\

Int[ J[ Intercultural Rel[ Vol[ 12\ No[ 0\ pp[ 006Ð020\ 0888

Þ 0888 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
Pergamon Printed in Great Britain
9036Ð0656:88:, ! see front matter

PII] S9036Ð0656"87#99917Ð4

MALAY AND CHINESE VALUES UNDERLYING THE

MALAYSIAN BUSINESS CULTURE

MONI LAI STORZ

Monash mt[ Eliza Business School\ Australia

ABSTRACT[ This paper is an attempt to understand the underlying belief systems

that have shaped the values and behaviour of the Malays and Chinese in the Malaysian
business culture[ The paper identi_es the core values of the Chinese and Malays and
shows how these are derived from Confucianism and the budi complex respectively[
Confucianist beliefs are compared to those drawn from the budi complex[ In doing
so\ it demonstrates how similar these two seemingly divergent philosophical systerms
are in terms of certain selected values related to the self\ time and epistemology[ The
main thrust of the paper is that the Malay budi complex and the Chinese Confucianist
beliefs insofar as both posit a certain view of the self\ time and epistemology\ contain
implicit values[ These values in turn create or construct certain types of attitudes and
practices relating to business[ In making the links between values and business beliefs\
attitudes and business practices\ it is hoped that a greater understanding of the
business culture of Malaysia can be achieved[ Speci_c to cross!cultural management\
this understanding is important since it is the _rst step to a fuller explication of the
intercultural differences that underly management education and training in the
global marketplace[ It has important bearing on the crucial question of whether or
not training and education are transferable from culture to culture[ Þ 0888 Published
by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved

Although many social scientists have studied di}erent facets of Malay!

sian society and culture\ business beliefs and practices in Malaysia have
received relatively little attention[ The little research that has been done

The research for this paper is made possible by a small Australian Research Council grant
from Monash University\ Melbourne\ Australia[
Dr Moni Lai Storz\ 00 Cole Street\ Brighton\ Victoria\ Australia 2075[ Tel[] 502 8485 0645^
fax] 502 8485 7906^ e!mail] gbs991Ýozemail[com[au
It is acknowledged that the Indian!Hindu in~uence is equally important[ By the same token\
the in~uence of British colonialisation is as crucial[ However\ an inclusion of these two
in~uences would lengthen this paper considerably\ and is not within the scope of the present
discussion[ Conceptually\ an examination of the Indian!Hindu in~uence is totally consistent
with the line of argument adopted in this paper[ An analysis of British colonial in~uence on
the value base of Malaysians lends itself better to an historical!structural analysis "see e[g[
Kahn + Loh\ 0881#[

006
007 M[ L[ Storz

tends to focus primarily on cross!cultural management issues "e[g[ Abdul!

lah\ 0880^ Dahlan\ 0880^ Hofstede\ 0880^ Sendut et al[\ 0880^ Westwood\
0880#[ There has been little attempt to provide an analysis of the dom!
inating value systems of the di}erent ethnic communities and the impli!
cations of these values for an understanding of the business culture of
Malaysia[ One study that has emerged in recent years that examines
the diversity of values held by Malaysian managers is pioneered by the
Malaysian Institute of Management in the area of cross!cultural man!
agement "0880#[ This study examines the values\ attitudes and managerial
styles of Malaysians\ and has immediate practical relevance for man!
agement educators[ However\ in spite of the undoubted value of this
pioneering study of Malaysian managerial values\ it does not explain the
basis of these values[ In short\ it describes but does not explain the sources
of these values and beliefs which shape management practices[
This paper is an attempt to understand the belief systems that have
shaped the values and behaviour of the Malays and Chinese in the Malay!
sian business culture[ The paper begins with an examination of the value
systems of the Malays and Chinese[ The Malay value system is encap!
sulated in the budi complex "Tham\ 0860^ Dahlan\ 0880# and the Chinese
system is embodied in what can be termed loosely as Confucianism[0
In doing so\ it will demonstrate how similar these two seemingly diver!
gent philosophical systems are in terms of certain selected values for the
purpose of discussion in this paper[ The main thrust of my argument is
that the Malay budi complex and the Chinese Confucianist philosophies
insofar as both posit a certain view of self have within them intrinsic
values[ These values in turn create or construct certain types of attitudes
and practices relating to business[ In developing this type of analysis\ it is
acknowledged that this is only one way of trying to understand the Malay!
sian business culture[1

