1. Adverbs (Adverbios)....................................................................................................................

5
1.1. Adverbs: functions (Los adverbios: la forma y el funcionamiento)......................................5
1.2. Adverbs types and positions (Los adverbios: tipos y posiciones).........................................6
Adverbs of place......................................................................................................................6
Adverbs of time.......................................................................................................................8
Adverbs of frequency............................................................................................................10
2. Indefinite pronouns and relative pronouns (Pronombres indefinidos y relativos)...................13
2.1. Indefinite pronouns (Los pronombres indefinidos)............................................................13
2.2. Relative pronouns (Los pronombres relativos)..................................................................16
3. Conjunctions (Conjunciones).....................................................................................................17
Coordinating conjunctions.........................................................................................................17
Correlative Conjunctions...........................................................................................................19
Adverbial Conjunctions..............................................................................................................20
Subordinating conjunctions.......................................................................................................21
4. Comparatives and superlatives (Comparativos y superlativos)................................................23
Comparatives.............................................................................................................................23
1. If the adjective has 1 or 2 syllables:...................................................................................23
2. Long adjectives:.................................................................................................................23
Superlatives...............................................................................................................................24
1. If the adjective has 1 or 2 syllables:...................................................................................24
2. Long adjectives:.................................................................................................................24
4.1. Comparatives and Superlatives’ list (Lista de comparativos y superlativos)......................25
Irregular adjectives....................................................................................................................26
5. Gerund (Gerundio).....................................................................................................................26
The gerund as the subject of the sentence...............................................................................26
The gerund as the complement of the verb 'to be'...................................................................26
The gerund after prepositions...................................................................................................27
The gerund after phrasal verbs..................................................................................................27
The gerund in compound nouns................................................................................................28
The gerund after some expressions..........................................................................................28
6. Questions (Las preguntas).........................................................................................................28
6.1. Building questions (Construir preguntas)...........................................................................28
Interrogative pronouns..........................................................................................................29
Auxiliary questions (yes/no questions).................................................................................30
6.2. Tag questions (Las preguntas coletillas).............................................................................30
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative …........................30
... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.................30
With auxiliary verbs...............................................................................................................31
7. Tenses (Tiempos verbales: pasado)...........................................................................................31
7.1. Past simple (Pasado simple)...............................................................................................31
Positive statements...............................................................................................................31
Negations...............................................................................................................................32
Questions...............................................................................................................................32
 7.2. Past continuous (Pasado continuo)....................................................................................33
Structures...............................................................................................................................33
8. Present perfect tenses (tiempos presentes perfectos).............................................................34
8.1. Present perfect (Presente perfecto)...................................................................................34
Statements.............................................................................................................................34
Present perfect: negations....................................................................................................35
Questions...............................................................................................................................35
8.2. Present perfect continuous or present perfect progressive (Presente perfecto continuo).
...................................................................................................................................................36
Statements structure.............................................................................................................36
Negations structure...............................................................................................................36
Questions structure...............................................................................................................37
8.3. Present perfect and past simple (Presente perfecto y el pasado simple)..........................37
9. Past perfect (Tiempos verbales: pasado perfecto)....................................................................38
9.1. Pasado perfecto..................................................................................................................38
Statements.............................................................................................................................38
Past perfect: negations..........................................................................................................39
Question.................................................................................................................................39
9.2. past perfect continuous or past perfect progressive (Pasado perfecto continuo)............40
10. Future perfect (Tiempos verbales: futuro perfecto)...............................................................40
10.1. Future perfect (Futuro perfecto)......................................................................................40
Will.........................................................................................................................................40
Going to.................................................................................................................................41
10.2. Future perfect continuous (El futuro perfecto continuo)................................................41
Will.........................................................................................................................................41
Going to.................................................................................................................................42
11. Passive voice (La voz pasiva)....................................................................................................42
Active voice................................................................................................................................43
Passive voice..............................................................................................................................43
12. Modals (Verbos modales)........................................................................................................45
Probability:.................................................................................................................................45
Ability.........................................................................................................................................45
Obligation and Advice................................................................................................................45
Permission.................................................................................................................................46
Habits.........................................................................................................................................46
13. Direct and indirect speech also known as reported speech (Estilo directo e indirecto).........47
14. Conditionals (Frases condicionales)........................................................................................50
Zero conditional.........................................................................................................................50
First conditional.........................................................................................................................51
Second conditional....................................................................................................................51
Third conditional........................................................................................................................51
15. Phrasal verbs (Verbos frasales)................................................................................................52
1. Adverbs (Adverbios).
Adverbs are parts of speech that describe a verb (or anything else but a noun: adjectives,
clauses, other adverbs, etc.)

There are four types of adverbs: Adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of frequency and
adverbs of manner.

There are many rules for using adverbs, and these rules often depend upon which type of
adverb you are using. Remember these basics, and using adverbs to make sentences more
meaningful will be easier for you.

 Adverbs can always be used to modify verbs. Notice that the second of these two
sentences is much more interesting simply because it contains an adverb:
 The dog ran. (You can picture a dog running, but you don’t really know much more
about the scene.)

 The dog ran excitedly. (You can picture a dog running, wagging its tail, panting happily,
and looking glad to see its owner. You can paint a much more interesting picture in your
head when you know how or why the dog is running.)

 Adverbs are often formed by adding the letters “-ly” to adjectives. This makes is very
easy to identify adverbs in sentences. There are many exceptions to this rule;
everywhere, nowhere, and upstairs are a few examples.

 An adverb can be used to modify an adjective and intensify the meaning it conveys. For
example:
 He plays tennis well. (He knows how to play tennis and sometimes he wins.)

 He plays tennis extremely well. (He knows how to play tennis so well that he wins
often.)
As you read the following adverb examples, you’ll notice how these useful words modify
other words and phrases by providing information about the place, time, manner,
certainty, frequency, or other circumstances of activity denoted by the verbs or verb
phrases in the sentences.

1.1. Adverbs: functions (Los adverbios: la forma y el funcionamiento).

Traditionally considered to be a single part of speech, adverbs perform a wide variety of

functions, which makes it difficult to treat them as a single, unified category. Adverbs normally
carry out these functions by answering questions such as:
  When? - She always arrives early.
 How? - He drives carefully.
 Where? - They go everywhere together.
 In what way? - She eats slowly.
 To what extent? - It is terribly hot.

