Fired Heaters

API 560 Direct Fired Refinery Process Heater Mfr

View Heater Pictures
Special emphasis is given to fundamental manufacturing and design factors
which rarely find their way into a bid tabulation, such as uniform heat flux
distribution, firebox configuration, combustion volume, flue gas flow, the
mechanical integrity of the heater structure, and vendor engineering fabrication
and supply response time. In addition to the full range of industrial process heat
applications, The G. C. Broach Company has cooperated in the development of
numerous special research applications and pilot plants.
Types Of Heaters Engineered And Fabricated By The Broach
Company
API 560 Heater
Charge Heater
Chemical Heater
Column Reboiler Heater
Crude Heater
Crude Oil Heater
Debutanizer Reboiler Heater
Direct Fired Heater
Dowtherm ® Heater
Feed Heater
Fractionator Reboiler Heater
Glycol Heater
HDS Reactor Heater
Heat Medium Heater
High Temperature Carbon Dioxide Heater
High Temperature Gas Heater
High Temperature Oxygen Heater
Hot Oil Heater
Heat Transfer Fluid Heater
Large Vegetable Oil Heater
LPG Cavern Storage Off Loading Heater
Petrochem Heater
Petrochemical Heater
Petroleum Heater
Phenol Heater
Pipeline Heater
Platformer Heater
Propane Storage Heating System
Propane Vaporizer Heater
Reactor Charge Heater
Reactor Feed Heater
Reboiler Heater
Refinery Asphalt Heater
Refinery Heater
Reformer Heater
Regeneration Gas Heater
Splitter Reboiler Heater
Stabilizer Reboiler Heater
Steam Superheater
Still Reboiler Heater
Stripper Reboiler Heater
Thermal Fluid Heater
Thermal Liquid Heater
Thermal Oil Heater
Therminol ® Heater
Titanium Tetrachloride Heater
Tower Feed Heater
Turbine Exhaust Waste Heat Recovery Heater
Unifier Charge Heater
Vacuum Heater
Water Bath Heater

Overview of API 560 - Fired Heaters for General Refinery Service

API 560, Fired Heaters for General Refinery Service, is a standard developed by
the American Petroleum Institute that specifies requirements and gives
recommendations for the design, materials, fabrication, inspection, testing,
preparation for shipment, and erection of fired heaters, air preheaters (APHs),
fans, and burners for general refinery service. API 560 was originally published in
September of 1995, with the most recent 5th Edition being released in February of
2016.

API 560 does not apply to the design of steam reformers or pyrolysis furnaces.
Covered sections include:

• Purchaser’s and Vendor’s Responsibilities;

• Design Considerations (Process, Combustion and Mechanical);
• Materials of Construction;
• Tubes and Tube Supports;
• Headers, Piping, Terminals, and Manifolds;
• Loads and Allowable Stress;
• Refractory Linings and Castable Design and Construction;
• Structures and Appurtenances;
• Stacks, Ducts and Breeching;
• Burners, Dampers and Controls;
• Fan Drives;
• Sootblowers;
• Instruments and Connections;
• Shop Fabrication and Field Erection;
• Inspection and Testing;
• Air Preheat Systems;
• Efficiency Measurement; and
• Noise Measurement.
 Fired Heaters: Working, Components,
Types, Function, Sections, Maintenance

Written by Anup Kumar Deyin Mechanical,Piping Interface

Fired Heaters, as the name specifies are obviously heaters or furnaces. They are
pieces of equipment used in processing facilities (refineries, power plants,
petrochemical complexes, etc) to heat fluids up to the desired temperature. So,
the main purpose of fired heaters is to raise the temperature of the process fluid
that flows through the tubes. The heat energy is supplied by combusting fuels.
These fall in the static or stationary group of mechanical equipment and are
designed based on API 560 standard. Today we will study the details of Fired
Heaters, their components, types, construction features, and maintenance
requirements. Let’s dive into the article!

Commonly Asked JAMB Chemistry Past ...

Where are fired heaters used?