BRIEF HISTORY
Historically\ by the time of the founding of Malacca in 0391\ it was
already known that the Malay archipelago had been part of the trading
route spanning India\ The Arab lands and China for centuries "Andaya +
Andaya\ 0871]09#[ Thus the Malays\ Chinese and Indians have been living
and working in Malaysia for a long time[ Over a period of time\ population

0
This is not the place to discuss the many rami_cations of the term as used in the literature[
Su.ce to say that as used in this paper\ it refers to the core values of Confucius| teachings
as documented by Confucianist scholars\ e[g[ Tu Wei Ming "0868\ 0873#[
1
Other writers have also used a similar cultural approach[ See for example\ Niels Mulder]
Mysticism and everyday life in contemporary Java "0867#\ and Redding] The spirit of Chinese
capitalism "0889#[
 Malay and Chinese Values 008

increases created three dominant ethnic groups] Malays\ Chinese and

Indians[ According to the 0889 Malaysian census\ Malays comprise 50[6)
of the population[ The Chinese make up 18[5) and Indians 7[0)[ The
Malays are Muslims\ the Chinese are a mixture of Confucianists\ Taoists\
Buddhists and Christians[ The Indians can be Muslims\ Hindus\ or Chri!
stians[

MALAYS AND THE BUDI COMPLEX

In order to understand what constitutes a Malay culture\ it is important
to understand the budi concept[ In general\ its importance lies in giving an
understanding for the behaviour patterns of the Malays in Malaysia and
their business behaviour in particular[
It is di.cult to de_ne what is budi because it is so total and encompassing
in the Malay way of life[ According to Tham "0869#\ the ethical system of
the Malays is encapsulated in the budi complex[ In his view\ it is the essence
of their social relationships[ It formulates norms of individual and social
behaviour[ The way an individual should feel and think about himself or
herself and others is guided by the budi complex[ As Dahlan says]
In its general sense\ budi embodies all the virtues ranked in the system of values
of the society [ [ [ the structure of budi is composed of virtuous qualities such
as murah hati "generosity#\ hormat "respect#\ ikhlas "sincerity#\ mulia "righteous!
ness#\ timban`!rasa "discretion#\ malu "feelings of shame at the collective level#\
and se`an "feeling of shame at the individual level# "0880]35Ð36#[

Apart from these qualities\ the concept of budi also provides norms
and expectations pertaining to reciprocity[ These qualities\ norms and
expectations interact together in a symbolic way to produce a certain type
of person who receives approval from others[ Such a person is typi_ed by
re_nement\ politeness and consideration of others "Dahlan\ 0880#[ The
polite system of the Malays is deeply rooted in the budi complex "Dahlan\
0880#[ The polite system includes all aspect of verbal and non!verbal
communication[ The way language is used\ the intonations of speech and
the ways people are addressed according to a status hierarchy are part of
the polite system[ It further encompasses how the body is conducted in
terms of posture\ giving things and receiving things[
The budi complex is also a way of orientating to the world[ It is what
Dahlan calls the social mind "0880#[ In this respect\ it is the mental set that
guides one|s behaviour[ It is also related to how one knows[ In the budi
complex\ the superiority of knowing through intuitive feelings "rasa# is
stressed[ It is through this mode of knowing that one understands the
inner realms of human experiences "Dahlan\ 0880#[
In sum\ the budi complex appears to incorporate a holistic perspective
of people and their environment[ It has at least three dimensions] the
019 M[ L[ Storz

