Partial Perspective of Philosophy Philosophy

● the focus is the human person in ● Philos or Phileim

relation to self: his intellect and free ○ means “love”
will as a unique individual ● Sophia
(psychology) limited in his own ○ means “wisdom”
capacity to do good (ethics), know ● “Love for wisdom”
(epistemology) and his place in the ● Philosophy is also defined as the
society (political philosophy). science that by the natural light of
Holistic Perspective reason studies the first causes or
● the human person is seen as a whole highest principles of all things.
or its entire functioning system ○ Science
■ An organized body of
Three Reasons why the human person relates knowledge
to himself and others ■ Systematic
● Survival ■ Follows certain steps
● Gregariousness or procedures
○ The human is in need of ○ Natural light of reason
understanding approval and ■ Philosopher’s natural
support capacity to think or
● Specialization human reason or the
○ cultural groups (Ilocanos, so-called unaided
Bicolanos, Cebuanos, Tagalogs, reason
Pangasinenses, Muslims) ○ Study of all things
desire to form themselves into ■ Makes philosophy
one association, organization, distinct from other
club, varsitarian, or society. sciences because it is
Value of Philosophy not one dimensional
● Enables the student to study and learn or partial
various branches and divisions of ■ Does not limit himself
philosophy to a particular object
● Helps students to develop the ability inquiry
to form opinions and beliefs ■ Multidimensional or
● Helps students to be resilient and holistic
philosophically calm in the face of Philosopher
disorder ● Identified as a lover of wisdom
● It deepens the student’s awareness ● Attainment of wisdom is a lifelong
● Be creative, imaginative, and open to process, being wise helps students to
new think in the precise, clear, and
● Develop clear concepts systematic manner
Wisdom
● Good exercise or application of
knowledge
Truth
● The ultimate object of knowledge,
hence truth is being shown or practice
by the man of wisdom
Philosophize
● Therefore is to be in a quest or have
the desire to have the living truth
Chinese philosophy
● Zhe Xue
○ Zhe - means wisdom
○ Xue - study
● Philosophy to them is the translation
of words into action or the application
of theory into practice
Hindu Philosophy
● Darsana
○ Seeing not only through the
eyes but through the whole
being of the one that sees.
● Seeing the whole reality through a
total advertence (heedful) and
involvement of a looker
Pythagoras (500-580 BC)
● Greek mathematician and philosopher
at the same time claimed that he was
a lover of wisdom
Ariola (1989)
● Explained that Philosophy is the sum
of all men’s beliefs and views about
the real world which guide their
actions
Dictionary
● Defined philosophy as the love or
pursuit of wisdom, the search for
basic principles
Encyclopedia Americana (2013)
● Philosophy is rational critical thinking
more or less systematic kind about
the conduct of life, the general nature
of the world, and the justification of
belief
Pinion (1995)
● Philosophy is the science of things by
their ultimate principles and causes as
known by natural reason alone
First Cause or Highest Principle
● Principle of identity
○ States that contradictory
statements cannot be both
true in the same sense at the
same time
● Principle of Non-Contradiction
○ It is impossible for a thing to
be and not to be at the same
time
● Principle of Excluded Middle
○ A thing is either is or is not;
between being and not-being,
there is no middle ground
possible
● Principle of Sufficient Reason
○ Nothing exists without
sufficient reason for its being
and existence
○ Everything must have a cause
Branches of Philosophy
Metaphysics
● An extension of a fundamental and
necessary drive in every human being
to know what is real
● Metaphysician
○ Is tasked to explain that part
of our experience which we
call unreal in terms of what
we call real
● Thales
○ He claims that everything we
experience is water “reality”
and everything else is
“appearance”
● Idealist and Materialist Epistemology
○ Their theories are based on ● Deals with nature, sources,
unobservable entities: mind limitations, and validity of knowledge
and matter ○ How we know what we claim
○ They explain the observable in to know
terms of unobservable ○ How can we find out what we
● Plato wish to know
○ Nothing we experience in the ○ How can we differentiate truth
physical world with our five from falsehood
senses is real ● It addresses varied problems:
○ Reality is unchanging, eternal, reliability, extent, and kinds of