Fired heaters find wide applications throughout chemical industries like
refineries, petrochemical and chemical industries, gas processing units, ammonia
plants, olefin plants, fertilizer plants, etc. They are termed Feed Preheaters,
Cracking Furnaces, Fractionators heaters, Steam reforming heaters, Crude
Heaters, etc.

How does a Fire Heater work?

Fire heater works by direct heat transfer from the product of the combustion of
fuels. The maximum flame temperature of hydrocarbon burned with
stoichiometric air is about 3500ᵒF (1926ᵒC). Basically, this heat energy is
released by combusting fuels into an open space and transferred to the fluids
inside tubes which are ranges along the walls and roofs of the combustion
chamber.

What are the different modes of heat transfer in a fired heater or Furnace?
There are different modes of heat transfer occurred in fire heaters. The heat is
transferred by direct radiation, convection, and also by reflection from refractory
walls lining the chamber. These zones are identified in a typical heater such as
that of Fig-1. In the radiant zone, heat is transferred predominantly (about 90%)
by radiation. The convection zone is “out of sight’’ of the burners; although some
heat transfer occurs by radiation because the temperature is still high enough,
most of the transfer here is by convection mode. The shield section is the name
given to the first two rows leading into the convection section.
Fig. 1: Radiant, shield & convection section of a fired heater

Components of a Fired Heater

A fired heater consists of:

• Casing
• Tubes
• Return bends
• Tube supports
• Burners
• APH/SAPH
• ID & FD fans
• Pilot
• Radiant, Shield, and Convection zone
• Duct
• Damper
• Stack
• Refractory
• Louvers /Air registers

What is a pilot burner?

A pilot burner is a small light that has a small flame of natural gas or LPG which
acts as an ignition source of the main burner. So the pilot burner always keeps
alight for uninterrupted heater operation. The pilot burner should have a
minimum heat release of about 10,000 kcal/hr. The length of the flame of a pilot
should be a minimum of 150 mm & stable.
What is a Burner?
A burner is a device that introduces fuel & air into the firebox at desired ratio &
velocity & concentrations to maintain proper combustion. It is classified by the
type of fuel combusted. It is normally designed to provide 120% of its normal
heat liberation at peak duty.

What is a Damper?
The damper is a device for introducing a variable resistance for controlling the
flow of flue gas or air. The role of stack damper is very significant in the operation
of fired heaters for draft control but unfortunately, little attention is paid to
designing of the damper. Mostly the dampers are left open in the fire heater very
few of them worked properly. But proper designing of dampers can save
energy. The damper needs to close to reduce oxygen in the fuel gas, increase
firebox temperature, reduce stack temperature & reduce draft at the radiant
section.
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What is a stack?
Stack is the vertical pipe through which combusted gas or flue gas is vented out
into the atmosphere. It is often called a chimney. It helps ventilation as well as air
ingression to the fire heater based on buoyancy which is generated due to
density difference. We all know air density depends on air temperature. The
velocity of flue gas through the stack is maintained between 25 to 40 ft/sec.
Stacks are mostly made of steel plates of minimum 6 mm thickness and lined
with 50 mm insulating castable. At the top of the stack, absolute pressure should
be 2.5 mm WC below the atmosphere to keep the heater at the negative draft.

What are refractories?

As the high temperature is generated inside the heater so it is necessary to
prevent the environment from exposure to high temperatures. For this purpose,
refractories are used which is a material resistant to decomposition by high heat.
Radiant section linings are exposed to firebox temperatures of more than
1000°C & therefore high quality insulating refractory materials to tolerate high
temperatures. Convection sections are lined with a castable blanket. Heat losses
are kept between 1.5%-3%.

Types of Fired Heaters with Different Coil Arrangements

Depending on the arrangement of tube banks and combustion chambers there
are several types of fired heaters that are used in industries. Some of the
common types of fired heaters are

• Type A-Box heater with arbor coil

• Type D-Box heater with vertical tube coil
• Type E-Cylindrical heater with vertical coil
• Type F-Box heater with horizontal tube coil
Fig. 2: Types of Fired Heaters

The disadvantages of Vertical types of radiant tubes are their difficulty in

replacing due to less gap between the wall & tube.

Horizontal-type radiant tubes are weldable outside the heater firebox due to
more space available in return header bends/ plugs.

