Member countries to
publicise the text of the Declaration and “to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and
expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on
the political status of countries or territories.”
PREAMBLE
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which
have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human
beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been
proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to

rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the
rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal
rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better
standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the
United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights
and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest

importance for the full realisation of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL

DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples
and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this
Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for
these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their
universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States
themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status
of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust,
non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or

punishment.
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in
violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts
violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and
impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal
charge against him.
Article 11
(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until
proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees
necessary for his defence.
(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission
which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time
when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was
applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or
correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to
the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of
each state.
(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
Article 14
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution.
(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-
political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15
(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change
his nationality.
Article 16
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion,
have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to
marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses.
(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State.
Article 17
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice,
worship and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom
to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21
(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall
be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal
suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to
realisation, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with
the organisation and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights
indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 23
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if
necessary, by other means of social protection.
(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25
(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control.
(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children,
whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary
and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and
shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their
children.
Article 27
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to
enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting
from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms
set forth in this Declaration can be fully realised.
Article 29
(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development
of his personality is possible.
(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such
limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition
and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of
morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
(3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and
principles of the United Nations.
Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person
any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any
of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
Appendix G / Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse 225
APPENDIX G: SECRETARY-GENERAL’S BULLETIN ON

SEXUAL EXPLOITATION AND ABUSE
United Nations ST/SGB/2003/13

Secretariat 9 October 2003
Secretary-General’s Bulletin
Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and
sexual abuse
The Secretary-General, for the purpose of preventing and addressing
cases of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse, and taking into consideration
General Assembly resolution 57/306 of 15 April 2003, “Investigation into
sexual exploitation of refugees by aid workers in West Africa”, promulgates
the following in consultation with Executive Heads of separately administered
organs and programmes of the United Nations:
Section 1
Definitions
For the purposes of the present bulletin, the term “sexual exploitation”
means any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential
power, or trust, for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting
monetarily, socially or politically from the sexual exploitation of another.
Similarly, the term “sexual abuse” means the actual or threatened physical
intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive
conditions.
Section 2
Scope of application
2.1 The present bulletin shall apply to all staff of the United Nations,
including staff of separately administered organs and programmes of the
United Nations.
2.2 United Nations forces conducting operations under United Nations
command and control are prohibited from committing acts of sexual
exploitation and sexual abuse, and have a particular duty of care towards
women and children, pursuant to section 7 of Secretary-General’s bulletin
ST/SGB/1999/13, entitled “Observance by United Nations forces of
international humanitarian law”.
2.3 Secretary-General’s bulletin ST/SGB/253, entitled “Promotion of equal