immaterial, and can be knowledge, truth, language, and
detected only by the intellect science and scientific knowledge
○ He calls these realities as ideas
of forms Source of knowledge
● Ethics ● Induction
○ Explores the nature of moral ○ Gives importance to particular
virtue and evaluates human things seen, heard, and
actions touched
○ It is a study of the nature of ○ Forms general ideas through
moral judgments the examination of particular
○ Provide an account of our facts
fundamental ethical ideas ○ Empiricist
○ Insists that obedience to ■ Advocates of the
moral law be given a rational induction method
foundation ○ Empiricism
● Socrates ■ Is the view that
○ To be happy is to live a knowledge can be
virtuous life attained only through
○ Virtue a sense of experience
■ Is an awakening of ● Deduction
seeds of good deeds ○ Gives importance to general
that lay dormant in the law from which particular
mind and heart of a facts are understood or judged
person which can be ○ Rationalist
achieved through ■ Advocates of
self-knowledge deduction method
● William Edward Burghardt Du Bois ■ Real knowledge is
○ An African-American who based on the logic,
wanted equal rights for blacks the laws, and the
○ He uses the same process as methods that reason
Hegel’s Dialectic (antithesis, develops
thesis, synthesis)
 ● Pragmatism
○ The meaning and truth of an
idea are tested by its practical
consequences
Logic
● The reasoning is the concern of the
logician
● Came from the Greek word logike
coined by Zeno, the stoic (c 265-340
BC), which means a treatise on
matters pertaining to the human
thought
Aristotle
● The first philosopher to devise a
logical method
● Truth
○ means the agreement of
knowledge with reality
● Logical reasoning
○ Makes us certain that our
conclusions are true
Zeno of Citium
● One of the successors of Aristotle and
founder of Stoicism
Aesthetics
● It is the science of the beautiful in its
various manifestations
● It vitalizes our knowledge
○ It makes our knowledge of the
world alive and useful
● It helps us to live more deeply and
richly
○ A work of art helps us to rise
from purely physical existence
into the realm of intellect and
the spirit
● It brings us in touch with our culture
○ The answers of great minds in
the past to the great problems
of human life are part of our
culture
Hans-Georg Gadamer
● A German philosopher argues that our
tastes and judgments regarding
beauty work in connection with one’s
personal experience and culture
● Our culture consists of the values and
beliefs of our time and society
Platos’ Cave of Allegory
● Distinguish appearance from reality.
● Explain enlightenment
● Introduce the Theory of Forms - Ideas
● Plato claimed that knowledge gained
through the senses is no more than
opinion and that, in order to have real
knowledge, we must gain it through
philosophical reasoning.
Allegory of the cave
● Speaks of ignorance of humanity
trapped in the conventional ethics
formed by the society
Symbols
● Prisoners
○ Human beings trapped in their
personal world
● Shadows
○ The space we received in this
spatiotemporal world-
shadows of truth
● Puppets
○ Forms that cause the shadows
we experience- true
knowledge
● Freed Prisoner
○ The philosopher who does not
understand reality and will
eventually be killed for his
beliefs
● The Sun
○ The essential form of
goodness- the source of forms
of truth
Interpretation:
Individual
● All of us have an individual ‘cave’ of
our own, where we live a comfortable,
happy, and familiar life. But in reality,
we are ‘prisoners” of the truth’.
Political
● politicians resemble the puppeteer
who cast or control what we should
and shouldn’t see. They manipulate
the masses who perceive the shadows
they see as reality.
Religious
● They claim to understand the world
based on the shadows and so are not
able to perceive the truth.
Form
● It is not a shape but the essence of an
object
Plato’s theory of Forms
● According to Plato(Idealist), we live
in a poor imitation of the real world
● Our world is constantly changing and
we rely on our senses to understand
what is going on
● This real-world is unchanging and
eternal. It is the world of ideas not
senses, where there are perfect forms
of things we know on earth
● Plato believes that the real world is
actually composed of pure forms or
essences
● The world of forms contain a perfect
idea, of the thing it is representing
● We perceive the shadows of forms to
our physical world
Two distinct levels of reality
● The visible world of sights and sound
we inhabit,
● and the intelligible world of form that
stands above the visible world and
gives meaning.