Constructional Features of Fired Heaters

Fired Heater Casing:

The metal plate is used to enclose the fired heater. Normally CS plates 6mm
thick are used as casing material. Casing design temp Outside 82 C, Radiant floor
– 91 C. Max. temperature, CS can withstand is 440 degrees C, however, oxidation
starts at 270 deg.c

Failure of internal refractory lining causes overheating of underlying steel casing.

This will be revealed by local hot spots.
To prevent further damage to the casing plate

• Apply air
• Apply steam
• In extreme cases put water
• Put an additional refractory lined casing plate over the hot spot area.
Fig. 3: Sample Fired Heater images

Radiant section of a fired heater:

The portion of the heater in which the heat is transferred to the tubes primarily
by radiation is known as the radiant section.

Convection section:
The portion of the heater in which the heat is transferred to tubes primarily by
convection.

Bridge wall:
The section separates the radiant & convection section. The
temperature of flue gas leaving the radiation section is called the bridge wall

Arch:
A flat or sloped portion of the heater radiant section opposite the floor.

Radiant Coils:
The radiant coils are located in the radiant section of the furnace where the heat
picks from flame & high-temperature flue gas & hot refractory.

The radiant tubes may be either vertical or horizontal depending on the

construction of the furnace

Main components/Sections of a Fired Heater

Convection section:
Bank of coils which receive the heat from hot flue gases mainly by convection.

• Finned/studded tubes are often used in convection coils due to lower flue gas
temperatures. Finned tubes ( 1.3 mm thick strip
200turn/meter) are difficult to clean when compared to studded (12.7 mm
dia)
• The rate of heat absorption tends to be high at the entrance to the convection
section in heaters, where the convection section is right above the radiant
 section. Tubes in this section are called shock/shield tubes. Normally first two
rows absorb half of their heat in this section.
• Consists of a large tube support plate located in the convection section and
supports the number of End supports & intermediate supports are usually low
alloy steels.
• Replacing /Repairing of Convection tube support sheet is difficult & calls for
the removal of all convection coils or it is necessary to lower the entire
module.
• Tube support sheets are 25 cr-20 Ni or 50 cr -50 ni MOC.

Plug header:
A bend, provided with one or more openings for the purpose of inspection, initial
measurement of coke before cleaning.

• Ensure proper depressurization before opening the plug.

• Ensure the Arrow mark is maintained on the plug to ensure the
plug nut is guiding
• After the repair /replacement of the plug hydro test of the coil pass is
recommended.

Fired Heater internal Tube supports:

• Tube supports are metal devices that support the weight of the
• The tube guide is used to direct the movement of tubes in one particular
direction.
• These are metallic members able to withstand high temperatures used to
prevent the sagging/bowing/buckling/ swaying of tubes
• Tube supports are more prone to high-temperature oxidation and fuel ash
corrosion.
• Horizontal roof tubes of box-type heaters are supported by means of hangers
• Tube supports must be aligned perfectly in one straight line.
• The use of fillers of any kind is prohibited.
• Ensure perfect contact between supports and tubes.
• Coils shall rest uniformly all over the supports.
• Failure of tube supports may take place due to mechanical overloading caused
by the bowing of tubes, loss of strength of supports, and tube vibration.
• The tube support/hangers/guides shall be examined for cracks, oxidation,
missing sections, and missing/broken or oxidized bolts.
Fig. 4: Figure showing typical tube supports

Common problems associated with Fired Heater tubes

These are some common problems associated with fired heater tubes:

• Tubes are designed for approx 1 year life-1,00,000 hrs.

• Tube distortion – Hot spots, Sagging, Bowing, Touching of tubes.
• Tube surface – Pitting, Scale, Evidence of overheating.
• Observe & monitor the skin temperature, and compare the residual life of the
tube.
Fig. 5: Heater Tubes in an operating Fired Heater

Fired Heater Tube cleaning

• Generally, tubes are cleaned manually making scaffolding inside the heater.
• Ensure All burner tips are covered while cleaning.
• Ensure Fire bricks are covered to avoid ingress of foreign particles between
the bricks to provide expansion of refractory during operation.
• Ensure no damage to refractory while making scaffolding.

