fret Perna ‘This comprehensive instructional reference Concrete eoot| neces Repair and Maintenance Illustrated + Problem Analysis * Repair Strategy * Techniques Peter H. Emmons Here is the tool you need to clearly understand and successfully carry out concrete repair and maintenance projects—with confidence! In this book you will find a detailed, yet ‘concise presentation of over 220 concrete repair and maintenance topics. Issues are ‘examined within the framework of analysis, strategy development, and repair techniques, with extensive and superbly detailed illustrations to guide you in the proper planning and execution of repairs. Written by Peter H. Emmons, President of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc., and a national authority on concrete repair, Concrete Repair and Maintenance, Mlustrated was technically reviewed and edited by James Warner, world-renowned concrete repair consultant and educator, and Alexander M ‘Vaysburd, Ph.D., an expert in concrete technology with more than 30 years experience in the industry. ‘This indispensable book provides extensive information about problem analysis, strategy development, engineering aspects, material cciteria, and repair and maintenance methods. Designed for ease of use by all participants in the repair and maintenance process—owners and facilities managers, ‘engineers, architects, material suppliers and. contractors—the book's unique format provides a highly structured, fully illustrated ‘examination of each topic mmons Peter H.I ey fo I 2 A —| Tete i rete Rep: Eilnei nea ONC! + Evaluating Concrete Problems + Susface Repair + Stabilization and Strengthening + Protection Dedicated to quality assurance and technical excellence, the author provides the concrete repair industry with a much-needed reference ‘guide designed to facilitate adherence to the highest standards in the design and execution of concrete repair and maintenance projects. About the Author Peter H. Emmons is President of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc, the nation’s largest dedicated concrete repair contractor, headquartered in Baltimore, MD. Me. Emmons holds a B.S. degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Maryland, has over twenty years experience in structural concrete repair, and has been involved with over 3,000 concrete repair projects, He is the author of several widely distributed publications, including The Guidebook for Repair and Maintenance of Parking Structures (1988), and the highly respected quarterly publication, Repair Techniques (1989). He is noted for his articles and presentations addressing topics such as the importance of drying shrinkage values in the selection of repair materials, and innovative techniques for the repair of post-tensioned structures, as well as for development of a yatented waterstop repair system which has Filed ariel need in the repair of leaking wwaterstops. ‘Mr. Emmons provides industry leadership through the International Association of Concrete Repair Specialists (ACRS), serving as a member of the Board of Directors and as Chairman of the Technical Guideline Committee, which produced the first industry guidelines for concrete removal around exposed reinforcing steel. He is also a member of both the 546 Repair Committee and the 364 Rehabilitation Committee of the American Concrete Institute (ACN) Mr. Emmons is committed to fostering the development of a much-needed strategic alliance between contractor, engineer, supplier, and owner to successfully address the complex, interactive requirements of effective concrete repairs, Published by: RS. Means Company, Inc. Sout company 100 Construction Plaza, P.O. Box 800 ‘Kingston, MA 02364-0600 (617-585-7880 Fach and Boot Design by Norman R FeConcrete Repair and Maintenance Illustrated «Problem Analysis Repair Strategy “Techniques AyCe ereKe aoe itarrae! Maintenance Illustrated ‘Problem Analysis ORG WAN EG GY -Techniques Peter H. Emmons DRL Brandon W EmmAl, ‘COMRGHT 1994 R.S. MEANS COMPANY, INC. ‘CONSTRUCTION PUBLISHERS & CONSULTANTS 100 Constevetion Plaza 20. Box 800 “Kingston, MA 02364-0800 (627)385-7800 Inkeping with the general policy of RS. Means Company Ine, it authors editors, and enginers appyliligence and adgraen in locating and using reliable soures forthe {formation publshed, However, na guarantee or waranty canbe gives, andall esponsibility and bil fr foss or damage ae hereby disclaimed bythe authors, edtors, engineers and publisher of hispublication with respect to the aceuracy correctness value and sufficiency of the data, methods, andthe information contained herein as applied for any purpose oF Use. “The editors fr this book were May Greene and Nell Smit; procuction and arc was managed by ‘Helen Marcell; composition by Publication Services, tne The book and jacket weve designed by [Norman R For [No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a eceval system, or ransmited in ‘any form or by any means without prior writen permision of RS. Means Company, Inc Printed inthe United States of America 9876543 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ISBN 087629-286-4‘To all employees of Structural Preservation Systems, Inc. and all past, present and future clients.Table of Contents Part One—Concrete Behavior Section 1: Introduction to Embedded Metal Corrosion Embedded Metal Corrosion Process Gorrosion-Induced Cracking and Spalling Reduction in Scructural Capacity Chloride Penetration racks and Chlorides Casein Chlorides, Carbonation Structural Steel Member Corrosion Dissimmilar Metal Corrosion Pest-Tension Strand Corrosion ‘Additional Sources of Information Section 2: Disintegeation Mechanisms Introduccion to Disintegration Mechanisms Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Freeze-Thaw Disintegration AllalisAgaregate Reactions Sulfate Attack rasion: Cavitation Erosion: Abtasion Additional Sources of Information Section 3: Moisture Effects Introduction to Moisture Effects Drying Sheinkage Moisture Vapor Transmission Volume Change—Moisture Content Curling Additional Sources of Information Section 4: Thermal Effects Introduction to Thermal Effects Thermal Volume Change Uneven Thermal Loads Uneven Thermal Loads: Continuous Spans Restraint to Volume Changes Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Concrete ‘Thermal Movements in Existing, Cracks Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling Tower Shell Fice Damage Additonal Sources of faformation Section 5: Load Fffects Introduction to Load! Effects Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Principles racking Modes: Continuous Spans SlatyBeam-t0-Column Shear Cantilevered Members| Continuous Structures Colurnns PostTensioned MembersGylindrical Suructures: Buried Pipe 56 Gylindrical Structures: Yanks a Connections: Contact Loading 58 ‘Aatlitional Sources of Information 39 Section 6: Faulty Workmanship: Designer, Detailer, Contractor 6 Faulty Workmanship: Introduction 4 Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement @ Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape 6 Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement: Highly Congested 3B Improper Bar Placement: Location of Stirtups 64 Premature Removal of Forms 6 Improper Column Form Placement 6 Col Joints 66 Segregation 6 Improper Grades of Slab Surfaces o Construction Tolerances a Plastic Sertlement (Subsidence) Cracking & Plastic Shirinkage Cracking 6 Honeycomb —Rock Pockets ey Part Two—Concrete Evaluation Introduction Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation Table A: Test Methods Concltion Survey Procedure Section 1: Service and Exposure Conditions Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation Section 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete: Acoustical Emission Methods 81 Section 4: Corrosion Act y Measurements 82 Section $: Chloride Content ra Section 6: Depth of Carbonation 84 Section 7: Petrographic Analysis 4 Section 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Impact Echo Method 85 Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods 6 Section 10: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Remote Viewing Inside Structure 8 Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel 88 Section 12: Monitoring Movements 89 Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pulloft Testing 90 Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration Methods 31 Additional Sources of Information %2Part Three—Surface Repair Introduction Flow Chart of General Procertures Anatomy of Surface Repairs Section 1: Analysis, Strategy & Design Iniroduction co Analysis, Strategy & Design Performance Requicements Structural Needs ‘Types of Stress Acting on Repairs Performance Requirements, Examples ‘The Challenge of Placing Loads into Repairs Cause/Efect Design Exvor Repair Problem—Anaiysis and Strategy ‘Additional Sources of Information Section 2: Material Requirements Introduction to Material Requirements Selection Process Flow Chart Checklist, User Needs Checklist, Service/Exposite Conditions ‘Checklist, Placement Conditions Establishing Matecal Properties Establishing Material Properties: Load Carrying Properties Establishing Material Properties: Service/Exposure Properties Establishing Material Properties: External Load Properties Establishing Matevial Properties: Constwuctibiliy & Appearance Propesties Volume Change Effects: Introduction Volume Change Effects: Summary of Volume Change Mechanisms ‘Volume Change Effects: Drying Shrinkage Process Volume Change Effects: Selecting Low Shrinkage Materials Adlitional Sources of Information Section 3: Material Selection Inttoduetion to Material Selection Summacy of Repair Materials Repair Material Ingredients Section 4: Surface Preparation Introduction to Surface Preparation General Surface Preparation Procedures Sucface Preparation; Recommencled Layout nf Surface Repairs Recommended Removal Geometry Removal Methods: Partial Deptt Removal Methods: Full Depth Section 5: Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection Introduction to Reinforcing Steel Cleaning, Repair & Protection General Procedure Reinforcing Steel Repair Reinforcing Steel Cleaning Reinforcing Steel Protection 93 7 59 100 101 102 103 104 105 108 0 42 14 15 16 uw? 118 U9 320 y1 12 123 14 15 126 27 128 129 BL 12 33 134 136 137 138 139 43 M44 M5 M46 17 15 v9 150 151 152Section 6: Bonding Repait Materials to Existing Concrete 154 Introduction to Bonding Repair Materials to Existing Concrete 155 Measuring Bond Strength 156 Evaluating Bond Strength 158 General Procedures: 160 Bonding Agents 263 Additional Sources af Information 164 Section 7: Placement Methods 165 Tntroduetion to Placement Methods 166 ‘Summary of Methods 168 Dry Packing. 170 Form and Cast-in-Place 171 Form and Pump 172 Gtouted Prepliced Aggregate in Dry Mix Shoterete 178 Wet Mix Shorcreie 18) Tull Depth Repat 181 Overlays 182 ‘Summary of Overlay Materials 183, Hand/-Appled 184 Additional Sources of [nformation 185 Part Four—Strengthening and Stabilization 187 Introduction to Part Four 191 Section 1: Techniques/Design Considerations 193, Introduction to Techniques/Design Consiclerations 194 Summary of Techniques 195 Passive and Active Design 197 Matetial Behavior 198, Attachment of Steel to Concrete 199 Section 2: Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening 200 Introduction to Beam Shear Strengthening 201 Intemally Placed Passive Shear Strengthening 202 Beam Shear Capacity Strengthening at Moving Hinge 203 External Past-Tensioned Straps 304 Section 3: Shear Transfer Strengthening Between Members 205, Introduction to Shear Transfer Suengthening Between Members 206, Dowel Shear Device 207 Drilled Hole Shear Transfer Device 208 Grouted Subgrade 209 Cantleveced Shear Arm 210 Section 4: Stress Reduction Techniques aul Installing New Expansion Joint in Continuous Conevete Frame 212 Lateral Ground Movement Isolation (Seismic Isolation) 2B Section 5: Columa Strengthening 24 Column Compressive Strengthening by Section Enlargement 215,Shea Capacity Strengthening Using Shear Collars 216 Beam-Column Moment Capacity Strengthening 27 Confinement Stengthening, 218 Section 6: Flexural Strengthening 219 Summary of Methods 220 External Post-Tensioned Reinforcement 221 Span Shortening Techniques ne Bonded Steel Plate Reinforcement 223 Convection of Deflected Member with Ronded Steel Plate Concrete Overlay and Section Enlargement 25 ‘Wall Strengthening 226 Section 7: Connection Stabilization and Strengthening 27 Reconstruction of Corbel Bearing 208 Externally Mounted Compression Struts 29 Excernally Mounted Bearing Assembly 230 Section 8: Crack Stabilization 21 Performance Requirements for Crack Repairs 232 Understanding Crack