IPA17-22-G

PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Forty-First Annual Convention & Exhibition, May 2017

THE PROOF OF DUAL SALINITY IN TUNU FIELD: A KEY INFORMATION FOR CLAY
DIAGENESIS AND REGIONAL OVERPRESSURE STUDY IN MAHAKAM AREA

Faisal Farizi*
Taufik Anwar*
Haris Kurniawan Hidayat*
Baginda Saragih*
Dodiono*
Firdaus Tampilang*

ABSTRACT illite by reducing mineral size which increases pore

Formation water salinity of Tunu giant gas field
located in Mahakam area has been proved to have
significantly different value between hydrocarbon
zone and water zone. Water salinity value in water
zone measured from water sample and computed
from openhole logs is significantly lower than water
salinity in hydrocarbon zone derived from log to core
calibration using capillary pressure data. The
difference of salinity value is increasing with depth
over Tunu Main Zone which most likely related to
burial compaction and clay diagenesis. Clay
digenesis expels fresh water through ion filtration
processes.
The initial formation water salinity during deposition
in delta is depending on depositional environment
and tidal effect. Delta plain with low tide will have
very low salinity; otherwise it will have very high
salinity during high tide in prodelta. Lateral variation
of formation water salinity is ranging from 1 to 33
kppm.
The fresh water expelled from clay is then charging
the reservoir replacing the movable water resulting
in the reduction of water salinity in water bearing
reservoir. This is not the case in hydrocarbon bearing
reservoir due to moveable water already replaced by
hydrocarbon during migration process. The
remaining water is only irreducible water held by
capillary force which has initial water salinity as
deposited. This process makes water salinity in water
zone different from water salinity in hydrocarbon
zone. The difference is increasing by depth since clay
digenesis process increases by depth as temperature
increases.
Besides expelling water, clay diagenesis also
changes clay mineral type from montmorilonite to
* TOTAL E&P INDONESIE
pressure. The decreasing of water salinity over Tunu
Main Zone is very important information for regional
overpressure study. The charging of expelled water
from clay diagenesis to reservoir is suspected as one
of the causes of overpressure in Mahakam area.
INTRODUCTION
Tunu is a giant gas and condensate field (70 x 20 km
in size) located at the eastern limit of present
Mahakam Delta (Figure 1). The production of the
field started in August 1990 and currently delivers
600 mmscfd of gas per day. Tunu field is located
between NNE – SSW Median Axis anticlinorium,
mostly located along the eastern border of the field
and a parallel syncline axis 20 km to the west.
Tunu Main Zone (TMZ) reservoirs are made up of a
series of stacked fluvio-deltaic Miocene sand bodies
lying between 2000 to 5000m Subsea. The TMZ has
an overall progradational trend, divided into six main
stratigraphic units (SU1 to SU6). 300-400m thick
corresponding to 3rd order of sequence, based on
maximum flooding surfaces interpretation. Each of
main unit is divided into 15-40m thick sequences
bounded by local flooding surfaces, which generally
act as very effective seals. At basin scale (3rd order
SU cycles) and smaller scale (4th order, i.e. 3-4
deltaic cyles), the alternating prograding and
retrograding cycles were deposited, in response to
the balance between eustatic variations, subsidence
ratios and sediment supply (Lafont, 2003). Laterally,
the western part of the field is mainly represented by
upper delta plain to proximal delta front reservoirs
(channels and stacked mouthbars). On the eastern
side, the distal delta front deposits predominate, the
mouth bars are smaller and more isolated, especially
in the deeper SU (SU4 and SU6).
Two main reservoir types have been identified in
TMZ: Mouth Bars and Sand Channel Fills. The
modern Mahakam Delta is a close analogue to what
is observed in the Miocene deposit and its analysis is
used to define guidelines to model reservoir sand
body geometries for development proposals.
Distributary channel sands normally overlie finer
grained and bioturbated mouth bars, delta plain to
delta front deposits (Allen & Chamber, 1998). Mouth
Bars consist of very fine to fine sandstone, sub-
rounded, well sorted, and well consolidated, with fair
porosity. In distal position, to the east, the mouth bars
become silty and show poor porosity. A single mouth
bar thickness ranges from 1 to 5m (1.5m in average).
Stacked mouth bars can reach up to 15m. Average
porosity is 11.5% with a maximum of 27% and
average permeability is 10mD with a maximum of
1D.
Channel Fill reservoirs consist of medium to fine
sandstones, sub rounded, well sorted, well
consolidated, with good visual porosity, occasional
coal debris and slightly calcareous to the top. A
single distributary channel fill is between 5-20m
thick according to the position of well penetration
with regards to lateral accretion. Stacked channel
section up to 30m thick has been drilled in Tunu
Field. Average porosity is 15% with a maximum of