1.2. Adverbs types and positions (Los adverbios: tipos y posiciones).

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of place tell us where something happens. Adverbs of place are usually placed after the
main verb or after the clause that they modify. Adverbs of place do not modify adjectives or
other adverbs. Some examples of adverbs of place: here, everywhere, outside, away, around

Examples:

 John looked around but he couldn’t see the monkey.

 I searched everywhere I could think of.
 I’m going back to school.
 Come in!
 They built a house nearby.
 She took the child outside.

Here and there

Here and there are common adverbs of place. They give a location relative to the speaker. With
verbs of movement, here means "towards or with the speaker" and there means "away from,
or not with the speaker".

Sentence Meaning
Come here! Come towards me.
The table is in here. Come with me; we will go see it together.
Put it there. Put it in a place away from me.
The table is in there. Go in; you can see it by yourself.

Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common adverbial phrases.

Examples:
 What are you doing up there?
 Come over here and look at what I found!
 The baby is hiding down there under the table.
 I wonder how my driver’s license got stuck under there.
Here and there are placed at the beginning of the sentence in exclamations or when emphasis is
needed. They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun or by a pronoun if the subject is a
pronoun.

Examples:

 Here comes the bus!

 There goes the bell!
 There it is!
 Here they are!

Many adverbs of place can also be used as prepositions. When used as prepositions. When
used as prepositions, they are followed by a noun.

word Used as an adverb of place, Used as a preposition

modifying a verb.
Around The marble rolled around in my I am wearing a necklace around my
hand. neck.
Behind Hurry! You are getting behind. Let’s hide behind the shed.

Down Mary fell down. John made his way carefully down
the cliff.
In We decided to drop in on Jake. I dropped the letter in the mailbox.

Off Let’s get off at the next stop. The wind blew the flowers off the
tree.
On We rode on for several more hours. Please put the books on the table.

over He turned over and went back to I think I will hang the picture over
sleep. my bed.

Adverbs of place ending in -where

Adverbs of place that end in –where express the idea of location without specifying location or
direction.

Examples:
I would like to go somewhere warm for my vacation.
Is there anywhere I can find a perfect plate of spaghetti around here?
I have nowhere to go.
I keep running in to Sally everywhere!
 Adverbs of place ending in -wards

Adverbs of place that end in -wards express movement in a particular direction.

Examples:
Cants don’t usually walk backwards.
The ship sailed westwards.
The balloon drifted upwards.
We will keep walking homewards until we arrive.

Be careful: towards is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is followed by a noun or a pronoun.

Adverbs of place expressing both movement and location.

Some adverbs express both movement and location at the same time.

Examples:
 The child went indoors.
 He lived and worked abroad.
 Water always flows downhill.
 The wind pushed us sideways.

Adverbs of time

verbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often. Adverbs
of time are invariable. They are extremely common in English. Adverbs of time have standard
positions in a sentence depending on what the adverb of time is telling us.

Adverbs that tell us when.

Adverbs that tell us when are usually placed at the end of the sentence.

Examples:
 Goldilocks went to the bears’ house yesterday.
 I’m going to clean my room tomorrow.
 I saw Sally today.
 I will call you later.
 I have to leave now.
 I saw that movie last year.
 Adverbs that tell us for how long.

Adverbs that tell us for how long are also usually placed at the end of the sentence.

Examples:
 She stayed in the Bears' house all day.
 My mother lived in France for a year.
 I have been going to this school since 1996.

In these adverbial phrases that tell us for how long, for is always followed by an expression of
duration, while since is always followed by an expression of a point in time.

Examples:

 I stayed in Switzerland for three days.

 I am going on vacation for a week.
 I have been riding horses for several years.
 The French monarchy lasted for several centuries.
 I have not seen you since Monday.
 Jim has been working here since 1997.
 There has not been a more exciting discovery since last century.

Using yet

Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences to indicate that something that has not
happened or may not have happened but is expected to happen. It is placed at the end of the
sentence or after not.

Examples:
 Have you finished your work yet? (= simple request for information)
 No, not yet. (= simple negative answer)
 They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement)
 Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing surprise)
 Using still

Still expresses continuity. In positive sentences it is placed before the main verb and after
auxiliary verbs such as be, have, might, will. If the main verb is to be, then place still after it
rather than before. In questions, still goes before the main verb.

Examples:
 She is still waiting for you.
 Jim might still want some.
 Do you still work for the BBC?
 Are you still here?
 I am still hungry.

Adverbs of frequency.

Adverbs that change or qualify the meaning of a sentence by telling us how often or how
frequently something happens are defined as adverbs of frequency.

An adverb of frequency is exactly what it sounds like; an adverb of time. Adverbs of frequency
always describe how often something occurs, either in definite or indefinite terms. An adverb
that describes definite frequency is one such as weekly, daily, or yearly. An adverb describing
indefinite frequency doesn’t specify an exact time frame; examples are sometimes, often, and
rarely.

These simple rules for adverbs of frequency will help you to use them correctly:

 Always use adverbs of frequency to discuss how often something happens.

 Adverbs of frequency are often used to indicate routine or repeated activities, so they
are often used with the present simple tense.
 If a sentence has only one verb, place the adverb of frequency in the middle of the
sentence so that it is positioned after the subject but before the verb. For example: Tom
never flies. He always takes the bus.
 When a sentence contains more than one verb, place the adverb of frequency before
the main verb. For example: They have often visited Europe.
 When using an adverb of frequency in the negative or in forming a question, place it
before the main verb. For example: Do you usually get up so late?

Examples:

 The incubator turns each egg hourly.

 We take a vacation at least once annually.
 I usually shop for groceries on Saturday mornings.
 He is often late for work.
  We seldom see John.
 My dentist told me I should floss twice daily.

Here you have some common adverbs of frequency that you can use.

Adverb Description
Annually The action repeats every year.
Constantly The action repeats frequently.
Daily The action repeats every day.
Eventually The action will start repeating after a certain
point in time.
Ever The action has never happened and does not
repeat.
Generally The action repeats frequently but without a
pattern.
Hourly The action repeats every hour.
Monthly The action repeats every month.
Nightly The action repeats every night.
Now The action did not happen In the past but it
 repeats frequently in the present.
Quarterly The action repeats every three months.
Soon The action repeats every year
Today The action will start repeating after a certain
point in time.
weekly The action repeats every week.
Yearly The action repeats every year.