spiritual\ which can include the religio!ethical aspects of social life^ the
mental insofar as it relates to the epistemological\ that is\ how one knows^
and the emotional\ that is\ how one feels and how one manages one|s
emotions in relation to other facets of one|s psychological life "Dahlan\
0880#[
Given its complexity\ budi like the most fundamental and profound of
all cultural phenomena\ is deeply embedded unconsciously in the Malay
psyche\ but nevertheless its manifestation is apparent in the Malay culture[2
Side by side with the budi complex is also the Islam religion[ There is no
doubt that the budi complex and Islam are interwoven in a deeply profound
way insofar as one reinforces the other\ for example\ the spiritual and
ethical aspect of the budi complex and the Muslim belief that one|s destiny
lies ultimately with Allah[ It is imprtant to note that a treatment of Islam
and its implications for business behaviour is also of value and can be
legitimately undertaken based on the conceptual analysis taken in this
paper[ Unfortunately\ space does not allow for this exposition[ However\
it is important to note that the budi complex forms a basic and broad
cultural substratum for Islamic values[ Thus the budi complex\ instead of
Islam\ is used here as a more appropriate analogy to Confucianism\
especially since the latter is taken to be a philosophical teaching rather
than a religion in the sociological sense in this paper[

CHINESE BELIEF SYSTEM

If it is possible to pinpoint three philosophies that had and continue to
have a profound impact on the formulation of a Chinese belief system\
most would agree that it is Taoism\ Confucianism and Buddhism[ Fol!
lowing the fall of the Han dynasty\ China was divided into three rival
kingdoms around A[D[ 110Ð478 "Smith\ 0862#[ It was around this time
that the phrase san jiao "meaning three teachings# was coined to refer to
Taoism\ Confucianism and Buddhism[ The three teachings meshed and
became the value base of Chinese culture "Smith\ 0863]030#[ In the present
discussion\ in the case of the Chinese Malaysian who call themselves
{Buddhists|\ intrinsic in their way of life are the in~uences of these three
teachings[3 It is probably safe to make the observation that even in the
case of the Chinese Christians\ Confucianistic values can be found in their
way of life[ In this paper\ it is crucial to have an understanding of what

2
E[T[ Hall makes the most cogent argument for the unconscious aspect of a person|s culture[
See The silent lan`ua`e "0848#[
3
An analysis of the three teachings separately is beyond the scope of this paper[ It is believed
that the intermeshing of these three teachings is so deep in the Malaysian Chinese who call
themselves Buddhists that any attempt to separate the distinct di}erences in them would be
futile[
 Malay and Chinese Values 010

are the core values of Confucianism in examining the Chinese Malaysian[

It is in the core values of Confucianism that we _nd a continuing in~uence
on how the Chinese Malaysian view the human being and the social
world[ In focussing on Confucianism\ this does not mean that the Chinese
Malaysians can be assumed to have a monolithic Chinese culture[ There
are obvious di}erences amongst them as in the dialects they speak\ as well
as in other aspects of their lives\ for example\ in their cuisine[ For the
purpose of the present discussion\ it is important to bear in mind that
regardless of the cultural diversity amongst the dialect groups\ the Chinese
in Malaysia draw their conscious and unconscious values from the same
sources] Confucianism\ Buddhism and Taoism[ It is beyond the scope of
this paper to examine all three belief systems[ Confucianism will su.ce to
demonstrate the core values of the Chinese Malaysian for this paper[

CONFUCIANISM
The salient features of Confucianism most relevant to this paper are
those found in the writings of Tu Wei Ming "0868\ 0873#[4 The core values
of Confucianism are derived from the concept of ren[ The concept of ren
"goodness\ humanity# originally introduced by Confucius is seen by Tu
"0868# to be probably the most important concept in attempting to delin!
eate the core values of Confucianism[ Whilst variously translated and
de_ned\ Tu sees it as the virtue of the highest order in the value system of
Confucianism "0868]5#[ For Tu\ ren is a concept of personal morality in
classical Confucianism "0868]5#[ As such\ ren describes the {{highest human
achievement ever reached through moral self cultivation|| "0868]6#[
The social and moral process of becoming human "Tu\ 0873# can be
seen as a drive towards the achievement of ren[ This process is complex
and dynamic and always has the characteristic of intersubjectivity\ that is\
it is shared[ Intrinsic in the process of learning to be human is the never
ending process of attaining selfhood[ As Confucius advocated\ learning is
for the sake of the self "Tu\ 0873#[ In order to understand this notion of
learning how to be a human being "ren#\ it is also important to grasp
simultaneously Confucius| notion of the self[ For Confucius\ the self is
never an isolated atom[ It does not exist as a single entity[ Its existential
reality is dialectically related to others in the _ve social spheres] family\

