Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
DOI 10.1007/s10661-013-3273-5
Hydrochemical and geoelectrical investigation
of the coastal shallow aquifers in El-Omayed area, Egypt
M. G. Atwia & A. A. Masoud
Received: 16 July 2012 / Accepted: 18 May 2013 / Published online: 31 May 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Monitoring and assessment of the coastal
aquifers are becoming a worldwide concern for the
need of additional and sustainable water resources to
satisfy demographic growth and economic develop-
ment. A hydrochemical and geoelectrical investigation
was conducted in the El-Omayed area in the north-
western coast of Egypt. The aim of the study was to
delineate different water-bearing formations, provide a
general evaluation of groundwater quality, and identi-
fy the recharge sources in aquifers. Thirty-seven water
samples were collected and chemically analyzed from
the sand dune accumulations and oolitic limestone
aquifers. Fifteen profiles of vertical electrical sound-
ings (VESs) were obtained in the oolitic limestone
aquifer to examine the variations of subsurface geolo-
gy and associated groundwater chemistry. The
groundwater reserves in the El-Omayed area are main-
ly contained in sand dune accumulations and oolitic
limestone aquifers. The aquifer of sand dune accumu-
lations contains freshwater of low salinity (average
total dissolved solids (TDS)=974 mg/l).
Groundwater of oolitic limestone aquifer is slightly
brackish (average TDS=1,486 mg/l). Groundwater of
these aquifers can be used for irrigation under special
management for salinity control, and regular leaching
as indicated by electrical conductivity and sodium
M. G. Atwia : A. A. Masoud (*)
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University,
31527 Tanta, Egypt
e-mail: alaamasoud09@live.com
adsorption ratio. Results of VES interpretation classi-
fied the subsurface sequence of oolitic limestone aqui-
fer into four geoelectric zones, with increasing depth,
calcareous loam, gypsum, oolitic limestone, and sandy
limestone. Oolitic limestone constitutes the main aqui-
fer and has a thickness of 12–32 m.
Keywords Hydrochemistry . Vertical electrical
sounding . Coastal aquifers . El-Omayed . Egypt
Introduction
Fresh groundwater lenses in coastal aquifers are vul-
nerable to threats from natural events and human
activities. Reduction in natural recharge, owing to
changes in the frequency, amount, and duration of
precipitation, and increased temperature, in combina-
tion with rising sea level, coastal erosion, and storm
surges, are all potential threats to the shallow highly
sensitive aquifers. The narrow border between inland
and marine coastal environment systems is highly
vulnerable to the effects of human development activ-
ities (Steyl and Dennis 2010). The human threats to
freshwater lenses are over abstraction of groundwater
and pollution from surface sources and animal wastes.
Other threats include mining of different sediments for
building materials from groundwater source areas and
shoreline that induce erosion.
Sustainable development and management of
groundwater resources in coastal aquifers urge the
7066
need for an integrated approach that should be based
on modern techniques that are cost-effective in effort
and time. Integrating groundwater quality and surface
geophysical, in particular geoelectrical resistivity,
techniques proved promising in assessing the
hydrogeological conditions of the worldwide shallow
coastal aquifers and in groundwater exploration pro-
grams (Telford et al. 1988; Hussein and Ibrahim 1990;
Al-Sayed and El-Qady 2007).
The geoelectrical resistivity survey is one of the
simplest and less costly geophysical surveys employed
for groundwater exploration in the form of vertical
electrical soundings (VESs) or horizontal profiling
(e.g., Barker 1980). VES and hydrochemical studies
have been widely applied in coastal areas to charac-
terize the shallow aquifers, to address the subsurface
structural resistivity variation, and to map the interface
between freshwater and seawater (e.g., Edet and
Okereke 2002; Vouillamoz et al. 2007; Kouzana et
al. 2010; Zarroca et al. 2011; Perttu et al. 2011).
Geoelectrical methods are used to detect variations in
aquifer electrical resistivity and this, in turn, has been
inferred with changes in the aquifer lithology and
groundwater salinity. For an effective use of
geoelectrical resistivity data in the hydrogeological
study, the correlation with hydrochemistry data is re-
quired. Interpretation of hydrochemistry data is also a
powerful tool for determining solute sources and
detecting groundwater evolution because of water–
rock interaction and ion exchange processes (e.g.,
Masoud and Atwia 2011).
Limited geohydrological data pertaining to shallow
aquifers in the El-Omayed area are given in studies by
El-Shazly et al. (1975), Fathy and Mehanna (1980),
and El-Shinawy (2003). The prime objective of the
present study was therefore to describe the detailed
hydrogeological characteristics of the shallow aquifers
in the El-Omayed coastal area, using integrated data of
hydrochemistry and electrical resistivity with a geo-
graphic information system (GIS) analysis.
Study area
Physiography and geological aspects
The El-Omayed area is located in the northwestern
coast of Egypt, about 85 km west of Alexandria. It
occupies a portion of the semiarid belt of the
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
Mediterranean Sea and characterized by a rainy winter
and a warm, dry summer. The area receives most of
the rainfall (average annual of about 152 mm) in
winter, and the mean annual evaporation is
1,577 mm. The area is one of the richest and has a
high degree of floral diversity in Egypt and was de-
clared as a protected area in 1986. The dunes of white
sand in the coast are followed further inland by lime-
stone ridges separated by depressions. In some of
which, salt marshes are found. A pipeline of potable
water runs beside the Alexandria–Matrouh highway
and supplies water for domestic uses to the coastal
summer resorts and parts of the local villages in the El-
Omayed area. The inhabitants in the northwestern
coast of Egypt are mostly bedouins who used to rely
on rangeland grazing for living in addition to several
new activities including agriculture, mining, and
tourism.
Different soil types are recognized in the El-
Omayed area according to the classification of the
High Dam Soil Survey Project (HDSSP 1963). The
soil is generally calcareous, sandy, and partly saline
clayey (Fig. 1). It is commonly water-logged, espe-
cially near the coast, and of nonsaline nature further
inland. A mixture of oolitic sand and wind–water-
transported materials is the main component of soil
in the central depression. Recently, overgrazing re-
duced the plant cover and hence the soil biomass,
resulting in topsoil compactness, siltation and gully-
ing, and excessive runoff.
Urbanization and agricultural growth have in-
creased demands on water supplies in the study area.
The surface water in the study area is represented by
the El-Nasr Canal (Fig. 1). Irrigation in the south of
the El-Omayed area depends mainly on surface water,
and the main crops are dominated by wheat and corn,
together with minor percentages of vegetables such as
tomatoes and watermelon. Cultivation in the north
depends mainly on local precipitation during winter
and groundwater from shallow wells in summer
seasons.
Holocene and Pleistocene deposits form and cover
various physiographic features (Fathy and Mehanna
1980). The Holocene sediments are represented by
beach deposits, sand dune accumulations, wadi fill-
ings, loamy deposits, lagoon deposits, and limestone
crust. The El-Omayed area is characterized primarily
by a series of long carbonate ridges, Pleistocene in
age, namely from north to south, the coastal ridge,
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080 7067