Movements 233 CauserBifec: Design Bors 235 Quality Control 236 Techniques for Placing Adhesives into Fractured Concrete 237 Adeitional Sources of ivormation 238 Pact Five—Protection 239 Introduction to Part Five 22 Section 1: Strategies 243, Introduction 10 Suategies 25 Controlling Chloride-Jaduced Corrosion —New Concrete 246 Conwolfing Chioriée-Induced Corrosion —Existing Concrete 248 Connolling Chloride-Induced Corvasion in Cracks and Consttuction Joints 250 Controlling Carbonation-Induced Cocrosion 251 Controlling Carbonation 252 Controlling Aggressive Chemical Surface Damage 254 Controlling Freeze-Thaw Damage 256 Contolling Freeze-Thawe Damage Behind Surfice Repairs 257 Controlling Water Flow Through Structures 258 Controlling Water Leakage Through Plaza Deck Systems 260 Section 2: Methods 263 Introduction to Methods 264 Sucface Applied Protection: tmmpregnation 266 Sucface Applied Protection: Coatings 267 Surface Applied Protection: Surficing (Plastering, Rendering, Overlayanent) 268 Surface Applied Protection: Blastomeric Membranes (Laquid anel Sheet Applied) 269 Surface Applied Protection: Problemis\Concems 270 Surface Applied Protection: Pile Jacketing am Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (lnercept Penetration) 272 Surface Applied Protection: Water Control Grouting (Material Pevfornnance) 273xi Surface Applied Protection: Waret Contwol Grouting (Positive Side Penetration) 274 Susface Applied Protection: Water Control Growing (Pipe joints) Surface Applied Protection: joint Seals (Pressure-Rated Waterstop Joints) 275 Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Water Control Rout & Seal) 27 Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Loacl Supporting/Rout & Seal) 278 Surface Applied Protection: Joint Seals (Traffic Bearing Expansion Joints) 279 Altering Blectro-Chemical Behavior: Impressed Current Cathodic Protection 28) ‘Additional Sources of Infotmiation BI Glossary 283 Index 289Introduction SS! Meane Comp eon. san ese Concrete repair is a complex process, presenting unique challenges very different from those experienced in the field of new concrete construction Conerete repair must successfully integrate new materials with old mate- rials, forming a composite capable of enduring the exposures of use, the enviconment, and time. Concrete repair, which began with the fist concrete placement, came of ge as the nineteen sixties, seventies, and eighties produced a proliferation of concrete structures. Today, conerete repair is a major industry supporting the needs of virtually every concrete structure. Fach structure requires routine repair and maintenance, rang- ing from simple protective coatings (0 repair of spalling concrete to strength ening of under-designed components. ‘With the growth of any marketplace come new players eager to participate. Jn the concrete repair business, this includes contractors, engineers, atch tects, and material suppliers. What nneoeomers find is an industry in need of technical definition and guidelines for standard practice —the lack of ‘which can lead to poorly designed repats, illconceived materials, and poonly executed field precesures All 100 often, the results are premature repair failures ‘The purpose of this book is to present concrete repaic as an integrative pro- cess of analysis, sraeegy and tech- nique, eating concrete behavior dicectly to the field repair process. The author stresses the ectical importance of continuity between engineering, materials, and technique, as well as the need for sound technical knowledge and effective communication within the project ream, The book raises ques- tions aad provides ideas for solutions The dynamics of new materials inter. acting with in-place snatetials is stil an emerging science. Enhances methods of analysis, improved strategies ancl techniques and new materials will facilitate quality growth of the concrete repaic industry, This book is designed to guide and support that growth through its emphasis on the practices of quality analysis, careful strategy development, and proper selection of technique and materials The book presents the phllosopty dhat owners, engineers, macetial suppliers, and contractors all need ¢0 understand the basis of each discipline repre sented in the repair process. The contractor must understand concrete deterioration mechanisms in order 10 understand surface preparation, The engineer must understand material behavior, including both physical cured properties and the chemical uncured behavior, in order to propery specify a success repair material, The mantr Factaer of repair materials most not only apply sound chemical principles, but also understand the engineering aspects of how repair materials wll interact with an existing substrate under load caurying conditions. The vwnes must be 4 generalist familiar ‘with concrete probtenis and potential solutions The book's style of delivery is intended to support the purposes, philosophy, and needs outlined above, using easily understood graphics with explanatory text. Wherever possible, each topic is contained on onc page, presenting an inclusive unit of information, Bach page contains illustrations designed to hop the reader visualize a particular mechanism or strategy. xiixiv Many of the author's experiences, including failure experiences, are used as case studies. Understanding what (0 avoid can be the most valuable infor- ration gained ‘rom reading this book ‘The use of flow charts throughout the book provides comity between puges and sextions, Metric conversions are showin for most English units. The book 's designed to be easily understood by all who participate in the process of conerete repair and maintenance. “The book has been organized in @ fashion similac to the progression of steps found in a typical vepair project. Te begins with an extensive discussion of concrete behavior, addressing ele- ments which may lead co defect deterioration or damage. The section that follows addresses evaluation techniques commonly used 10 analyze the behavior and establish the general scope of defects, Pars Three, Fowr, and Five ofthe book deal with the strategy and techniques necessary 10 repair and maintain @ particular struc tue of member, Part Three "Surface Repair," is the mast comprehensive, including discussion of engineering aspects, material requirements, surface preparation andl material placeiment techniques. Pitt Four “Stabilization and Stvengthening,” includes discussion of various techmigues to stabilize or sirengthen a member or structase. The discussion is oriented cosvais ideas for possible solutions, Pat Five “Pro ection,” is a broad! categary including Cecfusiques andl strategies for water proofing, and barcers co unsranced exposure or service conditionsAcknowledgments 1 wish to extend my appreciation and gratitude co the following people: Brandon Einmons, Ulsteator, for contributing his extraordinary talent, cceativty, time and patience; ‘© Alexander Vaysburd, Ph.D, Techical uitor, for contributing painstaking researc, and for sharing his dleica- tion, enthusiasm, and technical expertise; © James Warner, Technical Editor and Consultant, for applying his vast technical knowledge and experience to the process of daring and re- Fining technical coatene; Susan Hodinko, Management Consull- ant, for providing guidance, clarity, meticulous esiting and moral support; © James & McDonald and Waterways Experimental Staion, US. Army Corps of Engineers, for providing a broad range of technical reports and strong support of the need to establish performance criteria for dimensionally compatible repaic materials; © Paul Carter and Alberta Trangporta- tion and Utes for conttibuting invaluable technical reports on tepair snaerial performance, and for review: ing the seetion on shrinkage of repair materials; ‘© Milt Collins and the International Association of Concrete Repair Spe cialis (ACRS), for extending support and encouragement, for sharing IACRS guidelines, and for providing metric conversions; ‘© Thomas Kline and Construction Tech nology Laboratories (CTL), for con ting technical reports and important technical knowledge of concrete behavior and evaluation; arty Krab, Mike Sprinkeb, ames Gifton and the National institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for providing significant technical reports and for reviewing the section on bond performance criteria ‘Thomas J Pasko, Jt, of the Rederal Highway Administration, for contribut ing is highly professional advice; James E. Robeits of Caltrans for sharing his experiences in seismic strengthening; James B. Emmons, for providing the cover photograph, Margo Gray, for her meticulous word processing; Kelly Page, for her editing contibue tions, and Brenda, Becky, Megan, and Brandon for their unwavering patience, encour agement and support For offering their encouragement and comments, Rob Lambe, Ph.D, of Fosrac, ete Popovic of Wiss, Janney, Elsner Assoxiates, Ephuaim Senbetta of Mastex Butlers, Steinar Helland of Selmer, Nonway, Patrick Sullivan, Professor of City Universi, London, UK. and Jonge Bernal, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Universiciad Nacional el Nordeste, Republica of ArgentinaSymbols Ps Solar exposure afecting teal ieacing y i 7 Alls, keeseteptec roe : c Indicates cirecbon oj change 7 ‘Change in time. Years, months, days are | Sood apne aunt 4 Bane oostze " $6 : ' 4 } ipso ts Byprsue te agessie Seo Exposure to chlorides Sot Cowasion products ec eirteng lee bar Sf Eon ape! d /\t Conceete Large aggregate Shear stess| Applied loads Compression Tension ‘a change resulting in decrease ‘2 change resuling in increase g ) Use caution, unclear ast right ‘answer. a Electrical power source J UU Sey ? Penetration or movement —S Banter to exposure or sevice conditions| Closeup view ‘denies wrong approach to a particular problem Bacar to the exposure specied witin th symbo wiiWhat You Need To Know Before Using This Book i The book wses extensive references to publications of the American Concrete Institute (ACI). Much of the technical Iknowiedlge avaiable about repair is contained in the Fve-volume ACT Manual of Concrete Practice Pot more information abown ACI, write American Concrece Institute, PO. Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, Michi gan 48219. Other sources of informa tion include: © American Society of Testing and Maresals (ASTM) ‘More information can be obtained! by writing: American Sovety of Testing and Materials 1916 Race Street Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187, USA International Associaton of Concrete Repair Specialists (CRS) Mote information can be obiinedt by woiting: Intemational Assecation of Concrete Repaic Specialists PO. Box 17402 Dalles International Aiport ‘Washington, DC 20041 © Additional reading macerials to further ‘one’s knowledge are referenced atthe ‘end of each section. ‘The graphies used in this book utilize symbols representing certain condl- tions or exposures. & symbol library is provided folowing the intoductionPart One Concrete Behavior PEE e S289 Oaa oo Part One Sections Section 1: Introduction to Embedded Metal Corrosion Embedded Metal Corrosion Process Corrosionvinduced Cracking and Spaling Reduction in Structaral Capacity Chloride Fenetcation Giacks and Chlorides Cascin Chlorides Carbonation Structural Steel Member Corrosion Djssimilar Metal Corrosion Post-Tension Strancl Corrosion Additional Sources of Inforination Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms Introduction to Disintegration Mechanisms Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Freeze-Thaw Disintegration Alkal-Agaregate Reactions Sulfate tack Erosion: Cavitation Erosion: Abrasion ‘Additional Sources of information Section 3: Moisture Effects Introduction to Moisture Effects 1g Shrinkage re Vapor Transmission Volume Change —Moistuce Content 10 nL 1B 4 5 16 nr 18 9 2» 21 a 24 5 % %6 2» 31 3Curling ‘ditional Sources of Information Section 4: Thermal Effects Introduction to Thermal Bfects ‘Theumal Volume Change Uneven ‘Thermal Loads Uneven Thermal Loads: Continuous Spans Restraint to Volume Changes Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Conerete ‘Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling Tower Shell Fire Damage Additional Sousces of Information Section 5: Load Bffects Inteoduetion to Load Effects Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Principles Slab/Beam-t0-Columnn Shear Cantlevered Members Continuous Seructures Columns Fost-Tensioned Members Cylindrical Steuccures: Buried Pipe Gylindsical Stauctures: Tanks Connections: Contact Loading ‘Additonal Sources of hwormation Section 6: Faulty Workmanship: Designer, Detailer, Contractor