treatment of men and women in the Secretariat and prevention of sexual
harassment”, and the related administrative instruction1 set forth policies and
procedures for handling cases of sexual harassment in the Secretariat of the
United Nations. Separately administered organs and programmes of the United
Nations have promulgated similar policies and procedures.
Section 3
Prohibition of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse
3.1 Sexual exploitation and sexual abuse violate universally recognized
international legal norms and standards and have always been unacceptable
behaviour and prohibited conduct for United Nations staff. Such conduct is
prohibited by the United Nations Staff Regulations and Rules.
3.2 In order to further protect the most vulnerable populations, especially
women and children, the following specific standards which reiterate existing
general obligations under the United Nations Staff Regulations and Rules, are
promulgated:
(a) Sexual exploitation and sexual abuse constitute acts of serious
misconduct and are therefore grounds for disciplinary measures, including
summary dismissal;
(b) Sexual activity with children (persons under the age of 18) is
prohibited regardless of the age of majority or age of consent locally. Mistaken
belief in the age of a child is not a defence;
(c) Exchange of money, employment, goods or services for sex,
including sexual favours or other forms of humiliating, degrading or
exploitative behaviour, is prohibited. This includes any exchange of assistance
that is due to beneficiaries of assistance;
(d) Sexual relationships between United Nations staff and beneficiaries
of assistance, since they are based on inherently unequal power dynamics,
undermine the credibility and integrity of the work of the United Nations and
are strongly discouraged;
(e) Where a United Nations staff member develops concerns or
suspicions regarding sexual exploitation or sexual abuse by a fellow worker,
whether in the same agency or not and whether or not within the United
Nations system, he or she must report such concerns via established reporting
mechanisms;
(f) United Nations staff are obliged to create and maintain an
environment that prevents sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. Managers at
all levels have a particular responsibility to support and develop systems that
maintain this environment.
3.3 The standards set out above are not intended to be an exhaustive list.
Other types of sexually exploitive or sexually abusive behaviour may be
grounds for administrative action or disciplinary measures, including summary
dismissal, pursuant to the United Nations Staff Regulations and Rules.
1
Currently ST/AI/379, entitled “Procedures for dealing with sexual harassment”.
Section 4
Duties of Heads of Departments, Offices and Missions
4.1 The Head of Department, Office or Mission, as appropriate, shall be
responsible for creating and maintaining an environment that prevents sexual
exploitation and sexual abuse, and shall take appropriate measures for this
purpose. In particular, the Head of Department, Office or Mission shall inform
his or her staff of the contents of the present bulletin and ascertain that each staff
member receives a copy thereof.
4.2 The Head of Department, Office or Mission shall be responsible for
taking appropriate action in cases where there is reason to believe that any of
the standards listed in section 3.2 above have been violated or any behaviour
referred to in section 3.3 above has occurred. This action shall be taken in
accordance with established rules and procedures for dealing with cases of
staff misconduct.
4.3 The Head of Department, Office or Mission shall appoint an official, at a
sufficiently high level, to serve as a focal point for receiving reports on cases
of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. With respect to Missions, the staff of
the Mission and the local population shall be properly informed of the
existence and role of the focal point and of how to contact him or her. All
reports of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse shall be handled in a
confidential manner in order to protect the rights of all involved. However,
such reports may be used, where necessary, for action taken pursuant to
section 4.2 above.
4.4 The Head of Department, Office or Mission shall not apply the standard
prescribed in section 3.2 (b), where a staff member is legally married to
someone under the age of 18 but over the age of majority or consent in their
country of citizenship.
4.5 The Head of Department, Office or Mission may use his or her discretion
in applying the standard prescribed in section 3.2 (d), where beneficiaries of
assistance are over the age of 18 and the circumstances of the case justify an
exception.
4.6 The Head of Department, Office or Mission shall promptly inform the
Department of Management of its investigations into cases of sexual
exploitation and sexual abuse, and the actions it has taken as a result of such
investigations.
Section 5
Referral to national authorities
If, after proper investigation, there is evidence to support allegations of
sexual exploitation or sexual abuse, these cases may, upon consultation with
the Office of Legal Affairs, be referred to national authorities for criminal
prosecution.
Section 6
Cooperative arrangements with non-United Nations entities or individuals
6.1 When entering into cooperative arrangements with non-United Nations
entities or individuals, relevant United Nations officials shall inform those
entities or individuals of the standards of conduct listed in section 3, and shall
receive a written undertaking from those entities or individuals that they
accept these standards.
6.2 The failure of those entities or individuals to take preventive measures

against sexual exploitation or sexual abuse, to investigate allegations thereof,
or to take corrective action when sexual exploitation or sexual abuse has
occurred, shall constitute grounds for termination of any cooperative
arrangement with the United Nations.
Section 7
Entry into force
The present bulletin shall enter into force on 15 October 2003.
(Signed) Kofi A. Annan

Secretary-General
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Commission on the Status of Women (CSW). http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
ECOSOC Agreement. Mainstreaming the gender perspective into all policies and programmes in
the United Nations System. Report of the Secretary-General.
Follow up to Beijing Conference.