30% and average permeability is 100mD with a
maximum of 1D. Channel reservoirs are attributed in
the present model to lateral (side) bars in which, in
the modern delta, are 1-3 km long and 300 to 700m
wide. Since 2006, a geological model has been built
in order to address the following objectives:
prognosis of geological and dynamic features that
impact on daily operations, a tool for reservoir
management long term development planning.
The objectives of this study are to review the cause
of water salinity discrepancy between salinity in
water zone (aquifer) and hydrocarbon bearing zone.
The relationship with geology and regional
overpressure, and also to evaluate a reliable water
salinity value for Tunu Main Zone to be applied in
water saturation computation. Scope of this study is
water salinity in aquifer and hydrocarbon bearing
zone in Tunu Main Zone interval, bounded by MF6
in upper part and MF 9.5 in bottom part (Figure 1).
The data used within this study are respectively taken
within this interval.
Previous Studies of Water Salinity in Modern
Mahakam Delta
For references, there are 4 previous studies related to
water salinity evaluation in modern Mahakam delta:
Modern Mahakam Delta Salinity Study by Joffroy
(1999), Bachtiar et.al. (2010), Husein (2011), and
Salinity of Modern Sea Water by NASA in 2011 by
using Aquarius satellite.
The map of present-day variation of salinity in
surface water of Mahakam delta from Joffroy (1999)
showed increasing salinity in Mahakam delta from
upstream to downstream area, from terrestrial to the
sea environment. In the head pass of river, salinity
value is fresh water in the range of 35 to 48 ppm. In
the northern part of delta lobe salinity varies from
17,000 to 27,000 ppm and in the southern part it is
slightly lower, varies from 5,600 to 22,100 ppm.
Bachtiar et.al., 2011, during 2005-2009 observations
on modern sediment of Mahakam delta in the
southern and the northern lobes collected grab
samples on the river bed in conjunction with echo
sounding, shallow core sampling, and salinity
measurements. The delta environments observed
were head of passes, upper delta plain, lower delta
plain, and delta front. Salinity measurements in the
water and sediments both showed an increasing trend
from upstream to downstream, with the northern
lobes being more intruded by the sea water profiles.
Salinity variations with times were also observed to
be controlled by tidal-activity periods. A salinity
measurement campaign was conducted on 22 sites in
all the distributaries and major estuaries of modern
Mahakam delta by Husain 2011. Interaction between
fluvial and tidally sea water formed distinct water
layers, which were recorded in vertical profile at
every 30 minutes for complete spring and neap tidal
cycles at each station. During spring tides, tidal
processes are important and saline water moves
dynamically in the distributaries and estuaries. Saline
water extends farther inland in the northern area than
in the southern area. During high tides, brackish
water with 10 ‰ salinity intrudes up to 30 km
upstream from the coastline in the northern area and
only up to 10 km upstream in the southern area. At
the same time, saline water with 30 ‰ salinity
intrudes up to 15 km upstream in the northern area
but only reaches the outlet mouths in the southern
area. Referring to NASA 2011, The recent sea
surface salinity in Makassar Strait area is around 33
g/kg (g/kg is equal to kppm) which is indicated by
dark blue color on the map, compared to sea surface
water salinity around the world of 30 – 39 kppm. By
assuming sea water salinity of Makassar Strait
during TMZ reservoirs deposition is the same as
modern sea water, the average water salinity of
Mahakam delta during TMZ reservoirs deposition
should be less than 33 kppm as water in deltaic
environment is the mixing of fluvial water and sea
water.
DATA AVAILABILITY
There are several data and samples that are used in
this study. 52 water sample data: 49 RFT and 3 PT
data were used as the field data in this study. 524
apparent water salinity were computed and used as a
main subject. Capillary pressure data from 11 cored
wells were used for calibrating the results.
METHODOLOGY
Water Sample Analyses
Salinity is measured through several methods:
a) Calculation from 10 ions composition.
b) Dry residue at 105°C (evaporation).
c) Resistivity (NaCI equivalent, then minimum
salinity due to the low activity of HCO3, present
in relatively high quantities).
Apparent Water Salinity Calculation from E-
logs
Rwa method, the methodology of the apparent water
salinity (wsal app) computation used in this study,
uses Archie equation by assuming the reservoirs are
clean and fully saturated by water (Sw=1). Rwa is the
function of porosity, salinity and temperature.
Hence, the salinity can be computed from Rwa by
taking into account porosity and temperature. The
detailed equation is in Figure 2. This method is valid
for intervals which clean (very low clay content) and
fully saturated by water.
Apparent water salinity based on Rwa method from
openhole logs was then calibrated with water sample