Aristotle theory of Form & Matter
● Form
○ Aristotle relieved that the
form of a thing was not an
abstract entity, but rather that
is common to all things
● Matter & Form
○ All substances are composed
of matter
○ According to Aristotle
(Realist), the form of human is
the soul
Four Causes
● Episteme (scientific knowledge)
● It comes from experience
○ Material Cause - Matter
○ Formal Cause - Essence
○ Efficient Cause - Agent
○ Final Cause - Purpose
Filipino Values
Extreme Personalism
● Personal interpretations of actions,
and take things personally.
Extreme Family Centeredness
● Excessive concern for the family may
lead to compromising the concern of a
larger community.
● The use of one’s office and power as a
means of promoting the interest of the
family (political dynasties)
Lack of Discipline
● This is manifested in a casual and
relaxed attitude towards time and
space.
● Aversion for following strictly a set of
rules or procedures
● Impatient and unable to delay
gratification, resulting to shortcuts or
palusot syndrome, guilty of ningas
cogon
Passivity and lack of initiative
● Strong reliance on others (leaders,
government)
● Tends to be complacent and rarely,
treats a sense of urgency about any
problem
● Too easily resigned to one’s fate. Thus,
Filipinos are easily oppressed and
exploited.
Colonial Mentality
● Lack of patriotism, or active
appreciation of the love of the
Philippines
● Actual preference for things foreign
● Adaptive of foreign elements,
● Not built around a deep core of
Philippine history and language
Lack of Self Analysis
● Joke on the most serious matter
● We tend to be superficial
● We are “maporma” rather than on
substance
The Person as Embodied Spirit
Transcendence
● Transcendental and transcendence
convey a basic ground concept from
the words’ literal meaning (from
Latin), of climbing or going beyond,
with varying connotations in its
different historical and cultural stages.
Blaise Pascal
● There is a God-shaped vacuum in the
heart of every man which cannot be
filled by any created thing but only by
God, the Creator, made known
through Jesus Christ
Thomas Merton
● There is no other way to find who we
are than by finding in ourselves the
divine image. We have to struggle to
regain spontaneous and vital
awareness of our own spirituality.
● There is no other way to find who we
are than by finding in ourselves the
divine image.
● The American Trappist monk gave the
name “Father Louis”
● “In the end, no one can seek God
unless he has already begun to find
Him. No one can find God without
having first been found by Him.”
Stewardship
● Means creation does not belong to
humanity but to God
● They are often contrasted with the
idea of ownership. We are caretakers
of God’s valuable possession
Humanity
● Is responsible for the environment,
care, and well being of all created
things
Humans
● Shared characteristics not shared by
other beings in the creation
Conscience
● “knowledge within oneself” oxford
dictionary.
● “The voice of our true selves which
summons us” St Thomas Aquinas.
● “The inbuilt monitor of moral action
of choice values.” Macquarrie.
 ● It is the thing by which we make our
moral decisions and tell us what is the
correct action to take.
● Having a conscience is what makes us
responsible for moral responsibility. It
is what makes us human.
Free Will
● Humans have a moral conscience and
free will to pursue whatever course of
action they wish.
● Free will, in humans, is the power or
capacity to choose among alternatives
or to act in certain situations
independently of natural, social, or
divine restraints. - Britannica
“Created in the image of God”
● Imago Dei
○ Like God, but not physically,
for God is spirit
● A Soul
○ Spark of the divine
● Personalities
○ Godlike
● We are able to reason, love, think,
understand, reflect
● We are able to form relationships with
others and with God
● We have power and responsibilities
● We have Free will
Augustine of Hippo
● He is one of the most important early
figures in the development of
western Christianity and was a
major figure in bringing Christianity
to dominance in the previously pagan
Roman Empire.