D B'
(B-1)
B

km A

LIMESTONE-DERIVED SOILS SOILS OF PLAINS

Younger ridge soils of oolitic limestone Very deep silty clay loam soils, with thin sheets of
windblown sand.
Coarse sand soils of the youngest beachridge, locally rock shallow
WINDBLOWN SOILS
Slightly loamy sand soils of the second ridge, locally rock
Loose sand soils of undulating-rolling, medium-
Like above, with thin sheets of windblown sands high dunes. Locally cemented loamy subsoils
Younger salina soils Like above, with medium low dunes. Locally
cemented loamy subsoil occur
Frequently flooded, saline, sandy clay loam soils
Loose sand soils with sheets of sands
Sand soils, locally with loam or clay loam subsoils

Older ridge, salina and isolated rocky soils Cultivated lands

Silty clay loam soils, shallow over rock in the old ridge Well location and number
Like above, with thin sheets of windblown sands Observation well (B-1)
VES Station
Like above, with wide and thick sheets of windblown sands
A-A` Topographic profile
Geo-electric section

Fig. 1 Location, soil types, and physiographic units of the study area

Abu Sir ridge, Mariut ridge, and Khashm El-Eish
ridge (Figs. 1 and 2). The main hypotheses concerning
their origin are as follows: nonmarine coastal dune
origin, shallow marine deposits such as offshore bars,
and a complex origin (beach–dune) (Stanley and
Hamza 1992). Two types of interridge sediments are
recognized in the El-Omayed area by Hassouba
(1995). The first type is found in the first and second
depressions (between the first three ridges) and is
characterized by clayey calcareous silt with small
amount of gypsum mud. The second type is found in
the third depression (between the third and fourth
7068 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080

80 A AB
70 Saline depression Non-saline depression

Abu Sir Ridge; Highway

Khashm El Eish
60

Coastal sand dunes

Naser Canal
50

Mariut Ridge
Elevation (m)

Salt-marsh
Salt-marsh
40

Railway
30

20

10

0
0 5.5 11
Distance from shoreline (km)

Fig. 2 Topographic profile showing the physiographic units. Line of section shown in Fig. 1