4
Professor Tu was one of eight Confucian scholars invited by the Singaporean government
to draw up the conceptual framework for the syllabus on the subject of Confucian Ethics to
be taught in schools[ In this regard\ his writings re~ect an understanding of the Singapore
Chinese situation which shares many similarities with that of Malaysia[ For this reason\ this
paper relies heavily on Tu|s works while at the same time\ it is acknowledged that there are
numerous other writers who have written on Confucianistic values[ See\ for example\ Martin
Lu|s Confucianism] Its relevance to modern society "0872#[
011 M[ L[ Storz

neighbourhood\ community\ society and the cosmos\ a world beyond

which is the replica of the existing one "Tu\ 0874#[ The Confucian self is
an emer`ent[ Its selfhood is not an intrinsic quality of its beingness[ It
emerges out of being engaged in relationship with others[ Thus the self is
the sum of its relationships "Tu\0874]4#[5
In the process of becoming human\ Confucius drew attention to _ve
crucial areas in which human beings have to learn to perfect themselves[
The _rst is the domain of aesthetics\ an area to do with poetry\ art\ music
and calligraphy[ The aesthetic area extends the human being by giving
artistic expressions to human feelings and sentiments "Tu\ 0873#[ Con!
fucius| The Book of Poetry expresses this dimension[
The second area is to be found in the Book of Rites[ It contains the
concept of ritual "li#[ Rituals are to do with the human being|s ability
to communicate with others and is the hallmark of appropriate social
interaction within the context of a person|s social relationships[ Rit!
ualisation therefore encompasses in a total way all the means of com!
munication*verbal and non!verbal^ for example\ how one holds oneself
through postures\ gestures\ tone and volume of one|s speech[ In essence\
it is to do with propriety in a spacio!temporal sense[
The third area in becoming human is concerned with the notion of
roots and one|s sense of history[ This is a form of collective memory\ a
remembering of where one comes from in terms of one|s origins[ History
is to do with one|s present for in the seeds of the past lie the present soon
to be past thus transforming the future to be the present and so on ad
in_nitum[ In the Confucian notion of history is a view of temporality
creating and recreating itself[ In this\ too\ is the dialectical creation of the
self and time[ As one remembers one|s past\ one creates one|s present and
therefore one|s future[ Thus one maintains one|s continuity existentially
in a spatio!temporal sense[ The sense of history\ a crucial aspect of one|s
humanness is found in Confucius| Sprin` and Autumn Annals[
In the process of becoming human\ one has to develop a sense of who
one is in relation to the sphere of di}erential status\ authority and power[
Thus the fourth area is to do with the human being|s place in the political
domain[ For Confucius\ human beings always exist in a polity[ In this
political context of di}erentiation according to one|s position in a hier!
archy\ one should be responsible and be a responsive participant[
In the Book of Chan`e\ "I Chin`# the _fth area of learning is to be found[
A central premise in the I Chin` is do with the ecology of self and the
ecology of the larger natural environment from whence has come the
primordial bond of the human and Nature[ It is to do with the dialectic