● He wrote the reasons on the belief of
the existence of God
Theistic Hypothesis
● There is a perfect being who freely
chose to create the cosmos and all its
laws, which latter are fine-tuned to
permit the existence of life
● The total available evidence
comparison of these involves many
other areas of philosophy
6 proofs that God exists
1. The universe must have a cause
a. The law of cause and effect -
“For every material effect we
see, there is a cause that came
before it or was simultaneous
to it, and that is greater than
it"
b. What causes the universe -
perhaps a singularity it is
something that popped into
existence from nothing
“supernatural”
2. Design demands a designer
a. Humans often copy the
existing design in nature
3. Life demands a supernatural
life-giver/ creator
a. Law of biogenesis- “in this
material, the natural world,
life comes from previously
existing life of its own kind.”
4. Moral law demands a moral
lawgiver
a. If there is morally right and
morally wrong, therefore,
there must be God.
5. Free will exists
a. Atheism was founded on
materialism and has to
suggest no free will
6. Human Reasoning
a. Where does reason arise?
There is a God
● “When I finally came to recognize the
existence of God, it was not a
paradigm remains…” “we must follow
 the argument wherever it leads” -
Socrates
Augustine
● Philosophy is an amor sapiential the
love of wisdom. Wisdom is
substantially existent as the Divine
Logis, hence, Philosophy is the love of,
God.
● According to Augustine Christianity,
as presenting the full revelation of the
true God, is the only full and true
philosophy. However, we can love only
that which we know.
Levels of Existence
● Mere existence
● Living being
● Rational being
Thomas Aquinas
● Of all creatures, human beings have
the unique ability to change
themselves and things for the better.
● Humans
○ Moral agents
○ Both spiritual and material
● Spirituality
○ It separates us from animals
and separates the moral
dimension of fulfillment in
action
● Conscience
○ Determining good and evil are
our responsibility
Limitations and possibilities for transcendence
Forgiveness
● As a conscious, deliberate decision to
release feelings of resentment or
vengeance toward a person or group
who harmed you
● It frees us from our anger and
bitterness caused by the actions
and/or words of another
● The hardness of our heart is
reinforced by the whole series of
rational arguments
The beauty of nature
● “Nature is God’s artwork, and it
reveals the Supreme Artist. This is
why reflecting on nature’s beauty
should lead the mind to realize that
someone made it all.”
Vulnerability
● To be vulnerable is to be human. We
need to acknowledge the help of other
people in our lives if we want to be
true to ourselves and live with
meaningful direction.
Failure
● It forces us to confront our
weaknesses and limitations and to
surrender to a mystery
● Acceptance
○ Makes us hope and trust that
all can be brought into good.
Loneliness
● loneliness can help us realize that our
dependence on other people or
gadgets is a possessiveness that we
can be free from.
Love
● To love is to experience richness,
positivity, and transcendence. Love
can open in us something which takes
us beyond ourselves
St. Augustine & St. Thomas: Will and Love
● Physically we are free, but morally
bound to obey the law
● Eternal Law (by God), humanity must
dwell and avoid evil. Moral law
obligation exists in human beings
According to Augustine
● Rightness means pleasing God
 ● God has given us intellect to discern Polytheism
between right and wrong we are often ● follows all the principles of theism,
ignorant in this manner unless we are except that it believes that there is
wholly sincere, honest, and pure more than one god, which defines
(Johnston 2006) the beliefs of religions such as
● “Whatever you understand cannot be Hinduism.
God” George Bernard Shaw
St Thomas ● “Beware of false knowledge; it is more
● “God is honored by silence-not dangerous than ignorance”
because we cannot say or understand
anything about Him, but because we Oriental Philosophy
know that we are incapable of ● Connected to mythology and is
comprehending Him.” religious in nature
○ Persian Philosophy
Christianity ■ Zoroastrianism (oldest
● Suffering leads to the cross, the philosophy)
symbol of the reality of God’s saving ○ Indian Philosophy
love for the human being ■ Buddhism & Hinduism
Buddhism ○ Chinese Philosophy
● Suffering gives rise to compassion for ■ (Daoism &
humanity Confucianism)
● Compassion Eastern Philosophy
○ Heart of religion ● A diverse approach to life and
○ Religion without compassion philosophizing particularly centered
becomes law and burden on understanding the process of the
imposed on its adherents universe and endless “becoming”.