salinity data. The result shows that the apparent
water salinity is a good match with the salinity
measured from water sample data. From this
apparent water salinity method, 3 salinity curves
were generated: salinity minimum (Salmin) in green
color, salinity medium (Salwat) in orange color and
salinity maximum (Salmax) in red color (Figure 3).
Water Salinity from Log to Core Capillary
Pressure Calibration
Salinity sensitivity analysis was performed in order
to find the best fit between e-logs and capillary
pressure data as a function of HAFWL to calibrate
the water saturation (Figure 4). The salinity
sensitivity used cross plot between Swt from
capillary pressure data versus Swt from log
computed with 4 salinity values (Salmin: minimum
salinity in aquifer, Salwat: median salinity in aquifer,
Salmax: maximum salinity aquifer, and SalHC:
salinity of irreducible water in hydrocarbon bearing
zone). Water saturation computed with SalHC which
is 25,000 ppm matches with water saturation from
core capillary pressure data. While water saturation
computed using Salmin, Salwat, and Salmax are
significantly higher than water saturation from core
data. It shows that water salinity of 25,000 ppm that
is currently applied in Tunu Main Zone is a reliable
value for hydrocarbon bearing zone. Water
saturation calibration performed by comparing Swt
and Phit computed from log in all wells were
compared with Swt and Phit measured from core.
The data exhibit that e-log derived Swt-Phit
computed with salinity of 25,000 ppm for each SU
matches to the core capillary pressure derived Swt-
Phit. It means that the salinity of 25,000 ppm is valid
as indicated by the core data.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Reliable Water Salinity for Hydrocarbon Zone
In theory, water salinity between hydrocarbon and
water bearing zone could be different because the
water in hydrocarbon zone above transition zone is
mostly irreducible or immobile water, while water
bearing zone is dominated by mobile water. Meteoric
water charging from land or expelled water charging
from shale compaction and diagenesis could be the
cause of this water salinity difference. Modern
Mahakam delta is known to be a good analogue for
Tunu Main Zone (TMZ) as it they both have similar
geological condition and depositional environment.
Therefore, water salinity in hydrocarbon bearing
zone in Tunu Main Zone should have similar value
with water salinity in modern Mahakam delta. Water
in hydrocarbon bearing zone above transition zone is
dominated by irreducible water which has similar
salinity with initial water during depositional since it
was not replaced during hydrocarbon migration
(drainage) period. Whereas, water bearing zone
(aquifer) is dominated by moveable water. Moveable
water can be replaced by expelled water from shale
compaction and clay diagenesis. The extrapolation to
surface of salinity from Rwa and water sample in
water zone of Tunu Main Zone by taking into
account the burial compaction trend is resulting in
salinity of 15,000 to 35,000 ppm with midpoint of
25,000 ppm. This salinity range is in line with water
salinity range in modern Mahakam delta from
Joffroy (1999), Bachtiar et.al. (2010) and Husein
(2011). The aim of extrapolation to surface by taking
into account compaction trend is to obtain estimated
initial water salinity value of Tunu Main Zone prior
to shale compaction and clay diagenesis occurred.
Based on modern Mahakam delta salinity studies,
saturation calibration with capillary pressure data,
and extrapolation of salinity from Rwa and water
sample with depth by taking into account compaction
trend, it is concluded that water salinity of 25,000
ppm is considered as a reliable value to be applied
for water saturation computation over hydrocarbon
bearing zones in Tunu Main Zone (Figure 5).
Water Salinity for Water Bearing Reservoir
In hydrocarbon bearing zone, water saturation (Sw)
computation has been calibrated with core capillary
pressure data and resulting in a reliable water salinity
of 25,000 ppm for whole Tunu Main Zone interval.
In water bearing zone, the water saturation should be
100% or very close to it. The salinity of 25,000 ppm
will not yield 100% water saturation. To get 100%
water saturation in water bearing zone, one of the
Salmin, Salmax, or Salwat needs to be applied. In
practical purpose, Salwat is suggested to be applied
in all water bearing zone to get 100% water
saturation or close to it. For example in well Tunu-
FF (Figure 6), in gas bearing reservoir (B, C, and D)
the best match Sw is computed using salinity of
25,000 ppm. Meanwhile, in clear water bearing
reservoir (A), salinity of 25,000 ppm yields Sw of
around 63%, Salmax yields Sw of around 90%,
Salwat yields Sw of around 99%, and Salmin yields
Sw of around 100%. In this example the reliable
water salinity value for hydrocarbon zone is 25,000
ppm while for water bearing zone the reliable water
salinity is either Salwat (8,000 ppm) or Salmin
(4,000 ppm).
Dual Salinity Concept in Mahakam
Hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs have water salinity
significantly different from the aquifers (Lalanne,