http://www.un.org/spanish/conferences/Beijing/fs5.htmhttp://www.peacewomen.org/un/women/
unwomenpeacedocs.html#18
Full text of Women, Peace and Security.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/eWPS.pdf
The Millenium Statement. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
The DPKO. http://www.un.org.Depts/dpko
The Division for the Advance of Women, CEDAW.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/36sess.htm
The Office of the Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues and Advancement
of Women. http://www.un.org/osagi
The United Nations Charter. http://www.un.org.
The Windhoek Declaration: [on the 10th Anniversary of the United Nations Transitional
Assistance Group (UNTAG)] The Namibia Plan of Action On ‘Mainstreaming a Gender
Perspective In Multidimensional Peace Support Operations’ Windhoek, Namibia, 31 May 2000.
http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/WindhoekDeclaration.html
The Windhoek Declaration Full Text.

OCHAS’s Gender Equality. http://www.ochaonline.un.org
Secretary-General Reports to Security Council (2001).

http://www.un.org/spanish/docs/report01/repl01.htm
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security.
http://www.peacewomen.org/un/sc/1325.html#Full
United Nations General Assembly Special Session. “Women 2000: Gender Equality,
Development and Peace for the Twenty-first Century.” New York, 5-9 June 2000.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/session/presskit/gasp.htm
United Nations Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch
United Nations Development Fund for Women. http://www.unifem.org/
United Nations Development Fund for Women. http://www.unifem.org/
UN Millenium Development Goals. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325: History & Analysis.

http://www.peacewomen.org/un/un1325/1325index.html
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.

http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/SCrescompilation.html#Themes#Themes
Women, Peace and Security. http://www.womenwarpeace.org
LESSON 6
Books
Rehn, E. and E. Johnson. War and Peace. (2002), New York: UNIFEM. UN Publications.
Women, Peace and Security. (2002), New York. UN Publications
Moser, C. and F. Clark. Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political
Violence. (2001) London: Zed Books.
Addressing the Needs of Women Affected by Armed Conflict: An ICRC Guidance Document.
http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/section_ihl_women_and_war

Amnesty International. Broken Lives. http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/eslact770752004

Amnesty USA. Violence Against Women in Armed Conflicts.

http://www.amnestyusa.org/spanish/nomasviolencia/temas/conflictoarmado.html
Bemjamin, J. and L. Murchinson. Gender-Based Violence. Care & Protection of Children in

Emergencies. http://ww.savethechildren.or/publications/Gender_Based_Violence_Final.pdf
Broken Lives. No more Violence against Women.

http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/eslact770752004
Combating Gender Based Violence. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/aboutosagi.htm
International Review of the Red Cross. Towards a single definition of armed conflict in
international humanitarian law: A critique of internationalized armed conflict.
http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList99/257D44C32005B3A8C1256D7400297427
Lodge, T. Towards an understanding of Contemporary Armed Conflict in Africa.

http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No36/ArmedConflict.html
FAO. Emergencias Alimentarias en los Conflictos Armados.

http://www.fao.org/newsroom/es/news/2005/102562/indexhtml
Gender and the HIV Epidemic. Dying of Sadness: Gender, Sexual Violence and the HIV
Epidemic. http://www.undp.org/hiv/publications/gender/violencee.htm
Gender Content of the Security Council’s Resolutions (Historical).

http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/SCrescompilation.html#Themes
Gender and Peacekeeping News. http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/pknews.html
Human Development Indicators 2003. Gender Related development Index.

http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/indicator/indic_197_1_1.html
NATO Policy On Gender Related Issues In Deployment.

http://www. Gender/conflict resolution/peacebuilding/deployment/NATO/Military
Our Bodies - Their Battle Ground: Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones. IRIN Web Special
on violence against women and girls during and after conflict.
http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/gbv/
Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response. Published to Promote the Goals
of the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action. April 1998.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2apr98.htm#part2
Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response. United Nations. Division for
the. Advancement of Women.Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm.
http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm
Statistics Sheet: Sexual Assault. Metropolitan Action Comitee on Vilolence Against Women and
Children. http://www.metrac.org/new/stat_sex.htm
The Women and the Armed Conflicts. Gender Equality, Development and Peace for XXI
Century. http://www.un.org/spanish/conferences/Beijing/fs5.htm
The impact of arms in women’s life.

http://www.oxfam.org/es/policy/briefingnotes/dc070305_armas_mujeres
Trafficking in Persons: Global Patterns.

