P10: Converter inverter rectifiers as examples of the most important power electronic

components Compare them in your lab in terms of their components-purpose of use-advantages-

disadvantages. Support your answer with graphs and curves.

▪ Half-wave Three-phase Rectification:

In three phase half wave rectifier, three diodes are connected to each of the three phases of secondary winding of the
transformer.
This three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit works. The anode of each diode is
connected to a single-phase voltage supply with the cathodes of all three diodes
connected together to the same positive point, effectively creating an (OR) diode-
type arrangement. This common point becomes the positive (+) terminal of the load
while the negative (-) terminal of the load is connected to the neutral (N) of the supply.

▪ Purpose of use:
Rectifiers are used to convert an AC source into a DC source. Among the applications used in it:
For rectification applications.
For signal demodulation applications.
For signal peak applications.

▪ Advantages of half-wave rectifier:

1. Half wave rectifier is a simple circuit.
2. It has a low cost.
3. We can easy to use it.
4. We can easily construct.
5. It has a low number of components therefore it is cheap.

▪ Disadvantages of half-wave rectifier:

1. The transformer utilization factor is low.
2. They produce a low output voltage.
3. The power output and therefore rectification efficiency are quite low.
4. Ripple factor is high and elaborate filtering is, therefore required to give steady dc output.
5. They only allow a half cycle through per sinewave, and the other half cycle is wasted. This leads to power loss.
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▪ Full-wave Three-phase Rectification:
The full-wave three-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier circuit uses six diodes, two per phase in a similar fashion to the
single-phase bridge rectifier. A 3-phase full-wave rectifier is obtained by using two half-wave rectifier circuits. The
advantage here is that the circuit produces a lower ripple output than the previous half-wave 3-phase rectifier as it has a
frequency of six times the input AC waveform.

▪ Advantages of full-wave rectifier:

1. The ripple frequency is two times the input frequency.
2. Efficiency is higher.
3. The large DC power output.
4. Ripple factor is less.
5. The ripple voltage is low and the higher frequency in case full-wave rectifier.
6. Higher output voltage.
7. Higher transformer utilization factor.
8. Utilizes both halves of the AC waveform.
▪ Disadvantages of full-wave rectifier:
1. More complected than half-wave rectifier.
2. It requires more diodes, two for center tap rectifier and four for bridge rectifier.
3. Higher PIV diodes are larger in size and too much costlier.
4. The twice frequency hum on an audio circuit maybe it is more audible.
5. The DC output is small as using each of diode utilized only one-half of the transformer secondary voltages.
6. When a small voltage is required to be rectified, the full-wave rectifier circuit is not suitable.

▪ Inverter:
The inverter is a key component of any wind turbine system. Inverters are units which convert the direct current (DC)
power produced by wind turbines into alternating current (AC).
▪ Components:
The inverter consists of 6 IGBT switches.
▪ Purpose of use:
The inverter converts a DC source (Direct current) to an AC source
(Alternating current).
▪ Advantages:
1. An energy-saving way to change the voltage.
2. Stepping voltage up or down.
3. Provides electrical isolation between input and output.
4. Provides AC voltage from a DC source.
5. Smooths out random variations in input voltage.
▪ Disadvantages:
1. Produce radio interference or audible tones.
2. Produce AC at a non-specific frequency.
3. Inverter need to phase synchronized to the input AC power to ensure a spike free switchover.
4. Produce excess output voltage under no load or very light load conditions.
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 M1: Explain with examples “Power semiconductor devices are used as switches in power electronic
circuits”- Give a complete description of the IGBT function in a power electronics circuit. Support your
answer with graphs and curves.

▪ MOSFET as a Switch:
MOSFET’s make very good electronic switches for controlling loads and in CMOS digital circuits as they operate between
their cut-off and saturation regions.

▪ Cut-off Region:
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input gate voltage (V IN), zero drain current ID and output voltage
VDS = VDD. Therefore, for an enhancement type MOSFET the conductive channel is closed and the device is switched
“OFF”.

▪ Saturation Region:
In the saturation or linear region, the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of gate voltage is applied
to the device which results in the channel resistance RDS being as small as possible with maximum drain current flowing
through the MOSFET switch. Therefore, for the enhancement type MOSFET the conductive channel is open and the
device is switched “ON”.