Faulty Workmanship: Intioduction Improper Reinforcing Stee! Placement Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement: Highly Congested Improper Bar Placement: Location of Stirups Premature Removal of Foums Improper Columa Form Placement Cold Joints Segregation Improper Grades of Slab Surfaces Consttuction Tolerances Plastic Settlement Subsidence) Cracking Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Honeycomb—Rock Packets 33 34 35 37 39 0 41 2 B a 6 46 a B 51 52 53 57 58 9 ot a 8 6 6 66 66 o7 o7 63 6 0Introduction & cones Sewice Conditions Seni Loads. Design - Deters vr | racion Z canstn Deters fi fy 4 OE Disintegration ‘Spalling ‘Cracking Leakage ‘Wear Dellection ‘Settlement. Sg Sake eat ttn 5Introduction to Part One Concrete does not always behave as ‘we would like; some of the undesirable Effect Cause behavior can be seen as disintegration, spalling, cracking, leakage, wear, de- flection or settlement. Developing effective repair strategies requires an understanding of what caused the undesirable behavior, Understanding oe the cause allows the repair stategy to Leakage son audless both the cause and the effect elect — [|-——!arats (behavior), The result isa successful, Jong lasting repair. Setlomant Consnction Bee ee : ‘A variety of factors influence concrete i behavior. These factors incluce: de- Detection Svateasrg | sign, material, construction, service Chemical | loads, service Conditions and exposure Wear Sei conditions. Most of the observed behaviors are a combination of these Damage |} Earthquake factors working together. The discus Fire sion of conorete behavior in this sec tion has heen subdivided into six Freeze Thaw | categories. The frst wo categories, Disintegration Embedded Metal Corrosion and Disin. I Etason tegration, adress deterioration mecha racking Corsinor | nisms. The next thtee, Moisture EE - ek fei, Themal fects and Load Bec, ” address exposure and service condi- Delamination Deveriraton | —P stat Aggregate | tions. The last category addvesses Faction defects due to improper workmanship. Sealing Sulate Attack DES team Corpo fags, ta MO 7Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Embedded Netal Corrosion Process Corrosion Induced Spalling Reduction in Structural Capacity Chloride Penetration Cracks and Chlorides Castin Chlorides Carbonation Structural Steel Member Corrosion. Dissimilar Mezal Cotrosion Post‘Tension Strand Corresion Se Serengeti ws ennEmbedded Metal Corrosion Process Corrosion Rate os 4 mmiyr " 03 0 ad vy kale or 7 os 4 t os4 0 2 4 6 8 BO pH of Concrete Relationship betwoen pH and corrosion rate Corrosion Inhibitors Corrosion Promoters: High quality conceote Drygen igh pt (Akay) Water concrete protects ‘Stray electica currents steel surface irom “Uneven chemical comeosion. envitonmont around ‘einforosment -Eaviconments thal loner the oH (alkalinity) Conecete is @ high alkalinity material. ‘The pif of newly produced concrete is usually between 12 ancl 13. In this range of alkalinity, embedded steel is protected from corrosion by a passvat ing film bonded! to the reinforcing bar surface. However, when the passivaing film is disrupeed, corrosion may take place CCotrosion is an electrochemical pro ‘ess requiring an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. A moist concrete matrix forms an acceptable electrolyte, and the steel reinforcement provides the anode and cathode. Electrical current flows between the cathode and anode, and the reaction results in an increase in metal volume as the Fe (on) is oxidized into Fe(OH)2 anal Fe(OH); and precipitates as FeO OF (ust color)!, Water and oxygen must bee present for the reaction (0 take place. In good quality concrete the corrosion rate will be very slow. Accel erated corrosion will take place if the DH (alkalinity) is towered. @abonation) Or if ageressive chemicals or cisiilar metals ate introduced into the con- rete, Other causes include stray clectrical cutrenes and conentation cells caused by an uneveo chemical environment “fton, 18, Predicting the Remaining Service Life of Concrete, Nainal Institute of Stan dards ael Technology Report NISTIR 4712.Part One; Concrete Behavior Metal Corrosion, Corrosion-Induced Cracking and Spalling Corrosion © = Concrete Cover ar Bante ci Rao coer ar Sue Coeon 0 7 3589 cad 4% 3 1568 #4 1% 10 Cracking and spalling of concrete induced by steel corrasion is a fune- tion of the following variables 1, Conerete tensile strength 2. Quality of concrete cover over the reinforcing bar 3. Bond or condition of the interface between the rebar and sutrounding concrete 4, Diameter of the reinforcing bar 5. Percentage of corrosion by weight ofthe reinforcing bat With a coverto-bar diameter ratio GM) of 7, concrete cracking starts ‘when corrosion reaches 4 pescent, whereas, with a C/D ratio of 3, only 1 percent corrosion is enough to crack the concer Gee rable below) ¥ Alsulaman, aleemula, Basunbl and je, "“Tluence of Cortosion and Crack ing on Boe! Behavior an Strength of Rein forced Conerete Members,” ACI Sul Joucnal, Marc Api 1960, 22Reduction in Structural Capacity ‘The structural capacity of a concrete member is affected by bar corrosion and cracking of sureounding concrete. ‘The research conducted on flexural beams found that in steel with more than 15 percent corrosion, the ult- mate load capacity begars to fall, and at 4.5 percent corrosion, the ulate Joacl was reduced by 12 percent— probably a result of reduced bar sliamerer.! It can be surmised that, in compressive members, cracking and spalling of concrete reduces the effective cross section of the conctete, thereby reduc ing the ukimate compressive loac capacity Ct | "AbSulsiari, Kaloerllth, Basuribal ane Rasheed, “Influence of Corension and Crick ing on Bond Behavioe and Strength of Rein foveed Concrete Members," ACI Struc ovina, MarceApri 1999, 9.20, tien ego son, nS iWPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Embedded Metal Corrosion Chloride Penetration Orit pee Sea ee Se — hen ts pat ot mee 7 INA ee we Zl tata i ‘egulis in further corrosion, } C260, 4,0 ‘Selamination it ZAI Catbonation of concrete isa reaction between acidic gases in the atmo- sphere and the products of cement hyelration, Normal air contains c2rb00 dioxide (CO2) in relatively low concen- trations (0.05%). The level of carbon dlionide in industrial atmospheres is, a8 a rule, higher. Carbon dioxide pene: trates into the pores of concrete by ffosion an teaets with the calcium hyroxide dissolved in the pore water. AAS a result of this reaction, the alkalin- ity of concrete is reduced to a pHi value of about 10, and, consequently, concrete protection of the reinforcing Y steel is lest. The passivity ofthe pro © A. tective layer on stee is destroyed! it ‘When steel is depassivated and the ‘environment is acidic oF mildly alka- line, corvosion begins if moisture and ‘oxygen gain access into che concrete.! | Corrsion takes place laser wien {he pl is lowered Carbonation shes piace witnn crack ‘Naysburd, AML, Sabnis, GM, and Sorokco, , Theocetical Aspects and Testing Methods ‘of Concrete Carbonation, Proceedings, Ine national Conference on Life Predicion of Conrodible Structures, Hawai, 1991, pp. 3-396, In good quality concrete, the catbon- ation process is very slow. Ithas been estimated that the process will pro- ceed at a rate up to 0.64 in. (1 mm) per year, The process requires con- stant change in moisture ‘eves from dry to damp to dry, Catbonation will not occur when concrete is constantly tunder water 15Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 1: Eimberlded Metal Corrosion Structural Steel Member Corrosion jt-—1— embeasea ‘Structural Member SS, ates Crack oe Constusten & Enveonnent Joint over Embed Structural See! onme< Ling ots) from top of fiange by expanding products. oapex< 16 Corrosion of embedded metals in- cludes strictural members such as steel beams cast into conereze to form a composite member, 0-10 provide fice protection. The cop Range of a beam is susceptible to cortosion when a crack oF cosstruction joint intersects the flange. Moisture and corrusive salts ace trapped on the flange, providing an ideal environment for corrosive ‘activity. Corrosion on the top flange exerts a jacking force on the concrete above the flange, When the force is sufficient, delamination occurs. Ev «lence of slab separation from the beam then becomes apparent from the underside of the slab. Sy thioresannans mtDissimilar Metal Corrosion See yp Alumina Aturioum in contact wi. fresh concrete liberates ‘hydrogen gas, theeby eating locates porosity. Note: shades area ences level ef mesure pneiaton and actve ecoyjte. Vehiorces ‘are present, the process & is accoerated, 58 4 Hltontiow todo (-) Anode (en OF Flow Corrion accu hee ‘Aun onde causes expansion andcahing 6 of surcounding cor 3 ute. os onpe< Corrosion can take place in concrete when two different metals are cast into a conerete structure, alang th an adequate electrolyte. A moist concrete mati provides for a good electrolyte ‘This type of corrosion is known as galvanic. Bach metal has a unique tendency 10 promote electrochemical activity. Gold, for example, is very ative, while zinc is inactive, Below is a list of metals in order of increasing activity Zine Aluminum Steel Iron Nickel Tin Lead Brass Copper 10. Bronze 11. Stainless Steel 12, Gold When two metals are in contact via an active electrolyte, the less active metal (ower number) in the seis is covtoded, One of the most common situations found in concrete i the use of alumi- ‘num cast into reinforced concrete. ‘Aluminurn was used as an elecical conduit, and more recently, as hand rail. Aluminum fas less activity than stecl, therefore, the aluminum is the ‘metal that corrodes. The steel will actually become cleaned, and the aluminum surfaces will grow a white oxide, which wil cause tensile forces to crack the surrounding concrete. 7Part One: Concrete Behavior_ Section 1: Embeded Metal Corrosion Post-Tension Strand Corrosion Unbonded Post-Tension Stans Corrosion of unbonded post-tension strands has become a common prob- lem for steuctures exposed to aggres- sive environments. Buildings exposed to ocean salt spray and patking,steuc- cures exposed to de-icing salts are typical locations for unbonded strand contosion, Unbonded post-tension strands are protected from corrosion aes G by protective grease and sheathing 88 ny Aggressive agents can penetrate the | protective systems when inadequate ccongrete cover is subject 10 damage by heavy wheel loads. y Extend Another common problem is poor a Broken corrosion protection of the end an- t ale chorages due to porous or cracked s ‘llows anchorage plug grout. Once corrosion exposure to promoters enter the strand system, corrosive Ccortosion may begin, Comosion of unbondled strands is a serious condition. Unlike mild reia- forcement, post tension strands have stored energy from the stressing oper ation. It is not uncommon for strands to be stretched inches (203mm) pet 100 feet (30.5m). Corrosion of the strand reduces the cross section and. results in an incteasing stress level in the strand. Breakage occurs when the stress level exceeds the capacity of the steel. When the breakage occurs, it can be explosive, resulting in the freed strand collapsing on itself and, in sore cases, exiing the structure at ents oF locations svhere low cover exists. Locating broker strands may be dif ful if te strands do not exit the structure, Longitudinal cracking may be an indication of a broken strand. Collapsing broken stand may exit the structure at pons of ow cover oral ends /°- Unprotected Strand witout /- * Projectve Sheathing vaapsea wy \ | Strand Sysiam 7 Wite Stand — Anchorage Plug Grout Wedges Ena nchor Casting — Breakout bars —— rolecive Seating Types Grease oe) Wires ge Push-theu iss Extruded 8 nchmmeserete aneAdditional Sources of Information American Concrete Lastitute, $P-102, Steel Corrosion in Concrete: Causes and Restraints, Detrait, 1987 ACI 201.28-77, Guide t Durable Concrete. ACI 318-83, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete Protection of Ste! in Prestressed Conerete Bridges, NCHIP Report No. 90, 1970 Chloride Corrosion of Stee! in Concrete, ASTM STP 627, Ametican Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA., 1977Part One: Conerete Behavior Section 2. Disintegration Mechanisms Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms ‘the following topics are covered in this section: Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Freeze‘Thaw Disintegration Alkal-Aggregate Reaction Sulfate Attack, Erosion: Cavitation Erosion: Abeasion Disintegration ismembermant Aisoluton Erosion es 1 ’ E F ‘ = - g F ISTBY FOE0 € y VORYOY oD eV c aM