You can also say exactly how frequently you do an action:

every day (week, month, year...) in the morning (afternoon, evening, etc)
on Mondays (January, summer...) every other day (week, month, year...)
at night some days

Many adverbs that express frequency can also be placed at either the beginning or the end of
the sentence, although some cannot be. When they are placed in these alternate positions, the
meaning of the adverb is much stronger.

Adverb that can be used Stronger position Weaker position

in two positions
Frequently I visit France frequently. I frequently visit France.
Generally Generally, I don't like spicy I generally don't like spicy
foods. foods.
Normally I listen to classical music I normally listen to classical
normally. music.
Occasionally I go to the opera occasionally. I occasionally go to the opera.
Often Often, I jog in the morning. I often jog in the morning.
Regularly I come to this museum I regularly come to this
regularly. museum.
Sometimes I get up very early sometimes. I sometimes get up very early.
Usually I enjoy being with children I usually enjoy being with
usually. children.
Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner mainly modify verbs and tell us the way in which something happens. They
form the largest group of adverbs. We make most of them simply by adding -ly to their
corresponding adjective.

Common adverbs of manner

accidentally exactly painfully straight
angrily fast patiently stupidly
anxiously fatally perfectly successfully
badly foolishly politely suddenly
beautifully fortunately poorly suspiciously
bravely generously powerfully tenderly
carefully gently punctually thoughtfully
carelessly gladly quickly tightly
cautiously gracefully quietly truthfully
cheerfully happily rarely unexpectedly
clearly hard regularly victoriously
closely ingeniously reluctantly violently
correctly innocently repeatedly well
cruelly kindly sadly wildly
deliberately loudly safely wisely
eagerly madly sensibly  
easily mortally seriously  
elegantly mysteriously silently  
equally nervously slowly  
eventually openly smoothly  
 Order of adverbs of time and frequency.

If you need to use more than one adverb of time in a sentence, use them in this order:

1: how long 2: how often 3: when

 1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day.

 2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.
 1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.
 1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year.

2. Indefinite pronouns and relative pronouns (Pronombres indefinidos y

relativos).

2.1. Indefinite pronouns (Los pronombres indefinidos).

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and
"not definite". Some typical indefinite pronouns are:

 all, another, any, anybody/anyone, anything, each, everybody/everyone, everything,

few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody/someone

Many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look at "another" in the
following sentences:
 He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)
 I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of them can be singular
in one context and plural in another. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed below,
with examples, as singular, plural or singular/plural.

Notice that a singular pronoun takes a singular verb AND that any personal pronoun should also
agree (in number and gender).
Examples:
 Each of the players has a doctor.
 I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.

Similarly, plural pronouns need plural agreement:

 Many have expressed their views.

In the following chart you will find a guide to the most common indefinite pronouns.
  Pronoun Meaning Example
an aditional or different That ice-cream was good. Can I have
another person or thing another?
Anybody /
anyone no matter what person Can anyone answer this question?
The doctor needs to know if you have eaten
anything no matter what thing anything in the last two hours.
every one of two or more
people or things, seen
each separately Each has his own thoughts.
One or the other of two Do you want tea or coffee? / I don't mind.
either people or things Either is good for me.
as much or as many as
enough needed Enough is enough.
Everybody We can start the meeting because
/ everyone all people everybody has arrived.
They have no house or possessions. The lost
everything all things everything in the earthquake.
less a smaller amount "less is more"
Singular

little a small amount little is known about his early life.

much a large amount Much has happened since we met.
not one and not the other I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither
neither of two people or things believes me.
Nobody /
no-one no person I phoned many times but nobody answered.
no single thing, not If you don't know the answer it's best to say
nothing anything nothing.
Can one smoke here? / All th students
one an unidentified person arrived but now one is missing.
a different person or thing
from one already
other mentioned One was tall and the other was short.
Somebody an unspecified or unknown Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not
/ someone person suicide.
an unspecified or unknown Listen! I just heard something! What could it
something thing be?
an unidentified person
you (informal) And you can see why.
two people or things, seen John likes coffee but not tea. I think both
both together are good.
Plural

few a small number of people Few have ever disobeyed him and lived.
fewer a reduced number of Fewer are smoking these days.
 people or things
a large number of people
many or things Many have come already.
others other people; not us I'm sure that others have tried before us.
more then two but not They all complained and several left the
several many meeting.
they people in general They say that vegetables are good for you.
the whole quantity of
something or of some
all things or people All is forgiven./ All have arrived.
no matter how much or
any how many Is any left? / Are any coming?
a greater quantity of
something; a grater There is more over there. / More are
Singlular/Plural

more number of people or things coming.

most the mojority; nearly all Most is lost. / Most have refuse.
They fixed the water so why is none coming
not any; no person or out of the tap? / I invited five friends but
none persons none have come.
an unspecified quentity of
something; an unspecified
number of peopple or
some things Here is some. / Some have arrived.
of the type already He was a foreigner and he felt that he was
such mentioned treated as such.
2.2. Relative pronouns (Los pronombres relativos).

A relative pronoun is usually seen in a sentence at the beginning of an adjective clause. An

adjective clause functions as an adjective, modifying nouns and pronouns.

An adjective clause starts with either a relative adverb:

 where, when, and why
or a relative pronoun such as:
 that, who, whom, whose, or which

Example (with relative pronoun underlined and adjective clause in italics):

 The driver who ran the stop sign was careless.

Here is a full list of relative pronouns:

that, when, which, whichever, whichsoever, who, whoever, whosoever, whom, whomever,
whomsoever whose, whosesoever whatever, whatsoever

Following are examples of sentences that have adjective clauses starting with relative pronouns
(relative pronouns are underlined).

 Spaghetti, which many of us enjoy, can be messy.

 This is the book that everyone is talking about.
 She wrote to the person whom she had met last month.
 We didn’t bring the receipt, which was a big mistake.
 I have a friend whose cat is annoying.
 People who are clever can always find a way.
 Grandma remembers a time when radio shows were popular.
 Never go to a doctor whose office plants have died. - Erma Bombeck

Relative pronouns are similar to conjunctions in that they provide a link between a clause and
the balance of the sentence. The difference from conjunctions is that a relative pronoun doesn't
just bring attention to the clause. The relative pronoun actually plays the role of a noun in the
clause
3. Conjunctions (Conjunciones).
Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.

The following are the kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, adverbial and
subordinating.