● Centered on spirituality
PT 2 ○ Hinduism
Theism ○ Buddhism
● is the belief that at least one god ○ Taoism
exists and that he or they created the ○ Confucianism
universe and governs it.
Deism
● is the belief that a higher being, i.e.
God exists, but does not tell people
what to do.
Monotheism
● follows the same context as theism,
except that it states there is only one
God, hence religions such as
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam fall
under monotheism.
 Three basic teachings of Hinduism ○ Transmigrates during birth
1. Dharma and rebirth until liberation is
● Is the religious duty of people to reached (samsara)
follow ○ Connected to Bhraman
● Principles of cosmic order (absolute self)
● Rules that guide the morality of ○ Individual’s eternal self;
human beings reflection of Brahman
*Adherence to Dharma means following the
laws and virtues of good living* ● Human beings have dual nature:
● Does not permit an unbridled life of ○ Spiritual and immortal
carefree enjoyment; everything has its essence (soul)
preset boundaries ○ The empirical life and
● Encompasses, cosmic, personal, social character
orders of one’s life ● Hindus believe that soul is eternal
but is bound by the law of Karma
2. Karma (action) to the world of matter, which
● The set of individual rules to a specific can escape only after spiritual
person’s life is based on their status progress through an endless series of
and deeds in both their current and births
past lives. Any future existence Law of Karma
depends upon a person’s good or evil ● Closely involved in the Hindu doctrine
actions. of reincarnation
3. Moksha ● The determining factor that decides
● The state of escaping the sufferings of the state of a person’s rebirth is her
the physical world in death. It is the action.
end (highest) goal in a person’s life
and marks the end of a cycle.
● Liberation from the Samsara

Three main spiritual philosophies on

transcendence

Hinduism
● At the heart of Hinduism lies the idea
of human beings’ quest for absolute
truth, so that one’s soul and the
brahman or atman (absolute soul)
might become one Liberation (moksha) of spirit (jiva)
● They are against the killing of any ● Humanity’s basic goal in life
kind of living being ○ “eat, drink and be merry” is
● Atman never considered the goal of
○ Assumes a physical body life
through reincarnation
*Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a 3. Shiva (destroyer)
continuous cycle (samsara) where the body Vidya
goes through a transmigratory series of ● True knowledge
birth and death, even tho the spirit is neither ● Consists an understanding and
born nor dies realization of an individual's real self
(atman)
*The central problem of Hinduism is not Common concepts to all Hindu
being able to return to Brahman a. Oneness of reality
b. Four primary values
Desire i. Wealth
● The root cause of eternal suffering ii. Pleasure
A religion of Dharma iii. Duty
● A belief, practice, duty, correct iv. Enlightenment (one must
practice, and truth understand the law of karma
Adherence to Dharma
● One recognizes aptitudes, capabilities, *there will be no end to the cycle if no real
roles that they play in maintaining the efforts to break away or no liberating of one’s
social and cosmic balance of the spirit from the monotonous cycle
universe
Vedas Ultimate Liberation
● Hindu scripture ● Freedom from rebirth
● Emphasis ● Achieved the moment the individual
○ Cultivation of virtues such as attains the stage of emancipation
compassion, restraint, purity, (liberation)
self-control, etc. Siddharta Gautama
● In Sanskrit (the classical language of ● Buddha
South Asia), Vedas means knowledge ● high born prince of Sakya Clan in
Vedic literature Magadha kingdom
● Collection of hymns to the gods, ● The enlightened one
dialogues, stories, & advise ● Devoted to sharing his Dharma
○ Simple presentation of the
*there are 33 million Hindu gods and gospel of inner cultivation of
goddesses right spiritual attitudes,
a. Saraswati- goddess of speech is to coupled with self-discipline
Brahma (SSB) where desires would be in
b. Lakshmi- Goddess of wealth is to right directions
Vishnu Four noble truths
c. Parvati- mother goddess is to Shiva 1. Life is full of suffering (dukkha)
(PMs) 2. Suffering is caused by passionate
Three highest deities desires, lusts, cravings
● aka Trimurthi (trinity) 3. Get rid of desire to get rid of suffering
1. Brahma (Creator) 4. There is a path (8fold) that leads from
2. Vishnu (preserver) suffering

Eightfold path
1. Right view- awareness of law of
karma and 4 noble truths
2. Right thoughts- no thots of anger,
greed, and elicit desire
3. Right speech- no lies, unkind speech
4. Right action- no evil acts, those
against five precepts
a. No killing, stealing, sexual
misconduct, false speech (lie),
anything that causes
intoxication (drunk, illegal
drugs)
5. Right livelihood- no
lifestyles/occupation that harm
everyone
6. Right effort- doing one’s best in good
things at the right time
7. Right mindfulness- attentive to
present moment
8. Right concentration- focused and
calm
Husserl’s Phenomenological Method
Epoche
- Suspends one’s judgment first
towards the object that is being
investigated.