5
Tu|s interpretations of Confucius| ideas on the self re~ect interestingly the views of the
social phenomenologists and the social philosopher\ George Herbert Mead[ See his Mind\
self and society "0823#[
 Malay and Chinese Values 012

of self and Nature in its most basic primordial sense[ In the Confucian
cosmological vision\ heaven "tian# and humanity are intricately interwoven
thus the self is shaped within the interstices of these two layers of becoming[
Hence\ the divinity of the self is a potential to be realised in the process of
learning to be a human being[ When human beings cease to exist in the
anthropological world that they share with other social beings\ they pass
on to one that is its exact replica "Tu\ 0873#[ It is because of this that the
process of learning to be human does not end[ It is from this that ancestor
worship has emerged\ not as a religious belief and practice\ but as an
extension of what it means to be human[
In this very condensed version of Confucian thought\ the primary focus
has been on some of his key ideas that are relevant to the present discussion[
It is from these that a picture of Chinese values can be obtained[ In the
following paragraphs I will attempt to distil the values of both the budi
complex and the views of Confucius as they pertain to the process of
learning to be a human being[

CORE VALUES OF THE BUDI COMPLEX AND

CONFUCIANISM
The budi complex and the core values of Confucius| teaching share
similarities\ and for the purpose of this paper I will devote attention to
these under three major headings[ First\ the similarities can be examined
through their view of self^ secondly\ the similarities emerge in an epis!
temological area\ concerned with how human beings know or how they
explain social reality and thirdly\ these similarities can be examined
through the notion of temporality\ that is\ how time is viewed[

VIEW OF SELF
The view of self in the two value systems is best described as a holistic
one[ The self is not seen in terms of a dualistic split between body and
mind\ the physical and the spiritual\ the intellectual and the emotional "as
is common in the western way of viewing man and self#[6 Instead the self
is seen as a totality encompassing the physical\ mental\ emotional and
spiritual[ There are no boundaries among these[ Rather each shades into
the other just as there is no absolute line of demarcation between the yin
and yan`[ Each depends on the other for their beingness[ It is also clear
that the Malay and Chinese views of self as derived from the budi complex

6
For a more detailed discussion of this comparison between the Chinese and western concep!
tion\ see Kuang!Ming Wu] {{Chinese aesthetics|| in Robert E[ Ellinson] Understandin` the
Chinese mind "0878#[
013 M[ L[ Storz

and Confucianism is essentially one that is socially constructed by others*

their de_nitions\ their approval\ their acceptance[ The self is dependent on
the perceptions of others[ The Malay and Chinese view of self is an {eastern
one| as described by several writers commenting on the di}erences between
the {western| and the {eastern| conception of self and man "e[g[ Nobels\
0862^ Shweder + Bourne\ 0871#[ It is collective and socially contexualised
based on commonality and connectedness[ In this sense\ the Malay and
the Chinese are other oriented*what the sociologist\ Talcott Parsons\
described as a collective orientation "0846#[ In such a value orientation\
reciprocity and mutuality are strong values[

Implications for Business

Values which focus on reciprocity and mutuality are manifested in
business attitudes and practices[ Primarily because the self is dialectically
connected with others\ this does imply that business relationships tend to
be more primary than secondary[ People are socially engaged more as
total personalities than segmented role players[ The Malay and the Chinese
would _nd it more important to focus on the social and relational aspects
of the business transaction rather than simply on the {facts| of the business[
Values such as mutuality and reciprocity also point to a negotiation
style which veers towards a win!win outcome "Fisher + Ury\ 0870# rather
than a win!lose one\ or what is known as the zero sum negotiation style[
For the Malays and the Chinese\ the ideal business deal is one where
everyone wins "Fisher + Ury\ 0870#[ Winning in this sense is not de_ned
in terms of how little one has lost to the other side per se\ but how much
both sides have gained in terms of human rewards\ that is\ having the
assurance that the social relationships will continue and will be long term
instead of short term\ that a foundation is laid for enriching and deepening
the relationship\ mutual bene_ts have been reaped and that both sides
have closed the deal feeling contented[
The values of reciprocity and mutuality that are found so strongly in
the budi complex as well as in Confucianism imply above all\ an orientation
towards consensus and co!operation[ Goton` royon` "co!operation based
on communality# has been identi_ed as one of the most highly valued
attributes in a manager in the study on managerial values by the Malaysian
Institute of Management "0880# referred to earlier[ The `oton` royon`
style of operation implies that decision making is less confrontational and
aggressive on the part of managers[ In the context of decision making\ the
consensual and co!operative style is a preferred mode[ Hence\ decision
making is often slower in comparison to the more assertive and indi!
vidualistic one adopted by white Anglo!Saxon Americans[ In relation to
Malaysian managers\ the emphasis on co!operation and consensus also
implies that they would have a greater tendency to avoid con~ict[ This
 Malay and Chinese Values 014