▪ Example of using the MOSFET as a switch:

In this circuit arrangement an Enhancement-mode N-channel MOSFET is being used to switch a
simple lamp “ON” and “OFF” (could also be an LED).
The gate input voltage VGS is taken to an appropriate positive voltage level to turn the device and
therefore the lamp load either “ON”, (VGS = +ve) or at a zero voltage level that turns the device
“OFF”, (VGS = 0V ).

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 ▪ BJT as Switch:
▪ In the below figure the circuit shown explains the operation of BJT as a switch.
▪ In the first circuit, the transistor is in the cutoff region because the emitter-base junction is not forward biased
condition.
▪ In this state, there is no connection between emitter and collector of a transistor as shown like an open switch.
▪ In the second circuit, a transistor is in a saturation state as both base-collector and the base-emitter junction is in
forward biased state.
▪ The value of base current is such large that it makes collector current such level that transistor is in saturation
state.
▪ In a saturation state, there is a short circuit between emitter and collector as it is shown in a circuit like closes
switch configuration.
▪ In real, a minor voltage loss across the transistor of up to some 10th of a volt usually exits, that is the saturation
voltage, VCE.

▪ Transistor to Drive the Motor:

▪ Transistors can also be used to run and control the speed of dc motor in a single direction by using a transistor
as a switch.
▪ In the below figure circuit arraignment is shown to control the dc motor with the transistor.
▪ As dc motor is inductive load so there is a need for freewheeling diode for protection of circuitry.
▪ By operating the transistor in cutoff and saturation conditions motor can be on and off.
▪ By switching transistors at different values of frequency speed of the motor can be controlled.

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 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
▪ Definition:
An insulated-gate bipolar transistor is an ideal voltage-controlled switching device consisting of a
combination of a BJT and a MOSFET. An IGBT uses the best qualities of a BJT and PMOSFET to
generate a transistor that possesses the input characteristics of a MOSFET and the output
characteristics of a BJT.

▪ IGBT function in a power electronics circuit:

An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an
electronic switch which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching.

▪ Switching Characteristics of IGBT:

The IGBT is a Voltage controlled device, hence it only requires a small voltage to the gate to stay in
the conduction state. And since these are unidirectional devices, they can only switch current in the
forward direction which is from collector to emitter. A typical switching circuit of IGBT, the gate volt VG
is applied to the gate pin to switch a motor (M) from a supply voltage V+. The resistor Rs is roughly
used to limit the current through the motor.

▪ Input characteristics of IGBT:

Can be understood from the graph below. Initially, when no voltage is applied to the gate pin the IGBT
is in turn off condition and no current flows through the collector pin. When the voltage applied to the
gate pin exceeds the threshold voltage, the IGBT starts conducting and the collector current IG starts
to flow between the collector and emitter terminals.

▪ Output characteristics of IGBT:

Have three stages, initially, when the Gate Voltage VGE is zero the device is in the off state, this is called the cutoff
region. When VGE is increased and if it is less than the threshold voltage then there will be a small leakage current
flowing through the device, but the device will still be in the cutoff region. When the VGE is increased beyond the threshold
voltage the device goes into the active region and the current starts flowing through the device. The flow of current will
increase with an increase in the voltage VGE.

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 P11: Identify the needs and conditions to interconnect large capacity wind turbine successfully,
into an electrical grid.
▪ Interconnect wind turbine successfully with electrical grid:
As the capacity of wind power continues to increase globally, stricter requirements regarding grid connection of wind
generators are introduced by system operators. The development of wind turbine technology is inevitably affected by the
new grid codes, and wind power plants are expected to support the grid and provide ancillary services much like
conventional power plants.

▪ Frequency and Voltage Operating Range:

The power system frequency is an indication of the balance between power generation and load consumption. Any
deviation from the planned production or consumption moves the system frequency away from its nominal value.
Grid codes require that wind farms must be capable of operating continuously within the voltage and frequency
variation limits encountered in normal operating conditions.
▪ Grid Code Requirements:
The frequency ranges required by the various grid codes are presented. In the green frequency ranges, the wind
turbines must remain connected and operate continuously at full power output. In the white ranges, they must
remain connected at least for the minimum time specified, usually at a lower power output, in order to support the
grid during frequency restoration. In many cases the active power reduction must be controlled proportionally with
the frequency deviation from the nominal. In the extreme grey frequency ranges, wind turbines are allowed to
disconnect from the grid. The active power requirements at different frequencies, if specified in the grid code.