Coordinating conjunctions

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

Reason
For e.g. The children slept all night, for the trip had been long and tiring (the
reason the children sleep is the long trip).
Group
And e.g. James likes to read and write (read and write belong to the category
"things James likes").
Negative grouping
Nor e.g. James doesn't like fishing nor hunting (fishing and hunting belong to
the category "things James doesn't like).
Opposing idea
But e.g. Tom wants to swim, but the pool is closed today (the closed pool
opposes Tom's desire).
Alternative
Or e.g. Tom can come back tomorrow or find another pool today (two
options).
Opposition with resolution
Yet e.g. Vicky didn't know the address, yet she arrived on time (she solved the
obstacle).
Consequence
So e.g. Danny studied all week, so he got a good score in the test (his good
score is a consequence of studying).
Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:

words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma
should be placed before the conjunction.
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses
creates a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and
requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction

Correlative Conjunctions

Mutually exclusive alternatives

either...or e.g. I can either drive to Mexico City and save money or take a
flight and save time. (I cannot do both).
Negative grouping
neither...nor e.g. James neither studies nor works, he is very lazy (study and
work belong to the category "things James doesn't do").
Available options
e.g. Fred doesn't know whether to buy flowers for his girlfriend or
Whether...or
buy jewelry for her. He is undecided (flowers and jewelry are some
of the options Fred has).
Group
e.g. Tom wants to both swim in the lake and climb a mountain in
Both...and
his next visit to Canada (swim... and climb... belong to the category
"things Tom wants to do in his next visit to Canada").
Group
not only...but also e.g. Tom can not only identify the problem in your car, but also fix
it (he can do both things).
Almost at the same time
no sooner...than e.g. Vicky no sooner bought a new cellphone than lost it again
(immediately after).
These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.

Adverbial Conjunctions

These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

After all In addition Next

Also Incidentally Nonetheless
As a result Indeed On the contrary
Besides In fact On the other hand
Consequently In other words Otherwise
Finally Instead Still
For example Likewise Then
Furthermore Meanwhile Therefore
Hence Moreover Thus
However Nevertheless

The easiest way of learning these conjunctions is to group them by function. If we understand
the type of connection they form, it will be easier to remember them.

Punctuation:
Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.
Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one
clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a

sentence.
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a
coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two
clauses. When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not
separate the two clauses with a comma.

Let's practice conjunctions together:

1. I like chicken ____ not fish.

A) And B) Since C) But D) For E) Or

2. ____ it rains on Sunday, I will not be able to drive.

A) And B) Where C) Either D) If E) How

3. I like both dogs ______ cats.

A) Also B) But C) And D) If E) Until

4. The items are on sale in the local store _____ not online.

A) But B) And C) Though D)Or E) Nor

5. Neither my mother _____ my father will be able to attend the party on Sunday.

A) Or B) But not C) And D) Nor E) But also

6. Carrie didn't know whether her bike would be fixed _____ if she would have to walk.

A) But B) And C) Nor D) Or E) Either

7. Luke was late to the party ______ his car broke down on the highway.

A) If B) Because C) While D) Although E) Where

Answers: 1.C 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.D 6.D 7.B

4. Comparatives and superlatives (Comparativos y superlativos).

Comparatives

We use comparatives to compare the qualities of two things or two people.

They are used in sentences where two nouns are compared, in these two patterns:

1. If the adjective has 1 or 2 syllables:

Noun (subject) + verb + adjective (er) + than + noun (object).

eg. This box is smaller than that other box.

2. Long adjectives:

Noun (subject) + verb + more / less + adjective + than + noun (object).

eg. She’s more intelligent than her sister.

You can also compare a noun to itself. When we do this, we can omit the conjunction than.
 Here we have some examples of comparatives.

 She is taller than Mary.

 Playing cards is quieter than playing video
 Mandarin is more difficult than English. games.

 A cup is smaller than a glass.
 This couch is more comfortable than mine.
 He is angrier today. [than last time.]
 I think this painting is more authentic than
that other one.
 You should go by train, it would be cheaper
than driving.

 My phone is more expensive than yours.  There are places more beautiful than
Niagara Falls.
 I think the portions were bigger than they
were last time.  Paris is prettier than New York.

 I think that she is more intelligent than her  You should be more sensible. [than what
sister. you are right now.]

Superlatives

Superlatives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a quality.
They are used in sentences where a subject is compared to a group of objects, in these two
patterns:

1. If the adjective has 1 or 2 syllables:

Noun (subject) + verb + the adjective (est).

eg. This box is the smallest.

2. Long adjectives:

Noun (subject) + verb + the + most / least + adjective.

eg. She is the most intelligent student in her class.

 Here we have some examples of comparatives.

 Mary is the most intelligent student of this  I think that she's the most intelligent
class. student.

 Mandarin is the most difficult language.  This is the quietest activity.

 This is the smallest glass I have.  I think this painting is the most authentic.

 This couch is the least comfortable couch.  The train is the cheapest way to travel.

 He is the angriest person in my family.  Rainbow Mountains is the most beautiful

 My phone is the least expensive phone.
 I think the portions were the biggest
portions I have ever eaten.
place.
 Paris is the prettiest city I have ever visited.
 I am the most talkative person in my family.

4.1. Comparatives and Superlatives’ list (Lista de comparativos y superlativos).

Adjective Comparative Superlative Adjective Comparative Superlative
Old older Oldest Young Younger Youngest
Cheap Cheaper Cheaper Expensive More expensive Most expensive
Slow Slower Slowest Fast Faster Fastest
Hot Hotter Hottest Cold Colder Coldest
Warm Warmer Warmest Cool Cooler Coolest
Rich Richer Richest Poor Poorer Poorest
Large Larger Largest Small Smaller Smallest
High Higher Highest Low Lower Lowest
Interesting More interesting Most interesting Boring More boring Most boring
Safe Safer Safest Dangerous More dangerous Most dangerous
Comfortable More Most comfortable Uncomfortable More Most
comfortable uncomfortable uncomfortable
Strong Stronger Strongest Weak Weaker Weakest
Wide Wider Widest Narrow Narrower Narrowest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest Stupid More stupid Most stupid
(stupider) (stupidest)
Deep Deeper Deepest Shallow Shallower Shallowest
Near Nearer Nearest Far Farther/further Farthest/furthest
tidy Tidier Tidiest Untidy More untidy Most untidy
(untidier) (untidiest)
Happy happier happiest Unhappy More unhappy Most unhappy
(unhappier) (unhappiest)
Irregular adjectives
A small number of adjectives are irregular in the way they make comparative and superlative
forms.