ridges) and is mainly composed of bedded gypsum, limestone, which serves as a natural reservoir for
oolitic grainstones, and marls. The average thickness rainwater. Three cisterns are found in the El-Omayed
of gypsum deposits in the El-Omayed area is about 5 m. area with capacities ranging from 200 to 500 m3. In
The coastal ridge runs parallel to the shore from addition to that, a number of production wells of
Alexandria to about 15 km east of the Libyan border varying depths from 5 to 20 m currently abstract water
(Shukri et al. 1956). The average width of this ridge is from both sand dune and oolitic limestone aquifers for
about 400 m, and its maximum elevation attains 20 m. irrigation. The production rate of these shallow wells
The coastal ridge consists essentially of snow-white ranges from 5 to 15 m3/h. Water quality varies with
oolitic sand. The Abu-Sir ridge is almost parallel and season, being best after winter rainfall and worst in
landward of the coastal ridge (Fig. 1). The elevation of late autumn before the beginning of the rainy seasons.
this cream-colored limestone ridge averages about The main shallow aquifer units in the area are
25 m. The Gebel Mariut ridge lies south of, and unconsolidated sand dune accumulations (Holocene)
parallel to, the Abu-Sir ridge. The elevation of the and a consolidated detrital oolitic limestone
Mariut ridge ranges from 20 to 30 m and consists (Pleistocene). The aquifer of the sand dune accumula-
mainly of oolitic limestone, covered with hard, brown tions covers the nearshore ridge, which is close to the
limestone crust. The Khashm El-Eish ridge is made of Mediterranean Sea in the north. The aquifer consists
oolitic hard limestone with a recrystallized brownish mainly of loose carbonate sand of highly porous na-
top layer (Shukri et al. 1956). The top of the ridge is ture (El-Shazly et al. 1975). Thickness ranges from 20
composed of pink limestone disconformably overly- to 30 m, and the uppermost 5 m is recently movable
ing the Miocene deposits with a thickness of up to 4 m dunes followed by the stabilized type (El-Shinawy
(El-Asmar and Wood 2000). It slopes gently from west 2003). The aquifer exists in a free condition, and water
to east with an average height of 60 m. table ranges from 2 to 11 m below ground surface. The
main source of the water in the aquifer is the rainfall,
Hydrogeological aspects and it discharges naturally to the Mediterranean Sea
and through pumping from a number of shallow wells.
Water-bearing formations in the area are mainly oc- The quantity of water obtained from this unit is limited
curring in the coastal sandy dunes, in the interdune and characterized by good quality. Freshwater lenses
lagoon depressions, and in the consolidated ridges in coastal sand dune accumulations are currently being
(Fathy and Mehanna 1980). In these units, freshwater heavily depleted due to overpumping to meet demand.
lenses and relatively brackish water of acceptable In addition to that, most of the sand dunes have been
quality overlie seawater in permeable phreatic aqui- destroyed as many medium and large resorts were
fers. This implies that groundwater suitable for agri- established along the coast (Salem 2003).
culture should be pumped at the correct depths. The The oolitic limestone aquifer has a very wide dis-
northwestern coast of Egypt is characterized by the tribution throughout most of the western
occurrence of Roman wells (cistern). A cistern is a Mediterranean coastal zone and is considered poten-
large underground chamber excavated in the oolitic tially the most productive aquifer in the El-Omayed
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
area. It exists mainly in the form of elongated ridges
running parallel to the coast and extends southward
from the coast to about 12 km in average. The calcar-
eous ridges have also been recently quarried, and the
limestone was used for building and industrial pur-
poses. The natural slope of these ridges acts as a
natural rainwater-catching area. The aquifer is
unconfined and has a thickness of about 30 m (El-
Shinawy 2003). It is replenished by direct infiltration
of rainfall on both the ridges and the tableland located
in the south. The depth of the water level from the
groundwater surface ranges from 2 m to about 12 m.
As shown by the water level map for the study area in
Fig. 3, a good correlation exists between topography
and water levels. The general direction of groundwater
flow is from the south to the north.
Data and methodology
Sampling and analytical methods
Thirty-seven water samples were collected during the
sampling campaign in January 2011 and were chemi-
cally analyzed for their chemical composition (Fig. 1).
The static water levels (SWL), temperature, pH, electri-
cal conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS)
were measured in situ utilizing portable meters.
Analysis of the water samples was carried out in the
laboratory of the Geology Department, Tanta University
following the methods described in APHA (1989). Total
hardness (TH) as CaCO3 and Ca2+ were analyzed using
Direction of groundwater flow
Fig. 3 Groundwater level map (in meters above mean sea level)
7069
standard EDTA. Mg2+ was calculated by taking the
differential value between TH and Ca2+ concentrations.
Na+ and K+ were measured using a flame photometer.
Total alkalinity and CaCO3, CO32−, and HCO3− were
estimated by titrating with HCl. Cl− was determined by
standard Hg(NO3)2 titration. SO42− and NO3− were
analyzed using a spectrophotometer. All parameters
are expressed in milligrams per liter and
milliequivalents per liter. Data quality was assessed
using the charge balance between the sum of cations
and anions (expressed in milliequivalents per liter)
which was always <±5 %. Ground surface elevation
and the location of the sampling sites were recorded
using a Global Positioning System manufactured by
GARMIN. This was supported by a topographic sheet
made available by the Egyptian Survey Department.
Measured and estimated groundwater variables were
analyzed within the GIS using the ordinary kriging
implemented in the geostatistical analyst of the
ArcGIS9.3 package.
Vertical electrical sounding
A total of 15 VES profiles were obtained in 2011,
using the Control 42 resistivity meter (Model E-85)
with the Schlumberger configuration (M-AB-N). For
each VES profile, the distance between the potential
electrode (MN) was gradually increased in steps
starting from 0.5 to 15 m to obtain a measurable
potential difference. The half current electrode separa-
tion (AB/2) was usually increased in steps starting
from 1.5 to 150 m. The maximum penetration depth
km
7070
is directly proportional to the electrode spacing and
inversely proportional to the subsurface conductivity
(Mussett and Khan 2000). The field geoelectrical data
were processed and interpreted automatically by using
two geoelectrical softwares: the Ato computer pro-
gram of Zohdy (1989) and RESIX-P computer pro-
gram of Interpex.
The interpretation of the VES data was conducted
by using the computerized program (Zohdy 1989)
which produces the true resistivity and depth from
the measured apparent resistivity data at each site.
The method generates a large number of layers for
each sounding data set. To reduce the number of
layers, edge-preserving and smoothing techniques are
applied. RESIX-P, which is an interactive, graphically
oriented, forward and inverse modeling program, was
also used for interpreting the sounding data in terms of
model parameters (resistivity and depth). Estimated
resistivities and thickness of layers based on borehole
data were used as input parameters for a starting model
in inverse modeling. The resistivity of the layers is
adjusted in an iterative manner to minimize the differ-
ence between field data and the theoretical model
curve.
Ordinary kriging
Ordinary kriging (OK) and semivariogram modeling
have been extensively explained in many literature
(Goovaerts 1997; Siska et al. 2005). For the best
performance of OK, the spatial dependence between
pairs of samples at a distance h, the so-called lag, must
be determined. The measure of this dependency is the
semivariogram γ(h) which is calculated by Journel
and Huijbregts (1978) as:
1 X
NP ðhÞ 2 1,500 mg/l, HCO3− 55–364 mg/l, Ca2+ 62.4–
γ ð hÞ ¼ ½Y ðxi þ hÞ−Y ðxi Þ ; ð1Þ
2NPðhÞ i¼1
where Y(xi) is the observed value of the variable at
sampling site xi and NP(h) is the number of pairs of
samples separated by the lag h. For the interpolation, a
theoretical model must be fitted to the experimental
data semivariogram. Ordinary kriging uses a weighted
average of neighboring samples to estimate the “un-
known” value at a given location. Weights are opti-
mized using the semivariogram model, the location of
the samples, and all the relevant interrelationships
between known and unknown values. The technique
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
provides two-dimensional surfaces representing ap-
proximated regional trends rather than the exact
values. It also provides a “standard error” which may
be used to quantify confidence levels. The experimen-
tal semivariograms and the best-fitted theoretical
models for all variables were built based on trial and
error parameter selection. Models that attained the best
goodness of fit resulted in minimum mean error, root
mean error, and mean squared error and those that
attained root mean squared error close to unity are
considered the best-fit models and were selected for
further analysis, among which spherical was of major
use. Kriged maps for various groundwater parameters
were produced to highlight spatial changes over dif-
ferent landforms and features in the area.
Results and discussion
Hydrodynamics and hydrochemistry
The physicochemical characteristics of the groundwa-
ter samples are shown in Table 1. Both aquifers exist
in a free condition, and water table ranges from 2 to
12 m below ground surface (Fig. 3). As shown by the
water level map for the study area, water levels gen-
erally follow the topography and flow generally to the
depressions.
Hydrochemical results show that the range of param-
eters from the sand dune accumulations aquifer are as
follows: EC 0.86–3.67 mS/cm, TDS 429–1,824 mg/l,
Cl− 34–590 mg/l, SO42−, 180–780 mg/l, HCO3− 108–
312 mg/l, Ca2+ 39.2–146 mg/l, and Na+ 70.3–
461.9 mg/l (Table 1). In the oolitic limestone aquifer,
the water is highly mineralized: EC 0.96–6.4 mS/cm,
TDS 481–3,160 mg/l, Cl− 80–622 mg/l, SO42− 210–
232.0 mg/l, and Na+ 103.3–944 mg/l. The values of
ion concentrations for the two aquifers are significantly
different. The low TDS of groundwater contained in the
sand dune aquifer may be interpreted as the conse-
quence of the short residence time of solutions within
the aquifer and the relative insolubility of the rock
composition in the aquifer. The oolitic limestone aquifer
showed a relatively higher TDS range (481–
3,160 mg/l). The iso-salinity map shown on Fig. 4a
clarifies the good correlation between groundwater sa-
linity and the dominant sedimentary cover. The short
distance between the water table and the surface, which
Table 1 Physicochemical parameters of the groundwater samples

