1.

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

INDEX
● Introduction
● Description of Human Cancer Cells
● Difƿfƿerence between healthy and cancer cells
● Cancer cell division
● Causes of Cancer
● Cancer types- Symptoms, Prevention
● Cancer Treatment
● Acknowledgement
● Bibliography

Introduction
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to
invade or spread to other parts of the body.
Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the
body. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged
cough, unexplained weight loss and a change in bowel movements. While these
symptoms may indicate cancer, they may have other causes.
Over 100 types of cancers afƿfƿect humans. These diseases are characterized by a
cellular
malfunction. Healthy cells are programmed to 'know what to do and when to do it'.
Cancerous cells do not have this programming and therefore replicate and
gtow_out of control.
Cancerous cells in together are called Neoplasm.
 HUMAN CANCER CELLS
Cancer cells are cells that divide relentlessly, forming solid tumors or fƿlƿooding the
blood with abnormal cells.
Cancer cells have distinguishing histological features visible under the microscope.
The nucleus is often large and irregular, and the cytoplasm may also display
abnormalities.
The shape, size, protein composition, and texture of the nucleus are often altered in
malignant cells. The nucleus may acquire grooves, folds or indentations, chromatin
may aggregate or disperse, and the nucleolus can become enlarged.
Difƿfƿerent combinations of abnormalities are characteristic of difƿfƿerent cancer
types,
to the extent that nuclear appearance can be used as a marker in cancer diagnostics
and staging.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Normal AND CANCER CELLS

Normal Cells Cancer Cells

Cell Reproduction
Cell reproduction is needed to replenish Cell afƿfƿect the reproductive properties
These cells may have gene the cell of the cells. They don't experience
population that ages or becomes biological aging and maintain their
mutations or chromosome mutations ability to replicate and grow.
that damaged or destroyed. Normal cells
repro duce properly.

Cell Communication
Cells communicate with other cells
through chemical signals. These signals
help normal cells to know when to
reproduce and when to stop
reproducing. Cell signals are usually
transmitted into a cell by specifƿiƿc
proteins.
Cell Specialization
Normal cells have the ability to
difƿfƿerentiate or develop into
specialized
cells. For example, cells can develop
into heart cells, brain cells, lung cells or
any other cell of a specifƿiƿc type.
Cell
Normal cells have the ability to self
destruct when they become damaged or
diseased. Cells break down and are
disposed of by white blood cells.
Morphological DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Normal AND
CANCER CELLS
Normal Cells
Large cytoplasm
Single nucleus
Single nucleolus
Fine chromatin
Cancer cells lose the ability to
communicate with other cells through
chemical signals. They also lose
sensitivity to anti-growth signals from
surrounding cells. These signals
normally restrict cellular growth.
Cancer cells are unspecialized and do
not develop into cells of a specifƿiƿc type.
Similar to stem cells, cancer cells
proliferate or replicate many times, for
long periods of time.
Death
When the genes in a normal cell are
damaged beyond repair, certain DNA
checking mechanisms signal for cell
destruction.
Cancer Cells
Small cytoplasm
Multiple nuclei
Multiple and large nucleoli
Coarse chromatin
CANCER CELL DIVISION
Cell division is a normal process used by the body for growth and repair. A parent
cell divides to form two daughter cells, and these daughter cells are used to build new
tissue, or to replace cells that have died as a result of ageing or damage. Healthy cells
stop dividing when there is no longer a need for more daughter cells, but cancer cells
continue to produce copies. Cancer is unchecked cell growth. Mutations in genes
can cause cancer by accelerating cell division rates or inhibiting normal controls on
the system, such as cell cycle arrest or programmed cell death. As a mass of cancerous
cells grows, it can develop into a tumor.

Difƿfƿerentiating between normal cell division and

cancer cell division

Causes of CANCER
• Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths.
• Another 10% is due to obesity, poor diet, lack of physical activity, and excessive
drinking of alcohol.
• Other factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing radiation and
environmental pollutants.
• In the developing world nearly 20% of cancers are due to infections such as hepatitis
B, hepatitis C and human papillomavirus (HPV).
• Approximately 5-10% of cancers are due to inherited genetic defects from a person's
parents.
These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell. Typically many
genetic changes are required before cancer develops.
 Types of cancer and symptoms
Most Common types of Cancer:
❖ Lung Cancer
A cancer that begins in the lungs and most often occurs in people who smoke.
Symptoms- Cough (often with blood), Chest pain, Wheezing and weight loss.
Prevention- Avoid smoking and carcinogens at work, Eat diet full of fruits and
vegetables, Exercise most days of the week.

❖ Breast Cancer
A cancer that forms in the cells of breasts.
Symptoms- Bloody nipple discharge, discomfort, nverted nipple, lump
formation near breasts.
Prevention- Keep weight in check and be physically fƿiƿt.
Avoid alcohol and smoking.
Avoid birth control pills and regular screening.
Avoid post-menopausal hormones.

❖ Prostate Cancer
A cancer in a man's prostate, a small walnut-shaped gland that produces
seminal fƿlƿuid.
Symptoms- Urinary problems, Blood in the urine and semen. Pain in the hips,
pelvis, spine or upper leg. Pain or discomfort during ejaculation.
Prevention- Enough exercise. Maintaining a healthy and a Balanced diet.
Ensuring regular ejaculation. Having green tea regularly.

❖ Throat Cancer
Throat cancer refers to cancer of the voice box, the vocal cords, and other parts
of the throat, such as the tonsils and oropharynx.
Symptoms: Respiratory symptoms like coughing, Blood wheezing, or
shortness of breath, weight loss, weakness, fever, a change in voice, Chest pain,
 ear pain, hoarseness, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, difƿfƿiƿculty in
swallowing.
Prevention: Don't smoke, check for radon at home, regular exercise; eat
variety of fruits and vegetables, limit the intake of alcohol, have a cup of green
tea.