~ows into other areas of management\ for example\ performance

appraisals may be more indirect and feedback from managers to sub!
ordinates is probably the same[

EPISTEMOLOGY
How the human knows*an epistemological issue*is also similar in
both the Malay and the Chinese system of values[ For the Malay\ the budi
complex points to knowing not simply as cerebral and intellectual but
instead\ it entails rasa "feeling#[ In other words\ knowing has to do with
feeling*a sort of experiential and intuitive knowing[ For the Confucianist
Chinese\ in the process of learning how to be human\ one knows through
the {heart!mind|*knowledge gained not only through the head but also
through the heart[7 There is no absolute dualism here\ no split between
intellectual knowing "exempli_ed par excellence in Aristotelian logic# and
feelings\ that is {experiential| or intuitive knowing in the Jungian sense[
This form of knowing has a closer a.nity with subjectivity rather than
objectivity[ Western science places great value on objectivity[ As such\ it
places emphasis on knowledge related to empirical reality "Condon\ 0863#
as being more credible[ It is knowledge that can be veri_ed\ measured and
it lends itself readily {to be got at| by the _ve senses[ Chinese and Malays
both share a view that knowledge is to do with the {head| and the heart[
In doing so\ value is also placed on subjective knowing[

Implications for Business

The epistemological issue has an important bearing on the ways business
is conducted by both Chinese and Malays[ How the human {knows| the
social world and other fellow beings in it has a crucial bearing on how he
or she solves problems[ How one knows therefore is linked with one|s
perception of problems and their solutions\ and the process of solving
problems[ This implies that in Malaysian business practices\ Malays and
Chinese do not simply solve problems through their intellect\ relying
primarily on the logico!deductive process\ but they may also use intuit!
ive:feeling or heart:mind knowledge[ This suggests that typical ways of
relating to business problems and _nding solutions may be sought in other
realms apart from the logico!deductive\ rational scienti_c ones[ Resorting
to the intuition and {feelings| as well as the spiritual may be a very real
way of solving problems in business for the Malay and the Chinese given
their value systems[ In the everyday life of the Chinese Malaysian\ this is

7
For a fuller explication of heart mind knowing\ see Chad Hansen] {Language of the heart[|
in Robert E[ Allinson] Understandin` the Chinese mind "0878#[
015 M[ L[ Storz

already demonstrated in their use of fen` shui to increase their prosperity

or to _nd an auspicious site for their o.ce[8
In the case of the Malays\ resorting to fate or the will of Allah is a
typical practice[ These ways of solving problems are consistent with Malay!
sia being ranked low on the uncertainty avoidance index in Hofstede|s
classic study on managerial values of di}erent countries "0873#[ According
to this ranking "35#\ Malaysia is low in anxiety in the face of uncertainty[ In
other words\ Malaysian managers can tolerate a higher level of uncertainty
compared to other countries "e[g[ U[S[A[\ Sweden#[ The lower anxiety
level re~ects to a certain extent that problem solving need not be solely
the responsibility of individuals and their rational logico!deductive prow!
ess\ but they have recourse to higher authorities be it cosmic forces or
other spiritual entities[ For both the Malay and the Chinese\ their cos!
mological vision intrinsic in the value systems also implies a co!operative
and harmonious alliance with Nature[ This reinforces a pattern of behav!
iour that moves away from attempts to control nature[ Instead Malays
and Chinese may have a greater tendency to work with it\ rather than
against it[ This factor may also imply that problem solving is slower and
the approach could be more ~uid and ~owing with the tide\ rather than
against it[ This has close links with the temporality dimension[