Jaty . | fr A Dissoation Abrasion oe Q ot : Cavitation Seal 8 aa : Aogrogaes 7 Dissolution > of Portand Cament Cement Mati Swoing Capitan Cavy Sweling «\7 4 — a a we LS oo Crstals‘This section includes discussions of vatious processes which cause the constituents of concrete to (1) dis- solve, (2) be Forced to come apart @ismememment) through expansive volume change mechanisms, or (3) become worn say through abcasion cr cavitation, Aggressive chemical exposures (ither man-made or natu ral) can cause the concrete to alter its chemical makeup, resulting in changes Ins mechanical properties. Depencl- ing upon the type of attack, the con- crete can soften or disintegrate, in pact or in whole. Introduction to Disintegration Mechanisms ‘Water can be one of the mest agares- sive environments causing dsintegra- tion, If concrete is saturated with water and is subject to freezing, the expan sive force of the increase in volume (ce compared to water) may cause the concrete to come apart in small pieces. Similar to the effects of ice is Ue swelling of salt crystals in the concrete surface subject to salt solutions. Not all disintegration mechanisms are caused! by extemal factors. Alkaly aggregate reactions are intermally contained within the originally co- structed conerete. They result in swell: ing of the affected aggregate 2Part One: Concrete Behaviot_Section 2: Disintegration Mechanisms Exposure to Aggressive Chemicals Certain chemicals in solution will attack various constituents of conezete. ‘Aggressive chemicals can be catego- rized as follows: ‘cid attack on conerete is the reaction between the acid and the calcium hhydioxide of the hydrated Porttanc cement. The reaction produces water 1. Inowganic acids soluble calcium compounds, which are 3 One aech leached away. When limestone or ganic acids dolomitic aggregates are used, the 3. Alkaline solutions acid may dissolve thes. 4, Salt solutions 5. Miscellancous | ‘Acids dissolve silica and dolomite of 0%%¢ SD [| ft My Qqg XO o WQS onne< oes ES 0% 0%% ey (Cement mati attacked; Ss aggregates fal out. oy oP 0%¢ 2 SarayFreeze-Thaw Disintegration ans anno ies Y ‘Tension Mierooracking CCapilry Cavity ‘Swelng SS) CO La? ‘Smal fakes broak away rom conctee $ $8 Water penetrates capilares ‘and ypontreszng, sal, ‘causing tension and smal sutlace dssintegration Zone of Satwation Pore and Capitary sweling causes tnsion cracking, Froeaing water in pore stueture expands fracturing agqregate and sping surouneing concrete Sy | absorption Water penetrates aggregates wih igh Freeze-thaw cisintegration or deterio tation takes place when the following conditions ace present 1. Freezing and chawing temperature cycles within the conerece 2. Porous coneree that absorbs water (watered pores aod capillaries) Freeze thaw detetioration generally ‘occurs on, hotizoncal surfaces that are exposed t0 water, or on vertical sur faces that are at the waterline in submerged portions of structures, The freezing water contained in the pore stuucture expands as itis converted into ice. The expansion causes local ined tension forces that fracture che sserounding concrete matt. The fracturing occurs io small pices, work- ing from the outer surfaces inward ‘The inte of freezesthaw deterioration is a function of the following: 1, Increased porosity (increases rate) 2, Increased moisture sarvcation (increases rate) 3, Increased number of freeze-thaw cycles (increases rate} 4, Ait enteainment (educes rate) 5. Horizontal surfaces that (rap stan Ing water (increases rate) 6. Agaresare with small capillary structure and high assorption increases rate) ai atePart One: Concrete Behavior Reactive sca or sileate inthe aggregate react wth akan the cement ‘Age! fms onthe aggragate suiace wien sufleent moisture is present ‘when gelis ——— exposed te moisture, sweling tas place ‘Swoling of gel causes. surrounding concrete to grom, causing tension and compressive stesso. 24 oaae< anna @nBe< Alketi-aggregate reactions (AAR) may cteate expansion and severe cracking of concrete structures and pavements, ‘The mechanisms that cause alkali aggregate reactions are not fully under- stood. What is known about tis type of reaction is that certain aggregates, such as reactive forms of silica, react with potassium, soelium, ane catcium hhydoxice fom the cement and! form a ‘gel around the reacting aggregates, ‘When the gel around the aggregate is exposed! 0 moisture, it expands creating forces that cause tension cracks to form around the aggregate. [Moisture wentent of the concrete must be approximately 80 percent: relative humidity at 70°F 75°F (21°C.24°C).] ‘Unconfined conerete undergping AAR exhibits tell-tale signs of surface map cacking on exposed surfaces. Once the cracking has formed, more mois: ture penetrates the concrete, accelerat- ing the alkalraggregate reaction and allowing additional freeze-thaw damage. ‘The allaliaggregate reaction may go uncecognized for seme period of tine, possibly years, before associated severe distress will develop, Usually, testing for the presence of alkal-aggregate reaction is conducted by petrographic examination of con- crete. Recently, a new method capable of monitoring possible reaction has been developed. This method! utilizes the uranyl (uranium) acetate Muores- cence technique and is rapid and economical "Handbook fr the Identification of Akal Silica Reavy iy Highway Structures, SURP-CARS1-101, National Research Counc, ‘Washington, DC, 1981.Sulfate Attack + Chemical Runat Sols + Steams ‘The presence of soluble sullates (prin. Goeans Cipally those of sodium, calcium and magnesium is common in ateas of inning operations, chemical and paper é Woter-Borne Sulfate milling inclustries. Sodium and calcium are the most common sulfates in soils, water and incustrial processes. Magne: siuun sulfaes are less common, but more clestructive, Soils ar waters containing these sulfates are often called “alkali” soils oF waters, All sulfates are potentially hatmfl to ‘concrete. They react chemically with ‘cement paste’s hycrated lime and hiycated calcium aluminate, AS a result of this reaction, solid products with volume greater than the products entering the reaction are formed. ‘The formation of gypsum and ettring- ite expands, pressucizes and disrupts the paste. As a result surface scaling & Site ins ( and disintegration set in, folowed by 8 ‘mass deterioration Sulfate resistance of the eanerete is improved by a reduction in water cement ratio and an adequate cement factor, with @ low tricalcium aluminate and with proper air entrainment, With ‘proper proportioning, silica furne (onieosiiea), fly ash and ground slag generally improve the resistance of Concrete co sulfate attack, primaily by reducing the amount of reactive ele ‘ments (Guch as calciom) needed for reg rd apo op expansive sulfite reactions mati ordmmasaswea 2%Pat One: Concrete Behavior Sestion 2: Disintegration Mechanisms Erosion Dam \Weter Flow 4 Cavitation Area Circulating debris ‘causes adaitonal abrasion damage, 2. Vapor forms in low pressure areas, 3. Collapsing air bubbles cause waler to jet with extreme foroe at surface below vapor 1, Curved surface causes DubbIES. localized high veloc, Abrasion Damage-vorn Aggregate an Matroc 26 Cavitation Cavitation causes erosion of concrete surfaces resulting from the collapse of apo bubbles formed by pressure changes within a high velocity water flow. ‘hen vapor bubbles form, they flow downstream with the water. When they enter a region of higher pressure, they collapse (implode) with great impact. The formation of vapor bub- bles and their subsequent collapse is jon. The energy released! callapse causes “cavitation clamage." Cavities are foxmed! near curves and offsets, or at che center of vortices. Cavitation damage results ia the evosion of the cement matrix, leaving harder aggregate in place’ At bigher velocities, the Forces of cavita tion may be great enough to wear away large quantives of concrete. Cavitation Gamage is avoided by pro- ducing smooth surfaces and avoicing protruding obstructions (0 flow. Abrasion Abrasion isthe wearing away of the surface by rubbing and fiction. Gener ally, che surface is uniformly worn away, including the cement matex and aggregates. Factors affecting abrasion resistance include 1. Compressive strength 2. Aggregate properties 3, Finishing methods 4, Use of toppings 5. CuringAdditional Sources of Information pe Sitereancrgaea gtanenne Performance af Concrete, Univesity of Toronto Press, Toronto, Caneda, 1968 ‘Woods, H., Durability of Concrete Construction, Ainerican Concrete Jnstitute and Jowa State University Press, 1968, ‘Aen EL, Resistance to Weathering, ASTM STP 169, Ametican Society for Testing andl Materials, Philadelphia, PS. Gordon, WA, Freezing and Thawing of Concvete—Mechanisms and Contra, Monograph 3, American Concrete Institute, Detrot, 1966 Handbook for Identification on AlkaliSilica Reactivity in Highway Structures, SHRP.C/FRDI-101, Washington, D.C, 1991 ACI 210R87, Brosion of Conexete in Hyckaulic Structures, Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 1, 1992.Part O Section 3: Moisture Effects Jonerete Behavior Section 3: Moisture The following topics are coverc ying Shrinkage Moisture Vapor Transmission Volume Change—Moisture Content Curing,Introduction to Moisture Effects Concrete is like fresh-cut trees made into lumber. The lumber is wet wien cet, but immediately begins to dry to a moisture level equal to the surround ing environment. As the wood dries, it also reduces in volume ard, in some «cases, splits under the stress of shrink: age. Even seasoned wood changes volume as the moisture level in the ‘wood changes with seasonal variations in humidity, Wood doors are easily opened in the winter when humidity i low, but swell and may be difficult to close clucing the humid summer months, Concrete behaves in a similar fashion. In fresh concrete, the space between the particles is completely filled vith water, The excess water evaporates after the concrete hardens, The loss of moisture causes the volume of the paste to contract, This, ia turn, lends to sheinkage stvess aad shinkage cracking, Like wood, concrete also changes volume in response to ambi ent humidity changes, Previous sections deal with the tole of moisture in freeze-thave disintegration and the corrosion process. This section deals with the role of moisture in volume change effects ancl the effect of ‘vapor cransmission through coneretePart One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Effects Drying Shrinkage rence — N “ 20 eet ong Freshly Placed Concrete 0.15 inches A, & UUnvesrained ovisinehess —>} fe | ___ff (Cured Concrete Restrained not Reinforced Urfomly Spaces Cracks I {OE ‘Cured Concrete Restrained and Reitoioed Factors affecting drying shrinkage Factor Reduced Shrinkage Increased Shrinkage Cement type ype LL type Il Aggregate size 1 8 mm) 4 (19 mm) Aggregate type ‘qua sandstone Cement content 550 they G25 kgm?) 700 Ib 15 kgf’) Slump 3° (7% mm) 6 (152 mm) Curing 7 days 3 days Placement ' 1 fempeatne GorF (16°C) 85°F (29°C) Aagreeate washed liry 30 ‘On exposure ta the atmosphere, conerete loses some of its original water thoough evaporation and shrinks ‘Normal weight concrete shrinks from 00 to 806 microstrains (one micros- train is equal to 1 x 407 Sin /n,(mmymnm)) Example of Drying SI e slog Sea drying shrinkage 1 microstrains shrinkage of slab = 0.15 inches (4mm) Drying shrinkage, if unrestrained, results in shortening of the member ‘without a build-up of shrinkage stress. Tete member is restrained from moving, stress build-up may exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. This over-stressing results in cry shrinkage cracking, Correct placement of reinforcing steel in the member dlistibutes the sheinkage stvesses and controls crack widths, Big ghee eaarca Baye Hh eerMoisture Vapor Transmission ‘Water vapor tcavels through conerete ‘when a structural members surfaces are subject to different levels of retae ‘ive humidity (RE. Moisture vapor travels from high RE to low RH. The Amount of moisture vapor transmission i.a function of che RH graclient be: tween faces, and the permeability of the coneree. Moisture Vapor Transmission (mvt) ts a Vain a ‘Typical Slab on Grade 4 4A Moisture moves from high moisture level subarade through slab to dyer conitons above the slab. Moisture vapor also moves into and out of tho pore streciure of conerete as diferences occur in relative humid. Moisture ‘vapor mises from high hum to low hurd. Yapor also moves wit changes in temperature. When the temperature ‘ses, zapor expands and moves out of he poe structure, yy “EY ay a Exaggerated Pore Structure within Concrete SSRI ein a “MS 31Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Blfects Volume Change— Moisture Content 32 PH Concrete changes length clepencting upon its moisiure content. Moist conctete that dries out will shrink, ‘while dey concrete chat becomes moist sul expand, Concrete may follow seasonal changes: hot, humic summers generate higher moisture contents, hile cold, dry winters reduce mois- ture contents. CConerete wih Low Moisture Content Bie Concrete with High Moisture Content grows in volume eave to concrete wih low raisture content. Establishing values for the amount of shtinkage or expansion caused! by a change in moisture content can be carted out by estimating, based on dey shiinkage values. Drying shrinkage values are based! on an initial 100 efcent moisture content reduced t0 an ambient relative humidity of about 50 percent.Curling Gurting is 2 common problem with Temperature gradients across a slab slabs cast on grade. Curling is caused) can create the same prablems as by uneven moisture andl temperature moisture gradients, The typical situa- gradients across the thickness of dhe tion is solar heating of the slab’s top Shb, Curing is increased as drying surface, causing a higher temperature shrinkage progresses. Slab surfaces are on this surface, The top surface then usually dry on top, where they are has a tendency to grow in length exposed 10 air, anc! moist on the relative to the bottom surface. Stress bottom, where they are exposed to elief aceurs when the slab cutls| soil, The drier surface has a tendency downward. to contract in length relative 0 the moist bottom surface. The contraction of the top surface can only be relieved by the slab curling upward. Joint Slab on Grade A> PULP lip Top surface contracts. bw Enum Sone A vee yet QD Moist Environment at se bottom surface remains the same length Slab/SolInterace ‘Tha sab cris upward whem the lop suface cotracs when ‘dyes than the slabs bottom surface sethantes 834 Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 3: Moisture Bffects Additional Sources of Information ACL 2098-82, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Bffects in Conerete Structures. Mindess, S., Young, .£, Concrete, Prentice Hall, Inc, 1981, pp. 481-519 Emmons, PH., Selecting Conerete Repair Materials for Long-Term Durability, Pro ceedings of the 2nd National Concrete Engineering Confereace, Chicago, 1992Section 4: Thermal Effects ‘The following topics are covered in this section: ‘Thermal Volume Change Uneven Thermal Loads ‘Uneven Thermal Loads Continuous Spans Restraint ro Volume Change Early Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Conerete ‘Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Uneven Thermal Loads: Cooling ‘over Shell Fire Damage Lae 35Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal fects Introduction to Thermal Effects 36 c ‘The effect of temperature on concrete sseuetures and members is one oF volume change. The volume relation ship co temperature is expressed by the coefficient of thermal expansion/ contraction, Volume changes create stress when the conerete is restrained The resulting stresses can be of any type: tension, compression, shear, etc ‘The stressed conditions may result in tundesirable behavior such as cracking spalling and excessive deflectionThermal Volume Change Concrete, lke all materials, changes volume shen subjected to temperature changes. An increase in temperature increases the volume of concrete; conversely, a learease in temperature reduces the volume of concrete. The thermal coefficient of concrete is approximately 5 X 10° init (9 x 1076 mmimm/C). A change of 10°F (68°C) ina 100" (0.5m) length will change the overall length by 78" Ze, oF 100° long nue a7Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Thermal Effects Uneven Thermal Loads oe ‘Temperatue gradients exist in many sieuctures. The temperature on the surface of a deck slab exposed 10 dlirect sunlight may reach TI8°R (48°C), while the underside of the deck may toe only 78°F 26°C)—a 40°F 22°C) difference known as ditwrnal solar wer ‘poating, This causes the top sucface to have a tendency to expand more than the bottom surface. This results in 3a upward movement during heating, and a downward movement curing cooling ‘A precast double-T shaped structured 4 member with a 60" (18m) span can 10 Dp move %" (19m) upward at midspan bars from normal diurnal solar heating, 078 causing the ens to sorate and sitess at the ledger beam bearing pads and | concrete. Note: Cantover postion maves in ‘opposite ection to cen of oan in propodion fo fegth ot canter, 38 Ses en— te te ‘Working Example of Temperature Gradients Top ot Slab Bottom af Slab CF T8F Air Temperature Se areas a an mmc Lo kc ced a er Ave Hages err (plea) erring 1 (i PK peor = Continuous Spans Diurnal solar heating affects structures, dilferenily depending upon their configuration. Simple span structures deflect up ancl dovin and are free rotate at end supports. Continuous structures may behave differently because they are not free to rotate at supports. Fenough thermal gradient ‘exists, together with insufficient tensile ‘capacity in the bottom of the member, a hinge may form. Hinges may occur randomly in new formed cracks, oF may form in constructisn joints near the cohazms. Hinges open and close with daily temperature changes 39Part One: Concrete Behavior _ Section hermal Effects Restraint to Volume Changes Ifa structural member is fee to de- cant. When stress build-up is relieved, form as 2 resuit of changes in tempera- it will occur in the weakest portion of ture, moisture, or loads, there is nthe structural member or its connec- build-up of internal stress. IF the true- tion to other parts of the structure, tural member is restrained, stress ‘The stress may result in tension build-up occurs andl can be very signifi- cracks, shear cracks, and buckling. Working Example Elastic modulus of concrete Length of concrete member = 400,000 psi 28 10 MPa) 100 feet (50-5m) ‘Temperature change 0"F FO) ‘Thermal coefficient 10° infin (9 x 10% mm/mm/’C) Unit strain OCF) x (5X 10° infin’F) =500 x 10° indin G42 x10-Fman/nm) 000 psi (14 MPa) = elastic modulus, x unit strain 188,000 psf ~ 2,000 psi x 144 in? ess (if restrained) Force per square foot ‘Sheat Cracking nmemceanre tu eaEarly Thermal Cracking of Freshly Placed Concrete Concrete Placed with High Temperature Rise When conarete coos, the member conracs.H restraint ‘cuts, tension devslons, forming cracks. Example of Temperature Rise! -e ambient = concrete “30 “S a ~ avo 10 “i Cooling Will 1m thick Cement 360kg/m3 s07lcy o 41 2 9 Days After Casting Freshly placed conerere undergoes a semperacure nse from the heat gener- ated by the cement bydration, The heat rise occurs over the frst few hours or days after casting, then cools to the surcounding ambient tempera- ture, When cooling takes place two or thee days after casing, the concrete has very little rensile strength. Weak tensile srength, coupled witha ther- rmally contracting membet, provide for the likelihood of tension cracks Factors affecting early temperature rise include: 1. Initial temperature of materials, ‘Warm materials lea to watTn con- crete. Aggregate temperatuce isthe most critical Ambient temperature. Higher ambient temperatures lead (0 higher peaks. 3, Dimensions. Larger sections gen- erate more heat 4, Curing. Water curing dissipates the build-up of heat. Thermal shocking shoul be: avoided. 5, Formwork removal time. Eaily removal of formwors reduces peak temperature 6, Type of formwork, Wood forns prodluce higher temperatures than steel forms, 7. Gement content, More cement in the mix means moze heat. 8. Cement type. Type lil cement produces more heat than most other cements used, 9. Cement replacements, My asb reduces the amount of heat build-up, "Turton, Ca, “To Crack or Not © Crack", WI. 8, No I, Now. 1974, pp 32-36, aPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: ‘Thermal Effects Thermal Movements in Existing Cracks Newly Gast Conrel, stained Cracks lrmed ct esained dy shrinkage. eT ‘Mermai changes acing on the structure nds the crack: rise in temperature clases he ‘As temperatures fall, the crackopens as tho concrete contact, at II [fe a Y e a r s At ‘Thermal stresses can be relieved in sways other than by the formation of cracks, Cracks that were formes sia other mechanisms, such as dry shrink age cracking, may provide a location in the memiper where thermal change strain can be absorbed. The crack moves with the same cycle as the temperature cycle in the conerere member. Thermal mavement taken up by these cracks reduces the movement at planned expansion joinsUneven Thermal Loads Cooling Tower Shell Lange exposed cooling towers can undergo uneven thesmal stresses as the sun makes its way from east (0 \ ‘west. The cooling tower has a relatively thin concrete shell, which is exsily Ineaced by che sun. The sun's rays hie only about 50 percent of the tower's shell at any one time. The portion of the tower that is being heated expands in size relative to the Cool sie of the tower. An egg-shaped cross section is, formed, which moves as the sun moves, heating other portions of the tower. Problests may accut in portions Of the tower where ria framing is connected to the constantly moving ‘outer shel Cooling Tower Undergoing Dynamic Thermal Loading 2 4, OPO (C00 Side of Tower ‘woah of Tormal Loading sg amen 8Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 4: Theumal Biects Fire Damage 70 Bite attecis concrete in extreme ways, some of which are listed below 1. Uneven volume changes in affected members, resulting in distortion, buckling, and cracking, The temper 70°F ate gre are extreme; rm ambient 70°F (21°C), to higher than Localized spaing 1500°F (00°C) at the source of che Fire and near the surface. 2, Spaling of rapidly expanding con- crete surfaces from extreme heat near the source of the fite, Some aggregates expand in burst, spal- ling the adjacent matrix. Moisture rapialy changes to steam, causing localized bursting of small pieces of concrete, 3, The cement mortar converts 10 ‘quicktime at temperatures of 750°F (400°C), thereby causing disintegra- tion of the conerete, 4, Reinforcing steel loses tensile capac- ity as the Cemperature rises 5. Once the reinforcing steel is ex posed by the spalling action, the steel expands more rapidly than the 60 minutes surrounding concrete, causing buckling and loss of bond to adia- cent concrete where the reinfarce- ment is fully encased. Con! Surface Temperature 150°F High Sutsce 12eminutes| f Buctling of Connecion to Roiniocing Stee! other members experionces ‘Cracking fram Excessive ‘moment and Bending ‘rust stains Example used fromACl Fre Endurance Tests 2168 Fig 7.5.1(t Sica Aggregate 7” thick slab as BRS eon.Additional Sources of Information ASTM STP 16944, Concrete and Concrete Making Materials, Amecican Society for Testing and Materials Behavior of Concrete Under Temperature Extremes, SP39, American Conerete Institute, Deteoit, 1973 Neville, AM, Hardenecl Concrete: Physical and Mechanical Aspects, Monograph 6, American Conerete lnstitute, Dewoit, 1971Part One: Coneret ‘havior Section 5; Load Effects Section 5: Load Effects 6 ‘The follo this section: Reinforced Concrete: Basic Engineering Principles Cracking Modes: Continuous Span Slab/Beam-o-Column Shear Cantilevered Members Continuous Suuctures Columns Post-Tensioned Members Cylincrical Stcuetures: Buried Pipe Cylindeical Strwetures: Tanks Connections: Contact Loading ig topics are covered inIntroduction to Load Effects Concrete structures and ictivitoal members afl carry loads, Some carry ‘only the weight of the materials they are made of, while others carry loads applied (0 the structure. All materials change volume when subject co stress. Concrete is no exception, When sub- ject to tensile stress, concrete siretches; when subject to compressive siress, it shortens. Reinforced concrete js a composite of wo materials. plain ccanerete and teinforcing stee!, Con- crete possesses high compressive strength but lide tensile streng, and reinforcing steel provides the needed strength in tension, Steel anc concrete work effectively together in 2 compos: ite material for several reasons: 1. Similar coefficients of thermal expansion 2. Bond between rebars andl concrete prevents the slip of rebars relative to the concrete, 3. Good quality concrete aclequately procects veinforcing steel from, corrasion. Concrete problems, such as excessive deflection, cracking, ot spalling may be ‘caused by volume change associated with load effects. on een } eam ——#=| Colurnn, LL dbf Popiea bonds - —t supporting column. Column connections co slabs 2c bbeams experience considerable shear stress. Excessive stress prochuces cracks in the beams an in the surrounding sah ‘Slab and boam are inctined to fall rom - Shear Cracks j WN 77 oS Worzonta nS Forces | Plan View of Punching Shear Crack Pattern Cracking Column Below CColumnjsoam shear eacking at connections can be caused by narizoniel movement, Hor- 2onll foroes can accumLiae fom 4. Volume changes caused oy temperature changes. 