▪ Active Power Control:

Active power control is the ability of wind power plants to regulate their active power output to a defined level and at
a defined ramp rate. These requirements aim to ensure a stable frequency in the system, to prevent overloading of
transmission lines and to minimize the effect of the dynamic operation of wind turbines on the grid (e.g., during extreme
wind conditions, at startup/shutdown).

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▪ Reactive Power Control:
The voltage levels in a power system must be maintained constant (within a very narrow range) because equipment
of the utility and consumers are designed to operate at specific voltage levels.
Voltage is closely related to the reactive power; consequently, wind turbines with the ability of controlling reactive
power can support and regulate the PCC local system voltage. Modern large wind farms are required to have the
ability of controlling both active and reactive power. In the case of the fixed speed wind turbines with conventional
induction generators, the reactive power can be controlled by thyristor-switched capacitor banks.
A Voltage Regulator (VR) is included in modern wind generator in order to determine its terminal voltage magnitude
to supply (or absorb) to the transmission system the desired amount of reactive power.

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 P12: Compare between synchronous and asynchronous generators in terms of advantage-
disadvantage in wind power conversion systems.
▪ Permanent magnet synchronous generator PMSG:
PMSG drive does not require gearbox since it does not have a rotor current with minimum rotational speed, since the
drive is gearless small wind turbines are easily possible at consumer side with high efficiency at low maintenance
cost.

▪ PMSG Advantages:
1. Maintenance cost will cut down due to no gearbox.
2. Possibility of faults in the generators will be eliminated since there is no gears and bearings, thus produces
higher reliability.
3. Minimum weight that produces higher energy yield.

▪ PMSG Disadvantages:
1. Compared with the SCIG, the outer diameter of the PMSG is almost double in size.
2. It is a new technology drive, the cost being higher.
3. Wind turbine capacity over 4MW leads to a critical proportion and have increased mass and weight.

▪ Doubly Fed Induction Generator DFIG:

Another popular series in this type of generator is DFIG, maximum energy is captured in variable speed winds through
which power electronic interface controls the rotor currents, the matching between the rotor and generator speed
ranges should be achieved by a coupled gearbox.

▪ DFIG Advantages:
1. Simpler in mechanical design and electrical structure.
2. Seam is Rugged and brushless produces higher efficiency and higher energy.
3. Three stages geared DFIG is weightless for cost effective solution.
4. Power switching converter topologies matches the reactive power and ensures smooth integration of grid.
5. Power Conversion Rating is only about 25%-30% in DFIG as compared to 100 % of maximum true power of
the generator, it possible Can reach to about 30% of synchronous speed, thus have a wide speed range.

▪ DFIG Disadvantages:
1. In this type, gearboxes are still essential, prior in multiple pole DFIG achieving lower speed is technically not
possible.
2. Grid side faulty conditions are not simpler to assemble.
3. Since produces upper than lower reliability and have limited life because of gear faults and bearing fault.
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 P13: Discuss which type of wind turbine generator is applicable in remote area to work as stand-
alone system. Give reasons to your selection.

▪ Six phase wound rotor induction generator:

The induction generator most used by the wind industry to generate electricity is the induction generator due to its
robust construction, easy maintenance etc. A conventional self-excitation induction generator produces unwanted
oscillating torque ripples and draws high current during starting. Due to the occurrence of voltage drops to these bad
effects in the transmission line, thus, to overcome these problems, a six-phase (multi-phase) self-exciting induction
generator has gained attention.
Six phase fixed speed machines (squirrel cage) used due to the number of advantages like greater efficiency, good
power factor, greater torque density, greater fault tolerance, reduction in current per phase, better noise characteristic.

▪ Conclusion:
The six-phase inductor is used in remote because of the larger number of adjacent areas, increased fault tolerance,
reduced current per phase, better noise characteristics and also does not need to be registered in a network that does
not need the driving force of magnetization.