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/trafficking_persons_report_2006-04.html
UN Definitions. http://www.unssc.org/web1/programmes/ewpm/definitions.asp
UN Millenium Development Goals. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
UNICEF. Impact of Armed Conflict in Children. http://www.unicef.org
Violence Against Women. http://www.unifem.org/gender_issues/violence_against_women/
Violence against women.

http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList139/E1413159B7D0E576C1256D050049DC94
Watchlist on Children on Armed Conflict. http://www.watchlist.org/
Women Facing Law. ICRC Study on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women.
http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList139/8A9A66C7DB7E128DC1256C5B0024AB36
Women's Human Rights & The Stop Violence Against Women Campaign.
http://www.amnestyusa.org/women
Women, human rights and international humanitarian law.

http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList139/FF13FAC9B9F85505C1256B66005C4356
Women, armed conflict and international law.

http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList139/B08F4F79CF15825741256C680035DBD0
Women and Armed Conflict.

http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList139/EE0E0E18E1AC058EC1256FBD005C5A9C
LESSON 7
Books
Gender Resource Package for Peacekeeping Operations. United Nations. Department of

Peacekeeping Operations. (2004) New York: UN Publications.
Gender and Peacekeeping Operations - Generic Training. Department of Peacekeeping

Operations/ Training and Evaluation Service (2002).
Rehn, E. and E. Johnson. Woman, War and Peace. (2002) New York: UNIFEM. UN
Publications.
Women, Peace and Security. (2002) New York:. UN Publications.
An Assessment of Gender Integration in UNFPA Materials Produced Between 1997 and Early
2000. http://www.unfpa.org/publications/detail.cfm?ID=299&filterListType=
A history of the gender advisory capacity at DPKO headquarters: a compilation of excerpts

from un documents. Compiled by Peace Women Project, Ongoing. This document is a
compilation of all references made, in UN documents, to the development of a gender advisory
capacity in the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Headquarters.
http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/genderunit.html
Background and Position Paper on Gender Unit at DPKO. NGO Working Group on Women,
Peace and Security. July 2002.
http://www.peacewomen.org/un/ngo/ngopub/DPKOgenderunit.html
ECOSOC Agreement. Mainstreaming the gender perspective into all policies and programs in
the United Nations system Report of the Secretary-General. 1997.

Gender Content of the Security Council’s Resolutions (Historical).

http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/SCrescompilation.html#Themes
Gender and the HIV Epidemic. Dying of Sadness: Gender, Sexual Violence and the HIV
Epidemic. http://www.undp.org/hiv/publications/gender/violencee.htm
Gender Mainstreaming at DPKO. Recent Policy Statements.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/ianwge/gm_facts/Dpko.pdf
How is UNDP promoting equality between women and men?

http://www.undp.org/women/mainstream/index.shtml
Implementation of the Recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations

and the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations. Report of the Secretary-General. June 2001.
http://www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/docs/55_977e.pdf.
Implementation of the recommendations of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations

and the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations. Report of the Secretary-General, December
2001. http://www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/docs/a56732e.pdf
Integrating the gender perspective into the work of United Nations human rights treaty bodies.
Report by the Secretary-General. http://www.un.org./womenwatch/daw/news/integrating.htm
Mapping the United Nations with Gender Perspective.

http://www.peacewomen.org/un/basics/unbeg.html#ecosoc
Methods and tools development to promote gender mainstreaming: Experiences from the United
Nations Secretariat. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gmtoolspresianwge.htm
Office of the Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on Gender Issues and Advancement of
Women. Gender Mainstreaming.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.htm
Peacekeeping Best Practice. Gender Resource Package.

http://www.pbpu.unlb.org/pbpu/genderpack.aspx
Protecting Human Rights, Ensuring Gender Equality.