2. las shortening caused by posctension forces. 43 Foundation movements caused by stte- ‘mont o° earthquakes,Cantilevered Members Cantlevered Sab Cantitevered members are supported conly on one side (balcony slabs are-a typical example). Tension forces are acting in the member's top portion (op portion tension is siso known as Applied Loads Hi Detlecton Tension and Possible Cracks negative moment). Tension is greatest at the member's fed ene. Tension forces ave carie' by the reinforcing steel located in the top portion of the rember. Two critical factors should be considered when using cantilevered members || Location of Maxum Noe: Reinforcing stet ‘must bo located in upper ‘orton of member to ‘ropery carr tension loads 1, The negative moment steel must be placed in the correct position near the member's cap surface, Im- proper placement of the reinforcing steel may result in bending faire ‘of a structural member. ‘Tension cracks that develop over the negative moment steel ate natucal canyons for moisture and ‘other corrosion inducing sub stances. Heavy corrosion results in section loss and causes proportional loss in tenston capacity. Yielding of reinforcing steel may result in hinging and complete aiure, Flexural Tension Cracks Location of Possible Caner in Comproscien ‘on Bota’ Hal af Sia 5Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 5: Load Effects Continuous Structures Continuous Concrete Frame ‘Applied Loading JHE Oe oo —d Negative Mement rea Possible Tension Cracks Live Load Detlecton ‘Sialic Deflectons “59 Dynamic Detections (Vivations) \ehisle Distance From Point A Conceptual Diagram 32 Most castinplace structures are de- signed a5 continuous members. Unlike simple spans, continuous spans erans- fer load to adjacent spans. For static ‘oadings, tension stresses usually occut at the bottom (positive moment), at midspan, and at the top (negative moment) over supports. Concrete in negative moment areas (ensile zone) may be subject to ten sion cracking, For example, in cantile- vered construction, chese cracks pro- vide direct access for moisture ara ‘other corrosion-inducing substances into the concreie, Continuous struc- tures such as parking and bridge decks are also affected by moving loads, which change the stress distribution in adjacent spans, thereby causing cever ‘sal defieccions and vibrations. These reversal deflections and vibrations at breaks in the structure (expansion joints) may pose maintenance prob- Jems for connecting joint systems. Typical Deflection: 5-Span Continuous Bridge Repeated deflection reversals occur at Point B, both while the vehicle is on the bridge and just after the vehicle has left the bridge. Continued stress reveisls and vibrations can induce cracking, and widen and deepen exist- ing cracks, Cracking is aggravated by increases in span deflection. Cracking ‘occurs in planes of weakness, particu: lacy along the uppermost wansverse reinforcement.Columns Maximum Compressive Stengih Stress psi) 40% of Max, Compressive Shength E = Modulus of Elasisiy (ost) = stress stain ‘Sean fn 10-9 Relationship Between Applied Stress and Amount of Shortening Columns are designed to carry vertical all materials, stretches (lengthens) under tension, andl compresses (shortens) under compression. When concrete is cor pressed, the member shortens (vertical sain) and bulges (horizontal strain). Horizoncal strain is equal to vertical strain times Poisson's Ratio (4-0-2. ‘The buige generates tension forces that are restrained by steel reinforce mneen¢ (Column ties). Shortening of columns consists of three components: Applied Load 1. Elastic shortening, Flastic short- ening oxcurs as son as loads ate applied, and is equal to stress (psi) divided by Elastic modulus) 2, Greep shortening, Creep shosten- ing accws over time ancl is affected by constant stress and long-term loss of moisture onerete mati ity). 3. Drying shrinkage. Drying shrink- age occurs over time with loss oF moisture and is a time-dependent process, Working Example: Reniorced concrete 1500 ps0. SMPa wil shorten B"204run (2. umn in 500153) tak bing under substained sevice stress of (64mm) elastic, 2 5°(S4mm) crying shrinkage, 05° 2mm) oi), ‘Note: Bulge shown is exaggerated, Crack is shown ta demonstrate lensle stress. Column ties resist lension sess, Bi Eide Coron se a 3Part One: Concrete Behavior Section S: Load Bffects Post-Tensioned Members ——————————— Tensnea Fane Ce —<—<—<—<———_— tensioned, compressing the concrete Etesic shortrtng takes place ater stressing | tomy j ona copa orm soe one < Post censioning of castin-place con ‘rete is an effective method of produc. ing durable, efficent structures. The member is compressed with high tensile steel sttands. The strands are jacked from one end of the member, and slippage of the strand through the concrete is allowed with grease ancl sheathing, The stretching of the strands compresses the concrete to offset any tension stress froan future service loads. The lak of tension in the concrete reduces the potential For Cension cracking Upon stressing, the concrete shortens. This is known as elastic shortening ‘The amount of elastic shortening depends upon the modulus of elas ity (&) and the unit stvess to which the concrete is compressed. After stress ing, long-erm shortening, known a5, creep, will ake place. lt may take over 1500 days to reach ultimate creep,Direction of Pull ~<-—— Restrained Volume Change A.common problein in posttensioned for stress relief. The column designed structures is lack of cesign consider- for vertical loads s subject to horizon- ation of volume changes in members ral pulling it opposite divections, ‘caused! by clastic and plastic (rep) thereby causing sever shear cracking, shortening, Short columns in parking The shear is also aggravated by diurnal structures with opposing post- solar heating if the structure is dizectly Censioned framing are ideal locations exposed to the sun Working Example Length of beam = 60" (183 m ; E 4,000,000 psi (28 10" May 1,000 psi (69 MPa) 0.18" (4.6 mm) = steessiE XL (1000 sif4,000,000 psi) x (60! x 12) 036" (.1 mm) = 0.18" 4.6 mm) x 2.0 (Creep Coefficient) 0.54" = 036" (9.1 mm) + 018" (46 mm) ‘Compression Short ColurnPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 5. Load Bffects Cylindrical Structures Crackin Spring —' {ine of Pipe Pipe Deforms: unde: Load Buried Pipe Buried pipes are loaded with surround ing backfill anc overburden. Non form loads surrounding the pipe may result in: defommation of the pipe loads on top may exceed the load an the pipe’s underside, The pipe is compressed in the vertical axis anc bulges along the horizontal axis Cracks may develop, forming hinges at ree possible locations: the crown {top of pipe), and at the two spring line locations (Gide of pipe)Tanks Example ‘Tanks are constructed to hold liquids The tensile swess in a xeinforcedl ‘and flowable solids, The loads imposed! concrete tank wal is caried by rein ‘on the tank are proportional to the forcement. Given three configurations materia’ dersity and height of liquid! on the right, all have equal tensile in the cank, Pressure is greatest at che loads (1), but each configuration has bottom and zero at the top surface. cebars ofa different diameter and Internal pressure pushes against the cross sectional area (A), All bars have tank wall, creating tension. The tension equal modulus of elasticity The stress forces rust be carried by the reinfore- level is L/1.0A in Fig. A, 1/200 in Fig ing steel that circles the tank. The B, anc 1/3.08 in Fig. C. Bach ba will amount of stress in the reinforcing _elongate proportional to the stress sted’ dictates how well the steel holds level. The bar in Fig. wil elongate the concrete together, thereby prevent- chee times the elongation of the bar ing cracking shown in Fig. C. The more elongation, the more likely itis that the conevete will crack ACI 350R-89, Section 2.5 recommends ‘minimum of 0.28 percent and 2 maximum of 0.60 petcent shrinkage ancl temperature reinforcement, de- pending upan the grade of stecl and length between 'shrinkage-clssipating” jcints Fluid figure A Loads 08 + oP | Tonsoni coated by ne fouee 208 a “ ~ Veta aks om fouec orzo reinforcement 80k vas +A excessie stesso, Sytem ee 37Part One: Concrete Behavior Connections Double T Ptaton of Tat bearing can cause point loading, Front Edge Slab Construction Joint th Keyway Cracking f Voreinforced Contact Points PAY A Section 5: Load fiffects Contact Loading In every structure, individual compo: nents come into contact. Precast struc tures are comprised of many compo nents, each interacting with others, Point loading of contact points is quite common, often resulting in excessive tension and shear. Bxtemites andl edges of members subject 10 point loading are free to crack and spall sehen tension stresses exceed the tensile capacity of the concrete. Em- bedded reinforcing steel is nota factor, since most steel is embeddet! below the contact point Precast double-T stems resting on ledger bearns often point load che front edge of the non-reinforced por- tion of the ledger beam. Point loading ‘can be 4 result of rotation (imal solar heating) oF length change from ‘seasonal thermal changes, Slabs cast on grade are separated by ‘construction joints, Shear transfer Detween slabs at these joints are loca- tions where point loading can occur. Rolling toads place the joint edges into contact with One anather, often creat ing stresses that spall and crack the non-reinforced postions Another common problem with pave- ment slabs is che filing of the open jaint with non-compressible debris, Preventing the joint from unclergoing Fee thermal expansion. Restrained. volume change can induce very high shear, compression and exsion stresses, ‘Working Example: Dirt accumulation in joint restrains thermal movement. 4,000,000 i (Modus of lass), unit sain = 0.0008 hema coe. x temp change) Sess = 1200 p= Ex Unit Stain «4000000 psi x0:0008 inn = compressive skess JL then temperature rises, causing compressive forces a deveop, ll a Debs its joint 58 iS tarescanaiae mnAdditional Sources of Information Wang, Chee-Kia and Salmon, C.G., Reinforced Concrete Design, Thomas ¥. Crom well, Harper & Row Publishers, New Yor. Notes on ACI 318-89, Buliding Corle Requirements for Reinforced Concrete with Design Applications, Portanc! Cement Association, 1990 ACI 350889, Environmental Engineering Concrete Structates, ACL Manual of Con- crete Practice, Par 4, 1991Section 6 Section 6: Faulty Workmanship— Designer, Detailer, Contractor ‘The following topics are covered in this section: Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement Improper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement Highly Congesed Improper Bar Detailing: Location of scraps ~Peemnature Removal of Forms improper Column Form Placement Cold Joins Segregation Improper Grades of Slab Sucfaces Construction Tolerances Plastic Sewement (Subsidence) Cracking Past Shrinkage Cracking Honeycomb—Rock PocketsFaulty Workmanship: Introduction Methods used to consceuet concrete structures are different from methods used in other types of construction Conerete is one of the few materials in which ray ingredients are brought together at, oF neat, the construction site, where they are mixed, placed andl molded into a final product. There are so many variables affecting the produc- tion of comevete that there is always a potential for something to go wrong, very building proxess inches a sequence of necessary step-by-step ‘operations—from conceptual plan to finished! structure. Following is flow care of a typical building process Each box represents a category of peoblems that can acise in the buikling process, ) Prepare Prepare Design Pans & ye Shop Lon —— ie ad Fabicae & Buld& git sa > cmt Canoe Reinforcement Formwork Stip Completed Format ove Structure “1Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Worlmanship— Designer, Detaiier, Contract Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement ACKrequired concrete cover ‘There are two important reasons to reinforcing steel requires adequate for corrosion protection control the proper location of reinfore- concrete cover to protect it from 7 ——— _ ing steel in structures. Fist, reinforcing _corrasion. The alkalinity of the con Cover steel is placed in concrete to