SN Coordinates SWL (m) TDS (mg/l) EC mS/cm pH T (°C) Concentrations (mg/l)

Longitude Latitude K+ Na+ Ca2+ Mg2+ HCO3− SO42− Cl− NO3− SAR

1O 30°49′3.0″ 29°11′58.2″ 9 1,495 3.0 7.55 21.8 52.58 355.81 52.8 97.67 328 530 352 26.4 6.7
2O 30°49′30.5″ 29°12′23.5″ 2 1,025 2.06 7.48 21.9 40.5 138.29 92.8 98.65 192 600 132 7.6 2.4
3S 30°50′10.8″ 29°15′0.6″ 2 1,824 3.67 7.83 20.6 35.1 461.95 52.8 67.39 164 540 590 8.8 9.9
4O 30°48′35.7″ 29°12′0.3″ 9 1,570 3.15 7.85 21 40.4 438.00 26.0 61.05 224 820 255 10.6 10.7
5S 30°48′33.8″ 29°12′9.5″ 10 1,720 3.48 7.46 19.4 45.8 432.05 54.0 79.36 204 675 490 16.7 8.8
6S 30°48′21.3″ 29°12′05.1″ 7 1,472 2.98 7.68 21.8 35.1 406.64 68.0 46.39 168 540 405 11.4 9.3
7S 30°48′18.5″ 29°12′09.1″ 5 840 1.69 7.60 21.3 24.3 201.08 68.8 23.44 276 380 88 8.4 5.3
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080