2008). The dual salinity concept for mobile water in
aquifer and irreducible water in hydrocarbon bearing
reservoirs is clearly observed from the apparent
water salinity. Apparent water salinity is decreasing
with depth over Tunu Main Zone (Figure 7 a).
Meanwhile, depositional environment of Tunu Main
Zone is relatively similar from top to bottom as
mixing of fluvial, delta plain, and delta front
environments which theoretically has similar
average salinity value from top to bottom. The initial
water salinity during deposition is depending on
depositional environment and tidal effect (Figure 7
b). Most of the initial water during deposition is
movable water, and some of the initial water
becomes immobile or irreducible water. The
irreducible water is held in place by capillary forces
and will not flow or be replaced. The only possible
direction for formation water in sands to evolve
during burial is towards lower salinity. Connate
water (deposition water) has salinity around 0 ppm
in the fluvial channels to 30,000 ppm (mostly as
NaCl) in bars. Compaction water expelled from the
prodelta shales is NaCl-dominated with low salinity
less than 2,000 ppm (Walgenwitz, 2003).
Over time, the sediment is buried with increasing
overburden which makes porosity reduction with
some movable water escaping from the reservoir.
Clay compaction may expel fresh water which may
then mix with the movable water in the reservoir. But
the irreducible water is not mixed with fresh water
expelled from clay compaction as irreducible water
is held in place by capillary force. During
hydrocarbon migration (drainage) process,
hydrocarbon cannot replace irreducible water in
reservoir. Therefore, water salinity in hydrocarbon
bearing zone above transition zone is the same as the
initial water salinity. Meanwhile, aquifers was
recharged by fresh water causing the salinity to
become fresher and fresher over geologic time
(Figure 7 c,d,e). Fresh water with low salinity
expelled from clay compaction and diagenesis were
suspected as the origins of decreasing water salinity
in Tunu Main Zone. These characteristics may
correspond to compaction water expelled from the
marine prodelta shale (Walgenwitz, F., 2003).
Apparent Water Salinity based on Facies
The data were separated based on facies to see any
particular water salinity trend for each facies.
Apparent water salinity in bar has slightly wider
range than that of channel facies with few samples
exhibit high salinity of more than 30 kppm (Figure
8). These These phenomena could be due to thin bed
shoulder effect, possible bar isolation, and burial
effect.
Apparent Water Salinity Lateral Distribution
based on Geological Area
To see the lateral distribution of apparent water
salinity along Tunu field, the wsal_app data were
divided into 4 main areas based on Geological Area
(GA): West area is GA6, Central area is GA5, East
Area is GA1, GA2, GA3, Far North and South area
is GA4. In Tunu Main Zone (below 2.500 m TVDSS)
seen that the salinity increase from west to the east,
from terrestrial area into the sea environment
(Figure-9). It is in line with regional deposition
direction which from west to east, the salinity is
increasing to the sea ward. It is appropriate with the
salinity value in modern Mahakam delta where the
salinity around 10 kppm in delta plain and around 30
kppm in pro-delta. In the Far North and Far South
area (GA4), the water salinity is relatively similar
with East area. For water salinity lateral distribution
evaluation, salinity data were plotted on the map.
Apparent water salinity maps have been made using
P50 of apparent water salinity data of each well in
each stratigraphic unit (Figure 10). This salinity map
is the first study at field scale of Tunu at SU level.
From SU1-SU4, the high salinity area located in the
eastern part of Tunu Field. For SU-5, the apparent
water salinity map reveals minor lateral variation of
data. Average apparent water salinity is 12 kppm
along SU5 with variation data in several places.
Water Salinity and Clay Diagenesis
The origin of the decreasing salinity from Rwa and
water sample with depth in Tunu Main Zone is most
likely due to the increasing of compaction water
proportion in the reservoir. Compaction waters are
expelled from shale through ion filtration processes.
Smectite to Illite ion filtration process releases fresh
water with salinity of 2,000 to 5,000 ppm.
Meanwhile, connate water (syn-depositional) varies
from 0 to 30,000 ppm depending on the depositional
environment and tidal period. The size of clay is
decreasing because smectite releases the water
bounded in it during smectite to illite transformation
process. Present day formation water salinity is a
combination of compaction water and connate water.
Clay diagenetic process is strongly dependent on
temperature. For smectite to illite transformation, the
temperature is around 900 C (Hower et. al., 1976).
Lateral and vertical expulsion of compaction waters
is dependent on the sand shale ratio and reservoir
connectivity in Tunu field. The evidence of smectite
to illite transformation is clearly seen from Dutta’s