Hydro testing of the fired heater coils

• The hydro test is performed when the new coil is installed/repaired in the
coil is
• Coils shall be hydrostatically tested, thoroughly drained after the test is
completed and to be drained by blowing compressed air to avoid hammering
&
• During the hydro test due to return bends & elevation differences adequate
care is to be taken to vent air.

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Burners of a fired heater

• Burner: Introduces fuel & air into the heater at the desired velocities,
turbulence, and concentration to establish and maintain proper ignition and
combustion.
• Pilot: A smaller burner that provides ignition energy to light the main burner.
• Plenum orair
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What is a fired heater Draft?
A draft is the pressure differential that persists between air/fuel gas in the
combustion chamber and atmospheric air. The draft is caused due to density
difference between hot fuel gas and ambient air.

A negative draft must be maintained in every part of the fire heater so that hot
fuel gas cannot be leaked out. Draft reading in the middle of the furnace is used
to control the draft & excess air. A heater draft is required to pull out fuel gases
from the heater.

How draft is generated?

The draft can be created by the following means,

1. Full open the damper and close the louvers.

2. Open purging/snuffing of steam
3. Cut off the steam flow.
4. A close damper as per draft requirement.

Draft Profile across the fired heater furnace

Fig. 6: Typical draft profile across the fired heater

In the above image,

• (SE)r is the Stack effect in the radiant section
• (SE)c is the stack effect in the convection section &
• (SE)s is the stack effect in the stack

Draft & Excess air Control Scheme:

Draft and air are closely linked together & they should act together. The main
objective should be achieving the optimum air level for the complete combustion
of fuel.

Fig. 7: Draft and Air Control Scheme

Natural Draft fire heater:

In this type of heater fuel gas or air is injected into the heater by using
atmospheric pressure & the combusted gas is vented out through the stack. No
external means are used. This is happened due to density differences as hot
gases are having a lower density than the normal atmospheric air.

Force Draft fire heater:

In this type of heater fuel gas or air is pushed into the heater by means of an
external means like a fan. It is often called an FD fan, it provides air or fuel gas.
The FD fan is installed before the furnace.

Induced Draft fire heater:

In this type, the fired-heater fan is installed above the heater so that it can induce
air through the combustion chamber into the burner. This fan causes a negative
draft which pushes the burnt air out through the ventilation system.

Advantages of using Force draft:

The forced draft system requires a lower level of excess oxygen. The flame
becomes stable & small size of the burner is required. FD fan maintains an
optimum ratio of air to fuel gas.

What is Bridge Wall Temperature?

It is the temperature of the flue gas which is generated due to the combustion of
fuel gas at the radiant section and entered into the convection section. The rate
of heat transfer at the convection section is governed by the bridge wall
temperature. It should be in the range of 760-900ᵒC.

Why snuffing steam is used in fire heaters?

The main purpose of using snuffing steam is to snuff unwanted fire (that can
cause due to tube leakage) by excluding air ingress or prevent potential fuel from
air exposure as well as it carries away heat to some extent. The amount of
snuffing can be based on the requirement of 8 lb/hr per cubic foot of furnace
volume. Normally LP steam is used for this purpose. During the start-up of the
heater operation snuffing steam is also used to remove combustible gas &
excess air as well as create a negative draft.

What is Puffing?
It actually indicates a huge vibration of furnaces. If a burner is seriously out of
fire, opening air control without reducing the firing rate can cause a hazardous
situation called puffing. To prevent such a scenario first slow down the firing &
then adjust the air louvers.

Start-up of fired heaters

1. Make sure all the utilities are supplied as per requirement.

2. Ensure every instrument & safety device are in operation.
3. Ensure the fuel for the burner with sufficient operating pressure.
4. Purge combustible gas inside the furnace by snuffing steam to cause a
negative draft of -5 to -15 mm H2O in the radiant section. This is done by fully
closing the louvers & opening the stack damper completely.
5. Ignite the pilot burner and then the main burner.
6. Check the concentration of O2 in flue gas and heater draft.
7. The ramp of raising process fluid temperature at 30-50 C/hr to prevent
overfiring.
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The control scheme of the fired heater

The following image shows a typical control scheme for fired heaters.