TEMPORALITY
Temporality or time is crucial in the overall scheme in which people
relate to their world[ It de_nes their beingness in the world[ Thus in a very
real sense\ how people relate to time\ how they view it and how they
construct its reality have implications for the business relationships they
form with others[ In another sense\ time and the ways human beings
construct it\ has implications for business projects in terms of planning
and forecasting as well as punctuality and deadlines and time management
overall[
The Confucianist perspective on temporality needs to be culled from
the ideas Confucius developed on the process of becoming human[ In
the Confucianist sense\ the past\ present and the future are dialectically
connected[ One cannot do without the other[ These three do not represent
three concrete chunks easily partitioned from each other[ Instead\ in the
present are elements of the past and the future[ The domain where tem!
porality comes in as a Confucianist concept is seen in his ideas regarding

8
Fen` shui is practised all over the world wherever there are Chinese who are taoist and
Confucianist[ For a more detailed discussion of the relationship between fen` shui practices
and business\ see Evelyn Lip|s book] Fen` shui for business "0878#[ For the Chinese Malaysian
use of fen` shui for siting buildings and graves\ see Hans Dieter Evers\ {The Culture of
Malaysian urbanization] Malay and Chinese conceptions of space| "0866#[
 Malay and Chinese Values 016

the historicity of self[ For human beings\ their future is found in the
cosmological domain[ Thus who they are in the present\ is carried over
from their past and in turn projected into the future[ In doing so\ they are
existentially real[ At any present moment in time\ the Confucianist self
stands in the intersection between the past and the future[ In this sense\
the self "and its present# is a product as much of its past and its future[09
In this conception or worldview\ time is ~uid\ a ~ow that has no _xed
points that lend themselves to be measured[ It is a river ~owing forever
and ever and in its eddying currents\ one|s life\ that is\ one|s time\ continues
ad in_nitum[ In short\ time as past\ present and future is an intrinsic part
of one|s being!in!the!world\ one|s reality[00
Within the Malay worldview as embodied in the budi complex\ how
time is experienced is closely connected to how the Malay {knows| social
reality as discussed earlier in terms of the epistemological issue[ Since the
temporal dimension is very much a part of this reality\ then it is safe to
infer that the Malay {knows| time not only through his mind\ but also
through {rasa|\ his feeling[ In becoming human\ and a proper social being\
the Malay lives through the budi complex that always incorporates other
social beings[ This relationship is not unilateral or uni!directional but
complete and holistic\ encompassing a spatio!temporal dimension[01 Simi!
larly\ for the Malays\ the experience of time is holistic requiring an involve!
ment of intuitive knowledge\ that is\ experiential\ as well as knowing
through the mind\ that is\ logical!deductive[ In short\ the Malay view of
time is much the same as the Chinese conception[ In this sense\ time is
subjective and relative\ not objective\ and its reality is not captured merely
in terms of {clocktime|[

Implications for Business

It is apparent that in both the Chinese and the Malay worldview\
the experience of time is subjectivistic and holistic[ The implications for
business are relevant since punctuality\ deadlines\ planning and forecasting
are closely linked to temporality[ Given the Malay and Chinese value

09
This conception of temporality shares similarities with the social phenomenological concept
of time rather than the positivists|[ For a more detailed explication of the di}erences between
the subjectivist and objectivist conception of temporality\ see C[ Davis Hendricks + Jon
Hendricks] Concepts of time and temporal construction among the aged\ with implications
for research\ in Jaber F[ Gubrium] Time\ Roles and Self in Old A`e "0865#[
00
This goes back to George Herbert Mead|s thesis that sociality fundamentally involves
temporality "Tilman\ 0869#[ Peter Berger also shares this view of temporality^ see his Invitation
to sociolo`y "0855# and The social construction of reality "0856#[
01
For instance\ Dahlan demonstrates the implications of the budi complex in terms of the
usage of space "0881#[
017 M[ L[ Storz