cross plot in Tunu field (Figure 11). By using density
and sonic from open hole data, smectite-illite
transformation can be observed clearly from interval
by interval. The illitic and smectite compaction
trends were determined empirically from Gulf of
Mexico by Dutta (2002), with trend equations:
 Smectite trends (red line)
ρ (g/cc) = 2.918 – 0.00517*Δt (μs/ft) Eq.1
 Illite trends (blue line)
ρ (g/cc) = 3.044 – 0.005*Δt (μs/ft) Eq.2
Within the interval of 0-1,000 meter subsea, the clay
overall is in smectite compaction trend. Within1,000-
2,000 meter subsea, the clay is already started to
approach telodiagenesis line (the clay close to illite
transformation phase). Within 2000-3000 meter
subsea, the clay reaches the telodiagenesis phase
when illite is formed. Below 3000 meter subsea, the
clay shifts under telodiagenesis line. In this depth,
smectite to illite transformation starts to transfer load
from load bearing smectite to pore water. Based on
this Dutta cross plot, the smectite to illite
transformation in Tunu field is interpreted to be
started within the interval of 1,000 to 2,000 meter
subsea.
Water Salinity and Overpressure
Overpressure is condition when the formation
pressure is higher than normal hydrostatic pressure.
Clay diagenesis of smectite to illite transformation is
not only affecting water salinity reduction in aquifers
but also is suspected as one of the additional causes
of overpressure in Mahakam area. The clay volume
decreased due to water expelled from the smectite
transformation. The grain to grain contact will also
be decreased which then reduces effective stress
followed by increasing of pore pressure, contributing
to unloading mechanism.
Resistivity evolution by depth in pure shale
compared with that of aquifers also exhibits the
presence of over pressure in Tunu Main Zone. Pure
shale Resistivity along TMZ represents in-situ water
and aquifer resistivity along TMZ. Normal
Compaction Trend (NCT) from resistivity and
aquifer resistivity line were plotted in the same cross
plot. Resistivity of pure shale deflects to left of NCT
resistivity, indicating the presence of over pressure in
Tunu Main Zone (Figure 12). Resistivity comparison
in pure shale and aquifer also demonstrates that the
value is not the same both in normal pressure and
overpressure zone. The presence of overpressure
indicated from the change in resistivity trend can be
seen at depth below ~3000mTVDSS. This top
overpressure is located at the same level where the
water salinity starts to decrease, therefore this
phenomenon might demonstrate the relationship of
pore pressure increase and salinity reduction.
CONCLUSIONS
 The salinity of the hydrocarbon reservoirs are
significantly different from the salinity of the
aquifers. Based on modern Mahakam salinity
studies, saturation calibration with core data,
Rwa salinity and water sample salinity
extrapolation with depth by taking into account
compaction trend and clay diagenesis, water
salinity value of 25,000 ppm is considered to be
the most reliable value to be applied in water
 saturation computation over hydrocarbon
bearing zones of Tunu Main Zone.
 The significant water salinity difference between
hydrocarbon zone and water bearing zone is
suspected due to fresh water expelled from clay
compaction and diagenesis, replacing water in
the water bearing zone. The decreasing salinity
by depth over Tunu Main Zone is valuable
information for overpressure study in Mahakam
area. The charging of expelled water from clay
diagenesis to reservoir is suspected as one of
additional causes of overpressure in Mahakam
area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to
TOTAL E&P Indonesie and INPEX Management.
Special thanks are addressed to Indonesian
Government for permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Bachtiar, A., Wiyono, J., Liyanto, Syaiful, M.,
Purnama, Y.S., Rozalli. M., Krisyunianto. A., and
Purnama, A.S., 2010, The Dynamics of Mahakam
Delta – Indonesia, Based on Spatial and Temporal
Variations of Grab Samples, Cores, and Salinity,
AAPG International Conference and Exhibition.
Dutta, N.C., 2002, Deepwater Geohazard Prediction
using Prestack Inversion of Large Offset P-Wave
Data and Rock Model, The Leading Edge, July 2002.
Husein, S., 2011, Dynamic of Saline Water Incursion
in the Mahakam Delta, East Kalimantan, Proceeding
JCM HAGI and IAGI, Makassar, Indonesia.
Powers M.C., 1967, Fluid-Release Mechanisms in
Compacting Marine Mudrocks and Their Importance
in Oil Exploration, AAPG Bull 51:1240 1254.
Ramdhan, A.M., 2010, Overpressure and
Compaction in the Lower Kutai Basin, Indonesia,
Durham Theses, Durham University. Available at
Durham E-Theses.
Vinas, Maria-Jose, 2013, NASA's Aquarius Sees
Salty Shifts, Greenbelt, Earth Science News Team
(http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/aquarius/news
/data-first-year.html)
Figure 1 - Location map of Tunu Field. Tunu Main Zone Interval bounded by MF6 regional markers (N17)
at the top, and MF9.5 (N14) at the bottom (red box). The data used within this study is respectively
taken within this interval.