http://www.undp.org/hiv/focus03.htmhttp://www.undp.org/hiv/focus03.htm
Report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of the report of the Panel on United
Nations peace operations. 20 October 2000.
http://www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/docs/55_502e.pdf
Resource requirements for implementation of the report of the Panel on United Nations Peace
Operations.* Report of the Secretary-General. 27 October 2000.
http://www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/docs/55_507e.pdf
Statements, papers and publications on Gender Mainstreaming at UN.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/statementsandpapers.htm
Supporting gender mainstreaming. The work of the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender
Issues and Advancement of Women. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/report.pdf
Ten Rules- Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets.

http://www.un.org/depts/dpko/training/tes_publications/list_publi.htm#3
The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women. Beijing, China - September 1995.
Action for Equality, Development and Peace. Plataform of Action.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/plat1.htm
The Windhoek Declaration: [on the 10th Anniversary of the United Nations Transitional
Assistance Group (UNTAG)] The Namibia Plan of Action On ‘Mainstreaming a Gender
Perspective In Multidimensional Peace Support Operations’ Windhoek, Namibia, 31 May 2000.
United Nations Development Program. Women’s Empowerment.

http://www.undp.org/women/mainstream/whatis.shtml
United Nations Development Program. Gender Mainstreaming.

http://www.undp.org/women/mainstream/whatis.shtml
United Nations Development Program. Millenium Development Goals (MDG).

http://www.undp.org/mdg/
United Nations. DPKO Under-Secretary-General Policy Statement on Gender Mainstreaming. 29

March 2005. Mainstreaming gender in peacekeeping activities is the full incorporation of gender
perspectives into all peacekeeping activities, from the initial stages of ceasefire negotiations and
the establishment of mandates for peacekeeping operations, to post-conflictt situations.
http://www.peacewomen.org/resources/Peacekeeping/DPKOpolicygenderMarch05.pdf
DPKO Under-Secretary-General Policy Statement on Gender Mainstreaming. Mainstreaming

gender in peacekeeping activities is the full incorporation of gender perspectives into all
peacekeeping activities, from the initial stages of ceasefire negotiations and the establishment of
mandates for peacekeeping operations, to post-conflict situations.
http:// pbpu.unlb.org/pbpu/library/USG%20policy%20statement%20Gender.pdf
United Nations. Department of Peacekeeping Operations. Training and Evaluation Service.

Publication List. http://www.un.org/depts/dpko/training/tes_publications/list_publi.htm
United Nations General Assembly Special Session. Women 2000: Gender Equality,
Development and Peace for the Twenty-first Century. New York, 5-9 June 2000.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/session/presskit/gasp.htm
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security.
http://www.peacewomen.org/un/sc/1325.html#Full
Sexual violence against refugees and displaced. Guide to prevent and to respond. 2003.
http://www.acnur.org/biblioteca/pdf/3667.pdf
Women, Peace and Security. Mainstreaming the gender perspective into all policies and
programs in the United Nations System Report of the Secretary-Gender. Full text.
http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/docs/1997/e1997-66.ht
LESSON 8
A comprehensive strategy to eliminate future sexual exploitation and abuse in UN peacekeeping

operations: Report of the Secretary-General’s adviser on sexual exploitation and abuse by UN
peacekeeping personnel, H.R.H Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein, Permanent Representative
from Jordan. February 2005. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ctte/SEA.htm
A Rights-based Approach to Realizing Gender Equality.

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/savitri.htm
Bemjamin, J. and L. Murchinson. Gender-Based Violence. Care & Protection of Children in

Emergencies. http://ww.savethechildren.or/publications/Gender_Based_Violence_Final.pdf
General Debate at 2006 Session of un Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations (by

country). 27 - 28 February 2006. UN Headquarters, New York.
http://www.peacewomen.org/un/pkwatch/Events/C34/2006/general_debate.html
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse and Peacekeeping. Statement by the Secretary-General Kofi
Anan. On Prince Zeid’s Report. March 2002. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ctte/SEA.htm
Statement by Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations Jean-Marie Guéhenno.