8S 30°49′22.6″ 29°11′40.2″ 5 862 1.73 7.70 21.5 12.1 233.21 63.2 11.23 256 400 118 2.6 7.1
9S 30°49′53.4″ 29°13′53.3″ 5 740 1.48 7.61 20.8 11.5 159.20 71.2 35.65 176 410 94 2.2 3.8
10 S 30°50′03.1″ 29°12′22.9″ 7 429 0.86 7.64 22.4 8.8 70.26 39.2 26.85 144 195 34 2.2 2.1
11 S 30°49′23.8″ 29°10′12.8″ 9 847 1.70 7.55 21.7 14.2 158.46 70.4 47.86 196 320 142 4.0 3.6
12 S 30°49′28.5″ 29°10′09.7″ 10 1,318 2.64 7.90 21.1 27.0 358.80 56.0 68.37 308 480 264 7.9 7.6
13 S 30°49′37.5″ 29°10′11.3″ 9 805 1.60 7.99 22.4 10.1 192.00 52.0 38.09 192 320 138 11.9 4.9
14 O 30°49′42.5″ 29°10′23.6″ 3 1,530 3.05 8.06 14.6 75.5 298.99 232.0 85.46 196 1,120 188 10.6 4.3
15 O 30°49′45.9″ 29°10′47.4″ 4 3,160 6.4 7.82 19.6 86.0 944.00 90.0 98.89 55 1,500 1,045 5.3 16.3
16 O 30°49′40.6″ 29°10′47.4″ 6 644 1.3 7.74 21.3 17.5 127.82 58.4 36.38 168 210 133 8.4 3.2
17 O 30°49′33.3″ 29°10′53.2″ 7 1,125 2.23 7.92 21.6 24.3 230.23 76.0 62.27 236 390 248 6.2 4.7
18 O 30°49′26.2″ 29°10′29.9″ 3 1,256 2.48 7.24 15.2 48.5 270.59 49.6 77.16 256 440 284 3.5 5.6
19 O 30°49′37.0″ 29°10′33.6″ 5 1,540 3.27 7.24 16.4 52.6 279.56 108.0 168.48 264 920 292 2.6 3.9
20 S 30°50′26.4″ 29°13′54.3″ 2 887 1.78 7.63 24.9 13.0 199.00 47.4 51.20 108 355 194 8.8 4.8
21 S 30°50′29.5″ 29°13′53.3″ 2 594 1.19 7.45 25.9 7.6 119.90 71.2 28.30 182 180 146 0.01 3.0
22 S 30°50′30.6″ 29°13′53.1″ 2 730 1.46 7.47 25.5 16.2 166.20 82.2 38.00 238 316 128 4.0 3.8
23 S 30°50′31.6″ 29°14′4.8″ 2 616 1.24 7.85 25.4 15.2 136.50 84.8 43.00 228 400 94 0.01 3.0
24 S 30°50′4.5″ 29°14′06.9″ 2 798 1.59 7.42 25.2 16.7 176.85 99.2 48.80 256 320 168 Nd 3.6
25 S 30°50′30.4″ 29°14′09.0″ 2 573 1.15 7.61 25 10.5 147.18 78.4 29.30 238 210 146 Nd 3.6
26 S 30°50′26.6″ 29°14′10.2″ 8 825 1.65 7.59 24.6 16.7 188.72 73.6 64.40 310 305 166 0.9 3.9
27 S 30°50′23.1″ 29°14′08.1″ 11 1,185 2.38 7.38 26.8 26.7 301.48 146.0 58.60 196 780 252 Nd 5.3
28 S 30°50′24.5″ 29°14′02.3″ 15 993 1.99 7.51 23.8 22.9 296.74 54.4 78.10 268 510 196 0.01 6.0
29 O 30°50′05.3″ 29°14′25.2″ 11 925 1.85 7.63 24.2 33.3 206.40 48.8 72.20 288 390 174 1.3 4.4
30 O 30°49′54.0″ 29°14′34.9″ 5 481 0.96 7.56 26.5 9.5 103.26 62.4 38.10 184 230 80 2.7 2.5
7071
7072 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080

SAR

10.5

10.7
is associated with intensive evaporation, leads to the

3.0
9.8
3.6
6.5

9.1
presence of salty crust and marshes at the depression
NO3−
floor resulting in deterioration of the water quality.