carry crete isa natural corrosive inhibitor. If Condition required tensile loads, and if te steel is mis- the concrete cover is inaclequate, it will in. (mm) placed, the concrete may not be able not provide the necessary long-term to carry the tensile loads, Cantilevered protection. Shifted reinforcing bar Goncree deposited on | Gay slabs and negative moment areas near Cages in walls or beams may aso the ground ‘columns pose particular risk. Second, cause the reinforcing steel to lose ——______- proper cover. ried surfaces exposed fo weather Te “Tension cack may form inthis ae bas > #6 76 fension cack may form in this area. —_____] Propet location of Negatine Moment Stee! bars < #5, 15 G8) Formed surfaces not exposed to weather Cantilever Slab beams, girders, columns 69 f ¥ slabs, walls, joists eee ‘Stee located to low o cary tension fads. bars < #11 075 (19) {Sifted cage, not enough cover bars #14, #18 15 G8) | bp qd ‘Area of Potential Rebar Corsion 6 Se NSISImproper Post-Tensioned Cable Drape Drapo asconsiveed — tacks recy above Core placement of postension cable is critical to achiewe the designed structural load-carrying capacity. ln proper placement may resul in tension sures, causing the conerete to crack “Toardtdepan ie Direction of Reaction Force Proper Drape Location — Improper Reinforcing Steel Placement Highly Congested Reinforcement Beams ancl columns are usually heavily reinforced members. Lap splices re qquize overlaps of bars and may result ina mat of steel that concrete mix cannot pass through during placement and consolidation, The result is either a visible, or worse, a latent oid around the reinforcement. Congested reinforcement prevents ‘concrete rom fling arond bars, X— wis SiS ehwyne Reena 8Part One: Concrere Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmansiiip— Designer, Detailer, Contact Improper Bar Placement Location of Stirrups Double-P members are acommon forces in the cantilever are taken up by element usec! in this type of sonstruc- stierups ditectly beneath the stem don. T's ate generally supported ay sa. location, Improper placement of the inverted Theam or ledger beam. The stirrups may resul in a alle of the cantilevered portion of the beam leciger beam support, and the supports the double-'s stem. Critical couble-T may then drop. Typical Precast Parking Structure Configuration prope Step Location —— Proper Stinup Locaton Ts%em — (Cut Away Viow of Ledger Beam Reinforcement « Seharagerngac MemePremature Removal of Forms Newly Cast Concrete Removal of forms (including shoring) Cracking al he la bea interlace ey before the concrete has reached its wt proper strength may resule in compres: Som and tension stresses, causing ro fs t aking defen, a pas le a pono fom cute Improper Column Form Placement SON tinge prennsrearaue Coad ender ome ae widely L used in the construction of round z columns. Typically, columns are cast prior to the placement of the slaby beam formwork. The exact elevation of the slabybeam bottom may not be precisely determined when the col Foim panetatos tumns are cast. Ifthe column is cast slab system, {00 call and penetrates the slabybeam reducing shear area concrete, critical shear stesses may ‘occur because of inadequate shear capacity atea between the column and the slalybeam. The smooth form Waxee Cardboard sutface may not provide adequate Cota Farm ‘counn shear transfer EA CSeciatton ns 6Part One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Fault Workmanshil Designer, Detailer, Cont Cold Joints Ove IG Vie 8 20 3 Ye OM oO OS ~ New Placement on Hardened (or nal Soy Concrete Coie Jin: x 2 OL Latance << raraenea concrete old joints are places of discontinuity within a member where concrete may not tightly bond to itself. Cold joints may form between planned placements and within a placement. Some con- struction placement procedures re- ‘quire multiple lifts. Adam is a good ccxample, a5 are tall walls To achieve proper boncl and water-ightness, the surlace of hardened conctete must be free of ditt, debts, and laitance. Proper cleaning and placement proce- dures sometimes are not follow or are very cifficult to achieve. The result is a weak connection between place- ments that could result in weakness or leakage at a later date ‘The other type of coke joint may occur within a planned placement if a part of the concrete in one placement sets, and then the cest of the concrete is placed on it. During the set, eitances form, providing for a weakened plane. Leakage may occue when the stcucture {is pur Sato service, Segregation Coarse agcregate fais o bot. Segregation of concer results in ‘nonuniform distribution of its constitu. ents, High slamp mixes, inoortect methods of handling concrete, ancl overvibration are causes of this prob- lem, Segregation causes upper surfaces to have excessive paste and fines, and may have excessive watet-cement tao. ‘The resultant concrete may lack ac- ceptable duvabily.improper Grades of Slal Surfaces Drain at High Point ‘Water collet in tow points Slabs requiring drainage for proper ‘runoff need special attention. Drains should be at low, not high points, Proper slope-to-pitch for quick cunoff is important to prevent deterioration and leakage withia the structure Standing water provides concrete with the potential for saturation, the worst condition for a freeze-thaw cycle. The ‘quicker the water runs off the struc ture, the less leakage can occur through joints and cracks. Construction Tolerances (Qut-o- Plum Column Structural members that are cast out of tolerance pose aesthetic and structural problems. Members cast out of toler ance may have improper concrete cover and cross section, which may Produce eccentric loading Tolerances for Formed Surfaces Variation from plumb in (mm) ‘any 10 length wi 6) ‘maximum entire 105) length Variations from level slab soffits 10° length | 1/4 (6) ‘maximum entire fength | 3/4 (19) ‘Variations in ¢ross section minus 14 6) plus 12 (13) oPart One: Concrete Behavior Section 6: Faulty Workmanshi Designer, Detailer, Contractor Plastic Settlement (Subsidence) Cracking | r Inia! Elevation of Coarate at Placement Void Under Bar ‘As bleed water comes io sutace, volume of cncrel is reduced. Probable Location ‘or Bar Corasion Probability of Subsidence Cracking (%)" 2" Slump: 3° Shimp. 4 Slump: Cover #i | #5 | #6 | we | os | #6 | ta | #5 | #6 we 804 | 878 | 925 | 919 | 987 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 v 60 7 1 | 7 834 89.9 | 85.2) 94.7 | 100 ve [16 [345 [456 [ani [477 | 589) W2) Gal 2 Pa 0 18 | 141 49 | 127 263 5.1) 247) 39 NCHRP 297, Table 4, . Plastic settlement cracking is caused by the settlement of plastic concrete around fixed reinforcement, leaving @ plastic tear abowe the bar and poss: ble void beneath the bar. The probabil ity of cracking isa function of 1. Cover 2. Slump 3. Bar size Settlement of plastic concrete is caused by 1. Low san! content and high water content Lange bats Poor thermal insulation Restraining settlement cue 10 iereg> ular shape 5. Excessive, uneven absorbency 6. Low humidity 7. Insufficient time between top-rt of columns and placement of slab and beam 8, Insufficient vibration 9. Movement of formwork Plastic Shrinkage Cracking Water Loss Poste ecagh Shinkage rads Eraporaion \ . » th ) 4 it | = Irestrained, lesion devolops, which may cause cracking, I Raid ess of water hough evaporation causes concsele o reduce in vekime Plastic shrinkage is caused by the rapid evaporation of mix water (not bleed water) while the concrete is in its plastic state and in the early stages of intial set. Shrinkage results in cracking when it produces tension stress greater than the stress capacity of the newly placed concrete, Pastic sheinkage cracking rarely fractures aggregate, but separates around the aggregate. Plastic shrinkage cracks may tead to points of thermal and dry shcinkage movement, intensifying the cracking SES Mice an AHoneycomb and Rock Pockets Loose fiting ‘marta io escape, rocks remain Low compressive songth form allows See emery caer moto Honeycomb is a votd left in concrete ‘due 9 failure of the mortar to effec tively fill the spaces armong coarse agregate particles. Rock pockets are generally severe conditions of honey- Comb where an excessive volume of agaregace is found Primary Causes of Honeycomb Design af members + ‘highly congested reinforcement narrow section © invernal interference reinforcement splices Foims aking a joints severe grout loss Construction conditions 4 reinforcement too close to forms 4 high temperature © accessibiley Properties of fresh conerere insuficient fines low workability eaty stillening excessive mixing aggregate that is too large Placement © excessive feel © excessive ave in forms it that is coo high ‘© improper treme or drop chute segregation Consolidation vibrator too small frequency too low amplitude too small short immersion time ‘excessive spacing between insertion inadequate penetration 0Part Two Concrete Evaluation — Part Two. Sections Introduction Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation Table A: Test Methods Condition Survey Procedure Section 1: Service and Exposure Conditions Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation Section 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete: Acoustical Emission Methods Section 4: Corrosion Activity Measurements Section 5: Chloride Content Section 6: Depth of Carbonation Section 7: Petrographic Analysis Section 8: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Impact Echo Method Section 9: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Methods Section 10: Locating Voids, Cracks, Honeycomb: Remote Viewing Inside Structure Section 11: Locating Embedded Reinforcing Stect Section 12: Monitoring Movements Section 13: Bond Strength of Overlays and Coatings: Pall-off Testing Section 14: In Situ Compressive Strength: Rebound and Penetration ‘Methods: Additional Sources of InformationPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Should We Repair or Protect, 2 Yes Effect Design Leakage Detect Pe) Materials maesaey? Setement Conetuction 7 Detection vertading ‘Structural inadequacy ? homical et Leatage? anagem} Sl ae Earthquake a re Elects on Envrooment Fire Disitgratin zeThaw Use Distuncton? Cracking Freexe-Tas ——, Erosion Delamination Detorraton > Aesthetics? CCovtsion of Meals ‘Sealog ‘Alka Aggregate eacion Sufte tack %Introduction to Part Two ‘This Part presents information on howe ta ‘conduct ar evaluation of concrete in an ‘existing structure, A thorough and logical ‘esaiyation of the current condition of the strweture is the frst step of any repair or rehabilitation project. Concrete can be defective for several reasons, z including inadequate desiga, material selec tion andor workmanship. Concrete ean also deteriorate or be damaged in use. Conse: ¥ uently, existing reinforced concrete may not be functioning as orginaly intended and designed. Concrete in a stractre has a rum Repair Analysis Evaluate User beer of funetions. First andl foremost, as a siructovall matesal, concrete is designed 10 Needs cay lols: for example, co provide a beating sunface for traf inclucing pecestean and vehictlar. Concrete also provides protection to embeded reinforcement. Reinfarced concrete isa composite materia consisting of concrete and reinforcing steel. The bond between the indvidvaf constituents is most ital forthe properties ofthe composite Vv matetial. Embedded reinforcing stee! must be cause r hn ‘clequately bonded to the surrounding con- Uselul Lito Stusiual Needs ete Canrying the anticipate! design loads I Disfunction of concrete structures ustally ‘occurs in some form of visible distress such Urgency Etet of Repair ‘as ctacking, leaching, spaling, scaling, stains, ‘on Stuciue disintegration, wear, settlement, o deflection. Fora more complete description of concrete «lisfurction, see Part 1, Concrete Behavior Consincibity ‘The evaluation of concrete structures can be ‘scope —— either a reactive or proactive process. Gen- cally, evaluation takes place as a result of User Secical some visible sign of distress, causing struc- Portomance Environment tutal andlor durability concerns of poor Fequitements functional performance, which, in tira, I result in sfety concerns The evaluation process is impoctant in cere mining such Factors as cause of the disfune= tion ancl structual saery, and for establishing 4 general scope of probiems found. The follosing, sections will Outline che: mast com. rion methorls used to evaluate concrete. Other sources of information on concrete evaluation can be foundl in the ACK Mraual ‘gf Goncrete Practice, ACL 201.18 Guide for Durable Concrete anc ACI 207.3R, Practices for Evaluation of Concrete