Fig. 8: Typical Fired Heater Control Scheme

Heater Dry-Out
It is a very important operation of a fired heater prior start-up of a fired heater
from a long shutdown or the start-up of a new fire heater. Heater dry-out is
usually done to remove moisture contained in the refractories as refractories
contain a large amount of moisture absorbed from the atmosphere. Ramp up of
temperature is very crucial as a fast temperature increase may damage the
refractory lining & surface shrinkage. Refer to the following figure that provides a
Heating curve for heater dry-out.

Fig. 9: Heating curve for heater dry out

Annual Maintenance

• Tubes visual inspection prior to cleaning

• Inspection after cleaning
• Dimensional check-up (OD of a tube), thickness.
• Visual inspection of header plug leaks
• Inspection – tubes supports, hangers, etc.
• Inspection burner assemblies
• Inspection of refractory
• Inspection of explosion doors
• Dampers external, internal, operating linkages, etc.

Decoking by Pigging
Due to exposure to high temperatures inside the fire heater coke is deposited in
the tube which may lead to a reduction of heat transfer & the tube can be
choked. So decking is a necessary operation that is performed by using the
variable size of pigs, chemical & combustion methods. Mostly pig decoking is
preferred over another. A pig has a uniformly studded pin around its surface
which helps removals of carbon depositions inside the tube walls.

• A new method of decoking the tubes is to steam, and then use water pressure
to push Styrofoam pigs with studs and grit on the exterior through the tubes
and around u-bends (even u-bends with clean-out plugs). The pigs scrape out
the coke without scratching the tube walls.
• The improper size of the pig may leave scratches on the tube walls, hence a
selection of the correct size of the pig is
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generally have longer
 • Pigging will not provide temperature shocks & hence pigging has been found
effective.

PIGGING – Double Pumping Unit

Set up:

• The connection is made to a pair of passes (coils) with flow/return piping.

There are four separate piping links with the furnace & pumping unit.
• Launchers/receiver
Coils horizontally. units complete with full port ball valves to be connected to
• Ensure safe access to pig launchers/receivers.
• Launchers/receivers are provided with hammerlock couplings to connect
flexible piping.

Fig. 10: A typical figure showing the Pigging method

Cleaning of Pigging:
These are some procedures for the cleaning of Pigging:

• Water fill-up.
• Water circulation for removing hydrocarbons and loose debris.
• Special density foam pig launch
• Decoke pig selection to clean
• Increase pig size incrementally.
 • Polishing by using oversize abrasive-coated foam pig.

Air-to-Fuel Ratio
It is an important factor to maintain in fire heater operation. Basically, it is the
mass ratio of air to fuel present in the combustion process. For controlling air
pollution to meet the regulatory norms it is an important parameter to measure &
maintain. Under ideal conditions, fuel mixes with air to perform complete
combustion. At the end of the combustion no excess oxygen & unburned fuels
are left in the combustion chamber, it is called stoichiometric combustion. But in
the real scenario, some amount of excess air should be present to ensure
complete combustion of the fuel. Otherwise significant amounts of CO are
produced, reducing efficiency & increasing pollution levels.

Effects of excess fuels result in loss of fuel, CO production & caused heavy
smoke while effects of excess air result in a reduction of temperature &
excessive heat losses.

Troubleshooting of fired heaters

Problem Reason Recommendation

High flue gas Fouling in convection section Clean convection section Replace
temperature Burnt off fire Over-firing convection tubes Reduce firing

High Fuel gas

Burners are plugged Clean burners
pressure

High-pressure Coke formation High rate of Decoking of tubes Reduces the flow
drop in tubes vaporization rate

High furnace draft Poor air-fuel

Reduce furnace draft Modify burners
Excess air mixing Air leakage in the
Plug air leakage
furnace

Flame flashback Low gas pressure Raise fuel gas pressure

Burners go out The gas mixture is too dilute Reduce air.

Insufficient heat
Low gas flow rate Increase gas pressure
release

Table: Fired-Heater Troubleshooting