systems\ time is closely bound up with the self[ Time can be used to de_ne
who we are and how others have to be de_ned[ Thus time has people
related functions[ It is both subjective and intersubjective in terms of
maintaining and conferring meanings[ This implies that any time related
concept\ for example\ punctuality and deadlines\ cannot be absolute[ They
are relative concepts[ That is to say\ deadlines will vary depending on who
one is and who the other is in terms of di}erential status[ It depends on
who one is in the hierarchical structure of authority and status[ Thus it
may be common for higher status persons to keep lower status persons
waiting[ In short\ if one is a seller\ the important buyer can keep one
waiting[
{Rubber time|\ a common term used by Malaysians to describe the
Malaysian practice of punctuality\ is not just an amusing term\ but in
reality\ it captures the notion of time as experienced by the Malay and the
Chinese business person[ {Rubber time| suggests that time is changeable
and stretchable[ This also implies that deadlines are moveable and not
immutable[ This in turn suggests that forecasting and planning in a busi!
ness context is di}erent from the {western| one and therefore may present
problems for those who operate within that cultural framework which sees
time as objective clocktime or calendar time[
If time is not made of concrete chunks\ and it is not measurable\ it is
not a commodity to be equated with money[ Money is both measureable
and quanti_able[ Time put into labour is therefore not so clearly an
equivalent to money for the Chinese and Malays[ This has an important
implication for the related notion of opportunity cost[ When time is viewed
in this way\ then the opportunity cost of alternative time usage is not seen
as crucial[ Thus a Chinese Malaysian business person may in fact work
round the clock as long as money is coming in and the hours put in are
ignored[ Similarly\ the Malay business person may operate a stall on the
same basis[ For both\ time is not a concrete commodity[ It therefore
cannot always be seen as an equivalent to money[ The notion that {time is
money| is without doubt tied to the objectivistic approach to temporality[02
When time is experienced in the way that the Malay and Chinese do\ time
and social relationships\ in this case\ business relationships\ are closely
interwoven[

CONCLUSION
In this paper I have attempted to describe and explain the beliefs which
underly some selected values held by the Malays and the Chinese in

02
This phenomenon or way of working in terms of time is probably more apparent in modern
and:or western rmanagement practices[
 Malay and Chinese Values 018

Malaysia[03 The purpose of this was to examine the implications in some

aspects of the business culture of Malaysia[ I began by exploring what I
see as the predominating value systems of the Malays and the Chinese in
Malaysia[ From these\ certain business attitudes\ beliefs and practices are
demonstrated[ In particular\ it was shown that the budi complex which
characterises the Malay way of life and for the Chinese\ the core values of
Confucianism that centre on moral cultivation and learning how to be a
human being\ share certain similarities[ These similarities in turn have
implications for typical business attitudes and behaviours and can be
argued to re~ect certain aspects of the Malaysia|s business culture[ Three
main areas were discussed] self\ epistemology and temporality[ All three are
shown to have implications for understanding some aspects of Malaysia|s
business culture[ In making the links between values and business beliefs\
attitudes and practices\ it is hoped that a greater understanding of the
business culture of Malaysia can be achieved[
Speci_c to cross!cultural management\ this understanding is important
since it is the _rst step to a fuller explication of the intercultural di}erences
that underly management education and training in the global market!
place[ It has important bearing on the crucial question of whether or not
training and education are transferable from culture to culture[ In the
larger context of globalisation\ this has important bearing on future direc!
tions for research[ For example\ management systems such as performance
management may have to be examined in terms of its implicit western
values "e[g[ individualism#[ This then has wider implications for global
enterprises that seek to set up operations in Malaysia[ More research needs
to be undertaken in this area since Malaysia is a growing investment area
for foreign enterprises[

Acknowled`ments*I would like to acknowledge the helpful comments received

from Kar!tin Lee\ Jian!guo Luo and Dr Naomi White in the writing of this paper[

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03
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029 M[ L[ Storz

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