24.7
12.3
7.0

7.5
8.4
6.6
7.9
Spatial layers describing distribution of various ion con-
172 centrations and physical properties are shown in
538
164
328
622
488
316
Cl−

Fig. 4b–j. Variations in chemical composition of the

groundwater are described in terms of hydrochemical
SO42−

1,060

1,350
facies represented in a trilinear diagram (Piper 1944).
990
390
780

950
975
The chemical characteristics of the water from the shal-
low aquifers in the area are mainly dominated by
HCO3−

Na2SO4-type waters (Fig. 5). The high concentration

264
268
364
312
182
264
236
of both Na+ and SO42− ions may be due to the dissolu-
tion of gypsum intercalated with the aquifers and the
128.10
142.80

102.50
107.40
85.90
83.00

54.60
Mg2+

overlying deposits by the groundwater and/or seawater

intrusion.
226.0

126.4
177.5

One of the most useful graphs for determining the

Ca2+

60.0
81.6

65.6
73.5
Concentrations (mg/l)

origin of groundwater is Sullin’s graph. Here, each

cation is expressed as the percentage of the total cat-
230.27

194.00
382.79
712.00
514.00
497.50
611.00

ions in milliequivalents per liter, while each anion is

Na+

expressed as the percentage of the total anions. If the

quantity Cl−(Na+K) is positive, this quantity is plot-
18.6
83.0
31.4
29.8
70.0
46.0
42.0
K+

ted against magnesium in the upper part of the dia-

gram (Fig. 6). If the sample falls below the median
T (°C)

line, it is MgCl2 water. If the sample falls above the

23.2
24.4
24.4
24.6
25.4
22.5
22.6

median line, it is CaCl2 water. If the quantity (Na+K)

−Cl is positive, the sample is plotted against sulfate in
7.19
7.48
7.42
7.55

7.62
7.63
6.0
pH

the lower part of the diagram. If the sample falls above

Nd not detected, S sand dune accumulation aquifer, O oolitic limestone aquifer

the median line, it is Na2SO4 water. If the sample falls

EC mS/cm

below the median line, it is NaHCO3 water. According

to Sullin’s classification (Sullin 1946), all the ground-
2.66
4.40
1.92
2.86

3.89
3.25
5.0

water samples of the two shallow aquifers are located

in the lower quadrant of the diagram and are of
TDS (mg/l)

Na2SO4-type of meteoric origin (Fig. 6).

1,324
2,200

1,418
2,490
1,933
1,610

Elevated nitrate concentrations adversely impact

960

the quality of the potable groundwater resources that

result commonly from indirect anthropogenic influ-
SWL (m)

ences such as land use for cattle grazing (manure)

(Lafthouhi et al. 2003), which is a common practice
12
4
7
9
5
4
3

in semiarid regions. Nitrate concentrations ranged be-

29°10′58.8″
29°10′52.2″
29°10′51.9″
29°12′40.3″
29°12′39.1″

29°08′57.4″

tween <0.1 and 16.7 mg/l in sand dune accumulation

29°14′0.3″
Latitude

aquifer and from 1.3 to 26.4 mg/l in oolitic limestone

aquifer (Table 1). The relatively high nitrate concen-
tration in the latter aquifer may be due to the influence
Table 1 (continued)

of extensive use of nitrate fertilizers and leakage of

Coordinates

30°48′59.0″
30°49′15.8″
30°49′18.0″
30°49′53.6″
30°49′31.9″
30°49′56.4″
30°48′56.3″
Longitude

sewage from septic tanks.

Spatial correlation of the groundwater hydrochemical
and physical characteristics with terrain parameters clar-
ified some interesting relationships (Table 2). Moving
31 O
32 O
33 O

35 O
36 O
37 O
34 S
SN

landwards to the south, all hydrochemical components

Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080 7073

Fig. 4 Spatial GIS layers describing various physicochemical characteristics of the groundwater. All units are in milligrams per liter
except SAR

increased (average r=0.34), except for HCO3− that de-
creased. The increase in these components is most likely
related to the higher contribution from the sabkha and the
wind-blown clay deposits dominating on the floor of the
depression and the natural extension of the Maryut Lake
to the east of the area. Surface freshwater is the main
supply of HCO3− to the aquifer, and this is limited to the
coastal dunes accumulated from rainfall or from the
percolation of water from domestic and agricultural use
supported by the pipeline running along the highway.
NO3− (r=−0.43) and SWL (r=−0.24) decrease
eastwardly. TDS strongly correlate with Na+ (r=0.97),
7074 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080

Fig. 5 Trilinear diagram of

groundwater in the study
area

K+ (r=0.88), and Mg2+ (r=0.65) as well as with Cl− water which mostly resulted from saltwater contamina-
(r=0.94), SO42− (r=0.89), and NO3− (r=0.46) indicating tion either from seawater intrusion or the saline soils.
their intimate association in raising the salinity of the Ground surface elevation correlated well with the

100
r Cl - - r (Na+ + K+)
>1
Ca Cl 2 r Mg 2+
r Cl - r (Na + K )
+

Old Marine Water =1

+

<1
r (Na+ + K+)
2- =1
r Cl 1 2 3
-

4 5 6
Mg Cl 2
Recent Marine Water 7 8 9
r SO4 2-
100 0 10 11 12
Na2 SO4
0 100 13 14 15
Deep Meteoric Water
r Mg2+
16 17 18
-
r (Na + K ) - r Cl

r (Na+ + K+) - r Cl - 19 20 21
<1
2-
+

r SO4
22 23 24
=1
+

25 26 27
>1
28 29 30
NaHCO3
Shallow Meteoric Water 31 32 33

100 34 35 36

37

Fig. 6 Sullin’s graph for groundwater classification

Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080 7075

Table 2 Correlation coefficients between pairs of groundwater characteristics

Latitude Longitude Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl− SO42− HCO3− NO3− TDS SWL GSE