CANCER TREATMENT

Cancer can be treated in the following ways:

1. Surgery
Surgery, when used to treat cancer, is a procedure in which a surgeon removes
cancer from the patient's body.

2. Radiation Therapy
It is a type of cancer treatment that uses high doses of radiation to kill cancer
cells and shrink tumors.

3. Chemotherapy
It is a type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill
cancer cells.

4. Immunotherapy
It is a type of cancer treatment that helps your immune
system fƿiƿght cancer.
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my thanks of gratitude to our Principal Mr.Arokia Raj sir for
giving me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic "Cancer
Biology" which has helped me in doing a lot of research.
I would extend my heartiest thanks to my Biology teacher Mrs. Praneetha bugar
ma'am for providing me with all the support I required at all times.
I would like to gratefully thank my parents for providing me with all the facilities and
a favourable environment at home.
I would also thank my friends who have given me support and helped me in
fƿiƿnalising the project in the given time frame.

THANK YOU

2. Chocolate Analysis

INDEX
● INTRODUCuON
l. Varieties
2. Manufacture
3. History
➔ Good efƿfƿects
➔ Bad efƿfƿects
● AIM
 ● CHEMICAL REQUIRED
● PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
l. Protein test
2. Fat test
3. Calcium test
4. Iron test
5. Magnesium test
6. Nickel test

● CONCLUSION

● BIBLIOGRAPY

INTRODUCTION
Chocolates have become one of the most popular fƿlƿavours in the world of today.
They form the basics ingredient in very many pastries and cake. Chocolates can also
be used as hot and Cold Beverages. Each manufacture combines secret formulas of
the difƿfƿerent varieties of the coca sweets to develop exclusive chocolates and try to
make the exotic teat. Gifts of chocolates molded to difƿfƿerent shapes have become
traditional on certain festivals and occasions.

Chocolates are made from the seeds of COCOA trees. Spanish mythology considers
these trees were grown in the garden of the PARADISE and believed that the
chocolates drink was Divine. The cocoa tree is a tropical plant, sometimes living and
producing for more than 200 years. Chocolates are made from the seeds of these
trees. There are many varieties cultivated today and this farming is highly profƿiƿtable.

Chocolates is a highly commercialised and money making program. In the modern

factories tons of bitter cocoa beans are turned into one of the world's favourite
confectionery. Today chocolates are made available to us much guarded secret
formula involving varying seeds, difƿfƿerent ingredients, combinations of
fermentation-roasting timings-temperature etc. Flavours such as mint, cofƿfƿee,
orange,
strawberry etc. are some of the add ones. Also today the chocolates can contain
ingredients as peanut, difƿfƿerent types of walnuts, dry fruits, caramels, crisped rice
etc.

Usually the chocolates can be categorised into one the following group.
l. Bitter
2. Bitter sweets
3. Unsweetened
4. Dark sweetened
5. Milk chocolates
6. Cocoa powder
7. Cocoa sauce/syrup

VARIETIES
There are three basic varieties of cocoa. Criollo, which has the best but the mildest
powder; Forastero, which is hardier plant; and Trinitario, which is a natural hybrid of
the two mentioned already. Trinitario combines both fƿlƿavour and hardness. More
hybrids are being developed worldwide to improve the quality of the bean, the yield
increase and also resist to disease.

MANUFACTURE
Pod pickers using long handled knives cut the ripe pods which grow on the both
branches of the coca trees. The pulp and beans are stalked into piles or boxes of large
trays. They are covered with banana leaves and left for fermentation over next 7 days.

Fermentation happens in a temperature of 1200 F and hence the beans begin to

develop the characteristic colour and aroma. After 7 days fermentation beans are
transferred to be dried either in the sunlight or artifƿiƿcially lightened rooms. The
ultimate brown colours of the beans indicate that they are fƿiƿnished for being
processed.
Now the good beans are collected for shipping immediately to various manufactures
to avoid any damages by heat or moisture.

HISTORY
The story of the chocolate spans more than 2000 years .Chocolate was fƿiƿrst drunk
rather than being eaten. Though started in the tropical rainforest of central and
South America were cocoa was fƿiƿrst grown, the tales of chocolate cultivation now
circles the world.
The earliest usage of chocolates dates back before Olmec. The oldest known
cultivation and usage of cocoa was in Puerto Escondido Honduras as the history data
between 1100 BC and 1400 BC.

CHOCOLATES AND HEATH

The health efƿfƿect of chocolates refers to the possible benefƿiƿcial or detrimental,
physiological efƿfƿects of eating chocolates mainly for pleasure. For example, cocoa
and
chocolates may support cardiovascular health. Other efƿfƿects under preliminary
research includes reduce risk of cancer, coughing and heart disease.
One interpretation on the potential health efƿfƿect of dietary chocolates are may be
lower blood pressure improved vascular function and energetic metabolism, and
reduced platelets and aggregation and adhesion.

Unconstrained consumption of large quantity of any energy-rich food, such as

chocolates, without a corresponding increase in activity, increases the risk obesity.
Raw chocolates is high in cocoa butter, a fat removed during chocolate refƿiƿning, then
added back in varying proportions during manufacturing. Manufactures may add
other fats, sugar and powder milk as well.

GOOD EFFECTS
Chocolate may be mild stimulant to humans cocoa has antioxidant activity.
Antioxidants help to free your body of free radicals which cause oxidative damage to
the cell. Small but regular amounts of dark chocolates are associated with lower risk
of heart attack. Dark chocolates contain THEOBROMINE, which has been shown