Adjective Comparative Superlative Example

Good Better The best Tara is the best athlete in the school.

Well (health) Better The best He is still in hospital, but he is better

than he was last week.
Bad Worse The worst You are the worst driver I have ever
known.
Far Farther/further Farthest/furthest My house is the furthest one.
My house is the farthest one.
Old (people in a Elder The eldest Ram is my elder brother.
family)
Old (general use) older The oldest Your teacher is older than my
teacher.

5. Gerund (Gerundio).
The gerund looks exactly the same as a present participle, but it is useful to understand the
difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it
looks like a verb).

The gerund as the subject of the sentence

Examples:
 Eating people is wrong.
 Hunting tigers is dangerous.
 Flying makes me nervous.
 Brushing your teeth is important.
 Smoking causes lung cancer.

The gerund as the complement of the verb 'to be'

Examples:
 One of his duties is attending meetings.
 The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.
 One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.
The gerund after prepositions

The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition. This is also true of certain
expressions ending in a preposition, for example the expressions in spite of and there's no point
in.

Examples:
 Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
 She is good at painting.
 She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
 We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
 My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.
 There's no point in waiting.
 In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.

The gerund after phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are composed of a verb + preposition or adverb.

Examples:
 When will you give up smoking?
 She always puts off going to the dentist.
 He kept on asking for money.
 Jim ended up buying a new TV after his old one broke.

There are some phrasal verbs that include the word "to" as a preposition for example to look
forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to get around to, and to be used to. It is
important to recognize that the word "to" is a preposition in these cases because it must be
followed by a gerund. It is not part of the infinitive form of the verb. You can check whether
"to" is a preposition or part of the infinitive. If you can put the pronoun "it" after the word "to"
and form a meaningful sentence, then the word "to" is a preposition and must be followed by a
gerund.

Examples:
 I look forward to hearing from you soon.
 I look forward to it.
 I am used to waiting for buses.
 I am used to it.
 She didn't really take to studying English.
 She didn't really take to it.
 When will you get around to mowing the grass?
 When will you get around to it?
The gerund in compound nouns

In compound nouns using the gerund, it is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a
continuous verb. For example, with the word "swimming pool" it is a pool for swimming in, it is
not a pool that is swimming.

Examples:
 I am giving Sally a driving lesson.
 They have a swimming pool in their back yard.
 I bought some new running shoes.

The gerund after some expressions

The gerund is necessary after the expressions can't help, can't stand, to be worth, & it's no use.

Examples:
 She couldn't help falling in love with him.
 I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
 It's no use trying to escape.
 It might be worth calling the station to check the time of the train.

6. Questions (Las preguntas).

6.1. Building questions (Construir preguntas).

We can recognize a question in English by looking at the structure of the sentence, in other
words questions mostly follow the same structures.

In English we generally have two ways to make questions:

 Using interrogative pronouns (what, when, who, whom, where, which, why, and how).
 Using auxiliaries (to be in all forms, do/does, did, have, can, will, would, should, could,
may, shall, have, had, etc).
Interrogative pronouns

We use this type of questions when information is requested (also called open questions).
The structure for these que questions is as follows:

Subject + auxiliary + subject + verb + ?

What Used to ask general information about people or objects.

 What do you want for dinner?
 What is your friend’s name?
 What time are we supposed to be there?
 I wonder what we’re doing tomorrow.
When Used to ask questions about time and dates.
 When is your birthday?
 When will you go on vacation?
 When do you celebrate Mexico’s Independence?
 When did you get here?
Who/whom Used to ask questions about people.
 Who is that?
 Who was driving the car?
 Whom did you speak to?
 Whom do you prefer to vote for?
Where Used to ask questions about locations and places.
 Where do you live?
 Where are you from?
 Where will you live in 5 years?
 Where did you go on your birthday?
Why Used to ask about the reason of an action or state.
 Why are you here?
 Why do you like that car?
 Why would you think of buying a house?
 Why can bees fly?
Which Used to ask questions with available options.
 Which color do you prefer?
 Which of these ladies is your mother?
 She asked which train to take.
 Which seat would you like?
How Used to ask about states, instructions, descriptions, manner,
quantifiers.
 How are you?
 How do you change a tire?
 How big is Mexico city?
Auxiliary questions (yes/no questions)

We use these questions when the answer to it is either yes or no.

The structure for these questions is as follows:

auxiliary + subject + verb + ?

Examples:

Am I your friend?
Does she want to stay?
Can dogs swim?

To respond to these questions we use the same auxiliary as the question (sometimes we adjust
for subject).

 Am I your friend? --- Yes you are.

 Does she want to stay? ----- no, she doesn’t.
 Can dogs swim? ------ yes they can.
 Would you like some water? ----- yes I would.

6.2. Tag questions (Las preguntas coletillas).

A tag question (also question tag) is a small question that follows a statement. They are used to
ask for confirmation from the precious statement. They are often used for checking information
that we think we know is true. here are lots of different question tags but the rules are not
difficult to learn.

Positive/negative
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative …..

 He’s a doctor, isn’t he?

 You work in a bank, don’t you?

... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

 You haven’t met him, have you?

 She isn’t coming, is she?
With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb
(have, be, can, will, etc) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

 They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?

 They weren’t here, were they?
 He had met him before, hadn’t he?
 This isn’t working, is it?
 They couldn’t hear me, could they?
 You won’t tell anyone, will you?

7. Tenses (Tiempos verbales: pasado).

7.1. Past simple (Pasado simple).

This tense is used to express that an action happened and finished in the past.

Structure
Subject + verb (past)

In English there is only one conjugation for past simple.

Positive statements

Regular and Irregular verbs

However, there are two types of verbs: regular and irregular verbs.

Regular Irregular

Add "ed" to the verb ("ied", "d") Use the appropriate form

play............played eat............ate

study..........studied wear..........wore

joke............joked read...........read

 I worked in the hospital three years ago.

 She slept in the office last night.
 My family and I went to the same movie theater last week.
 He photographed the park in front of his house two days ago.
 You ate sea food yesterday.
  My lizard killed small insects last month.
 My friends studied for the test on Sunday.
 My sister read the report in the morning.