Latitude 1
Longitude 0.63 1
Na+ −0.32 −0.15 1
K+ −0.45 −0.13 0.81 1
Ca2+ −0.24 0.01 0.13 0.28 1
Mg 2+
−0.26 0.05 0.50 0.71 0.38 1
Cl− −0.30 −0.09 0.95 0.76 0.07 0.51 1
SO42− −0.39 −0.10 0.83 0.82 0.56 0.69 0.73 1
HCO3− 0.14 0.00 −0.19 −0.05 0.01 0.24 −0.28 −0.14 1
NO3− −0.42 −0.43 0.41 0.53 −0.07 0.40 0.37 0.30 0.16 1
TDS −0.40 −0.16 0.97 0.88 0.24 0.65 0.94 0.89 −0.16 0.46 1
SWL −0.12 −0.24 0.10 0.01 −0.26 0.04 −0.03 0.00 0.31 0.18 0.02 1
GSE −0.11 −0.30 0.08 0.11 −0.49 0.19 0.06 −0.14 0.38 0.58 0.06 0.66 1

Significant coefficients exceeding 0.24 are shown in italics

static water level (r=0.66), NO3− (r=0.58), and Groundwater quality

HCO3− (r=0.38). Residential areas are commonly
built on the consolidated sand dunes and the ridges
and their slopes. This is to mitigate for the fre-
quent water level rise and the submersion of the
flats located below sea level by the end of the
winter season, which result from the seepage of
the seawater and accumulation of rainfall. Elevated
values of HCO3− and NO3− prevail in the residen-
tial areas as a result of the freshwater supply and
the sewage disposal into the septic tanks,
respectively.
The groundwater in the area is only evaluated according
to its suitability for irrigation uses. Salinity and sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR) are the two main criteria used by
US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) to evaluate irrigation
water. SAR can be estimated by the following formula:
. . 0:5
SAR ¼ Na ðCa þ MgÞ 2 ; ð2Þ
where the concentrations of the constituents are
expressed in milliequivalents per liter.