April-May 2005. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ctte/SEA.htm
Statement by the President of the Security Council. 31 May 2005.

http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ctte/SEA.htm
Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response. Published to Promote the Goals
of the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action. April 1998.
Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse: Report of the
Secretary-General. 15 April 2005. http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/ctte/SEA.htm
Ten Rules - Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets.

http://www.un.org/depts/dpko/training/tes_publications/list_publi.htm#3
UNHCR. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner. Statue.

http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/protect/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PROTECTION&id=3b66c39e1
UNHCR. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner. Protecting Refugees. Refugee
Women. http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home?page=protect&id=3b83a48d4
UN Press release. UN establishes peacekeeping conduct and discipline units. Latest Move in
Reforms to Tackle Sexual Exploitation, Abuse. August 2005.
http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/pko120.doc.htm
Watchlist on Children on Armed Conflict. http://www.watchlist.org/
Women, War, Peace, and Peacekeeping. Gender profile. SEA.

http://www.womenwarpeace.org/issues/peacekeeping/peacekeeping.htm
End-of-Course Examination Instructions 242
End-of-Course
Examination Instructions
The End-of-Course Examination is provided as

a separate component of this course.
The examination questions cover the material in

all the lessons of this course.
Read each question carefully and

follow the provided instructions to submit your exam for scoring.
INFORMATION ABOUT THE END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION
Format of Questions
The End-of-Course Examination consists of 50 questions. Exam questions generally give

you a choice of answers, marked as A, B, C, or D. You may choose only one response as the
correct answer.
Time Limit to Complete the End-of-Course Examination
Because your enrolment in the course is valid for one year only, the examination must be
submitted before your enrolment expires.
Passing Grade
A score of 75% is the minimum score required for a passing grade. You will be
presented with an electronic Certificate of Completion when you pass your exam. If your score
is less than 75%, you will be informed that you have received a failing grade. You will be
provided with an alternate version of the End-of-Course Examination, which you may complete
when you feel you are ready. If you pass the second version of the examination, you will be
presented with an electronic Certificate of Completion. If you fail the second time, you will be
informed and dis-enrolled from the course.
TO VIEW OR SUBMIT YOUR EXAMINATION,

PLEASE VISIT THE WEBSITE FOR YOUR
TRAINING PROGRAMME.
IF YOU ARE UNSURE OF YOUR

PROGRAMME’S WEBSITE, VISIT
HTTP://WWW.PEACEOPSTRAINING.ORG/JOIN.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Professor Ximena Jimenez is a Registered Nurse (RN) and was specialised on Intensive Care Units and
Emergency Services. Concurrently, she taught at Schools of Nursing and Medicine Faculty. Later she
worked in hospital management, becoming the Chief of Nursing Staff of an 800-bed hospital at the age
of 26.
She became General Manager of DUXI Consultants, a company specialising in consultancy and training
in Management and Engineering. She became external consultant for the Chilean Army on Management
issues (1995-1997), which led her to become interested in areas related to National Defence.
She was invited by the Chilean Amy War College to be a lecturer on its Strategic Leadership course and
to the Master Degree Programme in UN Peacekeeping Operations. She has also been invited to discuss
gender issues by the University of New Delhi (Women’s Studies & Development Centre (WSDC));
School of Law of University of Chile; School of Political Sciences of Catholic University of Chile;
Centre of United Nation Peacekeeping of India (CUNPK); Argentinean Centre for Joint Training in
Peacekeeping Operations (CAECOPAZ); and School of Peacekeeping Operations (EOPE) where she has
been a Professor since 2004. In addition, she has given conferences on the topic of Chilean Armed
Forces Modernization Process in the Chilean Navy War College, the CHILEAN Polytechnic Military
Academy and the Army Military Institute of High Studies of Uruguay (IMES). Since 2004 she has been
a Professor at the Joint Centre of Peacekeeping Operations of Chile (CECOPAC).
She has been invited to participate in different international Seminars, Workshops and Conferences
about Gender and Women’s Issues, organized by UN entities and international organizations at UN
Headquarters in New York, USA, Chile, Nigeria, South Africa, and Equator, among others.
Prof. Jimenez is a graduate of the University of Chile’s Faculty of Medicine, Public Health School of
University of Chile (BS Hospital Management), National Academy of Political and Strategies Studies
(BS Security and Defence and MA in Security and Defence), and Army War College of Chile (MSc (c)
Military Sciences and UN Peacekeeping Operations), all academic degrees obtained in Chile.
During 2004-2007, she completed various courses given by OCHA in UN Civil and Military
Coordination, the Executive Seminar led by the Lester Pearson Institute for the Maintenance of Peace
(Canada), Military Observers, Officers Course at CECOPAC, as well as the Military Observer Capsule
in the Centre of United Nation Peacekeeping of India (CUNPK) and School of Peacekeeping Operation
of Uruguayan Army War College.
Since 2003, on an independent and voluntary basis, she has undertaken research in International
Relations, Peacekeeping Operations, in areas such as Gender Issues, Civil-Military Coordination,
prevention of HIV/AIDS, Child Protection, Code of Conduct, UN System, and others.
Since 2006, she has been a Thesis Advisor for the Peace Operations Training Institute’s COTIPSO
Programme.
Since 2007, she has been a Gender Consultant to OSAGI (Office of the Special Adviser to the Secretary-
General on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women) to develop a course about the Implementation
of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) in Latin American and the Caribbean, and in African
countries.
Gender 090201
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GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN UNITED