Negations

Past simple: negations and questions

In English we need a word to help us construct a negative sentence, or a question. We call this
word the auxiliary.

For Past simple, the auxiliary is the verb do in the past: did.

When we use an auxiliary, we conjugate the auxiliary, and the verb stays in base form.

Structure

Subject + did not + verb (base form)

(didn't)

 I did not work in the hospital yesterday.

 She did not work in the office last night.
 My family and I did not go to the same movie theater last night.
 He did not photograph the park in front of his house in the morning.
 You did not eat sea food two nights ago.
 My cat did not kill small insects at noon.
 My friends did not study for the test a month ago.
 My sister did not study at night.

Questions

Structure
Did + subject + verb (base form) + ?

 Did I work in the hospital?

 Did she work in the office?
 Did my family and I go to the same movie theater?
 Did he go to the park in front of his house?
 Did you eat sea food? Did my lizard eat small insects?
 Did my friends study before the test?
 Did my sister study at night?
7.2. Past continuous (Pasado continuo).

These tenses are used to express that an action was happening at a specific moment in the
past.

Structures
Positive
Subject + to be + verb (ing)
(past: was / were)
Negation
Subject + to be + not + verb (ing)

Question
To be + subject + verb (ing) + ?

 My co-workers and I were designing a new building at that moment

 I was not reading the reports two days ago.
 You are not learning new things as we speak.
 was she currently buying a car?
 Were you fixing your car yesterday?

When and while

When

Past progressive is sometimes used along with past simple to indicate that an action was
happening and that a second action interrupted the first one. To indicate that this we use the
conjunction when.

 I was watching TV when the electricity went out.

 My sister was reading a book when you called her.
 Robert and Dennis were running when it started to rain.
 The birds were flying when I asked you to film them.
 While

Past progressive is also sometimes used to indicate that an action was happening at the same
time as a second action. To indicate parallel actions we use the conjunction while.
he actions may be expressed in past progressive or in past simple (or combined).

 Ralph was reading the newspaper while I was listening

to music.
 While I slept, my brother was washing the dishes.
 Greg was painting the walls while Ginna was fixing the
door.
 Henry wrote a poem while Betty edited the footage.

8. Present perfect tenses (tiempos presentes perfectos).

8.1. Present perfect (Presente perfecto).

This tense is used to express that an action started in the past and continues to the present or
an action has happened multiple times in the past.

Structure
Statements
Subject (I, you, we, they) + have + verb (past participle)

Subject (she, he, it) + has + verb (past participle)

In English there are two conjugations for present perfect

Regular and Irregular verbs

Remember, there are two types of verbs: regular and irregular verbs.

Regular Irregular
Add "ed" to the verb ("ied", "d") Use the appropriate form

play............played eat............eaten

study..........studied wear..........worn

joke............joked read...........read
Examples:

 I have patiently waited in the hospital.

 She has tirelessly worked in the office.
 My family and I have accidentally gone to the same movie theater.
 He has happily played in the park in front of his house.
 You have ingeniously fixed the toilet.My lizard has voraciously eaten small insects.
 My friends have seriously studied for the test.
 My sister has carefully read the reports.

Present perfect: negations

Subject (I, you, we, they) + have not + verb (past participle)
(haven't)

Subject (she, he, it) + has not + verb (past participle)

(hasn't)

 I have not patiently waited in the hospital.

 She has not tirelessly worked in the office.
 My family and I have not accidentally gone to the same movie theater.
 He has not happily played in the park.
 You have not ingeniously fixed the toilet.
 My cat has not voraciously killed small insects.
 My friends have not seriously studied for the test.
 My sister has not carefully read the reports.

Questions
Have + subject (I, you, we, they) + verb (past participle) + ?

Has + subject (he, she, it) + verb (past participle) + ?

Examples:

 Have I patiently worked in the hospital?

 Has she worked tirelessly in the office?
 Have my family and I accidentally gone to the same movie theater?
 Has he happily played in the park?
 Have you ingeniously fixed the toilet?
 Has my lizard voraciously eaten small insects?
 Have my friends seriously studied before the test?
 Has my sister carefully read the reports?
8.2. Present perfect continuous or present perfect progressive (Presente perfecto
continuo).

Present perfect progressive is used to express that an action had started in the past and it has
continued until now (these will usually have "since" with a point in time or "for" to indicate a
period of time or to express actions that have stopped recently.

Statements structure

subject + have + been + verb (progressive form)

subject + has + been + verb (progressive form)

Examples:
 I have been waiting for you for three hours.
 They have been playing soccer for years.
 Maria has been swimming for the entire afternoon.
 They have been talking for the last hour.
 She has been working at that company for three years.
 You have been doing homework for the last 30 minutes.
 James has been teaching at the university since June.
 We have been standing in line for two hours.
 Nancy has been taking her medicine for the last three days.
 You have been sleeping for 12 hours.

Negations structure

Subject + have not + been + verb (progressive form)

Subject + has not + been + verb (progressive form)

Examples:
 I have not been waiting for long.
 They have not been playing soccer since 1994.
 Maria has not been swimming since the last time
 They have not been talking for the past three days.
 She has not been working at that company for long.
 You have not been doing homework for a week.
 James has not been teaching at the university for two months.
 We have not been standing in line for long.
 Nancy has not been taking her medicine for the last three days
 You have not been sleeping.
Questions structure

Have + subject + been + verb (progressive form)

Has + subject + been + verb (progressive form)

Examples:
 have you been waiting for me for three hours?
 Have they been playing soccer for the last hour?
 Has Maria been swimming for the entire afternoon?
 Have they been talking for the last hour?
 Has she been working at that company for three years?
 Have you been doing homework for the last 30 minutes?
 Has James been teaching at the university since June?
 have you been standing in line for two hours?
 Has Nancy been taking her medicine for the last three days?
 Have you been sleeping for 12 hours?

8.3. Present perfect and past simple (Presente perfecto y el pasado simple).

To compare these tenses you can refer to the structures previously discussed.
Remember that in past simple the action started and ended in the past, and in present perfect
the action started and ended in the past possibly in multiple occasions or it is possible to
happen again.
9. Past perfect (Tiempos verbales: pasado perfecto).
9.1. Pasado perfecto.

This tense is used to express that an action started and ended in the past, before another action
in the past. Also it is used for an action that happened multiple times in the past and it is no
longer possible.