Figure 2 - Rwa method equations to compute apparent water salinity.

 
Figure 3 - Apparent water salinity from RWA method (wsal app) calibrated with water sample data in Tunu
Main Zore Interval. Calculated wsal app data good match with wsal from water sample and can
use for this study.

Figure 4 - Water salinity sensitivity in Tunu Main Zone. SWT using Salinity 25.000 ppm matches with SWT
capillary pressure core data.
Figure 5 – Apparent water salinity (wsal app) sand in Tunu Main Zone decreases by depth (cross plot 1).
Compaction trend from sonic data versus TVDSS in Tunu field (cross plot 2). Compaction water
from shale charged the aquifer and flushed the initial water in aquifer. Salinity of irreducible water
as initial water in hydrocarbon bearing reservoir, derived from SWT log calculation calibrated
with capillary pressure data (cross plot 3).

Figure 6 - Dual salinity concept in water bearing zone and hydrocarbon bearing zone from log analysis within
Tunu Main Zone.

 
Figure 7 - General Illustration of irreducible water generation in hydrocarbon bearing reservoir. Apparent
water salinity in Tunu decrease by depth (a). Salinity at initial condition before hydrocarbon
migration (b). Salinity in irreducible water at hydrocarbon bearing reservoir after hydrocarbon
migration (c). Clay compaction and clay diagenesis expel fresh water replacing movable water in
hydrocarbon zone (d). Salinity of irreducible water and aquifer after mixing with compaction water
(e).

Figure 8 - Computed apparent water salinity (wsal_app) in Channel and Bar facies. Wsal_app in Bar shows
more saline, this phenomena could be due to thin bed shoulder effect, possible bar isolation, and
burial effect.
Figure 9 - Lateral distribution of apparent water salinity based on geological area. West area is GA6, Central
area is GA5, East Area is GA1, GA2, GA3, North and South Area is GA4.

 
Figure 10 - Apparent water salinity maps using P50 of wsal app data. From SU1-SU4, the high salinity area
is located in the eastern part of Tunu Field. For SU-5, the apparent water salinity map reveals
minor lateral variation of data. Average apparent water salinity is 12 kppm along SU5 with
variation of data in several places.
Figure 11 - Smectite to Illite transformation is interpreted starting from interval 1.000-2000 meter subsea
based on Dutta crossplot.

 
Figure 12 - Pure shale Resistivity along TMZ (left picture) represents insitu water and Aquifer resistivity
along TMZ (middle picture). Resistivity trend line (NCT) and aquifer resistivity line plotted in
same cross plot (right). Resistivity of pure shale deflects to the left of NCT Resistivity, indicating
the presence of over pressure in Tunu Main Zone.