C3-S1 C4-S2
C3-S4 C4-S3
C4-S1 C4-S4

km

Fig. 7 Spatial map of irrigation water groups in the El-Omayed area based on electrical conductivity (C) and sodium content (S)
7076
High salinity levels commonly lead to soil sodicity,
which damage and reduce crop productivity, while
high sodium concentration reduces the permeability
of soil. To examine the suitability of groundwater for
irrigation purposes in the El-Omayed area, the classi-
fication of the US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954)
was applied (Fig. 7). Six categories are assigned to
the irrigation water groups and are spatially interpo-
lated using the ordinary kriging implemented in the
ArcGIS. The calculated sodium adsorption ratio for
the water samples of sand dune accumulation aquifer
ranges from 2.1 to 9.9. The data show that most water
samples fall between C3-S1 and C3-S2, indicating high
salinity hazard and low-to-medium sodium hazard
with little danger of development of sodium and sa-
linity exchange. Groundwater in the oolitic limestone
aquifer has a very high salinity hazard and medium-to-
high sodium hazard (C4-S2 and C4-S3). These types of
water can be used satisfactorily for the irrigation of
plants tolerant to medium-to-high amount of salt, with
a good drainage system in new reclaimed areas.
Geoelectric cross sections and resistivity contour maps
Resistivities of rock formations vary over a wide
range, depending on lithology, water content, clay
Borehole lithology/geoelectrical column
Well VES-2
Description B-1 (ohm-m)
limestone
limestone
Fig. 8 Representative examples of the VES (VES-2) calibration with the lithology of the nearest well (B-1)
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
content, and salinity (McNeill 1980). So, it is impor-
tant to correlate the VES results with the lithological
and hydrogeological information obtained from adja-
cent boreholes (Edet and Okereke 2002). One bore-
hole located close to VES-2 was used for the correla-
tion (Fig. 8). Three geoelectrical cross sections were
constructed in the oolitic limestone aquifer only to
reveal the lateral and vertical hydrolithological varia-
tions (Figs. 9, 10, and 11). Of the three geoelectric
cross sections, two sections are E–W-oriented approx-
imately parallel to the coast (Figs. 9 and 10) and one
N–S-oriented section is perpendicular to the coast
(Fig. 11).
The top layer of the Holocene deposits consists
of calcareous loam with some sandy grains (Fig. 9).
This layer extends from the ground surface to a
depth that ranges from less than 2 to 12 m and
attains a wide resistivity that varies from 3 to
414 Ω m. The wide range in resistivity of the
unsaturated layer suggests a heterogeneous nature
of Holocene sediments.
The underlying layer is composed mainly of gyp-
sum and has a thickness of about 6 m with an average
resistivity of 57 Ω m. The thickness of the gypsum
layer increases significantly towards the west in cross
section B-B′ (Fig. 9). This layer thins at VES no. 5 or
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
B B
Observation
well (B -1)
0.0
Fig. 9 Geoelectric cross section along profile B-B′
is locally absent completely as shown in cross section
C-C′ (Fig. 10), giving rise to the next geoelectric zone
(deterital oolitic limestone) resting directly on the
deeper geoelectric zone.
The third geoelectric zone ranges in thickness from
10 to 30 m and represents the main shallow water-
bearing formation in the area. The aquifer is represent-
ed by resistivity values in the range of 3–36 Ω m
(Fig. 12), which suggest saturated formation with
C C
0.0
Fig. 10 Geoelectric cross section along profile C-C′
7077
km
brackish water (TDS <1,000 mg/l). Low resistivities
occur in the central part and towards the south
(Fig. 12). A comparison of Figs. 12 and 1 suggests
that this occurrence is probably caused by the presence
of salina and salt marshes. Generally, the low earth
resistivity values (<3 Ω m) in VES stations 1, 6, 11,
13, and 15 are most likely attributed to the spatial
variation of porosity or aquifer lithology rather than
water chemistry.
km
7078
D D
0.0
Fig. 11 Geoelectric cross-section along profile D-D′
The fourth geoelectric zone is common all over the
area and underlies the Pleistocene oolitic limestone.
The resistivity of this layer generally varies in a lim-
ited range of 1 to 8 Ω m (Figs. 9, 10, and 11). These
low-resistivity layers can be interpreted as brackish
water (1,000–3,000 mg/l TDS)-saturated sandy lime-
stone interbedded with marl.
Based on the interpreted resistivity of the oolitic
limestone aquifer derived from the VES data, the
contour map of the average resistivity values of the
Fig. 12 Iso-resistivity contour map of the oolitic limestone
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
km
oolitic limestone sediments is shown in Fig. 12.
Resistivity varies from 3 to 36 Ω m, which is
interpreted as water-saturated oolitic limestone. High-
resistivity (12–36 Ω m) zones are observed in the
northern, northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern
areas (Fig. 12). These zones are probably caused by
the inflow of freshwater from the surface canal in the
south and marginally brackish groundwater conditions
in the north. The spatial variation of aquifer thickness
is shown in Fig. 13. The maximum thickness (32 m) of
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7065–7080
Fig. 13 Thickness contour map of the water-saturated oolitic limestone based on the interpretation of VESs
the aquifer is observed in the southeastern part and
gradually decreases towards the northern and north-
western parts.
Conclusions
Integrated hydrochemical, electrical resistivity, and
GIS techniques have been used to evaluate the water
resources in the El-Omayed area. Analysis of the
hydrochemistry highlighted the relative impact of en-
vironmental factors on groundwater composition.
Prolonged mismanaged human practices of groundwa-
ter overabstraction, overgrazing, lack of efficient
drainage system, and removal of sand dunes are com-
bined to alter the natural equilibrium between recharge
and discharge of the aquifer system.
Two aquifers exist in the quaternary deposits of the
El-Omayed area: groundwater in the sand dune accu-
mulations (Holocene) and oolitic limestone
(Pleistocene). Direct infiltration from the atmosphere
remains the principal mechanism of groundwater re-
charge in the study area. Consequently, a variation of
rainfall will affect the recharge to these aquifers. The
chemical analysis of the groundwater indicates the
occurrence of relatively fresh water in the sand dune
accumulation aquifer and slightly brackish water in
the oolitic limestone aquifer. Na2SO4 dominates the
water in both aquifers. Groundwater salinity increases
from the north (750 mg/l) to the south and west (more
than 1,700 mg/l). This variation can be attributed to
the locations of wells close to the ridges, depressions,
and to the El-Nasr canal, as well as to the presence or
absence of salt marshes and to the well conditions.
7079
Groundwater is moderate to severely restricted for
irrigation, as indicated by sodium adsorption ratios,
which range from 2.1 to 16.3. The water can be used
for irrigation under special management for salinity
control, and plants with good salt tolerance should be
selected.
Electrical resistivity data have provided the estima-
tion of aquifer depth, resistivity, and unsaturated zone
resistivity. The thickness of the oolitic limestone aqui-
fer is variable with the maximum of 32 m towards the
southeastern part of the study area.
GIS with the implemented ordinary kriging tech-
niques proved promising in deriving the base maps for
documenting the spatial changes in groundwater char-
acteristics. To ensure proper water resource manage-
ment, the pumping rate should not exceed the sustain-
able yield, which requires monitoring of the pumps. In
addition, a new irrigation system (e.g., drip and sprin-
kler) should be introduced to minimize quantities of
irrigation water and to eliminate waterlogging and soil
salinization.
The employed integrated hydrogeological and GIS
techniques, when underpinned with the use of contin-
uous records of the spatial and temporal trends using
airborne geophysical techniques such as aeromagnetic
or magneto-telluric techniques, can help identify the
surface and subsurface conductivity variations of
groundwater conditions and would be indispensible
for successful water management.
Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the con-
tribution of geologist M.M. El-Horiny for his assistance in the
field survey and processing some of the geoelectrical data. We
also thank the anonymous reviewers for their critical comments
and suggestions that improved the manuscript.
7080
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