Structure
Statements
Subject + had + verb (past participle)

In English there is only one conjugation for past perfect.

Regular and Irregular verbs

As you learned in previous sessions, there are two types of verbs: regular and irregular verbs.
You can refer to Irregular verbs list

Regular Irregular
Add "ed" to the verb ("ied", "d") Use the appropriate form

play............played eat............eaten

study..........studied wear..........worn

joke............joked read...........read

Examples:
 I had patiently waited in the hospital for an hour when the doctor told me the news.
 She had tirelessly worked in the office, so she fell asleep.
 My family and I had accidentally gone to the wrong movie theater, so we drove to the
correct one.
 He had happily played in the park in front of his house when it started to rain.
 You had ingeniously fixed the toilet, but it broke again yesterday.
 My lizard had voraciously eaten small insects the night before I gave it its food.
 My friends had seriously studied for the test a week before they took it.
 My sister had carefully read the reports by the time she made her decision.
Past perfect: negations
Subject + had not + verb (past participle)
(hadn't)

 I had not patiently waited in the hospital.

 She had not tirelessly worked in the office.
 My family and I had not accidentally gone to the same movie theater.
 He had not happily played in the park.
 You had not ingeniously fixed the toilet.
 My cat had not voraciously killed small insects.
 My friends had not seriously studied for the test.
 My sister had not carefully read the reports.

Question
Had + subject + verb (past participle) + ?

Examples:
 Had I patiently worked in the hospital?
 Had she worked tirelessly in the office?
 Had my family and I accidentally gone to the same movie theater?
 Had he happily played in the park ?
 Had you ingeniously fixed the toilet?
 Had my lizard voraciously eaten small insects?
 Had my friends seriously studied before the test?
 Had my sister carefully read the reports?
9.2. past perfect continuous or past perfect progressive (Pasado perfecto continuo).

This tense is used to express that an action was completed in the past, before another action in
the past. Also it is used for an action that was happening in the past at the same time of
another action.

Structures

Statements
subject + had + been + verb (progressive form)

Negations
Subject + had not + been + verb (progressive form)

Questions
had + subject + been + verb (progressive form)

Examples

We had been sleeping for 12 hours when he woke us up.

They had been waiting at the station for 90 minutes when the train finally arrived.
We had been looking for her ring for two hours and then we found it in the bathroom.
I had not been walking for a long time, when it suddenly started to rain.
How long had she been learning English before she went to London?
Frank Sinatra caught the flu because he had been singing in the rain for too long.
He had been driving less than an hour when he ran out of gas.
They were very tired in the evening because they had been helping on the farm all day.
I had not been working all day; so I wasn’t tired and went to the disco at night.
They had been riding their bikes all day so their legs were sore in the evening.
10. Future perfect (Tiempos verbales: futuro perfecto).
10.1. Future perfect (Futuro perfecto).

The future perfect tense refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we
are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be
completed sometime later than now. It is most often used with a time expression.
This tense is also used to express that an action will have finished after another action in the
future.

There are two structures that can be used for this tense: will and going to.

Will

Statements
Subject + will + have + verb (past participle)

Negations
Subject + will + have not + verb (past participle)
Subject + won’t + have + verb (past participle)

Questions
Will + have + subject + verb (past participle)

Going to

Statements
Subject + to be + going to + have + verb (past participle)

Negations
Subject + to be + not + going to + have + verb (past participle)

Questions
To be + subject + going to + have + subject + verb (past participle)

Examples:
 I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.
 By the time you read this I will have left.
 You will have finished your report by this time next week.
 Won't they have arrived by 5:00?
 Will you have eaten when I pick you up?
10.2. Future perfect continuous (El futuro perfecto continuo).

Like the future perfect simple, this form is used to project ourselves forward in time and to look
back. It refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time are unfinished.
It is most often used with a time expression.

There are two structures that can be used for this tense: will and going to.

Will

Statements
Subject + will + have + been + verb (continuous)

Negations
Subject + will + have not + been + verb (continuous)

Questions
Will + have + subject + been + verb (continuous)
Going to

Statements
Subject + to be + going to + have + been + verb (continuous)

Negations
Subject + to be + not + going to + have + been + verb (continuous)

Questions
To be + subject + going to + have + subject + been + verb (continuous)

Examples:
 I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock.
 By 2001 I will have been living in London for sixteen years.
 When I finish this course, I will have been learning English for twenty years.
 Next year I will have been working here for four years.
 When I come at 6:00, will you have been practicing long?

11. Passive voice (La voz pasiva).

Active and Passive voice
Before we review what Passive voice is, we need to clarify the meaning of some grammatical
concepts:
Subject: Who we talk about. The most important noun in the sentence.

Mike goes to school.

Agent: Who/what does the action.

Mike eats a sandwich.

Object: Who/what receives the action.

Mike eats a sandwich.

Intransitive verbs: Verbs that do not require or take objects.

Daniel sleeps.

Transitive verbs: Verbs that require one or more objects.

Jenny cuts hair.
 Active voice

In this example, the subject is She, the agent is She, the object is the piano, and the transitive
verb is play (in past simple).

When we follow this order, Agent (subject) → verb → object, we call it Active voice.

In active voice, the verb takes the tense (to indicate the tense, we conjugate the verb).

 Tim works with stone. (present simple)  Ringo played the drums. (past simple)
 Hilda has hiked the hills. (present perfect)  Dennis will read a magazine. (future - will)

Passive voice

However, sometimes the subject is not the agent (omg!), but actually the object is the subject.
This may happen for one of two reasons:

 We don't know who the agent is. (we don't know)

 The agent is irrelevant or obvious. (we don't care)

When we follow this order: Object (subject) → verb → agent, we call it Passive voice.

But wait a minute, wouldn't that be confusing?, you may ask. Yes it would. For that reason, we
add two more things into the mix:

Object (subject) → to be → verb (past participle) → by → agent.

This way it is always clear who/what does the action and who/what receives the action.

In passive voice, the auxiliary to be takes the tense (it is conjugated, while the verb always
stays in past participle.)