© 2008 Peace Operations Training Institute

Peace Operations Training Institute

Peace Operations Training Institute

First edition: March 2007

LESSON 1 – CONFLICT SITUATIONS, THE UNITED NATIONS, AND PEACEKEEPING

LESSON 2 – SEX AND GENDER: DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

LESSON 3 – UNDERSTANDING CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

LESSON 4 – SEARCHING FOR GENDER BALANCE AND GENDER EQUALITY: A

LESSON 5 – THE UN, PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS, AND GENDER ISSUES. . . . . . . . . 67

LESSON 7 – GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . 131

LESSON 8 – GENDER, GBV-SEA, AND UN PEACEKEEPERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

LESSON 9 – CASE STUDY: GENDER ANALYSIS ON UNAMIR AND MINUSTAH. . . . . . . 173

APPENDIX A – LIST OF ACRONYMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229

END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

This course, Gender Perspectives in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, strives to

Prof. Ximena Jimenez

This course is designed for independent study

Course format and materials permit:

Please visit http://www.peaceopstraining.org/course_extras

The student is responsible for:

• Learning course material

Please consult your enrolment confirmation email or the end of

• The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing individual

• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.

CONFLICT SITUATIONS, THE UNITED NATIONS,

1.1 Historical Background of International

• Trace the historical theories of the origin of conflicts;

Please visit http://www.peaceopstraining.org/course_extras

1.1 Historical Background of International Cooperation and Conflict

From the Peace of Westphalia Until 1913

War and Peace

The Thirty Years War

From 1914 to 1939

War and Peace

From World War II to 1989 (Modern Era)

War and Peace

The United Nations is

Summary of International Cooperation and Conflict

• 1914-1918: World War I.

1.2 Overview of the United Nations System

Origin of the United Nations

During World War II, two Allied

• On 12 June 1941, the Interallied

1.3 The Security Council and Peacekeeping Operations

Actions which the SC can Take to Maintain the Peace

• The application of preventive and provisional measures. This includes requesting a

Other Actions which can be Taken by the SC

• The employment of force in humanitarian military intervention. This takes place

The UN Security Council Chamber passes a

The Security Council and World Peace Since 1989

New Challenges After the End of the Cold War

The DPKO and World Peace

The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations has the following mission statement:

A Summary of Peacekeeping Operations18

Legal Basis Type Action

Peacekeeping Operation Characteristics

• Classic Peacekeeping Operations21

− Human rights (HR)

Organisation of Multidimensional Missions

Some Peacekeeping Operation Definitions27