in. Existing Massive Structures for Service Conditions Sp green om al anne 5 ‘statics SaletyPart Two: Conevete Evaluation Inwroduction Testing Methods for Concrete Evaluation Mechanical Chemical Physical External Manitstation Properties Make-up Condition (oehavion) _/ Compressive Strength] | Electro-chemical Uniformity Cracksispals “Core sting (1) Aectivit Petographic analysis (11) “Flamer soning ace saat tty fee sad any un ae tel rton ics pl “frou eco Elecircal resist {10} Rebound hammer (2) -lsa velocity (4) ‘Cor testing (1) -Rommote viewing 7, Qualiy of Concrete Torco) Uiasonk peasant || Cazbanation Depth - “Ey ana (Prerapinan Sato) Ai-Void System Tensile Strength ra atacton Deflections from “Put cesing nied specroecopy | [————————— Service Loads Satin ensle Delaminations/vaids emer ‘engi (5) Han! same ‘onitoang movemeais Ake Raegate wrowone eactions: Pulse velocity (4) Feu -Pevogrephc analysis 11) Exgaon eral Movements of ay (union) “Sonete on SorvicelExposure ‘Acetate Muresconco heen) Conditions Abrasion resistance rete “nred bemegraphy Load esting (C4878) @ “Nerang movers Chloe Content Location\Condition of 2) oh (8) Bond Strength Embedded Metals Leakage -Pullatesing Radiography intuea heme Ground penetrating radar mares Export removal Noe: Figures in parentheses note number of standard testin Table A % Water permeability Air permeability Water absorption (19) Frost & freeze-thaw resistance (16) (7) Resistance to deicing salts (18) Temperature/moisture conditions Themecoupi Thamoneter External Geometry igual observations ‘ig ty pameomece tr enterTABLE A. STANDARD TEST METHODS FOR EVAIMIATING CONCRETE No. [ DESIGNATION. | ‘TITLE 1 | asIMc 4 ‘Obiaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Conevete 2 | ASTM C805 | Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete 3 | ASIMC803 | Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete 4 | ASTW.C597 | Plbe Velocity Through Conciete 5 | ASTM'C496 | Spliting Tensile Suength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens 6 | astnc7s Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading) 7 | ASTW.C295 | Flexural Swength of Concreve (Using Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading) 8 | ASTM. CIB | Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting 9° | ASTIM.C876 Half Cel Rentals of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete 10 | ASTM 3633 | Electrical Resistivity of Membrane-Pavement Systems 11 | ASTM.C.856 | Standard Practice for etrographic Examination of Rardened Concrete 12 | AASHTOT 259 | Resistance of Gonerete 10 Chloride [on Penetration 13 | AasHTO7 260 | Sampling and Testing for Total Chloride on in Concrete and Concrete Raw Materials Mi | AASHTO 277 | Rapid Determination of the Chloride Permeabibty of Concrete 15 | ASTM.C457 | Microscopical Determination of Parameters ofthe AirVoid System in Hardened Concrete 16 | Asi C665 | Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing 17 | ASTM 671 | Critical Distion of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing 18 | ASTM C67 Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. - 19 | ASTNC642 | Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete SEMEN EI TRPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Introduction Condition Survey Procedure ‘The steps in a typical evaluation of a concrete structure ate 1. Viewal inspection (wall-through) 2. Review of engineering data 2, Design and construction documentation bb Operation and maintenance records Concrete (including materials used) records Periodic inspection reports 3. Condition survey a. Mapping ofthe various deficiencies, b. Monitoring Joint survey d, Sampling and testing ©. Nondestructive testing £ Structural analysis 4. Binal evaluation 5. Condition survey report “The resuits of aay evaluation, espe- cially determining the cause and scape of the problem, are only as accurate as the understanding and effort applied to the process. A cursory review oF wallethrough inspection will not pro- duce as accurate an evaluation as an in-depth, detailed investigation involv ing the necessary mapping, sampling, testing and exploratory effortsSection 1: Service and Exposure Conditions ‘Concrete evaluation isnot timited to stuclies ofits physical condition, me- chanical properties, chernical make-up, and external manifestation, Under- standing its interaction with the envi- ronment is equally important. In many cases, the cause of a concrete problem is related to.a service or exposure contition. The catalog of service and expostce conditions presented below Js a listing of some of the conditions to bee considered shen analyzing concrete behavior Temperature Moisture Chemical Loading High-Low re “ype Moving Froqueney eee Concentration Static uration Frequency Gas, (Shea Impact Freszathan Cycles uation Frequeey Viaion sot ne ot cos i ot Prtecon a Ey Saaaagetaco Frequency DveationPart Two: Concrete Evaluation Section 2: Visual and Exploratory Investigation / External Behavior / Maistre Vapor Transmission Lowkage Thu Stuctsre Dellecfons to Service Loads Movemenis o Senice! Exposure Condions Physical Condition Ais Vold Syston voids Delamination | Unioeaty cation Gonaiion af Embodied Votis Cracks'Spats External Geomeny Tomparanuenoite ‘Condon Existing Sess Levels Any thorough investigation starts with a visual review of conditions. Key indicators of probleins are: 1. Ctacking (@xazing) 2. Surface distress a. Spalling b, Disiniegration of the surface ©. Surface honeycomb . Sealing 3. Water leakage a, Surface dampness , Seepage or leakage theo joims or eracks 4, Movements a. Deflections b. Heaving ¢. Settlement 5. Metal carroston a. Rost staining b. Expased postension cable strands Exposed reinforcing bars 6, Miscellaneous A, Blistering membranes and ‘coatings . Ponding of water © Discoloration Visual examination, mapping the {ocation of peablems on paper, and then reviewing these along with as- built drawings ane) conseruction records can provide a general scope of the problems and possible clues to causes, Visual examination often results in many questions regarding the extent and details of cleteriorationistress. A Useful way to answer these questions is the exploratory removal of concrete to expose hidden elements. Chipping and cove drilling ace the most common exploratory methodsSection 3: Locating Delaminated Concrete Physical Condition AleVold System ois Delaminations Unitormiy Loraton/Condtion 1 Enbected Mela Laem] “Tempartureoisare Condon Existing Sess Levels Acoustical Emissions and Thermography Methods Sounding of concrete with a hammer provides a low-cost, accurate method for identifying delaminated areas When suiking areas of delaminated concrete, the sound changes from “ping” t0.a hollow sounding “puck.” Boundaries of delaminations can easily be determined by sounding areas surrounding the first “puck” until “pings” are heard Hammer-sounding ¢ large areas gen- erally proves to be exteemely time consuining. More productive sounding methods are available when working with horizontal surfaces. Chain drag- ging accomplishes the same result as hhammersounding, As the chain is ayged across a concrete surface, a distinedy different sound is heat! when it crosses over a delaminated area Hammer Sounding (Tae y avting Pain hee Tests Large wea <—_ = Chain Drag Soun - : ( ee ey a ° ‘Corrasion Limits are Generally elamination ‘Greater than Delamination Area ‘Automated electronic systems are also availble, eliminating the need for an ‘operator to listen for dferences in acoustic emissions. However, these methods have proved to give only a general picture ofthe areas of dela nation. Consequently, they should be used only for general assessment, not for the derailed layoot tequiced for reconstruction Infiared theinography is a useful etl! of deseeting dletaminations in bridge decks, This method is also used for other concrete components ex- posed to direct sunlight. The method ‘works on the principle that, as the concrete heats and cools, thete is substantial thermal gradient within the conerete because concrete is @ poor conductor of heat. Delaminations and other discontinuities interrupt the heat ucansfer through the concrete. These clefects cause 4 higher surface temper ature than the surrounding concrete during periods of heating, and a lower surface temperature than the sue- rounding concrete during periods of cooling. ‘The equipment can record and identify areas of deamination anc inclicate depth of delaminations below the surface Noe: Area of corrosion activity in concrete is generally lager than area of delamination alPart Twa: Concrete Evaluation Section 4: Corrosion Activity Measurements 2 Chemical Makeup Elecro-cemicat Actiy Aba ggregate Reactions Chleide Content carbonation Depth Cotzosion of reinforcement is the electcochemical clegraation of steel in ‘concrete. It occurs when the passivity of the steel is destroyed by earbon- ‘ation or by chloride ions andl electio- chemical cells develop. When steel ccomtodes in concrete, a potential lifer: ‘ence exists between the anodic half- cell areas andthe eathodic falc areas on the steel! This difference can be detected by placing a copper copper sulfate halEcell on the surface of the concrete and measuring the potentacifetences between the reinforcing steel and a wet sponge on the conorete surface, The reference call connects the concrete surfice 10.2 high-impedance volimeter, which is also connected elecrrizlly 10 the reinforcing steef mat, The voltmeter ther reads the potential difference at the test location. These readings ave taken on a grid basis and converted §nto potential gradient mapping. Potential Reading Corrosion Activity High-Impecance Voleter CCopperCopper Sutate Reteroce Cell Porous ‘Sponge Reiafercing Steet {is generally agreed thac the half-cell potential measurements can be inter- preted 2s follows? Less negative than 0.20 volts inde ceates 2 90 percent probability of no corrosion. © Between 9.20 and ~035 vols, ccomosion activity is uncertain. ‘More negative chan ~.035 vols is inclcave ofa greater than 90 percent probabily that corrosion is occurring If positive veacings are obtained, i vsually means that insufficient mois- ture is avalable tthe concrete and the veadlings are not valid, These tests cdo not indicate the rate of corrosion the measurements only manifest the ppatental for corrosion at the time of measurement ‘These half-cell methods cannot derect corrosion in post tensioned stds, nor can they detect corrosion when seinforcing steel is discontinuous from the voltmeter. However, half-cell mea- surements are often useful because they are easy to perform, ancl vesuis can be delivered quickly at relatively low costs, ‘Afull description of the above test procedure and equipment is detailed in ASTM .C 876, Half Cell Potentials of Reinforcing Steel in Conercte "NCHRP Repurt 140, Davabiliy of Prestesse Conerewe Highway Structuces, TRB, 1988, p22, 2NCURP Report 312, Colton Surves of Conciete Bridge Components—User's Manual, TRB, 1985, p35.Section 5: Chloride Content Because the amount of chlorides present in reinforced concrete can areatly affect its performance, chlovide- jon content evaluation is an iayporeant testing method. Iris done by taking a sample of concrete from che structure, cither by drawing pulverized concrete using a rotary-percussion hammer (pretecably electio, or by taking coves and then pulvericing the concrete in the laboratory. Fiel! pulverization samples are generally taken at various locations of the suspect member uncier investigation At each level of sampling, the puber ined material is collected and stored in dean container, the hole is vacuum sleaned, and the next sample is drawn ar the next desired depth. Where deep holes are to be chilled, care must be taken to prevent contamination of the Chemical Makeup locvo-chemical Aciy ‘Alka Aggregate Roctons Chloe Contant atbonaton Depth Bostic Rotary Percussion Hammer Dail, f Puveraed Concrete Sample Roary Carbide Laboratory sample fram the abrasion of the rotary dil bit azainst the side of the hole. Using a dil bic with a steppeckciown, bit diamerer will reduce the chance of contamination. Powdered sunples are analyzed using a wet chemical method. Sepaating castin chlocides from Chlorides that have entered the struc: ture from the surface can be done by comparing the chloride content at various levels in the suspect member Castin chlorides will generally have similar chloride contents throughout the member, whereas chlorides that have entered the concrete after casting will have higher concentrations at the surface and Tower levels further into the member NCHRP Report 118, Deteting Defects and Deterioration in High Serene, TRB, 1985, p. 8