Phenomenological Eidetic Reduction
- Reducing the experience to its
essence.
Phenomenological Transcendental
Reduction
- Reducing the object to the very
activity itself of one’s consciousness.
The individual becomes conscious of
the subject
Truth- agrees with facts and reality, needs to
be supported with evidence; objective
- Statement of actuality or
occurrences
Logic- does not prove anything but is
considered as truth
Opinion- statement or belief of feeling. Shows
one’s feelings about the subject
Philosophizing- to think/express oneself in a
philosophical manner
Hermeneutical Role- reflective analysis,
interpretation, communication
Hermeneutics- philosopher must make sure
his message is understood well (hallmarks of
wisdom are ideas)
Hermeneutics Claim to Universality by
Herbamas
- One’s capability for making linguistic
communication understandable
- Trying to make decisions on practical
questions
- Philosophical hermeneutics is a
hermeneutical reflection that is in the
service of skillful understanding and
explication (drawing meaning);
convincing and persuading.
a.Friedrich
D.E.Schleiermacher
b. Wilhem Dilthey
c. Rudolf Karl Bultmann,
d. Hans-Georg Gadamer,
e. Jurgen Habermas
Philosophical Analysis
- Bertman Russell & George Edward
Moore (founders)
- Emphasizes clarity, rigorousness, and
argument
- Using logic in analyzing statements
- “this material you are reading is a
textbook”
Phenomenology: On consciousness
- Edmund Husserl
- Method of finding and guaranteeing
the truth that focuses on careful inspection
- Comes from the Greek word
“phainomenon” (appearance)
- Scientific study of essential structures
of consciousness
Fallacies
• A fallacy is a defect in an argument.
• Fallacies are detected by examining the
contents of the argument.
Common fallacies
Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad
misericordiam)
▪ An attempt to win support for an argument
or idea by exploiting his or her opponent’s
feelings of pity or guilt.
False cause (post hoc)
▪ Since that event followed this one, that event
must have been caused by this one.
Hasty generalization
▪ Making an inductive generalization based on
insufficient evidence.
Begging the question (petitio principii)
▪ An argument where the proposition to be
proven is assumed implicitly or explicitly in
the premise.
Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad
ignorantiam)
▪ What has not been proven false must be
true and vice versa.
Equivocation
▪ A logical chain of reasoning of a term or a
word several times, but giving the particular
word a different meaning each time.
Composition
▪ Something is true of the whole from the fact
that it is true of some part of the whole.
Division
▪ Something true of a thing must also be true
of all or some of its parts.
Against the Person (Argumentum ad
hominem)
▪ It links the validity of a premise to a
characteristic or belief of the person
advocating the premise.
Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum)
▪ An argument where force, coercion, or the
threat of force is given as a justification for a
conclusion.
Appeal to the people (Argumentum ad
populum)
▪ An argument that appeals to or exploits
people’s vanities, desire for esteem, and
anchoring on popularity.