 My car will be fixed by Greg. (future - will)

  Food is given to homeless people every day. (present simple) [no agent]
Let's compare both voices:

1) The words _________________ by the teacher today. (to explain - Simple Present)
2) We _________________ a letter the day before yesterday. (to send - Simple Past)
3) This car _________________. It's too old. (not/to steal - will-future)
4) This street _________________ because of snow. (already/to close - Present Perfect)
5) A new restaurant _________________ next week. (to open - will-future)
6) He _________________ to the party yesterday. (to invite - Simple Past)
7) The blue box _________________. (can/not/to see - Simple Present)
8) I _________________ the book by my friend last Sunday. (to give - Simple Past)
9) The dishes _________________ by my little brother. (not/to wash - Present Perfect)
10) I _________________ by Robert. (not/to ask - will-future)
12. Modals (Verbos modales).
Modals are different from normal verbs:

1: They don't use an 's' for the third person singular.

2: They make questions by inversion ('she can go' becomes 'can she go?').
3: They are followed directly by the base form of another verb.

Here's a list of the modal verbs in English:

Can May Will Must Should

Could Might Would Shall Ought to

Probability:
First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something happened / is
happening / will happen. We often call these 'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or
'certainty' or 'probability'.

Examples:

 It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.

 I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
 This bill can't be right. $200 for two cups of coffee!

Ability
We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.

Examples:
 She can speak six languages.
 My grandfather could play golf very well.
 I can't drive.

Obligation and Advice

We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary or unnecessary,
or to give advice.

Examples:
Children must do their homework.
We have to wear a uniform at work.
You should stop smoking.
Permission
We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission. We also use
modal verbs to say something is not allowed.

Examples:
 Could I leave early today, please?
 You may not use the car tonight.
 Can we swim in the lake?

Habits
We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did in the past.

Examples:
When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.
John will always be late!
13. Direct and indirect speech also known as reported speech (Estilo
directo e indirecto).
If you have a sentence in Direct Speech, try to follow our 5 steps to put the sentence into
Reported Speech.

1. Define the type of the sentence (statement, questions, command)

2. What tense is used in the introductory sentence?
3. Do you have to change the person (pronoun)?
4. Do you have to backshift the tenses?
5. Do you have to change expressions of time and place?

1. Statements, Questions, Commands

Mind the type of sentences when you use Reported Speech.

 Statements
 Questions
 Commands, Requests

2. The introductory sentence

If you use Reported Speech there are mostly two main differences.

The introductory sentence in Reported Speech can be in the Present or in the Past.

If the introductory sentences is in the Simple Present, there is no backshift of tenses.

Direct Speech:
Susan: “Mary works in an office.”

Reported Speech:
Introductory sentence in the Simple Present → Susan says (that)* Mary works in an office.
Introductory sentence in the Simple Past → Susan said (that)* Mary worked in an office.

3. Change of persons/pronouns
If there is a pronoun in Direct Speech, it has possibly to be changed in Reported Speech,
depending on the situation.

Direct Speech → Susan: “I work in an office.”

Reported Speech → Susan said (that)* she worked in an office.
Here I is changed to she.
4. Backshift of tenses
If there is backshift of tenses in Reported Speech, the tenses are shifted the following way.

Direct Speech → Peter: “I work in the garden.”

Reported Speech → Peter said (that)* he worked in the garden.
5. Conversion of expressions of time and place
If there is an expression of time/place in the sentence, it may be changed, depending on the
situation.

Direct Speech → Peter: “I worked in the garden yesterday.”

Reported Speech → Peter said (that) he had worked in the garden the day before.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

this evening that evening
today/this day that day
these days those days
now then
a week ago a week before
last weekend the weekend before / the previous weekend
next week the following week
tomorrow the next/following day
here there

Additional information
In some cases backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true. Backshift
of tenses is never wrong.

 John: “My brother is at Leipzig university.”

 John said (that) his brother was at Leipzig university. or
 John said (that) his brother is at Leipzig university.

or

when you use general statements.

 Mandy: “The sun rises in the east.”

 Mandy said (that) the sun rose in the east. or
 Mandy said (that) the sun rises in the east.

* The word that is optional, that is the reason why I put it in brackets.
14. Conditionals (Frases condicionales).
Conditionals are structures of two clauses, with a specific relationship between the two: one is
a condition, the second is the result if the condition is met.

The condition-clause always starts with the conjunction if.

If condition, result.

or

Result if condition.

Sometimes the condition is possible, sometimes speculation, sometimes impossible.

Sometimes the result is always true, sometimes a prediction or opinion, and sometimes
speculation.

Conditionals are classified as zero, first, second and third conditional depending on the type of
the condition and result.

Zero conditional

This type is used when the result of the condition is always true, such as scientific facts.

If present simple, present simple.

Examples
 If you do not drink liquids in two days, you dehydrate.
 This plant dies if it doesn't get sunlight.
 The drains clog up if the people leave trash on the streets.
 If you are absent without notice for two days, you get fired.
First conditional

This type is used when the result of the condition is a prediction, or an opinion. Usually the
result is highly likely to happen; however, it is not 100% certain.

If present simple, future (will).

Examples
 If you don't study for the test, you will fail it.
 Anna will get burned if she keeps playing with fire.
 You will miss the interview if you do not hurry.
 If the team keeps playing this way, they won't win the championship.

Second conditional

This type is used when the result of the condition is pure speculation about a possible situation.
Usually the condition is not likely to happen.

If past simple, would/could + verb (base form).

Examples
 If I were a millionaire, I would buy an airplane.
 This plant would grow faster if it got sunlight.
 The planet Earth would regenerate and heal itself if humans disappeared forever.
 If Jeremy swam in competitions, he would beat everyone else.

Third conditional

This type is used when the result of the condition is pure speculation about a situation in the
past. Therefore the condition is impossible to be met (unless you have a modified DeLorean
DeLorean).

The result is also impossible.

If past perfect, would/could + have + verb (past participle).

e.g.

 If you had studied, you would have passed the test.

 The album would have sold more copies if the company had promoted it more.
 Ted could have worked in the company if he hadn't decided to study a master's degree.
 If I had gone to your party, I would have danced with Estelle.
15. Phrasal verbs (Verbos frasales).
A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a
preposition, or both. Typically, their meaning is not obvious from the meanings of the individual
words themselves.

Examples:
 She has always looked down on me.
 Fighting broke out among a group of 40 men.
 I’ll see to the animals.
 Don’t put me off, I’m trying to concentrate.
 The report spelled out the need for more staff.

For instance, in the first example, the phrasal verb ‘to look down on someone’ doesn’t mean
that you are looking down from a higher place at someone who is below you; it means that you
think that you are better than someone.